Elements of

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Elements of Power Systems

“… a very good contribution that covers many aspects of power systems
and components. … I strongly believe that this book will be interesting for
students and professionals in electrical power engineering.”
—Dr. Dipl.-Ing. M. Popov, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft),
Netherlands
Power Systems
“… provides an important resource for engineers, instructors, applied
researchers, and students in the field of power engineering. … This
well-written book offers broad coverage of important issues, operating
concepts, and control techniques commonly addressed in most textbooks
regarding power systems.”
—Dr. Chao-Tsung Ma, Department of Electrical Engineering, College of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, National United University,
Miaoli City, Taiwan

Elements of Power Systems prepares students for engineering degrees,

diplomas, associate member of the Institution of Engineers (AMIE) examinations,
or corresponding examinations in electrical power systems. Complete with
case studies, worked examples, and circuit schematic diagrams, this
comprehensive text:

• Provides a solid understanding of the theoretical aspects

of power system engineering
• Instills a practical knowledge of large-scale power system
analysis techniques
• Covers load characteristics, tariffs, power system stability,
and more
Elements of Power Systems is designed as an undergraduate-level textbook,
but the book also makes a handy reference for practicing power engineers.

K26369
ISBN: 978-1-4987-3446-2
Pradip Kumar Sadhu • Soumya Das
90000

9 781498 734462

K26369_Cover_PubGr.indd All Pages 8/25/15 2:12 PM

 Elements of
Power Systems
This page intentionally left blank
 Elements of
Power Systems
Pradip Kumar Sadhu • Soumya Das
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150722

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-3447-9 (eBook - PDF)

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Contents

Preface, xxiii
Acknowledgments, xxv
Authors, xxvii
Symbols of Circuit Elements, xxix

Chapter 1  ▪ Introductory 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 1
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF A POWER SYSTEM 2
1.4 SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM OF A POWER SUPPLY
NETWORK 3
1.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES 5
1.5.1 Conventional (Nonrenewable) Sources of
Electric Energy 5
1.5.1.1 Steam Power Station (Thermal Station) 5
1.5.1.2 Gas Turbine Power Plant 7
1.5.1.3 Hydroelectric Power Generation 9
1.5.1.4 Nuclear Power Plant 11
1.5.1.5 Diesel Power Plant 13
1.5.1.6 Magneto Hydrodynamic Generation 16
1.5.2 Nonconventional (Renewable) Sources of
Electric Energy 17
1.5.2.1 Solar Energy 17
1.5.2.2 Wind Power 18

v
vi   ◾    Contents

1.5.2.3 Wave Energy 19

1.5.2.4 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 19
1.5.2.5 Biofuels 19
1.5.2.6 Geothermal Energy 20
1.5.2.7 Mini and Micro Hydro Plants 20

Chapter 2  ▪ Per-Unit Systems 23

2.1 INTRODUCTION 23
2.2 PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION OF BASIC
ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 24
2.3 CHANGE OF BASE 26
2.4 PER-UNIT QUANTITIES IN A THREE-PHASE SYSTEM 28
2.5 BASE QUANTITIES IN TERMS OF KV AND MVA 28
2.6 PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER 29
2.7 ADVANTAGES OF PU REPRESENTATION 30
WORKED EXAMPLES 31

Chapter 3  ▪ Load Characteristics 35

3.1 INTRODUCTION 35
3.2 LOAD 35
3.3 VARIABLE LOAD 36
3.3.1 Effects of Variable Load 36
3.3.1.1 Need of Additional Equipment 36
3.3.1.2 Increase in Production Cost 36
3.4 CONNECTED LOAD 37
3.5 DEMAND 37
3.6 DEMAND INTERVAL 37
3.7 MAXIMUM DEMAND OR PEAK LOAD 37
3.8 DEMAND FACTOR 38
3.9 AVERAGE LOAD OR AVERAGE DEMAND 38
3.10 LOAD FACTOR 38
3.11 DIVERSITY FACTOR 39
3.12 PLANT CAPACITY FACTOR 39
 Contents    ◾    vii

3.13 PLANT USE FACTOR 40

3.14 UNITS GENERATED PER ANNUM 40
3.15 LOSS FACTOR 40
3.16 LOAD CURVES 41
3.17 INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM LOAD CURVES 41
3.18 LOAD DURATION CURVE 42
3.19 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM THE LOAD
DURATION CURVE 42
WORKED EXAMPLES 43

Chapter 4  ▪ Tariffs 49
4.1 INTRODUCTION 49
4.2 OBJECTIVES OF A TARIFF 50
4.3 DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TARIFF 50
4.4 TYPES OF TARIFF 51
4.4.1 Flat-Demand Tariff 51
4.4.2 Simple Tariff 51
4.4.3 Flat-Rate Tariff 52
4.4.4 Step-Rate Tariff 52
4.4.5 Block-Rate Tariff 53
4.4.6 Two-Part Tariff 53
4.4.7 Maximum-Demand Tariff 55
4.4.8 Three-Part Tariff 55
4.4.9 Power Factor Tariff 56
4.4.9.1 kVA Maximum-Demand Tariff 56
4.4.9.2 Sliding Scale Tariff 56
4.4.9.3 kW and kVAR Tariff 56
WORKED EXAMPLES 56

Chapter 5  ▪ Mechanical Design of Overhead Line 61

5.1 INTRODUCTION 61
5.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL 61
5.2.1 Commonly Used Conductor Materials 62
viii   ◾    Contents

5.2.1.1 Copper 62
5.2.1.2 Aluminum 63
5.2.1.3 Steel-Cored Aluminum 63
5.2.1.4 Galvanized Steel 64
5.2.1.5 Cadmium Copper 65
5.2.1.6 Phosphor Bronze 65
5.3 LINE SUPPORTS 65
5.3.1 Wooden Poles 66
5.3.2 Steel Poles 67
5.3.3 RCC Poles 67
5.3.4 Steel Towers 67
5.4 INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES (1956) FOR
OVERHEAD LINES 69
5.5 SAG IN OVERHEAD LINES 69
5.5.1 Conductor Sag and Tension 70
5.6 CALCULATION OF SAG 70
5.6.1 When Supports Are at Equal Levels 71
5.6.2 When Supports Are at Unequal Levels 72
5.6.3 Effect of Wind and Ice Loading 74
5.7 SAG TEMPLATE 75
5.8 STRINGING CHART 76
WORKED EXAMPLES 76

Chapter 6  ▪ Overhead Line Insulators 81

6.1 INTRODUCTION 81
6.2 INSULATOR MATERIALS 82
6.3 TYPES OF INSULATORS 82
6.3.1 Pin-Type Insulators 82
6.3.1.1 Causes of Insulator Failure 83
6.3.2 Suspension Type Insulators 84
6.3.2.1 Types of Suspension Insulators 85
6.3.3 Strain Insulators 86
 Contents    ◾    ix

6.3.4 Shackle Insulators 86

6.3.5 Stay Insulators 87
6.4 POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER SUSPENSION
INSULATOR STRING 87
6.5 STRING EFFICIENCY 89
6.6 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION 89
6.7 METHODS OF IMPROVING STRING EFFICIENCY 92
6.7.1 Use of a Longer Crossarm 92
6.7.2 Grading of Units 93
6.7.3 Use of Guard Ring 93
6.8 EFFECTS OF RAIN ON STRING EFFICIENCY 94
WORKED EXAMPLES 94

Chapter 7  ▪ Corona 101

7.1 INTRODUCTION 101
7.2 THE PHENOMENON OF CORONA 101
7.3 THEORY OF CORONA FORMATION 102
7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA 102
7.5 ADVANTAGES OF CORONA 103
7.6 DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA 103
7.7 METHODS OF REDUCING CORONA EFFECT 104
7.8 CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE 104
7.9 VISUAL CRITICAL VOLTAGE 106
7.10 POWER LOSS DUE TO CORONA 107
7.11 RADIO INTERFERENCE 107
7.12 INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE BETWEEN POWER
AND COMMUNICATION LINES 108
7.12.1 Electromagnetic Effects 108
7.12.2 Electrostatic Effects 110
WORKED EXAMPLES 111
x   ◾    Contents

Chapter 8  ▪ Transmission Line Parameters 115

8.1 INTRODUCTION 115
8.2 LINE INDUCTANCE 115
8.3 FLUX LINKAGE DUE TO A SINGLE CURRENT-
CARRYING CONDUCTOR 117
8.3.1 Flux Linkage Due to Internal Flux 117
8.3.2 Flux Linkage of a Conductor Due to
External Flux 118
8.4 INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE
TWO-WIRE LINE 119
8.5 FLUX LINKAGES OF ONE CONDUCTOR IN A
GROUP OF CONDUCTORS 122
8.5.1 Inductance of Composite Conductor Lines—
Self and Mutual Geometric Mean Distances 124
8.6 INDUCTANCE OF A THREE-PHASE OVERHEAD
LINE WITH UNSYMMETRICAL SPACING 126
8.7 INDUCTANCE OF A THREE-PHASE LINE
WITH MORE THAN ONE CIRCUIT 131
8.7.1 Inductance of a Three-Phase Double Circuit
Line with Symmetrical Spacing 132
8.7.2 Inductance of a Three-Phase Double Circuit
with Unsymmetrical but Transposed 133
8.8 CAPACITANCE 135
8.9 POTENTIAL AT A CHARGED SINGLE CONDUCTOR 135
8.10 SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS 137
8.11 CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE
TWO-WIRE LINE 138
8.11.1 Capacitance to Neutral 140
8.12 CAPACITANCE OF A THREE-PHASE
OVERHEAD LINE 140
8.12.1 Symmetrical Spacing 140
8.12.2 Unsymmetrical Spacing 142
8.13 EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE TRANSMISSION
LINE CAPACITANCE 145
8.13.1 Method of Images 145
 Contents    ◾    xi

8.13.2 Capacitance of a Single-Phase Overhead Line 145

8.13.3 Capacitance of a Three-Phase Overhead Line 147
8.14 BUNDLED CONDUCTOR 149
8.14.1 Bundled Conductors Have Several
Advantages over Single Conductors 150
8.15 SKIN EFFECT 151
8.16 PROXIMITY EFFECT 152
WORKED EXAMPLES 153

Chapter 9  ▪ Performance of Transmission Lines 161

9.1 INTRODUCTION 161
9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LINES 161
9.3 PERFORMANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE SHORT
TRANSMISSION LINE 162
9.4 SHORT THREE-PHASE LINE 164
9.5 TRANSMISSION LINE AS TWO-PORT NETWORK 165
9.5.1 ABCD Constants of a Short Line 165
9.6 LINE REGULATION 166
9.6.1 Line Regulation for Short Line 167
9.7 LINE EFFICIENCY 167
9.8 PERFORMANCE OF MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE 167
9.8.1 Nominal T Model 168
9.8.1.1 Phasor Diagram 169
9.8.2 Nominal π Model 170
9.8.2.1 Phasor Diagram 172
9.9 CALCULATION OF TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY
AND REGULATION OF MEDIUM LINE 172
9.10 LONG TRANSMISSION LINE 174
9.10.1 Analysis of Long Transmission Line
(Rigorous Method) 174
9.11 EVALUATION OF ABCD CONSTANTS 179
9.12 FERRANTI EFFECT 180
xii   ◾    Contents

9.13 ABCD CONSTANTS 181

9.13.1 Proof for the Relation AD − BC = 1 182
9.13.2 Constants for Two Networks in Tandem 183
9.13.3 Constants for Two Networks in Parallel 185
9.13.4 Measurement of A, B, C, and D Constants 187
WORKED EXAMPLES 190

Chapter 10  ▪ Underground Cables 195

10.1 INTRODUCTION 195
10.2 INSULATING MATERIALS FOR CABLES 196
10.3 CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES 198
10.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CABLE 199
10.5 CABLES FOR THREE-PHASE SERVICE 201
10.5.1 Belted Cables 201
10.5.2 Screened Cables 202
10.5.2.1 Limitations of Solid-Type Cables 203
10.5.3 Pressure Cables 204
10.5.3.1 Oil-Filled Cables 204
10.5.3.2 Gas Pressure Cables 206
10.6 LAYING OF UNDERGROUND CABLES 207
10.6.1 Direct Laying 207
10.6.2 Draw-in System 209
10.6.3 Solid System 210
10.7 INSULATION RESISTANCE OF A SINGLE-
CORE CABLE 210
10.8 CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-CORE CABLE 211
10.9 DIELECTRIC STRESS IN A SINGLE-CORE CABLE 213
10.10 MOST ECONOMICAL CONDUCTOR SIZE
IN A CABLE 214
10.11 GRADING OF CABLES 216
10.11.1 Capacitance Grading 217
10.11.2 Intersheath Grading 219
 Contents    ◾    xiii

10.12 CAPACITANCE IN A THREE-CORE-BELTED CABLE 221

10.13 MEASUREMENT OF CC AND CS 224
10.14 CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY 225
10.15 THERMAL RESISTANCE 227
10.16 THERMAL RESISTANCE OF DIELECTRIC OF
A SINGLE-CORE CABLE 228
10.17 TYPES OF CABLE FAULTS 229
10.18 LOOP TESTS FOR LOCATION OF FAULTS
IN UNDERGROUND CABLES 229
10.18.1 Murray Loop Test 230
10.18.1.1 Earth Fault 230
10.18.1.2 Short-Circuit Fault 232
10.18.2 Varley Loop Test 233
WORKED EXAMPLES 235

Chapter 11  ▪ Distribution Systems 243

11.1 INTRODUCTION 243
11.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 244
11.3 DC DISTRIBUTION 245
11.3.1 Two-Wire DC System 246
11.3.2 Three-Wire DC System 246
11.4 CONNECTION SCHEMES OF
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 246
11.4.1 Radial System 246
11.4.2 Ring Main System 247
11.4.3 Interconnected System 248
11.5 TYPES OF DC DISTRIBUTORS 249
11.5.1 Distributor Fed at One End 249
11.5.2 Distributor Fed at Both Ends 250
11.5.3 Distributor Fed at the Center 251
11.5.4 Ring Mains 251
11.6 DC DISTRIBUTION CALCULATIONS 251
xiv   ◾    Contents

11.7 DC DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END—

CONCENTRATED LOADING 252
11.8 DC DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END—
UNIFORMLY LOADED 253
11.9 DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS—
CONCENTRATED LOADING 254
11.9.1 Two Ends Fed with Equal Voltage 254
11.9.1.1 Point of Minimum Potential 255
11.9.2 Two Ends Fed with Unequal Voltage 256
11.10 DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS—UNIFORMLY
LOADED 256
11.10.1 Distributor Fed at Both Ends with
Equal Voltage 256
11.10.2 Distributor Fed at Both Ends with
Unequal Voltage 257
11.11 RING DISTRIBUTOR 259
11.12 RING MAIN DISTRIBUTOR WITH
INTERCONNECTOR 259
11.13 AC DISTRIBUTION 260
11.13.1 Primary Distribution System 260
11.13.2 Secondary Distribution System 261
11.14 AC DISTRIBUTION CALCULATION 262
11.15 METHODS OF SOLVING AC DISTRIBUTION
PROBLEMS 263
11.15.1 Power Factors Referred to Receiving
End Voltage 263
11.15.2 Power Factors Referred to Respective
Load Voltage 264
WORKED EXAMPLES 265

Chapter 12  ▪ Fault Analysis 281

12.1 INTRODUCTION 281
12.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS 281
12.3 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT METHOD 282
 Contents    ◾    xv

12.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF POSITIVE-, NEGATIVE-,

AND ZERO-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS 283
12.5 OPERATOR (α) 284
12.6 VOLTAGE OF THE NEUTRAL 288
12.7 SEQUENCE NETWORK EQUATIONS 288
12.8 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF POWER
SYSTEM ELEMENTS 291
12.9 ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS 293
12.10 SINGLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT (L–G) 293
12.11 LINE-TO-LINE FAULT 296
12.12 DOUBLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT 299
12.13 L–L–L FAULT/THREE-PHASE FAULT/
SYMMETRICAL FAULT 302
WORKED EXAMPLES 305

Chapter 13  ▪ Circuit Breakers 311

13.1 INTRODUCTION 311
13.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CB AND FUSE 311
13.3 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF CB 312
13.4 ARC PHENOMENON 313
13.5 PRINCIPLES OF ARC EXTINCTION 314
13.6 METHODS OF ARC EXTINCTION 314
13.6.1 High Resistance Method 314
13.6.2 Low Resistance or Current Zero Method 315
13.7 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS 316
13.8 EXPRESSION FOR RESTRIKING VOLTAGE
TRANSIENTS 317
13.9 CURRENT CHOPPING 321
13.10 RESISTANCE SWITCHING 322
13.11 CB RATINGS 324
13.11.1 Normal Current Rating 326
13.12 AUTORECLOSING 326
13.13 CLASSIFICATION OF CBs 327
xvi   ◾    Contents

13.14 OIL CBs 327

13.15 TYPES OF OIL CBs 328
13.15.1 Bulk-Oil CBs 328
13.15.2 Low-Oil CBs 329
13.16 PLAIN-BREAK OIL CBs 329
13.17 ARC CONTROL OIL CBs 330
13.17.1 Self-Blast Oil CBs 331
13.17.1.1 Plain Explosion Pot 331
13.17.1.2 Cross-Jet Explosion Pot 332
13.17.1.3 Self-Compensated Explosion Pot 333
13.17.2 Forced-Blast Oil CB 333
13.18 LOW-OIL CBs 334
13.18.1 Construction 334
13.18.2 Operation 335
13.19 MAINTENANCE OF OIL CBs 336
13.20 AIR-BLAST CBs 337
13.21 TYPES OF AIR-BLAST CB 338
13.22 VACUUM CBs 338
13.22.1 Construction 338
13.22.2 Working Principle 339
13.22.3 Application 340
13.23 SF6 CBs 340
13.23.1 Construction 341
13.23.2 Working 341
13.24 HIGH-VOLTAGE DC CB 342
WORKED EXAMPLES 343

Chapter 14  ▪ Different Types of Relays 349

14.1 INTRODUCTION 349
14.2 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION 349
14.3 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY 350
14.4 BASIC RELAY TERMINOLOGY 352
14.5 ZONES OF PROTECTION 353
 Contents    ◾    xvii

14.6 PRIMARY AND BACKUP PROTECTION 354

14.6.1 Remote Backup 355
14.6.2 Relay Backup 355
14.6.3 Breaker Backup 355
14.7 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES 355
14.7.1 Overcurrent Protection 355
14.7.2 Distance Protection 356
14.7.3 Differential Protection 356
14.7.4 Carrier-Current Protection 356
14.8 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING
PRINCIPLES OF RELAY 356
14.8.1 Electromagnetic Induction Relay 356
14.8.1.1 Induction Disk Relay 357
14.8.1.2 Electromagnetic Attraction Relay 360
14.8.1.3 Thermal Relays 364
14.8.1.4 Static Relay 364
14.9 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 365
14.10 TIME–CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS 365
14.11 CURRENT SETTING 367
14.12 PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER 368
14.13 TIME MULTIPLIER SETTING 368
14.14 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION SCHEME 369
14.15 DIRECTIONAL POWER OR REVERSE POWER RELAY 372
14.16 DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY 373
14.17 PROTECTION OF PARALLEL FEEDER 374
14.18 PROTECTION OF RING MAINS 375
14.19 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION SCHEME 375
14.20 DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEME 377
14.21 IMPEDANCE RELAY 378
14.21.1 Operating Principle 378
14.21.2 Characteristic 379
14.21.3 Directional Units Used with Impedance Relays 379
xviii   ◾    Contents

14.22 REACTANCE RELAY 380

14.22.1 Operating Characteristic 380
14.23 MHO TYPE DISTANCE RELAY 381
14.24 UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION 382
14.25 DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS 383
14.26 SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY 384
14.27 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY 384
14.28 BALANCED VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY 386
14.29 TRANSLAY RELAY 387
WORKED EXAMPLES 388

Chapter 15  ▪ Protection of Alternators and Transformers 393

15.1 INTRODUCTION 393
15.2 PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS 393
15.3 STATOR PROTECTION 394
15.3.1 Percentage Differential Protection 394
15.3.2 Protection against Stator Inter-turn Faults 396
15.3.3 Stator Overheating Protection 396
15.4 ROTOR PROTECTION 397
15.4.1 Field Ground-Fault Protection 397
15.4.2 Loss of Excitation Protection 398
15.4.3 Protection against Rotor Overheating
Because of Unbalanced 3ϕ Current 399
15.5 MISCELLANEOUS 400
15.5.1 Overvoltage Protection 400
15.5.2 Overspeed 400
15.5.3 Protection against Motoring 401
15.5.4 Field Suppression 401
15.6 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 401
15.6.1 External Faults 401
15.6.2 Internal Faults 401
15.7 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION 402
 Contents    ◾    xix

15.8 OVERHEATING PROTECTION 403

15.9 RATE OF RISE OF PRESSURE RELAY 403
15.10 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION 403
15.11 OVERFLUXING PROTECTION 403
15.12 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION 404
15.13 BUCHHOLZ RELAY 404
15.14 GENERATOR TRANSFORMER UNIT PROTECTION 407
WORKED EXAMPLES 407

Chapter 16  ▪ Traveling Wave 411

16.1 INTRODUCTION 411
16.2 SURGE IMPEDANCE AND VELOCITY
OF PROPAGATION 412
16.3 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF WAVES 415
16.4 RECEIVING END TRANSMISSION OPERATING
ON A NO-LOAD CONDITION 417
16.5 RECEIVING END OPERATING ON A SHORT
CIRCUIT CONDITION 419
16.6 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
AT A T-JUNCTION 420
WORKED EXAMPLES 422

Chapter 17  ▪ Earthing 425

17.1 INTRODUCTION 425
17.2 OBJECTS OF EARTHING 425
17.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING 425
17.3.1 Equipment Grounding 426
17.3.2 System Grounding 427
17.4 ISOLATED NEUTRAL OR UNDERGROUNDED
NEUTRAL 428
17.4.1 Circuit Behavior under Single Line-to-
Ground Fault 429
17.5 ADVANTAGES OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING 431
xx   ◾    Contents

17.6 METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING 431

17.6.1 Solid Grounding 431
17.6.2 Resistance Grounding 433
17.6.3 Reactance Grounding 434
17.6.4 Arc Suppression Coil Grounding
(or Resonant Grounding) 435
WORKED EXAMPLES 437

Chapter 18  ▪ Substation 441

18.1 INTRODUCTION 441
18.2 SUBSTATION 441
18.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS 442
18.3.1 According to Service Requirement 442
18.3.2 According to Constructional Features 443
18.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN OUTDOOR AND
INDOOR SUBSTATIONS 445
18.5 TRANSFORMER SUBSTATIONS 446
18.6 EQUIPMENT IN A TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION 448
18.7 BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENTS IN SUBSTATIONS 451
18.7.1 Single Bus-Bar System 451
18.7.2 Single Bus-Bar System with
Sectionalization 451
18.7.3 Duplicate Bus-Bar System 453
18.8 KEY DIAGRAM OF 11 kV/400 V INDOOR
SUBSTATION 454

Chapter 19  ▪ Power System Stability 457

19.1 INTRODUCTION 457
19.2 STABILITY LIMITS AND POWER TRANSMISSION
CAPABILITY 458
19.2.1 Power Transmission Capability 459
19.3 INFINITE BUS 459
19.4 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR CONNECTED
TO AN INFINITE BUS 459
 Contents    ◾    xxi

19.5 POWER–ANGLE CURVE 461

19.6 POWER–ANGLE RELATIONS FOR GENERAL
NETWORK CONFIGURATION 463
19.7 STEADY-STATE STABILITY CRITERION 464
19.8 TRANSIENT STABILITY 465
19.9 SWING EQUATION 466
19.10 SWING CURVES 468
19.11 M AND H CONSTANTS 468
19.11.1 M Constant 469
19.11.2 H Constant or Per-Unit Inertia Constant 469
19.11.3 H Constant on a Common Base 470
19.12 EQUIVALENT SYSTEM 471
19.13 EQUIVALENT M CONSTANT OF TWO MACHINES 472
19.13.1 Multi-Machine Systems 473
19.14 EQUAL-AREA CRITERION OF STABILITY 474
19.14.1 Application to Sudden Increase in
Mechanical Power Input 477
19.14.2 One of the Parallel Lines Suddenly
Switched Off 480
19.15 SYSTEM FAULT AND SUBSEQUENT CIRCUIT
ISOLATION 483
19.15.1 System Fault, Circuit Isolation, and Reclosing 487
19.16 METHODS OF IMPROVING STABILITY 487
WORKED EXAMPLES 488

Chapter 20  ▪ Load Flows 497

20.1 INTRODUCTION 497
20.2 BUS CLASSIFICATION 497
20.3 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX 498
20.4 DEVELOPMENT OF STATIC LOAD
FLOW EQUATION 501
20.5 GAUSS–SEIDEL ITERATIVE TECHNIQUE 503
20.6 GS METHOD OF SOLUTION OF LOAD
FLOW EQUATION USING YBUS 504
xxii   ◾    Contents

20.7 NEWTON–RAPHSON METHOD FOR LOAD

FLOW SOLUTION 505
20.8 COMPARISON OF LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
METHODS 509
20.8.1 Advantages of GS Method 510
20.8.2 Limitations of GS Method 510
20.8.3 Advantages of NR Method 510
20.8.4 Limitations of NR Method 510
WORKED EXAMPLES 511

 IBLIOGRAPHY, 515
B
INDEX, 517
Preface

N umerical modeling and solutions on digital computers are the

only realistic approach to system analysis and planning studies on a
present-day power system with its large size and complex and integrated
nature. The stage has, therefore, been reached where an undergradu-
ate must be taught the latest techniques of analysis of large-scale power
systems. A parallel need also exists in the industry, as practicing power
system engineers are constantly faced with the challenges of a rapidly
advancing field.
Elements of Power Systems is designed as a textbook for engineering
degree, diploma, AMIE, or corresponding examinations in electrical
power systems in India and overseas. It will also be helpful to students
preparing for various competitive examinations. It is equally helpful to
practicing engineers for understanding the theoretical aspects of their
profession. This book is easy to read and stimulating in its direct approach.
The authors lay no claim to the original research in preparing the book.
Liberal use of the materials available in the works of renowned authors
has been made. In all modesty, the authors may claim only that they have
tried to condense the huge amount of material available from primary and
secondary sources into a coherent body of description and analysis.
The authors welcome constructive criticism of the book and will be
grateful for any appraisal by readers.

Pradip Kumar Sadhu

Soumya Das

xxiii
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

W e are fortunate to have received many useful comments and

suggestions from students, which helped in improving the tech-
nical content and clarity of the book. We are grateful to all of them. In
particular, Saswata Mukherjee, Saikat Mitra, Anirban Kundu, Sabyasachi
Samanta, and Rishabh Das.
We are indebted to many readers in academia and industry worldwide
for their invaluable feedback and for taking the trouble to draw our atten-
tion to improvements required and to errors in the first edition.
We also thank the reviewers who took time from their busy schedules
to send us suggestions.
Most importantly, it was the help and advice of the CRC Press/Taylor &
Francis staff that made this whole project a reality. We are thankful to
Gagandeep Singh (senior acquisitions editor) for his sincere efforts in
handling this project at all stages. We are grateful to the authorities of
the Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, and the University Institute of
Technology, Burdwan University, for providing all the facilities required
to write this book.
Finally, we are grateful to our families for their love, tolerance, patience,
and support throughout this very time-consuming project. Readers of the
book are welcome to send their comments and feedback.

Pradip Kumar Sadhu

Soumya Das

xxv
This page intentionally left blank
Authors

Pradip Kumar Sadhu earned his bach-

elor’s, postgraduate, and PhD degrees in
1997, 1999, and 2002, respectively, in electri-
cal engineering from Jadavpur University,
West Bengal, India. Currently, he is a profes-
sor and head of the Electrical Engineering
Department of the Indian School of Mines,
Dhanbad, India. He has 18 years of experi-
ence in teaching and the industry. He has
four patents, and has written several journal
and conference publications at the national and international levels. He is
a principal investigator of some government-funded projects. Dr. Sadhu
has guided a large number of doctoral candidates and MTech students.
His current areas of interest are power electronics applications, applica-
tion of high-frequency converter, energy-efficient devices, energy-efficient
drives, computer-aided power system analysis, condition monitoring, and
light and communication systems for underground coal mines.

Soumya Das earned his BTech from the West

Bengal University of Technology in 2007 and
ME from Jadavpur University in 2010, West
Bengal, India. He is presently pursuing a PhD
at the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India.
Currently, he is an assistant professor
in the Electrical Engineering Department
of the University Institute of Technology,
Burdwan University, West Bengal, India.
Previously, he was an assistant professor in

xxvii
xxviii   ◾    Authors

the Electrical Engineering Department at Bengal Institute of Technology

and Management, Santiniketan, India. Das has 5 years of teaching expe-
rience, and has written several journal publications at the international
level, and has guided a large number of BTech and MTech students. His
current areas of interest are power system engineering, high-voltage engi-
neering, power electronics applications, computer-aided power system
analysis, and solar photovoltaic systems.
Symbols of Circuit
Elements

S. No. Circuit Elements Symbol

1. Bus bar
2. Single-break isolating switch
3. Double-break isolating switch

4. On load isolating switch

5. Isolating switch with earth blade

6. Current transformer

7. Potential transformer

8. Capacitive voltage transformer

(Continued)

xxix
xxx   ◾    Symbols of Circuit Elements

S. No. Circuit Elements Symbol

9. Oil circuit breaker

10. Air circuit breaker with

overcurrent
11. Tripping air-blast circuit breaker

12. Lightning arrester (valve type)

13. Arcing horn

14. 3-ϕ Power transformer

15. Overcurrent relay

16. Earth fault relay

 Chapter 1

Introductory

1.1 ​INTRODUCTION
Energy is the main reason to progress. The natural resources of a coun-
try may be massive but they can only be turned into assets if they are
developed, exploited, and interchanged for other goods. This cannot be
achieved without energy. Energy exists in different forms in nature but the
most important form is electrical energy. Energy is needed for heat, light,
motive power, etc. The modern development in science and technology
has made it possible to convert electrical energy into any desired form.
This has given electrical energy a place of pride in the modern world. The
survival of industrial undertakings and our social structures depend pri-
marily upon low cost and continuous supply of electrical energy. In fact,
availability of sufficient electrical energy and its proper use in any country
can result in its people rising from subsistence level to the highest stan-
dard of living.

1.2 ​SIGNIFICANCE OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electrical energy is advanced to all other forms of energy due to the
­following reasons:

Convenient form. Electrical energy is a very useful form of energy. It

1.
can be easily transformed into other forms of energy. For example,
if we want to convert electrical energy into heat, we just need to pass
electrical current through a wire of high resistance, for example, a
heater. Similarly, electrical energy can be converted into light (e.g.,
electric bulb), mechanical energy (e.g., electric motors), etc.
1
2   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Easy control. The electrically operated machines have simple and

2.
easy starting, control, and operation. For instance, an electric motor
can be operated by turning on or off a switch. Similarly, with simple
arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily varied over
the desired range.

Greater flexibility. One important reason for preferring electrical

3.
energy is the flexibility that it offers. It can be easily transported from
one place to another with the help of conductors.

Cheapness. Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of

4.
energy. Thus, it is overall economical to use this form of energy for
domestic, commercial, and industrial purposes.

Cleanliness. Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes, or

5.
poisonous gases. Therefore, its use ensures cleanliness and healthy
conditions.

High-transmission efficiency. The consumers of electrical energy are

6.
generally situated quite away from the centers of its production. The
electrical energy can be transmitted conveniently and efficiently
from the centers of generation to the consumers with the help of
overhead conductors known as transmission lines.

1.3 ​BASIC CONCEPTS OF A POWER SYSTEM

Generating stations, transmission lines, and the distribution systems are
the main components of an electric power system. Generating stations and
a distribution system are connected through transmission lines, which
also connect one power system (grid, area) to another. A distribution sys-
tem connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines.
For economical and technological reasons, individual power systems are
organized in the form of electrically connected areas or regional grids (also
called power pools). Each area or regional grid operates independently
both technically and economically, but these are eventually interconnected
to form a national grid (which may even form an international grid) so that
each area is contractually tied to other areas in respect to certain genera-
tion and scheduling features. India is now heading for a national grid.
The siting of hydro stations is determined by the natural water power
sources. The choice of site for coal-fired thermal stations is more flexible.
The following two alternatives are possible.
 Introductory    ◾    3

1. Power stations may be built close to coal mines (called pit head sta-
tions), and electric energy is evacuated over transmission lines to the
load centers.
2. Power stations may be built close to the load centers, and coal is
transported to them from the mines by rail road.

In practice, however, power station siting will depend upon many

f­actors—technical, economical, and environmental. As it is considerably
cheaper to transport bulk electric energy over extra high-voltage trans-
mission lines than to transport equivalent quantities of coal over rail
road, the recent trends in India (as well as abroad) is to build super (large)
thermal power stations near coal mines. Bulk power can be transmitted
to fairly long distances over transmission lines of 400/765 kV and above.
However, the country’s coal resources are located mainly in the eastern
belt and some coal-fired stations will continue to be sited in distant west-
ern and southern regions. As nuclear stations are not constrained by the
problems of fuel transport and air pollution, a greater flexibility exists in
their siting, so that these stations are located close to load centers while
avoiding high-density pollution areas to reduce the risks, however remote,
of radioactivity leakage. In India, as of now, about 75% of electric power
used is generated in thermal plants (including nuclear), 23% from mostly
hydro stations, and 2% come from renewable and others. Coal is the fuel
for most of the steam plants; the rest depends upon oil/natural gas and
nuclear fuels.

1.4 ​SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM OF A POWER SUPPLY NETWORK

The large network of conductors between the power station and the con-
sumers can be broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission system
and distribution system. Each part can be further subdivided into two—
primary transmission and secondary transmission and primary distribu-
tion and secondary distribution. Figure 1.1 shows the layout of a typical
AC power supply network by a single line diagram. In Figure  1.1, G.S.
represents the generating station where electrical energy is generated by
three-phase synchronous generators (alternators). The g­eneration volt-
ages are usually 11 kV. This voltage is too low for transmission over long
distance. For economy in the transmission of electric power, the genera-
tion voltage is stepped up to 132 kV or more by means of step-up trans-
former. At that voltage, the electrical energy is transmitted to a bulk power
4   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

G.S. 11 kV

Switchyard
11/132 kV Transformer

Primary
transmission

Very large Tie lines to

consumers other grid

132/33 kV

RS Receiving
station
Large Large
consumers consumers
Secondary
transmission

33/11 kV

SS Substation

Medium Medium
consumers consumers
Primary
distribution
11 kV/400 V DS

Secondary
distribution

Small consumers

FIGURE 1.1  Schematic diagram depicting power system structure.

substation (receiving station), where energy is supplied from several power

stations. The voltage at these substations is stepped down up to 33 kV in
India and fed to the subtransmission system for onward transmission to
distribution substation. These substations are located in the vicinity of
the load centers. The voltage is further stepped down to 11 kV. It may be
noted that big consumers (having demand more than 50 kW) are gener-
ally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling with their own substa-
tions. The  voltage is stepped down further by distribution transformers
 Introductory    ◾    5

located in residential and commercial areas, where it is supplied to these

consumers at the secondary distribution level of 400 V three phase and
230 V single phase.
It is to be noted diagram that it is not necessary that all power schemes
should have all the stages shown in the Figure 1.1. For example, in a certain
power scheme, there may be no secondary transmission and in another
case, the scheme may be so small that there is only distribution and no
transmission.

1.5 ​DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES

The conversion of energy available in different forms in nature into elec-
trical energy is known as generation of electrical energy. Since electrical
energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature, it is
desirable to look into the various sources of energy. Energy classification
may be based on its nature, availability, and storing capacity.

Commercial and noncommercial energy sources: These are also known

as primary energy sources. They are available in nature in raw form,
for example, coal, natural gas, and water. The other resources, which
are freely available to us like solar energy, agricultural wastes, etc.,
are known as noncommercial energy sources.
Conventional and nonconventional energy sources: Conventional energy
sources (also known as commercial sources) are those energy sources
which are used traditionally and can be stored. The nonconventional
energy sources cannot be easily stored.
Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources: Renewable energy sources
are those sources which can be used to produce energy again and
again, for example, solar energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy,
etc. Nonrenewable energy sources cannot be replaced once they are
used, for example, coal, oil, gas, etc.

1.5.1  Conventional (Nonrenewable) Sources of Electric Energy

Thermal (coal, oil, nuclear) and hydro generations are the main conven-
tional sources of electric energy.

1.5.1.1 Steam Power Station (Thermal Station)

A schematic diagram of a coal-fired thermal plant is shown in Figure 1.2.
Coal received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred to the
6   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Chimney

Induced
draught fan
Switchyard
Bus bars
Electro- R
static Y
presipi- B
tator
Isolators
Hot air Air CB
pre-
heater Isolators
Forced
Flue gases draught fan
Supply
line Econo-
of coal miser Transformer
11/132 kV
Flue
gases Turbine
Coal Exciter
Coal Super
handling Boiler
storage heater
plant Valve Alternator

Ash Exhaust
Ash Flue gases steam
handling
storage
plant
Feed water
heater
Condensate
Ash
Feed water extraction
cleaning
pump pump
Condenser

Circulating
water pump

Cooling
Water
tower
treatment
chamber

River

FIGURE 1.2  Schematic diagram of a coal fired thermal plant.

furnace by coal handling unit. Heat produced due to burning of the coal
is utilized in converting water in the boiler drum to steam at suitable pres-
sure and temperature. The steam generated is passed through the super-
heater. Superheated steam then flows through the turbine. In the turbine,
the pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through
the condenser, where the pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine is
maintained. Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and
temperature of cooling water and on ­effectiveness of air removal equip-
ment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from the
various sources such as river, lake, or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is
 Introductory    ◾    7

not available, the hot water is coming out of the condenser may be cooled
in cooling tower and circulated again through the condenser. Blade sys-
tem taken from the turbine at suitable extraction point is sent to low- and
high-pressure water heaters. With the help of force draught fan, air is col-
lected from the atmosphere and is first passed through the air preheater,
where it is heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the fur-
nace. The flue gases after passing through the boiler and superheated tube,
flow through economizer, air preheater, and electrostatic precipitator (dust
collector), and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the
chimney by induced draught fan.
Merits

1. The fuel used is quite cheap.

2. Less initial cost as compared to other generating station.

3. It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal.

4. It requires less space as compared to the hydraulic power station.

5. The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power station.

Demerits

1. It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of

smoke and fumes.
2. Its running cost is costlier than that of the hydraulic plant.

1.5.1.2 Gas Turbine Power Plant

With increasing availability of natural gas (methane), prime movers
based on gas turbines have been developed on the lines similar to those
used in aircraft. Schematic arrangement of gas turbine plant is shown in
Figure 1.3. The air at atmospheric pressure is drawn by the compressor
via a filter which removes the dust from air. The compressor used in the
plant is generally rotatory type. The rotatory blades raise its pressure.
Thus air at high pressure is available at the output of the pressure. The
exhaust is passed through the regenerator before getting wasted to atmo-
sphere. Regenerator is a device which recovers heat from the exhaust
gases of the turbine. A regenerator consists of a nest of tubes contained
8   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Switchyard
Bus bars
R
Regenerator Y
B

Isolators
CB
Isolators
Exhaust
gases
Combustion
chamber Transformer
11/132 kV
Compressor
Gas
A M
turbine
Alternator Starting
motor
Filter

FIGURE 1.3  Schematic arrangement of gas turbine plant.

in shell. The compressed air from the compressor passes through the
tubes on its way to the combustion chamber. In this way, compressed air
is heated by the exhaust gases. The air at high pressure from the com-
pressor is led to the combustion chamber via regenerator. In this cham-
ber, heat is added to the air by burning oil. The oil is injected through
the burner into the chamber at high pressure to ensure atomization of oil
and its mixing with air. The result is that the chamber attains very high
temperature (about 3000°F). The combustion gases are suitably cooled
led to 1300–1500 °F and then delivered to the gas turbine. The product
of combustion consisting of a mixture of gases at high temperature and
pressure is passed to the gas turbine. There gases passing over the tur-
bine blade expand and thus do the mechanical work. The temperature
of the exhaust gases from the turbine is about 900°F. The gas turbine
is coupled to the alternator. The alternator converts mechanical energy
of the turbine into electrical energy. The output from the alternator is
given to the bus bars through transformer, circuit breaker, and isola-
tors. Before starting the turbine, the compressor has to be started. For
this purpose, electric motor is mounted on the same shaft as that of the
turbine. The motor is energized by the batteries. Once the unit starts, a
part of mechanical power of the turbine drives the compressor and there
is no need of motor now.
 Introductory    ◾    9

Merits

1. It is simple in design compared to steam power station since no boil-

ers and their auxiliaries are required.
2. It is much smaller in size as compared to steam power station of
the same capacity. This is expected since gas turbine plant does not
require boiler, feed water arrangement.
3. The initial and operating costs are much lower than its equivalent
steam power station.
4. It requires comparatively less water as no condenser is used.
5. The maintenance charges are quite less.
6. Gas turbines are much simpler in construction and operation than
steam turbines.
7. There are no standby losses. However, in a steam power station,
losses occur because boiler is kept under operation even when the
steam turbine is supplying no load.

Demerits

1. There is a problem for starting the unit. It is because before start-

ing the turbine, the compressor has to be operated for which power
is required from external source. However, once the unit starts, the
external power is not needed as the turbine itself supplies the neces-
sary power to the compressor.
2. Since a greater part of power developed by the turbine is used in
driving the compressor, the net output is low.
3. The overall efficiency of such plans is low (about 20%) because the
exhaust gases from the turbine contain sufficient heat.
4. The temperature of combustion chamber is quite high (3000°F), so
that its life is comparatively reduced.

1.5.1.3 Hydroelectric Power Generation

It is known that the chief requirement for hydroelectric power plant is the
availability of water in huge quantity at sufficient head and this requirement
10   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Surge tank
Reservoir Dam

Valve house
Pressure channel
Penstock

Power house

River

FIGURE 1.4  Schematic arrangement of a hydro plant.

can be met by constructing a conventional dam across a river or lake.

A simple schematic arrangement of a hydro plant is given in Figure 1.4. An
artificial storage reservoir is formed by constructing a dam across a river
and a pressure tunnel is taken off from the reservoir to the valve house at
the start of the penstock. The valve house contains main sluice valves for
controlling water flow to the power station and automatic isolating valves
for cutting off water supply in case of penstock bursts.
A surge tank (open from top) is also provided just before the valve
house for better regulation of water pressure in the system. From the res-
ervoir, water is carried to valve house through pressure tunnel and from
valve house to the water turbine through pipes of large diameter made of
steel or reinforced concrete, called penstock. The water turbine converts
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and the alternator coupled to the
water turbine converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Water
after doing useful work is discharged to the tail race.
Merits

1. No fuel required. Water is the source of energy. Hence operating

costs are low. And there are no problems like handling of the fuel,
storage of the fuel, disposal of the ash, etc.
2. The plant is highly reliable and it is the cheapest in operation and
maintenance.
3. The load can be varied quickly and the rapidly changing load demand
can be met without difficulty.
4. Such plants are robust and have longer life.
 Introductory    ◾    11

4. The efficiency of such plants does not fall with age.

5. Very neat and clean plant as no smoke ash produced.
6. Highly skilled engineers are required only at the time of construc-
tion. But later on only a few experienced person will be required.
7. Usually located in remote areas where land is available in cheaper
rates.
8. Such plants, in addition to generation of electric power, also serve
other purposes such as irrigation, flood control, etc.

Demerits

1. Huge area is required.

2. Its construction cost is very high and takes a long time for erection.
3. Long transmission lines are required, as the plants are located in
hilly areas which are quite away from the load centers.
4. The output of such plants is never constant owing to vagaries of
monsoon and depends on rate of water flow in a river. Long dry sea-
son may affect the water.
5. Hydroelectric power plant reservoir submerges huge areas, uproots
large population and creates social and other problems.

1.5.1.4 Nuclear Power Plant

A nuclear power plant consists of a nuclear reactor (for heat generation),
heat exchanger (for converting water into steam by using the heat gener-
ated in nuclear reactor), steam turbines, alternators, condenser, etc. As in
conventional steam power plant, water for raising steam forms a closed
feed system. However, the reactor and the cooling circuit have to be heav-
ily shielded to eliminate radiation hazards. A schematic arrangement
of a nuclear power plant is given in Figure 1.5. The tremendous amount
of heat energy produced in breaking of atoms of uranium (U235) or tho-
rium (Th232) of large atomic weight into metals of lower atomic weight
by fission process in an atomic reactor is extracted by pumping fluid or
molten metal like liquid sodium or gas through the pile. In nuclear fis-
sion, the breaking up of nuclei of heavy atoms into two nearly equal parts
with release of huge amount of energy. The heated metal or gas is then
12   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Switchyard
Bus bars
R
Y
B

Isolators
CB

Isolators

Heat Transformer
exchanger 11/32 kV
Hot metal
Turbine Exciter
Nuclear Steam
reactor
Valve Alternator

Filter Exhaust
steam
Pump

Cold Condenser
metal
Feed water
pump
Circulating
water pump

Cooling
tower

River

FIGURE 1.5  Schematic arrangement of a nuclear power plant.

allowed to exchange its heat to the heat exchanger by circulation. In heat

exchanger, the gas is heated or steam is generated which are utilized to
drive gas turbine or steam turbine coupled to an alternator thereby gen-
erating electrical energy. After doing useful work in turbine, the steam is
exhausted to condenser. The condenser condenses the steam which is fed
to heat exchanger through feed water pump. The output of alternator is
delivered to bus bars through transformers, circuit breakers, etc.
Merits

1. The amount of fuel required is quite small.

2. A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other
type of the same size.
3. This plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.
 Introductory    ◾    13

4. It can be located near the load centers because it does not require
large quantities of water and need not be near coal mines. Therefore,
the cost of primary distribution is reduced.

5. There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the world.
Therefore, such plants can ensure continued supply of electrical
energy for thousands of years.

Demerits

1. The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.

2. The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other

types of plants.

3. The erection and commissioning of the plant require greater techni-

cal know-how.

4. The fission by-product is generally radioactive and may cause a dan-

gerous amount of radioactive pollution.

5. The disposal of the by-products, which are radioactive, is a big prob-

lem. They have either to be disposed off in a deep trench or in a sea
away from sea shore.

6. Maintenance charges are high due to lack of standardization.

Moreover high salaries of specially trained personnel employed to
handle the plant further raise the cost.

1.5.1.5 ​Diesel Power Plant

In a diesel power plant, generally diesel engine is utilized as the prime
mover. Within the engine, diesel is burned and the by-products of this
combustion act as the “working fluid” to create mechanical energy. The
diesel engine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to high price
of diesel, such power stations are exclusively used to produce low power.
Figure 1.6 shows the formal organization of a typical diesel power station.
The plant has the following auxiliaries:
Fuel supply system: It consists of a storage tank, strainers, fuel transfer
pump, and all day fuel tank. The fuel oil is supplied at the plant site
14   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Intake
air filter Silencer Surge
Day tank tank

Diesel engine
Jacket
Exhaust water pump
Fuel oil Fuel injection
starting pump
Jacket
air Generator water
Filter Oil pump

Starting
air Lube
oil Lubricating oil Cooling water
comp.
Starting Oil
oil tank Lubricating
oil tank cooler
Auxiliary
oil pump Filter or
Overflow Transfer purifier
pump Strainer

Fuel tank
Heat
exchanger
Raw water
pump

FIGURE 1.6  Schematic arrangement of a typical diesel power station.

by rail or road. This oil is stored in the storage tank. From the storage
tank, oil is pumped to smaller all day tank at daily or short intervals.
From this tank, fuel oil is passed through strainers to remove sus-
pended impurities. The clean oil is injected into the engine by fuel
injection pump.
Air intake system: This system supplies necessary air to the engine for
fuel combustion. It consists of tubes for the supply of fresh air to the
engine manifold. Filters are provided to remove dust specks from the
breeze which may act as abrasive in the engine cylinder.
Exhaust system: This system leads the engine exhaust gas outside the
building and discharges it into the atmosphere. A silencer is usually
incorporated in the system to reduce the noise level.
Cooling system: The heat liberated by the combustion of fuel in the
engine cylinder is partially converted into work. The remainder part
of the heat passes through the cylinder walls, piston, rings, etc. and
may cause damage to the system. In order to keep the temperature of
the engine parts within the safe operating limits, cooling is p
­ rovided.
The cooling system consists of a water source, pump, and cooling
 Introductory    ◾    15

towers. The pump circulates water through the piston chamber and
head jacket. The water carries away heat from the locomotive and it
gets hot. The hot water is cooled by cooling towers and is recirculated
for cooling.
Lubricating system: This arrangement minimizes the wear of rubbing
surfaces of the locomotive. It contains of the lubricating oil tank,
pump, filter, and oil cooler. The lubricating oil is drawn from the
lubricating oil tank by the pump and is passed through filters to
remove impurities. The clean lubricating oil is delivered to the points
which require lubrication. The oil coolers incorporated in the system
keep the temperature of the oil low.
Engine starting system: This is an agreement to rotate the engine ini-
tially, while bugging out, until firing starts and the unit runs with
its own force. Small sets are taken off manually by handles, but for
larger units, compressed air is used for initiating. In the latter case,
air at high pressure is admitted to a few of the cylinders, making
them to act as reciprocating air motors to turn over the engine shaft.
The fuel is admitted to the remaining cylinders which makes the
locomotive to take off under its own force.
Diesel engine generator (alternator): The alternator used in diesel elec-
tric power plants are of rotating field, salient pole construction,
speed ranging from 214 to 1000 rpm (poles 28 to 6), and capacity is
ranging from 25 to 5000 kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Their output voltages
are of 440 V in case of small machines and as high as 2200 V in case
of large machines. Voltage regulation is about 30%.
They are directly coupled to the diesel engines. They are supplied
with automatic voltage regulation and satisfactory parallel ­operation.
The excitation is usually provided at 115 or 230 V from a DC exciter
of rating about 2%–4% of the alternator ratings, usually coupled to
the engine shaft either directly or through a belt.
Merits

1. The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.

2. It occupies less space, as the number and size of the auxiliaries are
small.
3. It can be placed at any position.
16   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

4. It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time.

5. There are no standby losses.
6. It requires less quantity of water for chilling.
7. The overall price is much less than that of steam power station of the
same content.
8. The thermal efficiency of the plant is more eminent than that of a
steam power station.
9. It requires less operating staff.

Demerits

1. The plant has high running charges as the fuel (i.e., diesel) used is
costly.

2. The plant does not operate satisfactorily under overload conditions

for a longer period.

3. The plant can only generate small power.

4. The cost of lubrication is generally high.

5. The maintenance charges are generally high.

1.5.1.6 ​Magneto Hydrodynamic Generation

In thermal generation of electric energy, the heat released by the fuel is
converted to rotational mechanical energy by means of a thermo cycle.
The mechanical energy is then applied to rotate the electric generator.
Thus, two stages of energy conversion are involved in which the heat to
mechanical energy conversion has inherently low efficiency. Besides, the
rotating machine has its associated losses and maintenance troubles. In
magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) technology, electric energy is directly
generated by the hot gases created by the burning of fuel without the
demand for mechanical moving components. In an MHD generator, elec-
trically conducting gas at a very high temperature is drawn in a strong
magnetic field, thereby generating electricity. High temperature is required
to ­ionize the gas, hence that it has good electrical conductivity. The con-
ducting gas is obtained by burning a fuel and injecting seeding materials
such as potassium carbonate in the products of combustion. The principle
 Introductory    ◾    17

of MHD power generation is illustrated in Figure 1.7. Approximately, 50%

­efficiency can be attained if the MHD generator operates in tandem with
a conventional steam plant.

1.5.2 ​Nonconventional (Renewable) Sources of Electric Energy

The necessity to conserve fossil fuels has forced scientists and technologists
across the world to search for nonconventional sources of electric energy.
Some of the sources being explored are solar, wind, and tidal sources. To
protect environment and for sustainable development, the importance of
renewable energy sources cannot be overemphasized. It is an established
and accepted tact that renewable and nonconventional forms of energy
will play an increasingly important role in the future, as they are cleaner
and easier to use and environmentally benign and bound to become eco-
nomically more viable with increased use.

1.5.2.1 ​Solar Energy
The Sun is the primary and main source of energy. The average incident
solar energy received on earth’s surface is about 600 W/m2 but the actual
value varies considerably. It possesses the vantage of being complimen-
tary of cost, non-exhaustible, and completely pollution free. On the other
hand, it has several drawbacks—energy density per-unit area is very low,
it is available for only a part of the day, and cloudy and hazy atmospheric
conditions greatly reduce the energy received. So, harnessing solar energy
for electricity generation, challenging technological problems exist, the

Load

Anode

Gas flow
Flow
at 2500°C

Cathode

Strong magnetic
field

FIGURE 1.7  The principle of MHD power generation.

18   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

most important being that of the collection and concentration of solar

energy, and its conversion to the electrical form through efficient and rela-
tively economical means.
At present, two technologies are being built up for transition of solar
energy to the electrical form.

1.5.2.1.1  Solar–Thermal Energy  In this technology, collectors with con-

centrators are employed to achieve temperatures high enough (700°C)
to operate a heat engine at reasonable efficiency to generate electricity.
Nevertheless, there are considerable engineering difficulties in making
a single tracking bowl with a diameter exceeding 30 m to get perhaps
200 kW. The scheme calls for large and intricate structures involving a
vast capital outlay and as of today is far from being competitive with con-
ventional electricity generation.

1.5.2.1.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Generation  This technology converts solar

energy to the electrical form by means of silicon wafer photoelectric cells
known as “solar cells.” Their theoretical efficiency is about 25% but the
practical value is only about 15%. But that does not matter as solar energy
is basically free of cost. The main problem is the cost and maintenance of
solar cells. With the likelihood of a breakthrough in the large scale pro-
duction of cheap solar cells with amorphous silicon, this technology may
compete with established methods of electricity generation, especially as
conventional fuels become scarce.
These systems are of the following two types:

Stand-alone power systems. In such a system, the PV array is the

1.
principal or only source of energy.
Grid-connected power systems. In this type of arrangement, the load
2.
is tied to both a PV power system and an electricity power system.

1.5.2.2 Wind Power
This method can be used where wind flows for a considerable length of
time. The wind energy is used to run the wind mill which drives a small
generator. In order to obtain the electrical energy from a wind mill con-
tinuously, the generator is arranged to charge the batteries. These batteries
 Introductory    ◾    19

supply the energy when the wind stops. This method has the advantages
that maintenance and generation costs are negligible.
In our country, this source of generation of electrical energy will prove
economical at a number of places as revealed in a recent study undertaken
by National Aerospace Laboratories, Bengaluru.
However, this method is unreliable since the production of electrical
energy depends largely upon the pressure of the wind.

1.5.2.3 ​Wave Energy
The energy content of sea waves is very high. In India, with several hun-
dreds of kilometers of coast line, a vast source of energy is available. The
power in the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude and to the
period of the motion. Therefore, the long period (~10 s) and large ampli-
tude (~2 m) waves are of considerable interest for power generation, with
energy fluxes commonly averaging between 50 and 70 kW/m width of
oncoming wave. Though the engineering problems associated with wave
power are formidable, the amount of energy that can be harnessed is large
and development work is in progress. Sea wave power estimated potential
is 20,000 MW.

1.5.2.4 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

The ocean is the world’s largest solar collector. Temperature differ-
ence of 20°C between warm, solar absorbing surface water and cooler
“bottom” water can occur. This can provide a continually replenished
store of thermal power, which is available in the principle conversion
to other energy forms. Ocean thermal energy conversion refers to the
conversion of some of this thermal energy into work and hence into elec-
tricity. Estimated potential energy of ocean thermal power in India is
50,000 MW.

1.5.2.5 ​Biofuels
The material of plants and animals is called biomass, which may be
­transformed by chemical and biological processes to produce intermedi-
ate biofuels such as methane gas, ethanol liquid, or charcoal solid. Biomass
is burnt to provide heat for cooking, comfort heat (space heat), crop
­drying, factory processes, and raising steam for electricity p
­ roduction and
­transport. In India, potential for bio-energy is 17,000 MW and that for
agricultural waste is about 6000 MW.
20   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

1.5.2.6 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is another energy source that can be harnessed for
power generation and thermal applications in near future. Geothermal
energy is the natural heat generated from within the earth. The steam
and hot water come naturally to the airfoil of the ground at some posi-
tions. The primary source of geothermal energy is magma. The extraction
of heat form earth’s interior needs a natural or artificial heat exchanger.
Water is injected by an injection well into hot dry rock inside the ground
to extract the hot water and steam from production wells. Water injected
into the wall acts as a heat collecting and heat transporting medium.

1.5.2.7 ​Mini and Micro Hydro Plants

In order to match with the present energy crisis partly, a solution is to be
developed mini and micro hydro potential in our state. The capacity of
micro plant is up to 100 kW and mini plant is from 101 to 100 kW. These
applications do not need to conventional dam or retain water to make
a hydraulic head; the head is just a few meters, that is, 5–20 m head for
mini plants and less than 5 m head for micro plants. Using the current
of a river or the naturally occurring tidal flow to create electricity may
provide a renewable energy source that will have a minimal impact on the
environment.

EXERCISES

1. Why is electrical energy preferred over other forms of energy?

2. Write a short note on the generation of electrical energy.
3. Discuss the different sources of energy available in nature.
4. Compare the chief sources of energy used for the generation of elec-
trical energy.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a steam power station.
6. Draw the schematic diagram of a modern steam power station and
explain its operation.
7. Discuss the merits and demerits of a hydroelectric plant.
8. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a hydroelectric plant and explain
the functions of various components.
 Introductory    ◾    21

9. Draw the flow diagram of a diesel power station and discuss its
operation.
10. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a diesel power station.
11. Draw the schematic diagram of a nuclear power station and discuss
its operation.
12. Explain the working of a gas turbine power plant with a schematic
diagram.
13. Give the comparison of steam power plant, hydroelectric power
plant, and nuclear power plant on the basis of operating cost, ini-
tial cost, efficiency, maintenance cost, and availability of source of
power.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 2

Per-Unit Systems

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In large interconnected power systems with several voltage levels and vari-
ous capacity equipments, it has been found very convenient to play with
per-unit (pu) systems of quantities for analysis rather than in absolute val-
ues of measures. The pu system leads to great simplification of three-phase
networks involving transformers. The numerical pu value of any amount
is determined as the proportion of its actual value to another arbitrarily
chosen value of the quantity of the dimensions assumed as the theme or
extension.

The actual value of the quantity in any unit

Per-unit value = (2.1)
The base or reference value of the same unit

For any quantity K,

Ka
K pu = (2.2)
Kb

Thus, any quantity can be converted to a pu quantity by dividing the

numerical value of a chosen base value of the same proportions. The pu
values are dimensionless. Percent quantities differ from pu quantities by a
factor of 100. The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in pu.

23
24   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2.2 PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION OF BASIC

ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
In electrical engineering, the three basic quantities are voltage, current,
and impedance.
Let Iamp the actual current in ampere, Ib the base current in ampere,
Vvolt the actual voltage in volts, Vb the base voltage in volts, Zohm the actual
impedance in ohms, Zb the base impedance in ohms, Svolt-amp the actual
volt-ampere, and Sb the base volt-ampere, then

I amp
Per-unit current = I pu = (2.3)
Ib

Vvolt
Per-unit voltage = Vpu = (2.4)
Vb

Zohm
Per-unit impedance = Z pu = (2.5)
Zb

Z ohm = R ohm + jX ohm

Z R X
∴ Z pu = ohm = ohm + j ohm
Zb Zb Zb

or

Z pu = Rpu + jX pu

Rohm
∴ Rpu = (2.6)
Zb

and

X ohm
X pu = (2.7)
Zb

Per-unit volt-ampere

Svolt-amp
Spu = (2.8)
Sb

 Per-Unit Systems    ◾    25

S = P + jQ = VI *
Svolt-amp P Q
Spu = = +j
Sb Sb Sb
∴ Spu = Ppu + jQpu

Pwatt
∴ Ppu = (2.9)
Sb

Qvars
∴ Qpu = (2.10)
Sb

For a single-phase circuit,

Vb
Zb = (2.11)
Ib

and

Sb = Vb I b (2.12)

The values of the base quantities are selected according to convenience.

If any two of the four quantities in Equations 2.11 and 2.12 are specified,
the remaining two are fixed automatically.
The base impedance is that which has a voltage drop across which
is equal to the base voltage if the current through it is equal to the base
current.

Vb VbVb Vb2
Zb = = = ohms (2.13)
Ib Vb I b Sb

1 S
Yb = = b siemens
Z b Vb 2

If proper selection of bases is made, the basic circuit relations can be

applied to the pu quantities.

Vpu = Z pu I pu (2.14)

26   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Spu = Vpu I pu
*
(2.15)

Equations 2.5 and 2.13 can be combined to give

Sb
Z pu = Z ohm (2.16)
Vb2

Also from Equation 2.12, we get

Sb Base kVA
Ib = =
Vb Base kV

where base kW is the numerical value of base kVA and base MW is the
numerical value of base MVA.
Let YSim be the actual admittance in siemens and Ypu the pu admittance,
then

1 Vb2 V2
Ypu = = = YSim b
Z pu Z ohm Sb Sb

2.3 CHANGE OF BASE
It is sometimes necessary to convert pu quantities from one base to
another. Let the base volt-ampere and base voltage in system 1 be repre-
sented by Sb1 and Vb1, respectively. The corresponding values in system 2
are represented by Sb2 and Vb2, respectively.

Base current in base system 1:

Sb1
I b1 = (2.17)
Vb1

Base current in base system 2:

Sb 2
I b2 = (2.18)
Vb 2

The pu value of current I in base system 1:

I
I1pu = (2.19)
I b1
 Per-Unit Systems    ◾    27

The pu value of current I in base system 2:

I
I 2 pu = (2.20)
I b2

Combine Equations 2.18 through 2.20:

I b1 S V S V
I 2 pu = I1pu = I1pu b1 b 2 = I1pu b1 b 2 (2.21)
I b2 Vb1 Sb 2 Sb 2 Vb1

We know

Sb
Z pu = Z ohm
Vb2

Therefore, the pu value of impedance Zohm in base system 1 is

Sb1
Z1pu = Z ohm (2.22)
Vb21

Therefore, the pu value of impedance Zohm in base system 2 is

Sb 2
Z 2 pu = Z ohm (2.23)
Vb22

Elimination of Zohm from Equations 2.22 and 2.23 gives

2
Sb 2  Vb1 
Z 2 pu = Z1pu (2.24)
Sb1  Vb 2 

Equation 2.24 is used for changing the pu impedance from one set of V
and S bases to any other set of V and S.
So the change of base for the admittance can be written as

2
Sb1  Vb 2 
Y2 pu = Y1pu (2.25)
Sb 2  Vb1 

28   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2.4 PER-UNIT QUANTITIES IN A THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

In a star connection,

Vl = 3Vph , Vlb = 3Vphb

I l = I ph , I lb = I phb

Vl 3Vph
(Vl )pu = = = (Vph )pu (2.26)
Vlb 3Vphb

Il I ph
(I l )pu = = = (I ph )pu (2.27)
I lb I phb

where Vl is the line voltage, Vph is the phase voltage, Il is the line current,
and Iph is the phase current in a balance 3ϕ system.
In a delta connection,

Vl = Vph , Vlb = Vphb

I l = 3 I ph , I lb = 3 I phb

Vl Vph
(Vl )pu = = = (Vph )pu (2.28)
Vlb Vphb

Il 3 Iph
(I l )pu = = = (Iph )pu (2.29)
I lb 3 I phb

Thus, it is seen that in both star and delta connections, a pu-phase ­voltage
has the same numerical value as the corresponding pu-line ­voltage. Also,
the pu-phase current has the same numerical value as the corresponding
pu-line current.

2.5 BASE QUANTITIES IN TERMS OF KV AND MVA

In power systems, it is common practice to specify voltage rating in kilo-
volts and the volt-ampere rating in MVA. The results already derived in
terms of V and VA can be modified as

Base MVA: Sb = (MVA)b = Vb I b × 10−6

 Per-Unit Systems    ◾    29

Base voltage in kV: (kV)b = Vb × 10−3

2
V  (kVl )2b
Z b =  b1 
 Vb 2  [(MVA)b ]3 φ

Subscript 3ϕ denotes the three-phase value.

Sb Vb I b Vb I b × 10−6
Z pu = Z ohm = Z = Z
Vb2 ohm
Vb2 ohm
(Vb × 10−3 )2

(MVA)b
Z pu = Z ohm (2.30)
(kV)2b

2
(MVA)b 2  (kV)b1 
Z 2pu = Z1pu (2.31)
(kV)2b1  (kV)b 2 

[(MVA)b ]3 φ
Z pu = Z ohm (2.32)
[(kVl )b ]2

2.6 PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER

Consider a single-phase transformer in which the total series impedance
of the two windings referred to the primary is Z1e. Suppose that the rated
values are taken as the base quantities.
In the primary, base current is Ib1, base voltage is Vb1, and base imped-
ance, Zb1, is (V1/I1).
Per-unit impedance of the transformer referred to the primary is

Z1 e
Z1epu = (2.33)
Z b1

The total series impedance of the two windings referred to the second-
ary is
2
N 
Z 2 e = Z1 e  2  (2.34)
 N1 

where N1 and N2 represent primary and secondary turns, respectively.

30   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

In the secondary, base current is Ib2, base voltage is Vb2, and base imped-
ance, Zb2, is (V2/I2).
Per-unit impedance of the transformer referred to the secondary is

Z2e Z I
Z 2 e pu = = 2e 2 (2.35)
V2 /I 2 V2

Also

N1
I 2 = I1 (2.36)
N2

and

N2
V2 = V1 (2.37)
N1

From Equations 2.34 through 2.37,

2
 N  I N N1 I
Z 2 e pu = Z1e  2  1 1 = Z1 e 1 (2.38)
 N1  N 2 V1 N 2 V1

From Equations 2.33 and 2.38,

Z 2 e pu = Z1e pu

Thus, the pu impedance of a two-winding transformer referred to either

side is the same.

2.7 ADVANTAGES OF PU REPRESENTATION
Per-unit system computation has the following advantages:

1. The ordinary parameters (current, impedance, etc.) vary consider-

ably with the variation of physical size, terminal voltage, power rat-
ing, etc., while the pu parameters are independent of these quantities
over a wide range of the same type of apparatus. In other words, the
pu impedance values for apparatus of like ratings lie within a narrow
range.
 Per-Unit Systems    ◾    31

2. Per-unit values provide more meaningful information.

3. The chance of confusion between line and phase values in a three-

phase balanced system is reduced.

4. The impedances of machines are specified by the manufacturers in

terms of pu values.

5. The pu impedance referred to either side of a single-phase trans-

former is the same.

6. The computational effort in power systems is very much reduced

with the use of pu quantities.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 2.1
A 230-kV transmission line has a series impedance of (8  +  j64)
ohms and a shunt admittance of j4  ×  10−3 s. Using 100 MVA and
the line voltage as base values, calculate pu impedance and pu admit-
tance of the line.

Solution

100
Z pu = Z ohm = (8 + j64) ×
(230)2
= (0.015 + j0.12) pu

(230)2
Ypu = j 4 × 10−3 ×
100
= j 2.116 pu

EXAMPLE 2.2
A three-phase, star-connected system is rated at 100 MVA and
110 kV. Express 20,000 kVA of three-phase apparent power as a pu
value referred to as

1. The three-phase system kVA as base

2. The per-phase kVA as base
32   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Solution
1. For the three-phase base:

Base kVA = 20, 000 kVA = 1 pu

Base kV = 110 kV
20, 000
Per-unit kVA = = 0.2 pu
100 × 1000

2. For the per-phase base:

1
Base kVA = × 1,00,000 = 33.33 MVA = 1 pu
3
110
Base kV = = 63.5
3
1 20,000
Per-unit kVA = × = 0.20 pu
3 33.33 × 103

EXAMPLE 2.3
A 200-MVA, 11-kV, three-phase generator has a subtransient reac-
tance of 10%. The generator is connected to the motors through
transmission lines and transformers. The motors have rated inputs
of 20 MVA and 30 MVA at 20 kV with 10% subtransient reactance.
Three-phase transformers are rated at 110 MVA, 13 kV,Δ/110 kV,Y
with leakage reactance at 8%. The line has a reactance of 30 Ω. Select
the generator rating as the base quantities in other parts of the sys-
tem and evaluate the corresponding pu values.

Solution
Assuming base values as 200 MVA and 11 kV in the generator cir-
cuit, the pu reactance of generator will be 10%. The base value of
voltage in the line will be

110
11 × = 93.07
13

In this motor circuit,

13
93.07 × = 11 kV
110
 Per-Unit Systems    ◾    33

The reactance of the transformer given is 8%

Corresponding to 110 MVA, 13 kV
Corresponding to 100 MVA, 11 kV
The pu reactance will be

2
200  13 
0. 8 × × = 0.203
100  11 

30 × 200
Per-unit impedance of line = = 0.6926
(93.07)2

2
200  20 
Per-unit reactance for motor 1 = 0.1 × × = 3.30
20  11 

2
200  20 
Per-unit reactance for motor 2 = 0.1 × × = 2.20
30  11 

2
200  20 
Per-unit reactance for motor 3 = 0.1 × × = 1.32
50  11 

EXERCISES

1. Define the terms per-unit voltage, per-unit impedance, and per-unit

volt-ampere. Express per-unit impedance in terms of base MVA and
base kV for a three-phase system.
2. Derive an expression for per-unit impedance of a given base MVA
and base kV in terms of new base MVA and new base kV.
3. Show that the per-unit equivalent impedance of a two-winding
transformer is the same whether the calculation is made from the
high-voltage side or the low-voltage side.
4. What are the advantages of per-unit representation?
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 3

Load Characteristics

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary function of a power station is to serve power to a large
­number of consumers. Nevertheless, the power needs of consumers are
subjected to change depending upon their actions. As a consequence of
this variance in demand, the load on a power station is never constant,
rather it shifts with time. Due to this reason modern power plant faces
a lot of complexities. Regrettably, we cannot store electrical power and,
consequently, the power station must create power as and when required
to meet the demands of the consumers. On one hand, for maximum effi-
ciency, it is important to run the alternators in the power station at their
rated capacity and on the other hand, the requirements of the consum-
ers have wide variances. This makes the design of a power station highly
complex.

3.2 LOAD
A device that uses electrical energy is said to impose a load on the system.
The term load has number of applications such as

• To suggest a device or a collection of devices which consume electri-

cal energy.
• To indicate power required from a given supply circuit.
• To indicate the current passing through a line or a machine.

35
36   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The load can be resistive, inductive, capacitive, or some combination of

them. Load on power systems is split into the following:

• Domestic load—light, fans, refrigerators, heaters, and television

• Commercial load—lighting for shops, fans, and electric appliances
used in restaurant
• Industrial load—industrial load consists of load demand by industries
• Municipal load—street lighting, power required for water supply, etc.
• Irrigation load—electric power required for pumps
• Traction loads—tram cars, trolley bus, and railways
• Electronics loads (capacitive loading)—switched-mode power sup-
ply and filter circuit

3.3  VARIABLE LOAD

The load on the power station changes with time due to uncertain and
variable demands of the consumers and is known as variable load on the
station.

3.3.1  Effects of Variable Load

3.3.1.1  Need of Additional Equipment
The variable load on the power station necessitates to have additional
equipments. For example, consider a steam power station. Air, coal, and
water are the raw materials for this plant. In order to produce variable
power, the supply of these materials will be required to be varied corre-
spondingly. For instance, if the power demand on the plant increases, it
must be followed by increased flow of coal, air, and water to the boiler in
order to meet the increased demand. Therefore, additional equipment has
to be installed to accomplish this job. As a matter of fact, in modern plant,
there is much equipment devoted entirely to adjust the rates of supply of
raw materials in accordance with the power demand made on the plant.

3.3.1.2  Increase in Production Cost

The variable load on the plant increases the cost of production of electrical
energy. An alternator operates at maximum efficiency near its rated capac-
ity. If a single alternator is used, it will have poor efficiency during period
 Load Characteristics    ◾    37

of light loads on the plant. Therefore, in actual practice, a number of alter-

nators of different capacities are installed so that most of the alternators
can be operated at nearly full-load capacity.
However, the use of a number of generating units increases the initial
cost per kW of the plant capacity as well as floor area required. This leads
to the increase in production cost of energy.

3.4  CONNECTED LOAD

Connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all loads connected to
the system.
For instance, if a consumer has connections of five 200 W lamps
and power point of 600 W, then connected load of the consumer is
(5 × 200 + 600 = 1600 W).

3.5 DEMAND
The demand of a system is the load that is drawn from the source of sup-
ply at a receiving terminal averaged over a suitable and specified interval
of time.
The load may be given in kW, kilovar (kvar), kilovoltampere (kVA), or
ampere (A).

3.6  DEMAND INTERVAL

Demand interval is the period over which the load is averaged. There are
two demands:

1. Instantaneous demand
2. Sustained demand

The former is not very important because all the machines are designed
for overloads. The sustained intervals are generally taken as 15 min,
30 min, or even longer. But 30 min is the basic time in India.

3.7  MAXIMUM DEMAND OR PEAK LOAD

The maximum demand is the highest demand of load on power station
during a given period.
The concept maximum demand should also express the demand inter-
val used to measure it. For example, the specified demand might be maxi-
mum of all demands such as daily, weekly, monthly, or annual.
38   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Knowledge of maximum demand helps in determining the installed

capacity of a generating station. The generating station must be capable of
meeting the maximum demand. Hence, the cost of plant and equipment
increases with the increase in maximum demand.

3.8  DEMAND FACTOR

The demand factor (DF) is the ratio of the actual maximum demand of the
system to the total connected load of the system. Therefore,

Max. demand
DF =
Total connected load

The DF can also be found for a part of the system. For example, an
industrial or commercial consumer, instead of for the whole system.

3.9  AVERAGE LOAD OR AVERAGE DEMAND

The average load occurring on the power station in a given period (day,
month, or year) is known as average load or average demand. Therefore,

No. of units (kWh) generated in a day

Daily average load =
24 h

No. of units (kWh) generated in a month
Monthly average load =
No. of hours in that month

No. of units (kWh) generated in a year
Yearly average load =
No. of hours in that year

3.10  LOAD FACTOR

The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period
is known as load factor (LF).

Average load
LF =
Max. demand

If the plant is in operation for T hours,
Average load × T Units generated in T hours
LF = =
Max. demand × T Max. demand × T hours
 Load Characteristics    ◾    39

3.11  DIVERSITY FACTOR

The ratio of the individual sum of maximum demands to the maximum
demand on power station is known as diversity factor (FD).

Sum of individual Max. demand

Diversity factor =
Max. demand on the power station

A power station supplies load to various types of consumers whose max-

imum demands generally are not the same at the same time. Therefore, the
maximum demand on the power station is always less than the sum of
maximum individual demands of the consumers.

3.12  PLANT CAPACITY FACTOR

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during a given period.

Actual energy produced

Plant capacity factor =
Max. energy that could have been produced
Average demand × T
=
Plant capacity × T
Average demand
=
Plant capacity

where T denotes the number of hours.

If we consider the period to be 1 year, then

Annual kWh output

Annual plant capacity factor =
Plant capacity × 87600

The plant capacity factor is a measure of the reserve capacity of the plant.
A power station must be designed in such a way that it has some reserve
capacity for meeting the increased load demand in future. Therefore, the
installed capacity of the plant is always somewhat greater than maximum
demand on the plant.

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity − Max. demand

40   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

It is interesting to note that difference between LF and plant capacity

factor is an indication of reserve capacity. If the maximum demand on the
plant is equal to the plant capacity, then LF and plant capacity factor will
have same value. In such case, the plant will have no reserve capacity.

3.13  PLANT USE FACTOR

It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of the plant capacity and the
number of hours for which the plant was in operation.

Station operation in kWh

Plant use factor =
Plant capacity × Hours of use

Suppose a plant having installed capacity of 20 MW produces annual

output of 7.35 × 106 kWh and remains in operation for 2190 h in a year. Then

7.35 × 106
Plant use factor = = 0.167 = 16.7%
20 × 103 × 2190

3.14  UNITS GENERATED PER ANNUM

It is often required to find the kWh generated per annum from maximum
demand and LF. The procedure is as follows:

Average load
LF =
Max. demand
Average load = Max. demand × LF
Units generated/annum = Average load (in kW) × Hours in a year
= Max. demand (iin kW)
× LF × 8760

3.15  LOSS FACTOR

It is the ratio of the average power loss (FLS) to the peak load power loss
during the specified period of time.
Average power loss
FLS =
Power loss at peak load

This relationship is applicable for the copper losses of the system but not
for the iron losses.
 Load Characteristics    ◾    41

3.16  LOAD CURVES

Load curve is a graphical representation between load (in kW or MW)
and time (in hours). The curve showing the variation of load on the power
station with respect to time is known as load curve. When it is plotted
for 24 h a day, it is called daily load curve. If the time considered is 1 year
(8760 h), then it is called the annual load curve. Figure 3.1 shows a typical
daily load curve of a power station.
It is to be noted that daily load curve of a system is not the same for all
days. It differs from day to day and season to season. In practice, two types
of curves are drawn—one for summer and the other for winter.

3.17  INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM LOAD CURVES

The information listed below are obtained from load curve:

1. Load variation during different hours of the day.

2. The peak load indicated by the load curve gives the maximum
demand on the power stations.
3. The area under the load curve gives the total energy generated in the
period under consideration.
4. The area under the load curve divided by the total number of hours
gives the average load.
5. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of the
rectangle in which it is contained gives the LF.

10
8
6
Load in MW

12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
Midnight Noon
Hour

FIGURE 3.1  A typical daily load curve of a power station.

42   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

It would be ideal to have a flat-load curve. But in practice, load curves

are far from flat. For a flat-load curve, the LF will be higher. Higher LF
means more uniform load pattern with less variation in load. This is desir-
able from the point of view of maximum utilization of associated equip-
ments that are selected on the basis of maximum demand.

3.18  LOAD DURATION CURVE

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of
descending magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration
curve. The load duration curve is derived from the load curve and there-
fore, represents the same data as that of the load curve but the ordinates
are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. Figure 3.2a and b
shows the daily load curve and daily load duration curve, respectively.

3.19 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM

THE LOAD DURATION CURVE
1. It gives minimum load present throughout the given period.
2. It enables the selection of base load and peak load power plants.
3. Any point on the load duration curve gives the total duration in
hours for the corresponding load and all loads of greater value.
4. The areas under load curve and corresponding load duration curve
are equal. Both areas represent the same associated energy during
the period under consideration.

(a) (b)

25 25
20 20
Load in MW

Load in MW

15 15
10 10
5 5
0
12 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
(Midnight) Time of day Hours duration
Load curve Load duration curve

FIGURE 3.2  (a) Daily load curve and (b) daily load duration curve.
 Load Characteristics    ◾    43

5. The average demand during some specified time period such as a day or
month or year can be obtained from the load duration curve as follows:
kWh(or MWh) consumed in a given time period
Average demand =
Hours in the time period
Area under the load duration curve
=
Base of the load duration curve

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 3.1
The peak load on a power station is 60 MW. The load having maxi-
mum demand of 30, 20, 15, and 10 MW are connected to the power
plant. The capacity of the power plant is 80 MW and the annual LF is
0.80. Estimate (a) the average load on the power plant, (b) the energy
supplied per year, (c) the DF, (d) the diversity factor, (e) the utiliza-
tion factor, (f) the plant capacity factor, and (g) the reverse factor.

Solution
(a) Average load = LF × Peak or max. load
= 0.8 × 60 = 48 MW
(b) Energy supplied per year or kWh gen = Average load
× No. of hours in year
= 48 × 103 × 8760
= 42,048 × 104 kWh
(c) Simultaneous maximum demand of the group of consum-
ers = (30 + 20 + 15 + 10) = 75 MW.
  Let the connected load be equal to the maximum demand of
the group consumers, then
Max. demand 60
DF = = = 0. 8
Connected load 75

Sum of individual consumers max.
demand
(d) Diversity factor =
Simultaneous max. demand
of the group of consumers
75
= = 1.25
60
44   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Max. demand of plant 60

(e) Utilization factor = = = 0. 7
Rated capacity of the plant 80
Average load
(f) Plant capacity factor =
Rating or capacity of the plant
48
= = 0. 6
80
LF 1
(g) Reverse factor = =
Capacity factor Utilization factor
1
= = 1.3333
0.75

EXAMPLE 3.2
A 150 MW power station delivers 150 MW for 2 h, 75 MW for 8 h,
and is shut down for the rest of each day. It is also shut down for
maintenance for 50 days each year. Calculate its annual LF.

Solution

Energy supplied for each working day = (150 × 2) + (75 × 8)

= 900 MWh
Station operates for = 365 − 50 = 315 days in a year
Energy supplied/year = 9000 × 315 = 283,500 MWh

MWh supplied per annum
Annual LF = × 1000
Max. demand in MW × Working hours
283, 500
= × 100 = 25%
150 × (315 × 24)

EXAMPLE 3.3
A power station has a maximum demand of 20,000 kW. The annual
LF is 40%, and plant capacity factor is 35%. Determine the reserve
capacity of the plant.

Solution

Energy generated/annum = Max. demand × LF × Hours in a year

= (20,000) × (0.4) × (8760) kWh
= 70.08 × 106 kWh
 Load Characteristics    ◾    45

Units generated/annum
Plant capacity factor =
Plant capacity × Hours in a year

70.08 × 106
∴ Plant capacity =
0.35 × 8760
= 22,857.14 kW

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity − Max. demand

= 22,857.14 − 20,000 = 2857.14 kW

EXAMPLE 3.4
A power plant has maximum demand of 80 MW, an LF of 0.7, plant
capacity factor of 0.5, and plant use factor of 0.9. Find (a) the daily
energy produced, (b) the reverse capacity of the plant, and (c) the
maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant operating
schedule is fully loaded when in operation.

Solution
Average load = LF × Peak or max. load

= 0.7 × 80 = 56 MW

(a) Daily energy produced = Average load × No. of hours in a day

= 56 × 103 × 24 = 1344 × 103 kWh
Average load
(b) Plant capacity factor =
Capacity of the plant
56
0. 5 =
Capacity of the plant
Therefore,

56
Capacity of the plant = = 112
0. 5

Reverse capacity = Plant capacity − Max. demand

= 112 − 80 = 32 MW
46   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Actual kWh produced

(c) Plant use factor =
Plant capacity (kW) ×
Actual number of plant operation
1344 × 103
0. 9 =
Max. energy that could be produced
Therefore,
1344 × 103
Max. energy that could be produced =
0. 9
= 1,493,333.33 kWh

EXAMPLE 3.5
Estimate the generation cost per unit of electric energy production
from a power plant having the following data:

Output per year = 5 × 108 kWh

Annual fixed charges = Rs. 100/kW of installed capacity
Annual running charges = Rs. 0.35/kWh
Annual load factor = 60%

Solution
Output per charge = No. of units generated
= Average load × 8760
= 5 ×108 kWh

5 × 108
Average load = = 57,077.62 kW
8760

Average load 57,077.62

Max. load = =
LF 0. 6
= 95,129.37 kW

Let the installed capacity of the plant be equal to peak load, then

Running cost per year = Annual running charges per kWh

× Unit number of units

= 0.35 × 5 × 108 = Rs. 175 × 106
 Load Characteristics    ◾    47

Fixed cost = Annual fixed charges per kW × Installed capacity in kW

= 1000 × 95,129.37 = Rs.9,512,937.6

Total annual cost = Fixed cost + Running cost

= 9,512,937.6 + 175 × 106 = 1.845 × 108

EXERCISES

1. Why is the load on a power station variable? What are the effects of
variable load on the operation of the power station?
2. What do you understand by the load curve? What information are
conveyed by a load curve?
3. Define and explain the importance of the following terms in
generation:
a. Connected load
b. Maximum demand
c. Demand factor
d. Average load
4. Explain the terms load factor and diversity factor. How do these fac-
tors influence the cost of generation?
5. Explain how load curves help in the selection of size and number of
generating units.
6. Discuss the important points to be taken into consideration while
selecting the size and number of units.
7. What do you understand about
a. Base load
b. Peak load of a power station
8. Write short notes on the following:
a. Load curves
b. Load division on hydro-steam system
c. Load factor
d. Plant capacity factor
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 4

Tariffs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The electrical energy that is produced in a power station is delivered to
a large number of consumers. The consumers can be convinced to use
electrical energy if it is sold at a reasonable price. Here comes the idea of
tariffs. A tariff is the schedule of rates structured by the supplier for sup-
plying electrical energy to various types of consumers. The rate at which
electric energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff. The following
elements are engaged into account to determine the tariff:

• Types of load (domestic, commercial, industrial)

• Maximum demand
• Time at which load is required
• Power factor of the load
• Amount of energy used

The way in which consumers pay for electrical energy changes accord-
ing to their demands. Industrial consumers consume more energy for rel-
atively longer period than domestic consumers. Tariffs should be framed
in such a way so that it covers the cost of production, cost of supply, and
yet yields some reasonable profit.
The price of energy supplied by a generating station depends on the
established capacity of the plant and kWh generated. Maximum demand
increases the installed capacity of the generating station.

49
50   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The instant at which maximum demand occurs is too important in

plant economics. If the maximum demand of the consumer and the maxi-
mum demand on the system take place simultaneously, additional plant
capacity is needed. However, if the maximum demand of the consumer
occurs during off-peak hours, then we just need to improve the load fac-
tor and no extra plant capacity is needed. Thus, the overall cost per kWh
generated is reduced.
Power factor is likewise an important factor from the point of view
of plant economics. At a low-power factor, the load current is very high.
Therefore, the current to be supplied from the generating station is also
large. This high current is also responsible for large I2R losses in the sys-
tem and larger voltage drops. Therefore, the regulation becomes poor; in
order to supply the consumer’s voltage within permissible limits, power
factor correction equipment is to be set up. Therefore, the cost of genera-
tion increases.
The cost of electrical energy is reduced by using a large amount of
energy for a longer period.

4.2  OBJECTIVES OF A TARIFF

1. Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
2. Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and dis-
tribution systems.
3. Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical
energy. For example, metering equipment, billing, etc.
4. A suitable profit on the capital investment.

4.3  DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TARIFF

Proper return. The tariff should be structured in such a way that it
1.
guarantees proper return from each consumer. The total receipts
from the consumers must be equal to the cost of producing and sup-
plying electrical energy plus reasonable profit.
Fairness. The tariff must be fair so that each and every consumer is
2.
satisfied with the cost of electrical energy. Thus, a consumer who
consumes more electrical energy should be charged at a lower rate
than a consumer who consumes little energy. It is because increased
energy consumption spreads the fixed charge over a greater number
 Tariffs    ◾    51

of units. Hence reducing the overall production cost of electrical

energy.
Simplicity. The tariff should be simple and consumer friendly so that
3.
an ordinary consumer can easily understand.
Reasonable profit. The profit element in the tariff should be reason-
4.
able. An electric supply company is a public utility company and
generally enjoys the benefits of monopoly.
Attractive. The tariff should be attractive so that it can attract a large
5.
number of consumers to use electricity.

4.4  TYPES OF TARIFF

4.4.1  Flat-Demand Tariff
This is one of the primitive forms of tariffs used for charging the consumer
for consuming electrical energy. In this case, the total demand and the
energy consumption are fixed. If x is the number of load connected in kW
and a is the rate per lamp or per kW of connected load, then

Energy charges = Rs. ax

4.4.2  Simple Tariff

If there is a fixed rate available for per unit of energy consumed, then it is
called a simple tariff or uniform rate tariff.
The rate can be delivered as

Annual fixed cost + Annual operating cost

Cost/kWh = Rs.
Total number of units supplied to the
consumer per annum

Disadvantages

• We cannot differentiate various types of consumers (domestic,

industrial, bulk) having different load factor, diversity, and power
factor.
52   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

• The cost per kWh delivered is higher.

• It does not encourage the use of electricity.

4.4.3  Flat-Rate Tariff

When different types of consumers are charged at different per-unit rates,
it is called a flat-rate tariff. In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped
into various categories, and each type of consumers is charged at a differ-
ent rate. For instance, the flat rate per kWh for lighting load may be 60
paisa, where as it may slightly less (say 55 paisa) for power load.
Advantages

• More fair to different types of consumers.

• Quite simple in calculations.

Disadvantages

• It varies with the consumption of electrical energy, and separate

meters are required for lighting load, power load, etc. This makes the
application of such tariff costly and complex.
• A particular category of consumers are charged at the same rate irre-
spective of the magnitude of energy consumed. However, big con-
sumers should be charged at a relatively lower rate, as in this case the
fixed charges per unit are reduced.

4.4.4  Step-Rate Tariff

The step-rate tariff is a group of flat-rate tariffs of decreasing unit charges
for higher range of consumption. For example,

• Rs. 4.0/unit if the consumption does not exceed 50 kWh.

• Rs. 3.5/unit if the consumption exceed 50 kW but does not exceed
200 kW.
• Rs. 3.0/unit if the consumption exceeds 200 kW.

Disadvantage
• However, by increasing the energy consumption, cost is reduced.
Thus, there is a tendency with the consumer, just approaching the
 Tariffs    ◾    53

limit of the step, to anyhow cross the step and enter the next one in
order to reduce the total energy cost.

This drawback is removed in block-rate tariff explained below.

4.4.5  Block-Rate Tariff

When a specific block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the suc-
ceeding blocks of energy are charged at a progressively reduced rate, it is
called a block-rate tariff.
For example, the first 40 units may be charged at 70 paisa/unit, next
35 units at 55 paisa/unit, and remaining additional units at 30 paisa/unit.
This is used for majority of residential and small commercial consumers.
Advantages

• Consumers get an incentive to consume more electrical energy.

• This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of
generation is reduced.

Disadvantage
• Its principal defect is that it cannot measure the consumer’s demand.

4.4.6  Two-Part Tariff

When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum
demand of the consumers and the units consumed, then it is called two-
part tariff or Hopkinson demand tariff (Table 4.1).
In this case, the total cost that is to be charged from the consumer is
split into two components:

• The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the

consumers.
• The running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by
the consumers.
∴ Total charges = Rs. (b × kW + c × kWh)
where b is the charge per kW of maximum demand and c is the
charge per kWh of energy consumed.
• Applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable maximum
demand.
 54   ◾    Elements of Power Systems
TABLE 4.1  Consumers and Their Tariffs
Additional
Consumers Examples Supply Given Demand Factor Tariff Charges

Domestic Residential load, light, fan, television, 1ϕ: supply up to a load of 5 kW Small consumers 1. Simple Meter rent and
radio, electric irons, domestic 3ϕ: supply for loads exceeding (high unity), big 2. Flat rate electricity duty
pumps, coolers, air conditioners 5 kW consumers (0.5) 3. Block rate
Commercial Shops, business houses, hotels, 1ϕ: supply up to a load of 5 kW Fairly high 1. Simple Meter rent and
cinemas, clubs, etc. 3ϕ: supply for loads exceeding 2. Flat rate electricity duty
5 kW 3. Block rate
Agricultural Tube wells 3ϕ: power up to 20 kW Unity Flat rate
Bulk Railways, educational institutes, 3ϕ: power at 415 V or 11 kV Flat rate
military establishment, hospitals depending on their requirement,
load exceeding 10 kW
Industrial Atta chakkis, small workshop, saw 3ϕ: power supply at 415 V, load Usually high Block tariff
(small) mill, etc. not exceeding 20 kW (0.8)
Industrial 3ϕ: power supply at 415 V, load Two-part tariff
(medium) exceeding 20 kW but not
exceeding 100 kW
Industrial Power supplied at 11 kV or 33 kV, 0.5 KVA maximum
(large) load exceeding 100 kW demand factor
tariff
 Tariffs    ◾    55

Advantages

• Easily understood by the consumers.

• It recovers the fixed charges that depend upon the maximum demand
of the consumer but are independent of the units consumed.

Disadvantages

• The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of whether he

or she has consumed or not consumed the electric energy.
• There is always error in determining the maximum demand of the
consumer.

4.4.7  Maximum-Demand Tariff

It is quite similar to two-part tariff; the only difference is that the maxi-
mum demand is actually measured by installing maximum demand meter
in the premises of the consumer.
Advantage
• This eliminates the disadvantage of two-part tariff, where maximum
demand is determined merely on the basis of the chargeable value.

This tariff is mostly applied to big consumers.

4.4.8  Three-Part Tariff

In three-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split
into three parts, that is,

• Fixed charges
• Semi-fixed charges
• Running charges

∴ Total charges = Rs. (a + b × kW + c × kWh)

where a is the fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes
interest and depreciation on the cost of secondary distribution and labor
56   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

cost of collecting revenues. b is the charge per kW of maximum demand

and c is the charge per kWh of energy consumed.
The principal objection of this tariff is that the charges are split into
three compartments. Generally applied to big consumers.

4.4.9  Power Factor Tariff

The tariff in which power factor of the consumer’s load is taken into con-
sideration is known as power factor tariff.
A low-power factor increases the rating of the station equipment
and line losses. Therefore, a consumer having low-power factor must be
penalized.
The following are the important types of power factor tariff.

4.4.9.1  kVA Maximum-Demand Tariff

It is a modified form of two-part tariff. The fixed charges are formulated on
the basis of maximum demand in kVA, and not in kW. As kVA is inversely
proportional to the power factor, a consumer having a low-power factor
has to contribute more toward the fixed charges.
Advantage
• It encourages the consumers to operate the appliances and machin-
ery at improved power factor.

4.4.9.2  Sliding Scale Tariff

This is known as average power factor tariff. In this case, an average power
factor (say 0.8 lagging) is taken as the reference. If the power factor of the
consumer falls below this factor, suitable additional charges are made. On
the other hand, if the power factor is above the reference, a discount is
allowed to the consumers.

4.4.9.3  kW and kVAR Tariff

In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) supplied
are charged separately. A consumer having low-power factor will draw
more reactive power and hence shall have to pay more charges.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 4.1
The maximum demand of a consumer is 15 A at 230 V and his/her
total energy consumption is 9000 kWh. If the energy is charged at
the rate of Rs. 5 per unit for 600 h use of the maximum demand per
 Tariffs    ◾    57

annum plus Rs. 2 per unit for additional units, calculate (1) annual
bill and (2) equivalent flat rate.

Solution
Assume the load factor and power factor to be unity.

230 × 15 × 1
Maximum demand = = 3.45 kW
1000

1. Units consumed in 600 h = 3.45 × 600 = 2070 kWh

Charges for 2070 kWh = Rs. 5 × 2070 = Rs. 10, 350

Remaining units = 9000 − 2070 = 6930 kWh

Charges for 6930 kWh = Rs. 2 × 6930 = Rs.13,860

∴ Total annual bill = Rs. (13,860 + 10,350) = Rs. 24,210

2. Equivalent flat rate = Rs. 24,210/9000 = Rs. 2.69.

EXAMPLE 4.2
A consumer has a maximum demand of 150 kW at 50% load factor.
If the tariff is Rs. 800 per kW of maximum demand plus Rs. 2 per
kWh, find the overall cost per kWh.

Solution

Units consumed/year = MD × LF × Hours in a year

= (150) × (0.5) × 8760 = 657,000 kWh

Annual charges = Annual MD charges + Annual energy charges

= Rs. (150 × 800 + 2 × 657,000)
= 1,434,000

1,434,000
∴ Overall cost/kWh = Rs . = Rs. 2.18
657, 000

where MD is the maximum demand and LF is the load factor.

58   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

EXAMPLE 4.3
The monthly readings of a consumer’s meter are as follows:

Maximum demand = 75 kW
Energy consumed = 50,000 kWh
Reactive energy = 277,500 kVAR

If the tariff is Rs. 600 per kW of maximum demand plus Rs. 2 per
unit plus Rs. 1 per unit for each 1% of power factor below 90%, cal-
culate the monthly bill of the consumer.

Solution

50,000
Average load = = 69.44 kW
24 × 30

27,500
Average reactive power = = 38.19 kVAR
24 × 30

Suppose ϕ is the power factor angle,

kVAR 38.19
tan φ = = = 0.55
Active power 75

or

φ = tan −1 (0.55) = 28.81°

Therefore, power factor is

cos φ = cos(28.81°) = 0.876

50,000 × 1
Power factor surcharge = Rs. × (90 − 87.6) = Rs. 1200
100

Monthly bill = Rs. (600 × 69.44 + 50,000 × 2 + 1200)

= Rs. 142,864

 Tariffs    ◾    59

EXAMPLE 4.4
The daily load of an industrial concern is as follows: 150 kW for 10 h,
175 kW for 5 h, 60 kW for 6 h, 50 kW for 3 h, the tariff is Rs. 700 per
kW of maximum demand per year plus Rs. 1.20 per kWh. Determine
the energy consumption per year and the yearly bill.

Solution

Energy consumption per day = (150 × 10) + (175 × 5) + (60 × 6) + (50 × 3)

= 28855 kWh

Annual energy consumption = 2885 × 365 = 1,053,025 kWh

Annual cost of energy consumption = 1,053,025 × 1.2 = Rs. 1,263,630

Maximum demand = 175 kW

Annual maximum demand charges = Rs. 175 × 700 = Rs. 122, 500

Total annual charges = Rs. (1, 263, 630 + 122, 500) = Rs. 1, 386,130.

EXAMPLE 4.5
The following tariffs are offered to a consumer:

1. Rs. 600 per year plus Rs. 1/kWh.

2. Rs. 1.5 for the first 100 units per annum and Rs. 1.70 for next
100 units and 1.9 for all the additional units.

Find the energy consumed per month for which the charges due
to both tariffs become equal.

Solution
Let x be the number of units consumed, where x > 200.

Monthly charges due to first tariff c1 = Rs. (600 + 1x ).

60   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Monthly charges due to second tariff c2 = Rs. (1.5 × 100) + (1.7 × 100)
+ (11.9)(x − 200)
= Rs. (1.9 x − 60)

If c1 = c2, then

600 x + 1x = 1.9 x − 60
(1.9 − 1)x = 540
540
x= = 600 kWh
0. 9

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by tariff? Discuss the objectives of tariff.

2. Describe the desirable characteristics of a tariff.
3. Describe some of the important types of tariff commonly used.
4. Write short notes on the following:
a. Two-part tariff
b. Power factor tariff
c. Three-part tariff
 Chapter 5

Mechanical Design
of Overhead Line

5.1 INTRODUCTION
For proper operation of overhead line, protective measures must be consid-
ered in the invention of electrical parameters as well as for the mechanical
portion. The line should have sufficient current-carrying capacity so that the
necessary power transfer can take place without violating allowable voltage
drop criterion or overheating. Line losses should be as low as possible and
spacing between the line conductors and with the earth should be adequate
to cope up with the system voltage. On the other hand, for the mechanical
aspects, the line conductors, supports, and the cross arm should have suf-
ficient mechanical strength to cope with the probable weather problems. The
mechanical design should estimate the “sag” of the conductor at its mid-span
length, as sag is to be allowed to cater the load of the conductor. Adequate dis-
tance between the lowest point of the line and the earth must be maintained.

5.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL
The conductor is one of the important objects, as most of the capital outlay
is invested for it. Therefore, choice of material and size of conductor are
of utmost importance. The conductor material used for transmission and
distribution of electric power should possess the following properties:

1. High electrical conductivity.

2. High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical strength.

61
62   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

3. Low cost so that it can be used for long distance.

4. Low specific gravity so that weight per-unit volume is small.

All above requirements and specifications are not found in a single

material. Therefore, when we select a conductor material, for a particular
case, a compromise is made between the cost and the required electrical
and mechanical properties.

5.2.1 Commonly Used Conductor Materials

The most frequently used conductor materials for overhead lines are cop-
per, aluminum, steel-cored aluminum, galvanized steel, and cadmium
copper. The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost, the
required electrical and mechanical properties, and the local conditions.
All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded, in order
to increase flexibility. In stranded conductors, there is generally one cen-
tral wire, and around this, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18,
24, and more wires. Thus if there are n layers, the total number of individ-
ual wire is 3n(n + 1) + 1. In the manufacture of stranded conductors, the
consecutive layers of wires are twisted or spiraled in opposite directions so
that layers are bound together.

5.2.1.1 Copper
Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines due to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength. It is always used in the hard
drawn form as stranded conductor. Although hard drawing decreases the
electrical conductivity slightly, yet it increases the tensile strength reason-
ably. Copper has high current density, that is, the current carrying capac-
ity of copper per unit of cross-sectional area is quite large. This leads to
two advantages:

1. Smaller cross-sectional area of conductor is required.

2. The area offered by the conductor to wind load is reduced.

Moreover, this metal is quite homogeneous, durable, and has high scrap
value. There is no doubt that copper is an ideal material for transmis-
sion and distribution of electric power. However, due to its high cost and
­nonavailability, it is rarely used for these purpose. Nowadays the trend is
to use aluminum in place of copper.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    63

5.2.1.2 Aluminum
Aluminum is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much
smaller conductivity and tensile strength. The relative comparison of the
two materials is given below:

1. The conductivity of aluminum is 60% that of copper. The smaller

conductivity of aluminum means that for any particular transmis-
sion efficiency, the cross-sectional area of conductor must be larger
in aluminum than in copper. For the same resistance, the diameter
of aluminum conductor is about 1.26 times the diameter of copper
conductor. The increased cross-sectional area of aluminum exposes
a greater surface to wind pressure and, therefore, supporting towers
must be designed for greater transverse strength. This often requires
the use of high towers with consequence of greater sag.
2. The specific gravity of aluminum (2.71 g/cm3) is lower than that of
copper (8.9 g/cm3). Therefore, an aluminum conductor has almost
one half the weight of equivalent copper conductor. For this reason,
the supporting structures for aluminum need not be made as strong
as that of copper conductor.
3. Aluminum conductor being light is liable to greater swings and
hence larger crossarms are required.
4. Due to lower tensile strength and higher coefficient of linear expan-
sion of aluminum, the sag is greater in aluminum conductors.

Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile

strength, weight, etc., aluminum has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is
being widely used as a conductor material. It is particularly profitable to use
aluminum for high current transmission, where the conductor size is large
and its cost forms a major portion of the total cost of complete installation.

5.2.1.3 Steel-Cored Aluminum
Due to low tensile strength, aluminum conductors produce greater sag.
This prohibits their use for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for
long distance transmission. In order to increase the tensile strength, the
aluminum conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanized steel wires.
The composite conductor thus obtained is known as steel-cored alumi-
num and is abbreviated as ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced).
64   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Steel-cored aluminum conductor consists of central core of galvanized

steel wires surrounded by a number of aluminum strands. Usually, diam-
eter of both aluminum and steel wires is the same. The cross-sections of
two metals are generally in the ratio of 1:6 but can be modified to 1:4 in
order to get more tensile strength for the conductor. Figure 5.1a and b
shows steel-cored aluminum conductor having one steel wire surrounded
by six wires of aluminum. The result of this composite conductor is that
steel core takes greater percentage of mechanical strength, while alumi-
num conductors have the following advantages:

1. The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at

the same time keeps the composite conductor light. Therefore, steel-
cored aluminum conductors will produce smaller sag and hence
larger span can be used.
2. Due to smaller sag with steel-cored aluminum conductors, towers of
smaller heights can be used.

5.2.1.4 Galvanized Steel
Steel has very high tensile strength. Therefore, galvanized steel conductors
can be used for extremely long spans or for short-line sections exposed to
abnormally high stresses due to climatic conditions. They are found very
suitable in rural areas where cost is the main consideration. Due to poor

(a)

(b)
Aluminum

Steel

FIGURE 5.1  (a) Conventional ACSR conductor and (b) cross-sectional view of
ACSR conductor.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    65

conductivity and high resistance of steel, such conductors are not suitable
for transmitting large power over a long distance. However, they can be
used to transmit a small power over a small distance where the size of the
desired copper conductor would be too small and thus unsuitable for use
because of poor mechanical strength.
Nowadays, use of galvanized steel wires is limited to telecommunica-
tion lines, stray wires, earth wires, and guard wires.

5.2.1.5 Cadmium Copper
The conductor material now being employed in certain cases is copper
alloyed with cadmium. An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper
increases the tensile strength by 50%, and the conductivity is only reduced
by 15% below that of pure copper. Therefore, cadmium copper conduc-
tor can be useful for exceptionally long spans. However, due to high cost
of cadmium, such conductors will be economical only for lines of small
cross-sections, that is, where the cost of conductor material is compara-
tively small compared with the cost of supports.

5.2.1.6 Phosphor Bronze
When harmful gases such as ammonia are present in atmosphere and the
spans are extremely long, phosphor bronze is most suitable material for
an overhead line conductor. In this conductor, some strands of phosphor
bronze are added to the cadmium copper.

5.3 LINE SUPPORTS
The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types
of poles and towers called line supports. In general, the line supports
should have the following properties:

1. High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors,

wind load, etc.
2. Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
3. Cheaper in cost.
4. Low maintenance cost.
5. Longer life.
6. Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
66   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric

power are of various types including wooden poles, steel poles, reinforced
cement concrete (RCC) poles, and lattice steel towers. The choice of sup-
porting structure for a particular case depends upon the line span, cross-
sectional area, line voltage, cost, and local conditions.

5.3.1 Wooden Poles
These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and are suitable for lines
of moderate cross-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say up to
50 m. Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating proper-
ties, and therefore are widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas
as an economical proposition. The wooden poles generally tend to rotten
below the ground level, causing foundation failure. In order to prevent
this, the portion of the pole below the ground level is impregnated with
preservative compound like creosote oil. Double pole structures of the
“A” or “H” type are often used (Figure 5.2) to obtain a higher transverse
strength than could be economically provided by means of a single pole.

(a) (b)

Insulator

Crossarm

Steel
bracing

Poles

FIGURE 5.2  (a) “A” type wooden poles and (b) “H” type wooden poles.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    67

The main objectives of wooden supports are

• Tendency to rot below the ground level

• Comparatively smaller life (20–25 years)
• Cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
• Less mechanical strength
• Require periodical inspection

5.3.2 Steel Poles
The steel poles are often used as a substitute wooden pole. They posses
greater mechanical strength, longer life, and permit longer span to be
used. Such poles are generally used for distribution purposes in the cities.
These types of supports need to be galvanized or painted in order to pro-
long its life. The steel poles are of three types:

1. Rail poles

2. Tubular poles

3. Rolled steel joints

5.3.3 RCC Poles
The reinforced concrete poles usually called the concrete poles are exten-
sively used for low- and high-voltage distribution lines up to 33 kV. They
have greater mechanical strength, longer life, and permits longer spans
than steel poles. Moreover, they give good outlook, require little mainte-
nance, and have good insulating properties. Figure 5.3 shows RCC poles
for single and double circuit. The holes in the poles facilitate the climbing
of poles and at the same time reduce the weight of line supports.
The main difficulty with the use of these poles is the high cost of trans-
port owing to their heavy weight; therefore, such poles are often manufac-
tured at the site in order to avoid heavy cost of transmission.

5.3.4 Steel Towers
For long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invari-
ably employed which have greater mechanical strength, longer life, and
68   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.3  (a) RCC poles for single circuit and (b) RCC poles for double circuit.

can withstand most severe climate conditions and permit the use of longer
spans. The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured insula-
tion is considerably reduced owing to longer spans. Tower footings are
usually grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimizes the light-
ening troubles as each tower acts as a lightening conductor.
Figure 5.4a and c shows a single circuit 110 kV tower and 500 kV tower,
respectively. However, at a moderate additional cost, double circuit tower

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 5.4  (a) Single circuit 110 kV steel tower, (b) double circuit steel tower,
and (c) single circuit 500 kV steel tower.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    69

can be provided as shown in Figure 5.4b. The double circuit has the
advantage that it ensures continuity of supply. In case, there is break-
down of one circuit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by the
other circuit.

5.4 INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES (1956)

FOR OVERHEAD LINES
Important rules are

• Rule 74—Material and strength

• Rule 75—Joints

• Rule 76—Maximum stress: factor of safety

• Rule 77—Clearance above ground of the lowest conductor

• Rule 85—Maximum interval between supports

• Rule 90—Earthing

• Rule 92—Protection against lightning

5.5 SAG IN OVERHEAD LINES

While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are
under safe tension. If the conductors are stretched too much between sup-
ports in a bid to save conductor material, the stress in the conductor may
reach unsafe value, and in certain cases, the conductor may break due to
excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they
are not fully stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.
The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point
on the conductor is called sag.
Figure 5.5a shows a conductor suspended between two equilevel sup-
ports A and B. The conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to have a
dip. The lowest point on the conductor is O and the sag is S. the following
points may be noted:

1. When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same

level, it takes the shape of catenary. However, if the sag is very small
compared with the span, the sag–span curve is like a parabola.
70   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

(a) (b) T
A B B
S
O
O T0

FIGURE 5.5  (a) A conductor suspended between two equilevel supports and (b)
tension at any point on the conductor.

2. The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus, ten-
sion T0 at the lowest point acts horizontally as shown in Figure 5.5b.
3. The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the
length of the wire.
4. The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal ten-
sion acting at any point on the wire. Thus, if T is the tension at the
support B, then T = T0.

5.5.1 Conductor Sag and Tension

This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of overhead
lines. The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce
the conductor material required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient
clearance above ground level. It is also desirable that tension in the conduc-
tor should be low to avoid the mechanical failure of the conductor and to
permit the use of less strong supports. However, low conductor supports
and minimum sag are not possible. It is because low sag means a tight wire
and high tension, whereas low tension means a loose wire and increased
sag. Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise is made between the two.

5.6 CALCULATION OF SAG
In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the
conductors is within safe limits. The tension is governed by conductor
weight, effect of wind, ice loading, and temperature variations. It is a
standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50% of its ulti-
mate tensile strength, that is, minimum factor of safety in respect of
conductor tension should be 2. We shall now calculate sag tension of a
­conductor when (i) supports are at equal level and (ii) supports are at
unequal level.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    71

5.6.1 When Supports Are at Equal Levels

Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports A and B with O as
the lowest point as shown in Figure 5.6. It can be proved that lowest point
will be at the mid-span.
Let l be the length of span, w, the weight per-unit length of conductor,
and T, the tension in the conductor.
Consider a point on the conductor. Taking the lowest point O as the ori-
gin, let the coordinates of the point P be x and y. Assuming that the cur-
vature is so small that curved length is equal to its horizontal projection
(i.e., OP = x), the forces acting on the portion OP on the conductor are

1. The weight wx of conductor acting at a distance x/2 from O.

2. The tension T acting at O.

Equating the moments of above two forces about point O, we get

x
Ty = wx ×
2

or

wx 2
y=
2T

The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the value of y at either of the

supports A and B. At support A, x = l/2 and y = S. Therefore,

w(1/2)2 wl 2
S= =
2T 8T

A l l B
2 2

P S
x
2 y
T
O wx
x

FIGURE 5.6  External forces on the sag between two equilevel supports.
72   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

5.6.2 When Supports Are at Unequal Levels

In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors suspended between
supports at unequal levels. Figure 5.7 shows a conductor suspended
between two supports A and B that are at different levels. The lowest point
on the conductor is O.
Let I is the span length, h is the difference in levels between two sup-
ports, x1 is the distance of support at lower level (i.e., A) from O, x2 is the
distance of support at higher level (i.e., B) from O, and T is the tension in
the conductor.
If w is the weight per-unit length of the conductor, then

wx12
Sag S1 =
2T

wx22
Sag S2 =
2T

Also

x1 + x2 = 1
(5.1)

Now

w 2 w
S2 − S1 = (x2 − x12 ) = (x + x )(x − x )
2T 2T 2 1 2 1

h
S2
A
S1 O

x1 x2
l

FIGURE 5.7  Two supports at different levels from the ground.

 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    73

wl
∴ S2 − S1 = (x − x ) [∵ x1 + x2 = 1]
2T 2 1

But

S2 − S1 = h

wl
∴h = (x − x )
2T 2 1

or

2Th
x2 − x1 = (5.2)
wl

Solving Equations 5.1 and 5.2, we get

1 Th
x1 = − (5.3)
2 wl

1 Th
x2 = + (5.4)
2 wl

Having found x1 and x2 values of S1 and S2 can be easily calculated.

In Equation 5.3,

1 Th
If > , then x1 is positive
2 wl

1 Th
If > , then x1 is zero
2 wl

1 Th
If < , then x1 is negative
2 wl

If x1 is negative, the lowest point (point O) of the imaginary curve lies

outside the actual span as shown in Figure 5.8.
74   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

d2

O d1
x1

x2

FIGURE 5.8  Case of negative x1.

5.6.3 Effect of Wind and Ice Loading

The above formulas for sag are true only in still air and at normal tempera-
ture when the conductor is acted by its weight only. However, in actual
practice, a conductor may have ice coating and simultaneously subjected
to wind pressure. The weight of ice acts vertically downwards, that is, in
the same direction as the weight of conductor. The force due to the wind is
assumed to act horizontally, that is, at the right angle to the projected sur-
face of the conductor. Hence, the total force on the conductor is the vector
sum of horizontal and vertical forces as shown in Figure 5.9.
Total weight of conductor per-unit length is

w t = (w + wi )2 + w w2

Ice coating
(a)

(c)
ww
θ

t d

(b) (w + wi) wt
Wind

FIGURE 5.9  (a) Ice coating on the conductor, (b) wind pressure on the conduc-
tor, and (c) total force on the conductor.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    75

where w is the weight of conductor per-unit length,

w = Conductor material density × Volume per-unit length

wi is the weight of ice per-unit length,

wi = Density of ice × Volume of ice per-unit length

π
= Density of ice × [(d + 2t )2 − d 2 ] × 1
4
= Density of ice × πt (d + t )

and ww is the wind force per-unit length,

w w = Wind pressure per-unit area × Projected area per-unit length

= Wind pressure × [(d + 2t ) × 1]

5.7 SAG TEMPLATE
For perfect design and maintaining economic balance, location of struc-
tures of profile with a template is very essential. Sag template is a suitable
device, which is often used in designing a transmission line to determine
the location and height of the structures. Sag template can be a reliable
option which provides the following:

1. Economic layout
2. Minimum errors in design and layout
3. Proper grading of structures
4. Controls excessive insulator swing

Generally two types of towers are used:

1. The standard or straight run or intermediate tower

2. The angle or anchor or tension tower

The straight run towers are used for straight runs and normal con-
ditions. The angle towers are designed to withstand heavy loading as
76   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Line conductor

Tower Ground
clearance

e
ing lin
Tower foot

FIGURE 5.10  Sag template for locating towers.

compared to standard towers because angle towers are used at angles, ter-
minals, and other points, where a large unbalanced pull may be thrown
on the supports.
For standard towers, normal or average spans, the sag and the nature
of the curve (catenary or parabola) the line conductor occupies under
expected loading conditions are evaluated and plotted on the template.
Template will also show the required minimum ground clearance by plot-
ting a curve parallel to the conductor shape curve. For the standard tower
and same height, the tower footing line can also be plotted on the tem-
plate. Tower footing line is used for locating the position of towers, and
minimum ground clearance is maintained throughout. Figure 5.10 shows
the sag template used for locating towers.

5.8 STRINGING CHART
For use in the field work of stringing the conductors, temperature–sag and
temperature–tension charts are plotted for the given conductor and load-
ing conditions. Such curves are called stringing charts (Figure 5.11). These
charts are very helpful while stringing overhead lines.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 5.1
A 132-kV transmission line has the following data: weight
of conductor  = 700 kg/km, length of span  = 250 m, ultimate
strength = 2800 kg, and safety factor = 2.
Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should
be supported. Ground clearance required is 15 m.
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    77

Sag

Tension in kg

Sag in meters
Tensi
on

Temperature

FIGURE 5.11  Stringing charts.

Solution
• Weight of conductor/meter run,

700
w= = 0.7 kg
1000

• Working tension,

Ultimate strength 2800

T = = = 1400 kg
Safety factor 2

• Span length, l = 250 m. Therefore,

wl 2 0.7 × 2502
Sag = = = 3.90 m
8T 8 × 1400

∴ Conductor should be supported at a height of 15 + 3.9 = 18.9 m.

EXAMPLE 5.2
A transmission line has a span of 250 m between level supports.
The conductor has an effective diameter of 1.44 cm and weighs
0.900 kg/m. Its ultimate strength is 7520 kg. If the conductor has ice
coating of radial thickness 1.43 cm and is subjected to a wind pres-
sure of 3.8 g/cm2 of projected area, calculate sag for a safety factor of
2. Weight of 1 cm3 of ice is 0.91 g.
78   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Solution
Span length, l = 250 m
Weight of conductor/meter length, w = 0.900 kg
Conductor diameter, d = 1.44 cm
Ice-coating thickness, t = 1.43 cm
Working tension is

7520
T = = 3760 kg
2

Volume of ice per meter length of conductor is

= πt (d + t ) × 100 cm3
= π × 1.43 × (1.44 + 1.43) × 100 = 1289.34 cm3

Weight of ice per meter length of conductor is

wi = 0.91 × 1289.34 = 1173.3 g = 1.173 kg

Wind force/meter length of conductor is

w w = [Pressure] × [(d + 2t ) × 100]

= [3.8] × (1.44 + 2 × 1.43) × 100 g = 1634 g = 1.634 kg

Total weight of conductor per meter length of conductor is

w t = (w + wi )2 + (w w )2
= (0.900 + 1.173)2 + (1.634)2
= 2.639 kg

wt l 2 2.639 × (250)2
∴ Sag = = = 5.48 m
8T 8 × 3760

EXAMPLE 5.3
A transmission line conductor at a river crossing is supported from
two towers at a height of 50 and 80 m above water level. The hori-
zontal distance between the ­towers is 300 m. If the tension in the
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Line    ◾    79

conductor is 2000 kg, find the clearance between the conductor and

water level at a point midway between the towers. Weight of the con-
ductor per meter is 0.844 kg. Assume that the conductor takes the
shape of parabolic curve.

Solution
Difference in level between the two supports: h = 80 − 50 = 30 m
Distance of lowest point of conductor from the support of low
level: x = (L/2) − (Th/wL)

300 2000 × 30
∴x = − = − 86.967 m
2 0.844 × 300

The negative value of the x shows that the support A is on the

same side of O as support B.
Distance of midpoint P from O is

L 300
−x= − (−86.967)
2 2
= 236.967 m

Distance of point B from O is

L − x = 300 + 86.967 = 386.967 m

Height of midpoint P above O is

w × ((L /2) − x )2
Smid =
2T
0.844 × (236.967)2
=
2 × 2000
= 11.848 m

Height of point B from O is

w × (L − x )2
S2 =
2T
0.844 × (386.967)2
=
2 × 2000
= 31.596 m
80   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Hence, midpoint P is (31.596 − 11.848), that is, 19.748 m below

point B or (80 − 19.748), that is, 60.252 m above the water level.

EXERCISES

1. Name the important components of an overhead transmission line.

2. Discuss the various conductor materials used for overhead lines.
What are their relative advantages and disadvantages?
3. Discuss the various types of line supports.
4. What is a sag in overhead lines? Discuss the disadvantages of provid-
ing too small or too large sag on a line.
5. Deduce an approximate expression for sag in overhead lines when
a. Supports are at equal levels
b. Supports are at unequal levels
 Chapter 6

Overhead Line
Insulators

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The overhead line conductors are open and do not have any insulated
coating over them. Those conductors should be supported on the poles
or towers in such a way that current from conductors do not flow to earth
through supports, that is, line conductors must be properly insulated. This
is accomplished by connecting line conductors to a support with the help
of insulators. The insulator provides necessary insulation between line
conductors and supports and thus prevents any leakage current from con-
ductors to ground. Insulators also provide support to the conductor.
In general, the insulator should have the following desirable properties:

• High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load,

wind load, etc.
• High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leak-
age current to earth.
• High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielec-
tric strength is high.
• The insulator material should be nonporous, free from impurities,
otherwise permittivity will be lowered.
• High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

81
82   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

6.2  INSULATOR MATERIALS

The following three materials are widely used in the manufacture of insu-
lator units:

• Porcelain
• Glass
• Synthetic resin

The most commonly used materials for overhead line is porcelain.

Porcelain is a ceramic material. It is produced by firing at high temperature
a mixture of kaolin, feldspar, and quartz. The metal parts within the insu-
lator are made of malleable cast iron with galvanizing. It is mechanically
stronger than glass, gives less trouble from leakage, and is less affected by
temperature change.
Glass is also used as an insulator material instead of porcelain. However,
glass insulators are mainly used for EHV AC and DC systems. The glass is
toughened by heat treatment. Though it is more brittle, its transparency,
cracks, and defects within the insulator material can be detected easily by
visual inspection. The glass insulators, on the other hand, are disadvanta-
geous from the point of view that moisture condensation is more likely on
the insulator surface causing higher leakage of current.
Synthetic insulators are mostly used in various indoor applications.
They contain compounds of silicon, rubber, resin, etc. Synthetic insulators
have high strength and lower weight. However, leakage current is higher
and longevity is low. On the other hand, they are comparatively cheaper
and have applications in bushings mainly.

6.3  TYPES OF INSULATORS

Various types of insulators used for overhead transmission, and distribu-
tion lines are described below.

6.3.1  Pin-Type Insulators

The part section of a pin-type insulator is shown in Figure 6.1. As the name
suggests, the pin-type insulator is secured to the crossarm on  the pole.
There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the con-
ductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by
the annealed wire of the same material as that of the conductor.
 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    83

(a) (b) Grove

Sheds

Cementing

Galvanized
steel pin

FIGURE 6.1  (a) Pin-type insulator and (b) cross-sectional view of pin-type insulator.

Pin-type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of elec-

tric power at voltages up to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, pin-
type insulators become too bulky and hence uneconomical.

6.3.1.1  Causes of Insulator Failure

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical
stresses. The latter type is primarily due to line voltage and may cause
breakdown of the insulator. The electrical breakdown of the insulator can
occur due to flashover or puncture. In flashover, an arc occurs between the
line conductor and the insulator pin (i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps
across the air gaps, following shortest distance. Figure 6.2 shows the arc-
ing distance (i.e., a + b + c) for the insulator. In this case, the insulator will
continue to act in its proper capacity, unless extreme heat produced by the
arc destroys the insulator.
In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through
the body of the insulator. In case of puncture, insulator is permanently
destroyed due to excessive heat. To avoid the puncture, sufficient thickness

Conductor

b
Pin
c

Crossarm

FIGURE 6.2  Arcing distance.

84   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

of porcelain is provided in the insulator. The ratio of puncture strength to

flashover voltage is known as safety factor, that is,

Puncture strength
Safety factor of the insulator =
Flash − Over voltage

It is desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flashover

takes place before the insulator gets punctured. For pin insulators, the
value of safety factor is about 10.

6.3.2  Suspension Type Insulators

As the working voltage increases, the cost of pin-type insulator increases
rapidly. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV.
For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type
insulators shown in Figure 6.3. They consist of a number of porcelain disks
connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor
is suspended at the bottom end of this string, while the other end of the
string is secured to the crossarm of the tower. Each unit or disk is designed
for low voltage (say 11 kV). The number of disk would obviously depend
upon the working voltage. For instance, if the working voltage in 66 kV,
then six disks in series will be provided on the string.
Advantages

1. Cheaper than insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.

2. Each unit or disk is designed for low voltage (say 11 kV). The number
of disk would obviously depend upon the working voltage.

Insulator

Line
conductor

FIGURE 6.3  Suspension type insulators.

 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    85

3. If any disk is damaged, the whole string does not become useless
because the damaged disk can be replaced by the sound one.
4. The arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The con-
nection at the crossarm is such that insulator is free to swing in
any direction and can take up the position, where the mechanical
stresses are minimum.
5. The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers.
As the conductors run below the earthed crossarm of the tower, there-
fore, this arrangement provides partial protection from lightning.
6. In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found
more satisfactory to supply greater demand by raising the line volt-
age, than to provide another set of conductor. The additional insu-
lation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the
suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of disks.

6.3.2.1  Types of Suspension Insulators

The types of suspension insulators in use are

1. Cap-and-pin type
2. Hewlett or interlink type

The first type is more common. A galvanized cast iron or forged-steel

cap and galvanized forged-steel pin are connected to porcelain in the cap-
and-pin type construction. The units are joined together either by ball and
socket or clevis–pin connections. Cap-and-pin type construction is given
in Figure 6.4.
The interlink type unit (Figure 6.5) employs porcelain having two
curved channels with planes at right angles to each other. U-shaped level
covered steel links pass through these channels and serve to connect the

FIGURE 6.4  Cap-and-pin type construction.

86   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

FIGURE 6.5  Interlink type insulator.

units. Interlink type insulator is mechanically stronger than the cap-and-

pin type unit. The metal links continue to support the line if the porcelain
between the links breaks. Thus, the supply is not interrupted. The Hewlett
type of insulator suffers from the disadvantage that the porcelain between
links is highly stressed electrically and, therefore, its puncture strength is
lesser as compared to other types.

6.3.3  Strain Insulators

When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the
line is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive
tension, strain insulators are used. For low-voltage lines (<11 kV), shackle
insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high-voltage trans-
mission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension lines;
strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as shown
in Figure 6.6. The disks of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane.
When the tension in the line is exceeding high, as at long river spans, two
or more strings are used in parallel.

6.3.4  Shackle Insulators

In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But
now a days, they are frequently used for low-voltage distribution lines

Strain
insulator

Guy
insulator Conductor

Pole

FIGURE 6.6  Strain insulator.

 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    87

Bolt

Shackle
insulator

D-strap

FIGURE 6.7  Shackle insulator.

FIGURE 6.8  Stay insulator.

(<11 kV). Such insulators can be used either in horizontal position or in

vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to
the crossarm. Figure 6.7 shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The
conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire.

6.3.5  Stay Insulators

These kind of insulators are of egg shape, also called strain or guy insula-
tors, and are used in guy cables, where it is very important to insulate the
lower portion of the guy cable from the pole for the safety of human beings
and animals on the ground. This type of insulator comprises of a porcelain
piece pierced with two holes at right angles to each other through which two
ends of the guy wires are looped. This compresses the porcelain between
the two loops in and the guy wire remains in the same position even if the
insulator breaks due to any reason. Figure 6.8 shows a stay insulator.

6.4 POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER

SUSPENSION INSULATOR STRING
A string of suspension insulator consists of a number of porcelain disks con-
nected in series through metallic links. Figure 6.9a shows three disks string
of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion of each disk is in between
88   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

two metal links. Therefore, each disk forms a capacitor C known as mutual
capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual capacitance alone, then
charging current would have been the same through all the disks and conse-
quently voltage across each unit would have been same, that is, V/3 as shown
in Figure 6.9b. However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between
metal fitting of each disk and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capaci-
tance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not same through all
the discs of the string shown in Figure 6.9c. Therefore, voltage across each
disk will be different. Obviously, the disk nearest to the line conductor will
have the maximum voltage. Therefore, V3 will be much more than V1 or V2.
The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution
over a string of suspension insulators:

1. The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not

distribute itself uniformly across the individual disks due to the pres-
ence of shunt capacitance.
2. The disk nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As
we move toward the crossarm, the voltage across each disk goes on
decreasing.
3. The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electric stress
and is likely to be punctured.
4. If the voltage impressed across the string were DC, then voltage
across each unit would be the same. It is because insulator capaci-
tances are ineffective for DC.
(a) Tower (b) (c)

V1 C V/3 C V1
C1 I1
I i1
V
V2 C V/3 C V2
C1 I2
I
i2 I
Conductor 3
V3 C V/3 C1 C V3
I i3
Conductor

FIGURE 6.9  (a) Three discs string of suspension insulators; (b) voltage distribu-
tion shown in the presence of mutual capacitances; (c) voltage distribution shown
in the presence of both mutual and shunt capacitances.
 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    89

6.5  STRING EFFICIENCY

As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension insu-
lators is not uniformly distribute across various units or disks. The disk
nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the other disks.
The unequal potential distribution is undesirable and usually expressed in
terms of string efficiency.
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of the num-
ber of disks and the voltage across the disk nearest to the conductor is
known as string efficiency.

Voltage across the string

String efficiency =
n × Voltage across the disk nearest to the conductor

where n is the number of disks in the string.

String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the
potential distribution along the string. Greater the string efficiency, the
more uniform is the voltage distribution. Thus, 100% string efficiency is
an ideal case for which the voltage across the disk will be exactly the same.
Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts
should be made to improve it as close to this value as possible.

6.6  MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION

Figure 6.10 shows the equivalent circuit for a three-disk string. Let us
suppose that self-capacitance of each disk is C. Let us further assume

C V1
C1 i I1
1
A
V
C V2
C1 i I2
2
B

C V3
C1 i I3
3
C

FIGURE 6.10  Equivalent circuit for a three-disk string.

90   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

that shunt capacitance C1 is some fraction K of self-capacitance, that is,

C1 = KC. Starting from the crossarm or tower, the voltage across each unit
is V1, V2, and V3 as shown.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get

I 2 = I1 + i1

or

V2ωC = V1ωC + V1ωC1

or

V2ωC = V1ωC + V1ωKC

or

V2 = V1 (1 + K ) (6.1)

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node B, we get

I 3 = I 2 + i2

or

V3ωC = V2ωC + (V1 + V2 )ωC1

or

V3ωC = V2ωC + (V1 + V2 )ωKC

or

V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2 )K
= KV1 + (1 + K )V2
= KV1 + V1 (1 + K )2 [∵ V2 = V1 (1 + K )]
= V1[K + (1 + K )2 ]
 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    91

∴ V3 = V1[1 + 3K + K 2 ] (6.2)

Voltage between conductor and earth (i.e., tower) is

V = V1 + V2 + V3
= V1 + V1 (1 + K ) + V1[1 + 3K + K 2 ]
= V1 + (3 + 4 K + K 2 )

∴ V = V1 (1 + K )(3 + K ) (6.3)

From Equations 6.1 through 6.3, we get

V1 V2 V3 V
= = =
1 1 + K [1 + 3K + K 2 ] (1 + K )(3 + K )

Therefore, voltage across the top unit is

V
V1 =
(1 + K )(3 + K )

Voltage across the second unit from top is

V2 = V1 (1 + K )

Voltage across the third unit from top is

V3 = V1[1 + 3K + K 2 ]

Voltage across the string

% Age string efficiency = × 100
n × Voltage across the disk nearest to
the conductor
V
= × 100
3 × V3

The following points may be noted from the above mathematical

analysis:

1. Disk nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. The
voltage across other disk decreasing progressively as the crossarm in
approached.
92   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2. The greater value of K (=C1/C), the more nonuniform is the potential

across the disks and lesser is the string efficiency.
3. The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of
number of disks in the string. Therefore, shorter string has more effi-
ciency than the larger one.

6.7  METHODS OF IMPROVING STRING EFFICIENCY

For satisfactory performance, it is essential that the voltage distribution
across the units of the string should be uniform. Different methods have
been attempted to get uniform distribution of voltage along the insula-
tors in order to exploit its insulation strength fully. The following methods
may be utilized to achieve the uniformity.

6.7.1  Use of a Longer Crossarm

The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K, that is, ratio
of shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance. The leaser the value of K, the
greater is the string efficiency and more uniform is the voltage distribu-
tion. The value of K can be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance. In
order to reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor from tower
must be increased, that is, a longer crossarm should be used. However, lim-
itation of cost and strength of tower do not allow the use of very long cros-
sarms. In practice, K = 0.1 is the limit that can be achieved by this method
(Figure 6.11).

Tower

Crossarm

Shunt
capacitor

Line

FIGURE 6.11  Insulator string with longer crossarm.

 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    93

6.7.2  Grading of Units

It is seen that nonuniform distribution of voltage across an insulator
string is due to leakage current from the insulator pin to the supporting
structure. This current cannot be eliminated. However, it is possible that
disks of different capacities are used such that the product of their capaci-
tive reactance and the current flowing through the respective unit is same.
This can be achieved by grading the mutual capacitance of the insulator
units, that is, by having lower units of more capacitance—maximum at
the line unit and minimum at the top unit, nearest to the crossarm—it can
be shown that by this method complete equality of voltage across the units
of an insulator string can be obtained but this method needs a large num-
ber of different-sized insulator units. This involves maintaining spares of
all varieties of insulator disks which is contrary to the tendency of stan-
dardization. So this method is not used in practice below 200 kV.

6.7.3  Use of Guard Ring

The potential across each unit in a string can be equalized by using a
guard ring, which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor
and surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in Figure 6.12. The guard
ring introduces capacitance between the metal fittings and the line con-
ductor. The guard ring is connected in such a way that shunt capacitance
current i1, i2, etc., are equal to metal fitting line capacitance current i1′ , i2′ ,
etc., resulting in the flow of same charging current I through each unit of
string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across
the units.

C
C1 i i'1
1
C2
I
C
C1 i
2 i'2
C3
I
C

Guard
ring

FIGURE 6.12  Insulator string with guard ring.

94   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

6.8  EFFECTS OF RAIN ON STRING EFFICIENCY

In the rainy season, insulators are naturally wet. Due to this, capacitive
reactance decreases and mutual capacitance value increases. Thus, the
ratio of shunt to mutual capacitance, that is, K decreases. This results in
uniform voltage distribution. Hence, in rainy season, string efficiency is
higher.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 6.1
The three bus-bar conductors in an outdoor substation are sup-
ported by units of post-type insulators. Each unit consists of a stack
of three pin-type insulators fixed one on the top of the other. The
voltage across the lowest insulator is 11.3 kV and that across the next
unit is 10.2 kV. Find the bus-bar voltage of the station.

Solution
The equivalent circuit of insulators is the same as shown in Figure
6.13. It is given that V3 = 11.3 kV and V2 = 10.2 kV. Let K be the ratio
of shunt capacitance to self-capacitance of each unit.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to junctions A and B, we can
easily derive the following equations.

V2 = V1 (1 + K )

C V1
C1 i I1
1
A
V
C V2
C1 i I2
2
B

C V3
C1 i I3
3
C

FIGURE 6.13  Equivalent circuit of string insulators.

 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    95

or

V2
V1 = (6.4)
(1 + K )

and

V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2 ) K (6.5)

Putting the value of V1 = V2/(1 + K) in Equation 6.5, we get

 V2 
V3 = V2 +  + V2  K
 (1 + K ) 

or

V3 (1 + K ) = V2 (1 + K ) + [V2 + V2 (1 + K )] K

or

V3 (1 + K ) = V2[(1 + K ) + K + (K + K 2 )]
= V2[1 + 3K + K 2 ]

Therefore,

11.3 (1 + K ) = 10.2 [1 + 3K + K 2 ]

or

11.3 + 11.3K = 10.2 + 30.6K + 10.2K 2

or

10.2K 2 + (30.6 − 11.3)K + (10.2 − 11.3) = 0

or

10.2K 2 + 19.3K − 1.1 = 0

96   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

or

−19.3 ± (19.3)2 + (4 × 10.2 × 1.1) −19.3 ± 20.42

K = or
2 × 10.2 2 × 10.2
= 0.05

Therefore,

V2 10.2
V1 = = = 9.71
(1 + K ) 1 + 0.05

Voltage between line and earth = V1 + V2 + V3 = 9.71 + 10.2 + 

11.3 = 31.21 kV. Therefore, voltage between bus bars (i.e., line volt-
age) = 31.21 × 3 = 54.06 kV.

EXAMPLE 6.2
An insulator string consists of three units, each having a safe work-
ing voltage of 13 kV. The ratio of self-capacitance to shunt capaci-
tance of each unit is 10:1. Find the maximum safe working voltage of
the string. Also find the string efficiency.

Solution
The equivalent circuit of string insulators is the same as shown in
Figure 6.13. The maximum voltage will appear across the lowest unit
in the string.

1
V3 = 13 kV, K = = 0. 1
10

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to junction A, we get

V2 = V1 (1 + K )

or

V2 V2
V1 = = = 0.909 V2 (6.6)
(1 + K ) 1 + 0.1

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to junction B, we get

V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2 )K = V2 + (0.909 V2 + V2 ) × 0.1

 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    97

or

V3 = 1.190 V2 (6.7)

Therefore, voltage across middle unit is

V3 13
V2 = = = 10.916 kV
1.190 1.190

Voltage across top unit is V1 =  0.909 and V2 = 0.909 × 10.916 = 9.92 kV.

Voltage across the string is V1 + V2 + V3 = 9.92 + 10.916 + 13 = 33.84 kV.

33.84
String efficiency = × 100% = 86.76%
3 × 13

EXAMPLE 6.3
In a transmission line, each conductor is at 30 kV and is supported by
a string of three suspension insulators. The air capacitance between
each cap–pin junction and tower is one-eighth of the capacitance of
each insulator unit. A guard ring, effective only over the line-end
insulator unit is fitted so that the voltages on the two units nearest
the line-end are equal. (a) Calculate the voltage on the line-end unit.
(b) Calculate the value of capacitance Cx required (Figure 6.14).

Solution
Voltage between unit conductor and earth V = 30 kV.

C
I1 V1
i1 C/8
A
C V2
Cx Ix I2 i2 C/8
V
B
C

I3 V3

FIGURE 6.14  Equivalent circuit of string insulators with guard ring.

98   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Mutual capacitance = C
Shunt capacitance = C/8 = 0.125C
Applying Kirchhoff’s first law to node A:

I 2 = I1 + i1

ωCV2 = ωCV1 + ω × 0.125CV1

or

V2 = 1.125V1

also

V3 = V2

and

V = V1 + V2 + V3

or

30 = V1 + V2 + V3

or

30 = V1 + 1.125V1 + 1.125V1

or
30
V1 = = 9.23 kV
1 + 1.125 + 1.125

or
V3 = 1.125 × V1 = 10.38 kV

a. Voltage on the line-end unit ≥ V3 = 10.38 kV
b. Applying Kirchhoff’s first law to node B, we have:

I 3 + ix = I 2 + i2

or
C
ωCV3 + ωCxV3 = ωCV2 + ω (V + V2 )
8 1
 Overhead Line Insulators    ◾    99

or

C
C × 1.125V1 + Cx × 1.125V1 = C × 1.125V1 + 2.125
8

or

2.125
Cx = C = 0.3148C farads
6 × 1.125

EXAMPLE 6.4
In a string of three identical suspension insulator units supporting
a transmission line conductor, if the self-capacitance of each unit is
denoted as C farads, the capacitance of each connector pin to ground
can be taken as 0.20 farads. Determine the voltage distribution across
the string if the maximum possible voltage par unit is given as 30 kV.
Also determine the string efficiency.

Solution
Number of units, n = 3. Ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual capaci-
tance is

0.2C
K = = 0. 2
C

Voltage across the bottom most unit, V3 = safe working volt-

age = 30 kV. Hence, voltage across top most unit is

V3 30
V1 = = = 18.29 kV
1 + 3K + K 2 1 + 0 . 6 + 0.04

Voltage across middle unit is

V2 = V1 (1 + K ) = 18.29 × 1.2 = 21.95 kV

Maximum safe working voltage of the string is

V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 18.29 + 21.95 + 30 = 70.24 kV

V 70.25
String efficiency = = × 100 = 78.04%
nVn 3 × 30
100   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

EXERCISES

1. Why are insulators used with overhead lines? Discuss the desirable
properties of insulators.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of (i) pin-type insulators
and (ii) suspension-type insulators.
3. Explain how the electrical breakdown can occur in an insulator.
4. What is a strain insulator and where is it used? Give a sketch to show
its location.
5. Give reasons for unequal potential distribution over a string of sus-
pension insulators.
6. Define and explain string efficiency. Can its value be equal to 100%?
7. Show that in a string of suspension insulators, the disk nearest to the
conductor has the highest voltage across it.
8. Explain various methods of improving string efficiency.
9. Explain why the voltage across the insulators of a simple insulator
string are not equal?
 Chapter 7

Corona

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of high-voltage supply has become necessary in order to fulfill the
rapidly increasing demand of power. With extra high-voltage ­transmission
lines of more than 230 kV coming into prominence, the corona character-
istics of conductors have gained great importance. Below this size of the
conductor is mainly determined by corona loss and radio noise. A series of
experiments carried out in many countries reveal that it is now possible to
predict the extent of corona performance of a line under different operat-
ing conditions with a fair degree of accuracy.

7.2 THE PHENOMENON OF CORONA

When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors
whose spacing is large as compared to their diameters, there is no appar-
ent charge in the condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the
applied voltage is low. However, when applied voltage exceeds a certain
value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by
a faint violet or yellowish-blue glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, produc-
tion of ozone, power loss, and radio interference. The higher the voltage is
raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes, and greater
are the sound, the power loss, and the radio noise. If the applied voltage
increased to breakdown value, a flashover will occur between the con-
ductors due to the breakdown of air insulation. Corona occurs when the

101
102   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

electrostatic stress in the air around the conductor exceeds 30 kV max/cm
or 21.21 kV rms/cm.
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise, and production of ozone
gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uni-
form throughout the length of the conductor; otherwise, the rough points
will appear brighter. With DC voltage, there is difference in the appear-
ance of the two wires. The positive wire has uniform glow around it, while
the negative conductor has spotty glow.

7.3 THEORY OF CORONA FORMATION

The electrons and ions are always present to a small extent in the
­atmospheric air due to cosmic rays, ultra violet radiations, and radioac-
tivity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the conductors
­contains some ionized particles and neutral molecules. When potential
difference is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set
up in the air which will have maximum value at the conductor surfaces.
Under influence of potential gradient, the existing free electrons acquire
greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential
gradient, and more is the velocity of free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about
30 kV/cm (maximum value), the velocity acquired by the electrons is
­sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough force to dislodge one
or more electrons from it. This produces another ion and one or more free
electrons, which in turn are accelerated until they collide with other neu-
tral molecules, thus, producing other ions. The other process of ionization
is cumulative. The result of this ionization is that either corona is formed
or spark takes place between the conductors.

7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA

The phenomenon of corona is affected by the factors given below:

Conductor. It has been observed that the corona very much depends
1.
upon the shape and condition of conductor. A rough and irregu-
lar surfaced conductor gives more corona, that is, near rough and
dirty surface, corona glow is intensified because unevenness of the
surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage. For example,
stranded conductor gives more corona than a single solid conduc-
tor (without strand).
 Corona    ◾    103

The corona depends upon the following:

a. Size (diameter)
b. Shape (solid/stranded)
c. Surface condition (clean/dirty)

Corona decreases with increase in diameter of conductor.

Spacing between conductors. With increase in distance between the

2.
conductors, the corona effect is reduced considerably. It is because
larger distances between the conductors reduce the electrostatic
stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. A low-voltage
3.
corona is not observed. At higher voltage or at very high electrostatic
stress, air gets ionized, which gives rise to corona effect and it is the
cause of occurrence of corona.
Atmosphere. Corona is caused by the ionization of air surrounds the
4.
conductor. A stormy and foggy weather has more ions and therefore
gives rise to more corona as compared to fair, dry, and clean weather.

7.5 ADVANTAGES OF CORONA
1. Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor become
conducting and hence virtual diameter of the conductor is increased.
The increased diameter reduces the electromagnetic stresses between
the conductors.
2. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

7.6 DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA
1. Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmis-
sion efficiency of the line.
2. Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the con-
ductor due to chemical action.
3. The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal, and
hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause
inductive interference with neighboring communication line.
104   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

7.7 METHODS OF REDUCING CORONA EFFECT

By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the volt-
1.
age at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects are
considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR conduc-
tors that have larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission
line.
By increasing conductor spacing. Between conductors, the voltage at
2.
which corona occurs is raised, and hence corona effects can be elimi-
nated. However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise
the cost of supporting structure (e.g., bigger crossarms and supports)
may increase to a considerable extent.

7.8 CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE

It is the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
Consider two conductors (Figure 7.1) of radius r (cm) and spaced d (cm)
apart. If V is the phase-neutral potential, then the potential gradient at the
conductor surface is given by

V
g= V/cm
r log e (d /r )

In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the
breakdown strength of air. The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pres-
sures and temperature of 25°C is 30 kV/cm (max) or 21.21 kV/cm (rms)
and is denoted by g0. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under
these conditions, then

Phase wire
r cm
L

d cm V rms

Neutral wire

FIGURE 7.1  One-phase two-wire line.

 Corona    ◾    105

Vc
g0 =
r log e (d / r )

g 0 = Breakdown strength of air at 76 cm of mercury and 25°C

= 30 kV/cm (max ) or 21.21 kV/cm (rms)

Therefore, critical disruptive voltage is

d
Vc = g 0r log e
r

The above expression for disruptive voltage is under standard condi-

tion, that is, at 76 cm of Hg and 25°C. However, if these conditions vary,
the air density also changes, thus altering the value of g0. The value g0 is
directly proportional to air density. Thus, the breakdown strength of air at
a barometric pressure of b cm of mercury and temperature of t°C becomes
δg0, where

3.92b
δ = Air density factor =
273 + t

Under standard conditions, the value of δ = 1, and critical disruptive

voltage is

d
Vc = g 0δr log e
r

Correction must also be made for the surface conditions of the

­conductor. This is accounted for by multiplying the above expression by
irregularity factor m0. Then, the critical disruptive voltage is

d
Vc = m0 g 0δr log e kV/phase
r

where m0 is 1 for polished conductors, 0.98 to 0.92 for dirty conductors,

0.87 to 0.8 for stranded conductors, and 0.90 (approximately) for large
cable more than seven strands.
106   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

7.9 VISUAL CRITICAL VOLTAGE

It is the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona glow appears
all along the line conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow
does not begin at the disruptive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage Vv, called
visual critical voltage.
When the voltage applied is made equal to the critical disruptive volt-
age, corona phenomenon occurs, but it remains invisible because the
charged ions in the air must gain some finite energy for the occurrence of
further ionization by collisions. For a radial field, it must reach a gradient
gv at the surface of the conductor to cause a gradient g0 a finite distance
away from the surface of the conductor. The distance between gv and g0
is called the energy distance. According to Peek, this distance is equal to
(r + 0.301 r ) for two parallel conductors and (r + 0.308 r ) for coaxial
conductors. From this, it is clear that gv is not constant but g0 is, and is a
function of the size of the conductor. For two wires in parallel,

 0. 3 
g v = g 0δ  1 +  kV/cm
 rδ 

Also, if Vv is the critical visual disruptive voltage, then

d
Vv = g v r ln
r

or

Vv  0.3 
gv = = g 0δ  1 + 
r log e (d / r )  rδ 

or

 0. 3  d
Vv = rg 0δ  1 +  log e kV
 rδ  r

In case the irregularity factor is taken into account,

 Corona    ◾    107

 0 .3  d
Vv = g 0mv δr 1 +  log e r
 rδ 
 0.3  d
= 21.21 mv δr 1 +  log e r kVrms
 rδ 

The irregularity factor value mv is 1 for polished wires, 0.98 to 0.93 for
rough conductor exposed to atmospheric severities, and 0.72 for local
corona on stranded conductors.

7.10 POWER LOSS DUE TO CORONA

Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss which is
­dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound, and chemical action. When
disruptive voltage is exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by

 f + 25  r
P = 242.2   (V − Vc )2 × 10−5 kW/km/phase
 δ  d

where f is the supply frequency in Hertz, V is the phase to neutral voltage

(rms), and Vc is the disruptive voltage (rms) per phase.

7.11 RADIO INTERFERENCE
Radio interference is one of the adverse effects caused by corona on wire-
less broadcasting. The corona discharges radiation which may introduce
noise signal in the communication lines, radio, and television receivers.
It is primarily because of the brush discharges on the surface irregulari-
ties of the conductor during positive half cycles. This causes corona to
occur at voltages below the critical voltages. The negative discharges are
less troublesome for radio reception. Radio interference is considered as a
field measured in microvolts per meter at any distance from the transmis-
sion line and is significant only at voltages greater than 200 kV. There is
gradual increase in radio interference (RI) level until the voltage reaches a
value which causes corona to take place. Above this voltage, there is rapid
increase in RI level. The rate of increase is more for smooth and large diam-
eter conductors. The amplitude of RI level varies inversely as the frequency
at which the interference is measured. Thus, the services in the higher fre-
quency band, for example, television, frequency-modulated broadcasting,
microwave relay, radar, etc., are less affected. Radio interference is one of
the very important factors while designing a transmission line.
108   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

7.12 INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE BETWEEN

POWER AND COMMUNICATION LINES
It is general practice to run communication lines along the same route
as the power lines, since the user of electrical energy is also the user of
electrical communication system. The transmission lines transmit bulk
power at relatively higher voltages. These lines give rise to electromagnetic
and electrostatic fields of sufficient magnitude which induce currents, and
voltages in the neighboring communication lines. The effects of extrane-
ous currents and voltages on communication systems include interference
with communication service, for example, superposition of extraneous
currents on the true speech currents in the communication wires, haz-
ards to person, and damage to apparatus due to extraneous voltages. In
extreme cases, the effect of these fields may take it impossible to transmit
any message faithfully and may raise the potential of the apparatus above
the ground to such an extent as to render the handling of the telephone
receiver extremely dangerous.

7.12.1 Electromagnetic Effects
Figure 7.2A–C shows the power conductors of a three-phase single
circuit line on a transmission tower, and D and E, the conductors of
a neighboring communication line running on the same transmission
towers as the power conductors or a neighboring separate line. Let the
distances between power conductors and communication conductors be
dAD, dAE , dBD, dBE , dCD, and dCE , and the currents through power conduc-
tors be IA, IB, and IC , such that IA + IB + IC = 0. The flux linkage to con-
ductor D due to current IA in conductor A will be ψAD = 2 × 10 −7IA loge(∞/
dAD). Similarly, the flux linkage to conductor E due to current IA in a
conductor A.

∞
ψ AE = 2 × 10−7 I A log e
dAE

Therefore, mutual flux linkage between conductor D and conductor E

due to current IA will be

dAE
ψ AD − ψ AE = 2 × 10−7 I A log e
dAD
 Corona    ◾    109

B C

D E

D' E'

B' C'

A'

FIGURE 7.2  Three-phase single-circuit power line, communication line, and

their images.

or mutual inductance

ψ AD − ψ AE d
MA = = 2 × 10−7 log e AE H/m
IA dAD

Similarly, the mutual inductances MB and MC between conductor B and

loop de and between conductor C and loop de, respectively, are given as

dBE
M B = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
dBD

dCE
MC = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
dCD

These mutual inductances are due to fluxes that have a phase

­displacement of 120°; therefore, the net effect of the magnetic field will be

M = M A + M B + MC

where M is the net mutual inductance which is the phasor sum of the three
inductances.
If I is the current in the power conductors and f is the supply frequency,
the voltage induced in the communication conductors D and E will be
V = 2πfMI V/m.
110   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

It is to be noted that larger the distance between the power conductors

and the communication conductors, smaller is the value of mutual induc-
tance and since the current through the power conductors is displaced by
120°, there is appreciable amount of cancellation of the power frequency
voltages. But the presence of harmonics and multiple of third harmon-
ics will not cancel, as they are in phase in all the power conductors and,
therefore, are dangerous for the communication circuits. Also, since these
harmonics come within audio frequency range, they are dangerous for the
communication circuits.

7.12.2 Electrostatic Effects
Consider again Figure 7.2. Let Q be the charge per-unit length of the
power line. The voltage of conductor D due to charge on conductor can be
obtained by considering the charge on conductor A and its image on the
ground. Let conductor A be at a height hA from the ground. Therefore, the
voltage of conductor D will approximately be

dAD
Q 1 1 
VAD =
2π0 ∫  x + (2h
hA
 dx
A − x) 

h
Q  2hA − x 
A
Q  2hA − dAD 
=  ln  =  log e 
2π0  x dAD 2π0  dAD 

Now from the geometry, the voltage of conductor A is

Q 2h
VA = ln A
2π0 r

where r is the radius of conductor A.

Substituting for Q in the equation for VAD above, we get

2π0VA 1 2h − dAD
VAD = ln A
log e (2hA /r ) 2π0 dAD
log e[(2hA − dAD )/dAD ]
= VA
log e (2hA/r )
 Corona    ◾    111

Similarly, we can obtain the potential of conductor D due to conduc-

tors B and C, and hence the potential of conductor D due to conductors A
through C will be

VD = VAD + VBD + VCD

Similarly, the potential of conductor E due to conductors A through C

can be obtained.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 7.1
A three-phase transmission line consists of 1 cm radius conduc-
tors spaced symmetrically 3 m apart. Dielectric strength of air is
30 kV/cm. Determine the unit voltage for commencing of corona
(Irregularity factor = 0.9, temperature 20°C, barometric pressure
72.2 cm of mercury).

Solution

d = 3 m = 300 m
r = 1 cm

30
Dielectric strength of air: v0 = kV/cm = 21.21 kV/cm
2

3.92b 3.92 × 72.2

Air density factor δ = = = 0.966
273 + t 273 + 20

d
Line voltage for commencing corona = 3Vc = 3 g 0· m0r log e
r
300
= 3 × 21.21 × 0.966 × 0.96 × 1 × log e = 194.31 kV
1

EXAMPLE 7.2
A three-phase, 220-kV, 50-Hz transmission line consists of 1.15 radius
conductor spaced 3 m apart in equilateral triangular formation, if
112   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

temperature is 20°C and atmospheric pressure is 72.2 cm, calculate

the corona loss per kilometer of the line, take m0 = 0.96.

Solution
The corona loss is given by

242.2 r
P= ( f + 25) (V − Vc )2 × 10−5 kW/km/phase
δ d

Now

3.92b 3.92 × 72.2

δ= = = 0.966
273 + t 273 + 20

Assuming, g0 = 21.21 kV/cm (rms). So, critical disruptive voltage

per phase is

d
Vc = m0 g 0δ r log e kV
r
300
= 0.966 × 21.21 × 0.96 × 1.15 × log e
1.15
= 125.885 kV

Supply voltage for phase = (220/ 3 ) = 127 kV

Substituting the above values, we have corona loss as

242.2 1.15
P= (50 + 25) (127 − 125.8)2 × 10−5
0.966 300
= 0.015 kW/km/phaase

Therefore, total corona loss per kilometer for three

phases = 3 × 0.015 = 0.045 kW.
 Corona    ◾    113

EXERCISES
1. What is corona? What are the factors which affect corona?
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of corona.
3. Explain the following terms with reference to corona:
a. Critical disruptive voltage
b. Visual critical voltage
c. Power loss due to corona
4. Describe the various methods for reducing corona effect in an over-
head transmission line.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 8

Transmission Line
Parameters

8.1 INTRODUCTION
An electric transmission line consists of four parameters, namely resis-
tance, inductance, capacitance, and shunt conductance. Shunt conduc-
tance, which is mostly due to leakage over line insulators, is almost always
neglected in overhead transmission lines. The electrical design and opera-
tion of a line are dependent on these parameters. These four parameters
are uniformly distributed on the whole distance of the cable. The commu-
nication channel parameters are functions of the communication channel
geometry, building material, and operational frequency. The line resis-
tance and inductance form the series impedance. The capacitance and
conductance form the shunt admittance.

8.2  LINE INDUCTANCE

When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing flux
is set up. With the variation of current in the circuit, the number of lines
of flux also changes and an electromotive force (emf) is induced in it. The
magnitude of the self-induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkage, and its direction is such as to oppose the cause, that
is, the change of current which produces it.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

d dφ
| e |= (φN ) = N Volts
dt dt (8.1)
115
116   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

where (ϕN) is the number of flux linkages of the circuit in Weber-turns.

Flux linkages mean the sum of flux lines linking with each turn of the cir-
cuit, so that the number of flux linkage is equal to the product of the flux
and the number of turns of the circuit linked.
The change in the circuit current causes a change in flux linkages
­proportionately provided the permeability of the medium in which the
magnetic field produced is assumed to be constant. The self-induced emf
will, therefore, be proportional to the rate of change of current, that is,

di
|e|= L Volts (8.2)
dt

where L is the constant of proportionality and is known as the self-­

inductance of the circuit.
Equating the two values of induced emf from Equations 8.1 and 8.2,

dφ di dφ
N =L , L=N (8.3)
dt dt di

If the permeability of the magnetic circuit is assumed to be constant,

dφ φ
=
di i

and

φN
L= H (8.4)
i

which shows that the self-inductance of an electric circuit is numerically

equal to the flux linkage of the circuit per unit of current:

φ
L= H (8.5)
i

Because only one current path links the flux.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    117

8.3 FLUX LINKAGE DUE TO A SINGLE

CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radius r meters and car-
rying a current I amperes (rms) as shown in Figure 8.1a. This current will
set up magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force will exist inside the con-
ductor as well as outside the conductor. Both these fluxes will contribute
to the inductance of the conductor.

8.3.1  Flux Linkage Due to Internal Flux

The cross-section of the conductor is shown magnified clarity (Figure
8.1b).
The current inside a line of force of radius x,

I Ix 2
Ix = πx 2 = 2
πr 2
r

The magnetic field intensity at a point x meters from the center is

given by

Current
Hx =
2π × Distance

Ix 2 1 Ix
∴ Hx = × = AT/m
r2 2πx 2πr 2

Flux density, Bx = μoμrHx Wb/m2 and μ(=μoμr) is the permeability of the

medium, and for nonmagnetic material μr = 1.

(a) (b)

Flux
r
I

x
r

dx

FIGURE 8.1  (a) Single current carrying conductor and (b) flux linkage due to
internal flux (cross-sectional view).
118   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

µ o Ix
∴ Bx = µ o H x Wb/m2 = Wb/m2
2πr 2

Now flux dϕ through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx and axial

length 1 m is given by

µ o xI
dφ = B x × 1 × dx = dx Wb
2πr 2

This flux links with current Ix = ((πx2/πr2)I) only.

Therefore, flux linkage per meter length of the conductor is

πx 2 µ Ix 3
dΨ = dφ = o 4 dx Wb
πr 2
2πr

Total flux linkage from center up to the conductor surface is

r
µo x 3 I µ I
Ψint =
∫
0
2πr 4
dx = o Wb/m
8π
4 π × 10−7 × I (8.6)
= Wb/m
8π
1
= I × 10−7 Wb/m
2

8.3.2  Flux Linkage of a Conductor Due to External Flux

Consider two points 1 and 2 at distance d1 and d2 from the center of the
conductor (Figure 8.2). Since the flux paths are concentric circles around

2
d2
r
x
d1
1 dx

FIGURE 8.2  Flux linkages due to external flux.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    119

the conductor, whole of the flux between points 1 and 2 lies within the
­concentric cylindrical surface passing through these points 1 and 2.
The field strength at any distance x from the center of the conductor
(x > r),

I
Hx = AT/m
2πx

Flux density,

µo I
Bx = µ o H x Wb/m2 = Wb/m2
2πx

So, the flux through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx and axial
length 1 m.

µo I
dφ = B x × 1 × dx = dx Wb/m
2πx

Now flux linkages per meter is equal to dϕ, since flux external to con-
ductor links all the current in the conductor only once

µo I
dΨ = dx Wb/m
2πx

Total flux linkage between points 1 and 2 is

d2
µo I 4 π × 10−7
∫
d2
Ψext = dx = I  log e x  Wb/m
2πx 2π d1
d1 (8.7)
d
= 2 × 10−7 I log e 2 Wb/m
d1

8.4  INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE TWO-WIRE LINE

Consider a single-phase line consisting of two parallel conductors A and B
of radii r1 and r2 spaced d meters apart as shown in Figure 8.3. Conductors
A and B carry the same current (i.e., IA = IB) in magnitude but opposite in
120   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

+Q –Q
r1 r2
A B

FIGURE 8.3  Single-phase two-wire line.

directions, as one forms the return path for the other. The inductance of
each conductor is due to internal flux linkages and external flux linkages,
and the following points are to be noted regarding external flux linkages:

1. A line of flux produced due to current in conductor A at a distance

equal to or greater than (d + r2) from the center of conductor A links
with a zero net current, as the current following in the two conduc-
tors A and B are equal in magnitude but opposite in directions.
2. Flux lines at a distance (d − r2) link with a current I and those
between (d + r2) and (d − r2) link with a current varying from I to
zero.

As a simplifying assumption, it can be assumed that all the flux pro-

duced by current in conductor A links all the current up to the center of
conductor B and that the flux beyond the center of conductor B does not
link any current.
The above assumption simplifies the calculations and results obtained
are quite accurate specifically when d is much greater than r1 and r2 as is
usually the case in overhead lines.
Based on the above assumption flux linkages of conductor A due to
external flux can be determine from Equation 8.7 by substituting d2 = d
and d1 = r1. Thus flux linkage of conductor A due to external flux only is

d
ΨA ext = 2 × 10−7 I log e Wb/m
r1

Flux linkage of conductor A due to internal flux only is

1
ΨAint = × I × 10−7 Wb/m
2
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    121

Total flux linkage of conductor is

 d 1 
ΨA = ΨA ext + ΨAint  2 × 10−7 I log e + × I × 10−7  Wb/m
 r1 2 
 d
=  0.5 + 2 × log e  I × 10−7 Wb/m
 r1 

Total inductance of conductor A is

LA =
ΨA
=
( )
0.5 + 2 log e (d / r1 )
× I × 10−7 H/m
I I
 d
= 2 × 10−7  0.25 + log e  H/m
 r1 
 d
= 2 × 10−7  log e e1/ 4 + log e  H/m
 r1 
d
= 2 × 10−7 log e −1/ 4 H/m
r1e

The product (r1e−1/4) is known as geometric mean radius (GMR) of the

conductor and is equal to 0.7788 times the radius of the conductor. Let it
be represented by r1′ , where

r1′ = 0.7788r1
d
∴ LA = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
r1′
Similarly, inductance of conductor B is

d
LB = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
r2′

Loop inductance of the line is

L = LA + LB
 d d
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 
 r1′ r2′ 

If r1′ = r2′ = r ′ , the loop inductance of the line is given as

122   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

d
L = 4 × 10−7 × log e H/m
r′
d
= 0.4 × log e mH/km
r1e −1/ 4

The idea of replacing the original conductor of radii r by a fictitious

conductor of radii r′ is quite attractive because streamlined equation for
inductance can be developed without bogging down in accounting for the
internal flux.

8.5 FLUX LINKAGES OF ONE CONDUCTOR

IN A GROUP OF CONDUCTORS
Consider a group of parallel conductors 1, 2, 3,…, n carrying current
I1, I2, I3,…, In respectively, as illustrated in Figure 8.4. Let it be assumed
that the sum of the current in various conductors is zero, that is,
I1 + I 2 + I 3 +  + I n = 0 .
Theoretically, the flux due to a conductor extends from the center of
the conductor right up to infinity but let us assume that the flux linkages
extend up to a remote point P and the respective distances are as marked
in = 0.
The current in each conductor sets up a certain flux due to its own cur-
rent. The sum of all these fluxes is the total flux of the system, and the total
flux linkages of any one conductor is the sum of its linkages with all the
individual fluxes set up by the conductor of the system.
Now let us determine the flux linkages of conductor 1 due to current
I1 carried by the conductor itself and flux linkages to conductor 1 due to
current carried by other conductors (2, 3,…, n).

d1p
2
d2p
P
d3p
3
dnp

FIGURE 8.4  Arbitrary group of n parallel conductors carrying current.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    123

The flux linkage of conductor 1 due to its own current I1 (internal and
external), up to point P is

d1p
Ψ1p1 = 2 × 10−7 I1 log e Wb/m
r1′

The flux linkage of conductor 1 due to current in conductor 2 is

d2 p
Ψ1p2 = 2 × 10−7 I 2 log e
d12

Flux due to conductor 2 that lies between conductor 2 and conductor

1 does not link conductor 1 and therefore the distances involved are d2p
and d1p.
Thus the expression for flux linkages of conductor 1 due to current in
all conductors can be written as

 d1p d2 p d3 p dnp 
Ψ1p = 2 × 10−7  I1 log e + I 2 log e + I 3 log e +  + In log e
 r1′ d12 d13 d1n 
Wb/m

The above equation may be written as

 1 1 1 1 
Ψ1p = 2 × 10−7  I1 log e + I 2 log e + I 3 ln +  + In log e 
 r1′ d12 d13 d1n 

+ 2 × 10−7 [ I1 log e d1p + I 2 log e d2 p + I 3 log e d3 p +  + In log e dnp ]
(8.8)

To account for the total flux linkage to conductor 1, the point P must be
approach infinity and in this condition

d1p ≈ d2 p ≈ d3 p ≈ ≈ dnp ≈ d(say )

Then,

lim[I1 + I 2 + I 3 +  + In ] log e d = 0, ∵ I1 + I 2 + I 3 +  + In = 0
d →∞
124   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

This simplifies the Equation 8.8 and the equation for the flux linkages
to conductor 1 becomes

 1 1 1 1 
Ψ1 = 2 × 10−7  I1 log e + I 2 log e + I 3 log e +  + In log e  Wb/m
 r1′ d12 d13 d1n 

(8.9)

8.5.1 Inductance of Composite Conductor Lines—Self

and Mutual Geometric Mean Distances
Consider a single-phase line consisting of two parallel conductor A and
B, conductor A consisting of x and conductor B of y strands (Figure 8.5).
Let the conductors A and B carry current I and −I, respectively.
Assuming uniform current density in both the conductors, the current
carried by each strand of conductor A will be I/x while that carried by each
strand of conductor B will be −I/y.
Using Equation 8.9, the flux linkages of strand 1 in conductor A can be
written as

I 1 1 1 1 
Ψ1 = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e + log e +  + In log e
x r1′ d12 d13 d1x 

I 1 1 1 1 
− 2 × 10−7  I1 log e + I 2 log e + I 3 log e +  + In log e
y d11′ d12′ d13′ d1 y 

y
(d11′ d12′ d13′ …d1 y )
Ψ1 = 2 × 10 I log e
−7
Wb/m
x r1′d12 d13d14 …d1x

3 3′
2 2′
4 4′
1 6 6′
5 1′
x y′ 5′

A B

FIGURE 8.5  Single-phase line consisting of two composite conductors.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    125

Inductance of strand 1 of conductor A

Ψ1
y
(d11′ d12′ d13′ …d1 y )
L1 = = 2 × 10−7 x log e (8.10)
I /x x r ′ d d d …d
12 13 14 1x

In above expression, numerator of argument of loge is written yth

root of distances d11′ , d12 , d13′ , …, d1 y multiplied together where distances
d11′ , d12′ , d13′ , …, d1 y are the distances of strands 1′, 2′, 3′, 4′,…, y (all seg-
ments of conductor B) from segment 1 under consideration.
The denominator of argument ln is xth root of distances d12, d13,…, d1x,
and r′ multiplied together where distances d12, d13, …, d1x are the distances
of strands 2, 3, 4,…, n (all strands of conductor A) from strands 1. r′ can
also be represented by distance d11, and the expression for inductance for
conductor A becomes

Ψ1
y
(d11′ d12′ d13′ …d1 y )
L1 = = 2 × 10−7 x log e H/m (8.11)
I /x x d d d d …d
11 12 13 14 1x
Similarly, the expression for inductance for strand 2 can be written as

Ψ2
y
(d21′ d22′ d23′ …d2 y )
L2 = = 2 × 10−7 x log e H/m (8.12)
I /x x d d d d …d
21 22 23 24 2x

Thus, we see that the different strands of a conductor have different

inductances.
Average inductance of strands of conductor A is

L1 + L2 + L3 +  + Lx
Lav =
x

Since x such strands of conductor A are electrically parallel, inductance

of conductor A, therefore, is

Lav L + L + L +  + Lx
LA = = 1 2 32
x x
 (d11′ d12′ d13′ …d1 y )(d21′ d22′ d23′ …d2 y )…(dx1′ , dx 2′ , dx 3′ …dxy ) 
xy
= 2 × 10−7 log e  
 x2 (d11d12 d13 …d1x )(d21d22 d23 …d2 x )…(dx1 dx2 dx3 …dxx ) 

(8.13)
126   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

In the above expression, the numerator of argument of loge is called

geometric mean distance (often called the mutual GMD) between conduc-
tor A and conductor B, and the denominator of argument loge is called
GMR (often called the self GMD). GMD and GMR are denoted by Dm and
Ds, respectively.

Dm
LA = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
DsA

Similarly

Dm
LB = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
DsB

If conductors A and B are identical,

DsA = DsB = Ds (say )

Loop inductance,

Dm D
L = LA + LB = 2 × 10−7 log e + 2 × 10−7 log e m
Ds Ds
(8.14)
D D
= 4 × 10−7 log e m H/m or 0.4 log e m mH/km
Ds Ds

8.6 INDUCTANCE OF A THREE-PHASE OVERHEAD

LINE WITH UNSYMMETRICAL SPACING
Consider a 3-ϕ line with conductors A, B, and C; each of radius r meters
(Figure 8.6). Let the spacing between them be d1, d2, and d3 and current
flowing through them be IA, IB, and IC, respectively.

d1 d3

B d2 C

FIGURE 8.6  Cross-sectional view of a three-phase overhead line with unsym-

metrical spacing.
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    127

The flux linkages of conductor A due to its own current IA and other
conductor current IB and IC.

 1 1 1
ΨA = 2 × 10−7  I A log e + I B log e + I C log e  Wb/m
 r ′ d d 3
1

Similarly

 1 1 1
ΨB = 2 × 10−7  I B log e + I A log e + I C log e  Wb/m
 r ′ d d 2 
1

and

 1 1 1
ΨC = 2 × 10−7  I C log e + I A log e + I B log e  Wb/m
 r′ d3 d2 

If the system is balanced, IA = IB = IC = I (say) in magnitude.

Taking IA as a reference phasor, the current are represented, in symbolic
form as

I A = I , I B = I (−0.5 − j0.866), I C = I (−0.5 + j0.866)

Substituting these values of IB and IC in the expression for ψA, we get

 1 1 1
ΨA = 2 × 10−7  I log e + I (−0.5 − j0.866) log e + I (−0.5 + j0.866)log e 
 r′ d1 d3 
 1 d 
= 2 × 10−7 I log e + log e d1d3 + j 3 log e 1 
 r′ d3 

and

ΨA  1 d 
LA = = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e d1d3 + j 3 log e 1  H/m
IA  r′ d3 
(8.15)
Similarly

 1 d 
LB = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e d1d2 + j 3 log e 2  H/m (8.16)
 r′ d1 

128   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

 1 d 
LC = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e d2d3 + j 3 log e 3  H/m (8.17)
 r′ d2 

When three-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other,
the conductor spacing is said to be unsymmetrical. Under such condi-
tions, the flux linkages and inductance of each phase are not same. A dif-
ferent inductance in each phase results in unequal voltage drop in three
phases even if the current in the conductors are balanced. Therefore, the
voltage at the receiving end will not be same for all phases. In order that
voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we generally interchange the
positions of the conductor at regular intervals along the line, so that each
conductor occupies the original position of every other conductor over an
equal distance. Such an exchange of position is known as transposition,
as shown in Figure 8.7. In practice, the conductors are so transposed that
each of the three possible arrangement of conductors exist for one-third of
the total length of the line.

1. The effect of transposition is that each conductor has the same aver-
age inductance, which is given as

1
L = [LA + LB + LC ]
3
 1 1
(
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e d1d3 + log e d1d2 + log e d2d3
 r′ 3 )
j 3 d d d 
+  log e 1 + log e 2 + log e 3   H/m (8.18)
3  d3 d1 d2  

 1 
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 3 d1d2d3 + 0 
 r ′ 
d1d2 d3
= 2 × 10−7 log e 3 H/m
r′

A C B
Position 1
d1 d3
B A C
2
d2
3 C B A

FIGURE 8.7  A complete transposition cycle.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    129

d d

d
B C

FIGURE 8.8  Three-phase line with equilateral spacing.

2. If the conductors are equispaced (let the spacing be equal to d), as

shown in Figure 8.8, the inductance of each conductor will be same
and can be obtained by substituting d1 = d2 = d3 in Equations 8.15
through 8.17. So inductance of each conductor is

d1d2d3
L = 2 × 10−7 log e 3 H/m
r′
d
= 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
r′

For stranded conductor, r′ will be replaced by Ds (self-GMD)

3. When the conductors of three-phase transmission line are in the
same plane, as shown in Figure 8.9.
In this position, d1 = d2 = d and d3 = 2d.
In general, Equations 8.15 through 8.17 for LA, LB, and LC, we get

 1 d 
LA = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2d × d + j 3 log e H/m
 r′ 2d 
 d 1 
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 + j0.866 log e 2  H/m
 r ′ 2 

A B C

2d

FIGURE 8.9  Horizontally spaced line conductors.

130   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

 1 d
LB = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e d × d + j 3 log e H/m
 r′ d 
d
= 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
r′

 1 2d 
LC = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2d × d + j 3 log e H/m
 r′ d 
 d 1 
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 + j0.866 log e 2  H/m
 r′ 2 

4. When the conductors are at the corners of right-angled triangle, as
shown in Figure 8.10. In this position,

d1 = d2 = d and d3 = 2d

Substituting this values in Equations 8.15 through 8.17 for LA, LB, and
LC, respectively, we get

 1 d 
LA = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2d × d + j 3 log e  H/m
 r′ 2d 
 1 1 
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 − j0.866 log e 2  H/m
 r ′ 2 

 1 d
LB = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e d × d + j 3 log e H/m
 r′ d 
d
= 2 × 10−7 log e H/m
r′

2d d

A
d B

FIGURE 8.10  Conductors are at the corners of a right-angled triangle.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    131

 1 2d 
LC = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2d × d + j 3 log e  H/m
 r′ d 

 d 1 
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 + j0.866 log e 2  H/m
 r′ 2 

8.7 INDUCTANCE OF A THREE-PHASE LINE

WITH MORE THAN ONE CIRCUIT
It is usual practice to run three-phase transmission lines with more than
one circuit in parallel on the same tours, because it gives greater reli-
ability and a higher transmission capacity. If such circuits are so widely
separated that the mutual inductance between them becomes negligible,
the inductance of the equivalent single circuit would be half of each of the
individual circuits considered alone. But in actual practice, the separa-
tion is not very wide and the mutual inductance is not negligible. GMD
method is used for the determination of inductance per phase by con-
sidering the various conductors collected in parallel as strands of one
composite conductor.
It is desirable to have a configuration that provides minimum induc-
tance so as to have maximum transmission capacity. This is possible only
with low GMD and high GMR. Therefore, the practice is to have the indi-
vidual conductor of a phase widely separated to provide high GMR and
the distance between the phases small to give low GMD. Thus, in the case
of a double circuit in vertical formation, the arrangement of conductor
would be as illustrated in Figure 8.11a and not as illustrated in Figure
8.11b, because the arrangement of conductors given in Figure 8.11a results
in low inductance in compression to that given by the arrangement illus-
trated in Figure 8.11b.

(a) (b)
A C′ A A′

B B′ B B′

C A′ C C′

FIGURE 8.11  Arrangements of conductors in a double circuit three-phase line.

132   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

8.7.1 Inductance of a Three-Phase Double Circuit

Line with Symmetrical Spacing
Consider a three-phase double circuit line connected in parallel conduc-
tors A, B, and C forming one circuit and conductors A′, B′, and C′ forming
the other one, as illustrated in Figure 8.12.
Flux linkage of phase A conductor is

  1 1  1 1 
ΨA = 2 × 10−7  I A  log e + log e  + I B  log e + log e 
  r ′ 2d   d 3d 
 1 1 
+ I C  log e + log e  
 3d d 
 1 1 
= 2 × 10 −7  I A log e + (I B + I C )log e 
 2 dr ′ 3d 2 
 1 1 
= 2 × 10−7  I A log e − I A log e  ∵ I A + I B + IC = 0
 2 dr ′ 3d 2 
3d
= 2 × 10−7 I A log e Wb/m
2r ′

ΨA 3d
Inductance of conductor A is, LA = = 2 × 10−7 log e H/m (8.19)
IA 2r ′
Similarly, inductance of remaining conductors can be worked out,
which will be the same as LA. This is due to the fact that the conductors of
different phases are symmetrically placed.
Since conductors are electrically in parallel, inductance of each phase is

1 3d (8.20)
= L = 1 × 10−7 log e H/m
2 A 2r ′

A d C′

d d
3d
B 2d B′
3d
d d

C d A′

FIGURE 8.12  Three-phase double circuit line with symmetrical spacing.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    133

8.7.2 Inductance of a Three-Phase Double Circuit

with Unsymmetrical but Transposed
Now consider a three-phase double circuit connected in parallel—con-
ductors A, B, and C forming one circuit and conductors A′, B′, and C′
forming the other one, as illustrated in Figure 8.13 (conductors unsym-
metrically spaced and transposed).
Since the conductors are thoroughly transposed, the conductor situa-
tions in the transposition cycle would be as illustrated in Figure 8.13a–c.
Flux linkages with conductor A in position (a)

  1 1   1 1 
ΨA1 = 2 × 10−7 I A  log e + log e  + I B  log e + log e 
  r′ 4d12 + d22   d1 d12 + d22 
 1 1 
+ I C  log e + log e  
 2d1 d2  

Similarly flux linkages with conductor A in positions (b) and (c) are

  1 1  1 1 
ΨA 2 = 2 × 10−7  I A  log e + log e  + I B  log e + log e 
  r′ d2   d1 d12 + d22 
 1 1 
+ I C  log e + log e
d1 
 d12 + d22  

  1 1   1 1
ΨA 3 = 2 × 10−7  I A  log e + log e  + I B  log e 2d + log e d 
  r ′ 4d1 + d2 
2 2
1 2

 1 1 
+ I C  log e + log e
d1 
 d12 + d22  

(a) d2 (b) (c)

A C′ C B′ B A′
d1
B B′ A A′ C C′
d1
C A′ B C′ A B′

FIGURE 8.13  Three-phase double-circuit line with unsymmetrical spacing

(fully transposed).
134   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Average flux linkages with conductor A

ΨA1 + ΨA 2 + ΨA 3
ΨA =
3
−7 
2 × 10  1 1 1 
=
3  I A  3 log e r ′ + log e d + log e 4d 2 + d 2 
 2 1 2

 1 1 1 1
+ I B  2 log e + log e + log e 2 + log e 
 d1 2d1 d1 + d2
2 d2 
 1 1 1 1
+ I C  log e + log e 2 + log e + 2 log e 
 2d1 d1 + d2
2 d2 d1 
2 × 10−7   1 1 1 
=
3  I A  3log e r ′ + log e d + log e 4d 2 + d 2 
 2 1 2

 1 1 1 1 
+ ( I B + I C )  log e + log e 2 + log e + 2 log e  
 2 d 1 d1 + d22 d 2 d1

2 × 10−7   1 1 1 
=
3  I A  3 log e r ′ + log e d + log e 4d 2 + d 2 
 2 1 2

 1 1 1 1 
− I A  log e + log e 2 + log e + 2 log e  
 2 d 1 d1 + d22 d2 d 1

∵ I A + I B + IC = 0

2 × 10−7 2d13 (d12 + d22 )d2

ΨA = I A log e
3 (r ′)3 d2 (4d12 + d22 )

21/3 d1 (d12 + d22 )1/3

or ΨA = 2 × 10−7 I A log e H/m
r ′(4d12 + d22 )1/3

ΨA
And inductance, LA =
IA
1/3 (8.21)
d1  d12 + d22 
= 2 × 10 log e 2
−7 1/3
H/m
r ′  4d12 + d22 

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    135

1 1
Inductance of each phase L = × Inductance per conductor = LA
2 2
1/2 1/6
1/6  d1   d1 + d2 
2 2
= 2 × 10 log e 2    2
−7
H/m
 r ′   4d1 + d22 

(8.22)

If the distance d2 is too large as compared to d1, (d12 + d22 )/(4d12 + d22 )
would tend to be unity and inductance per phase,

1/2 1/2
d  d 
L = 2 × 10−7 log e 21/6  1  H/m or L = 2 × 10−7 log e 21/6  1  mH/km
 r′   r′ 
(8.23)

8.8 CAPACITANCE
We know that any two conductors separate by an insulating material con-
stitute a capacitor. As any two conductors of an overhead transmission line
are separated by air which acts as insulation. Therefore, capacitance exists
between any two overhead line conductors. The capacitance between the
conductors is the charge per-unit potential difference.

Q
Capacitance C = Farad
V

where Q is the charge on the line in coulomb, and V is the potential differ-
ence between the conductors in volts.

8.9  POTENTIAL AT A CHARGED SINGLE CONDUCTOR

The electric potential at a point due to a charge is measured by the work
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinite distance to that point.
Electric potential is an extremely important factor for determining the
capacitance of a circuit since it is defined as the charge per-unit potential.
We shall now discuss in details the electric potential due to some impor-
tant conductor arrangements.
Consider a long straight, isolated conductor carrying a charge +Q
coulomb/m. The charge is uniformly distributed over the surface of the
conductor. The electric lines of flux will be straight, radial, and uniformly
136   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

spaced. The points which are equally placed from the conductor will be
at the same potential and have the same flux density. All the cylinders
concentric with the conductor will be equipotential surfaces. The electric
flux density Dx at a point x meters from the axis of the conductor is the
quotient of flux leaving the conductor per meter length and the curved
surface of a cylinder 1 m long and having a radius x meters.

Q
Dx = C/m2
2πx × 1

The electric field intensity or potential gradient at the point considered is

Q
Ex = V/m
2πε 0 ε r x

Taking air as medium, that is, εr = 1, ε0 = permittivity of free space.

The potential difference between two points A and B (Figure 8.14) kept
at distances d1 and d2 meters from the conductor is same as the integral
of the electric field intensity over a radial path between the equipotential
surfaces passing through A and B. It does not matter whether A and B lie
on the same radial line or not.

d2 d2
Q
∫
VAB = Ex dx =
∫ 2πε 0 x
dx
d1 d1

Q d
VAB = log e 2 (8.24)
2πε 0 d1

B
d2
r

d1
A
+Q

FIGURE 8.14  Electric field of a long straight conductor.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    137

Equation 8.24 is very useful specially in determining charges and

capacitances of a system of conductors.

8.10  SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS

Consider a system of n conductors (Figure 8.15) each of radius r forming
a circuit.
Let the charges in coulomb per meter be QA, QB, QC,…, Qn. The spacing
between the conductors are denoted by dab, dbc, dcd, …, etc. The spacing are
assumed to be very large in comparison to their radii that the distribution
of charge is uniform around the periphery of each conductor.
The principle of superposition will be applied here to find out the poten-
tial difference between any two conductors. According to this principle,
the difference of potential between two charged conductors is equal to
the potential difference due to charge on first conductor alone, plus the
potential difference due to the charge on second conductor alone, plus the
potential difference due to other charged conductors in the field.
Using the result obtained in Equation 8.24, the potential difference
between two conductors A and B is given by

VAB = Potential difference between A and B due to charge QA on A

+Potential difference between A and B due to charge QB on B
+ + Potential difference between A and B due to charge QN on N

QA d QB r QC d
VAB = log e AB + log e B + log e CB + 
2πx ε 0 rA 2πx ε 0 dBA 2πx ε 0 dCA
QN d
+ log e NB
2πx ε 0 dNA

B D

dAB
A
dAN N

dAC

FIGURE 8.15  System of n conductors.

138   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

If rA, r B, rC,… are replaced by dAA, dBB, dCC,… , respectively, for the sake
of symmetrical result

1  dAb dBB dCB

VAB = QA log e d + QB log e d + QC log e d + 
2πε 0
 AA BA CA

dNB 
+ QN log e Volts (8.25)
dNA 

1  dAC dBC dCC

VAC = QA log e d + QB log e d + QC log e d
2πε 0 AC BA AA

dNC 
+  + QN log e Volts (8.26)
dNA 

1  dAN dBN dCN

VAN = QA log e d + QB log e d + QC log e d
2πε 0 AA BA CA
(8.27)
dNN 
+  + QN log e Volts
dNA 

1  d 
x =N

VAN =
2πε 0  ∑
 Qx log e xN  Volts
 x =A
dxA 

(8.28)

For a system working under normal conditions,

QA + QB + QC +  + QN = 0 (8.29)

The equations obtained in this section will be used in calculating the

capacitance per-unit length of a conductor in any system of parallel con-
ductors constituting a complete circuit.

8.11  CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE TWO-WIRE LINE

Figure 8.16 shows a line consisting of two conductors A and B, each of
radius r; the distance between conductors being D.
Therefore, the potential difference between A and B is

1  dAB dBB 
VAB = QA log e d + QB log e d 
2πε 0  BA 
AA
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    139

+Q –Q
r
A B

FIGURE 8.16  Single-phase two-wire line.

Here, QA + QB = 0

QA = −QB

dAB = dBA = d

dAA = dBB = r

Substituting these values in Equation 8.29, we get

2
1  d r 1  d 1 d
VAB = QA log e r − QA log e d  = 2πε QA log e  r  = πε QA log e r
2πε 0   0 0

The capacitance between the conductors is

QA QA
CAB = = F/m
VAB (2Q /2πε 0 )log e (d /r )

πε 0
CAB = F/m (8.30)
log e (d /r )

CAB is referred to as line-to-line capacitance. It is shown in Figure 8.17.

A B

CAB

FIGURE 8.17  Line-to-line capacitance.

140   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

8.11.1  Capacitance to Neutral

Since the two conductors A and B are oppositely charged, the potential
of the points midway between the conductors is zero, that is, zero poten-
tial plane is midway between A and B. The potential of each conductor is
therefore (1/2)VAB with respect to neutral.

Q 2πε 0
CN = = F/m (8.31)
(1/2)VAB log e (d /r )

CN is called the capacitance to neutral or capacitance to ground. The

term capacitance to neutral is more common in transmission calculations.
Also CN = CAN = CBN (Figure 8.18).
Thus, the capacitance to neutral is twice the capacitance between con-
ductors, that is,

CN = 2CAB

8.12  CAPACITANCE OF A THREE-PHASE OVERHEAD LINE

In a three-phase transmission line, the capacitance of each conductor is
considered instead of capacitance from conductor to conductor. Here,
again two conditions arise viz., symmetrical spacing and unsymmetrical
spacing.

8.12.1  Symmetrical Spacing

Figure 8.19 shows the three conductors A, B, and C of the three-phase over-
head transmission line having charges QA, QB, and QC per meter length,
respectively. Let the conductors be equidistant (d meters) from each other.
Potential difference between conductor A and conductor B is given by

1  d r d
VAB = QA log e r + QB log e d + QC log e d  Volts (8.32)
2πε 0  

A B
N

CAN = 2CAB CBN = 2CAB

FIGURE 8.18  Line-to-neutral capacitances.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    141

d d

d
B C

FIGURE 8.19  Three-phase line with equilateral spacing.

Similarly potential difference between A and C is

1  d d r
VAC = QA log e r + QB log e d + QC log e d  Volts (8.33)
2πε 0  

Adding Equations 8.32 and 8.33, we get

1  d r
VAB + VAC = 2QA log e r + (QB + QC ) log e d  Volts (8.34)
2πε 0  

Assuming balanced supply, QA + QB + QC = 0 (8.35)

 

∴ QB + QC = −QA (8.36)

Combining Equations 8.34 and 8.36,

1  d r  3QA d
VAB + VAC = 2QA log e r − QA log e d  = 2πε log e r (8.37)
2πε 0  
0

With balanced three-phase voltage applied to the line, it follows from

the phasor diagram of Figure 8.20 that

VAB + VAC = 3VAN (8.38)

142   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

VAB + VAC
30
VAC
=2 3 cos 30° VAN
= 3 VAN

VAB

VCA 30°
VAN

N
VCN VBN
C B
VBC

FIGURE 8.20  Phasor diagram of balanced three-phase voltage.

Substituting for (VAB + VAC) from Equation 8.38 in Equation 8.37 we get,

QA d
VAN = log e (8.39)
2πε 0 r

The capacitance of line-to-neutral immediately follows as

QA 2πε 0
CN = = (8.40)
VAN log e (d /r )

Note that this equation is identical to capacitance to neutral for two-

wire line. Derived in a similar manner, the expressions for capacitance are
the same for conductors B and C.

8.12.2  Unsymmetrical Spacing

Figure 8.21 shows the three identical conductors of radius r of a three-
phase line with unsymmetrical spacing. The line is believed to be fully
transposed. As the conductors are rotated cyclically in the three sections
of the transposition cycle, correspondingly three expressions can be writ-
ten for VAB. These expressions are
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    143

d1 d3

B d2 C

FIGURE 8.21  Cross-sectional view of a three-phase overhead line with unsym-

metrical spacing (fully transposed).

For the first section of the transposition cycle,

1  d1 r d2 
VAB = QA1 log e r + QB1 log e d + QC1 log e d  (8.41)
2πε 0  3
1

For the second section of the transposition cycle,

1  d2 r d3 
VAB = QA 2 log e r + QB2 log e d + QC 2 log e d  (8.42)
2πε 0  1
2

For the third section of the transposition cycle,

1  d3 r d1 
VAB = QA 3 log e r + QB3 log e d + QC 3 log e d  (8.43)
2πε 0  2 
3

If the voltage drop along the line is neglected, VAB is the same in each
transposition cycle. On similar lines, three such equations can be written
for VBC = VAB ∠ −120°. Three more equations can be written equating to
zero the summation of all line charges in each section of the transposition
cycle. From these nine (independent) equations, it is possible to determine
the nine unknown charges. The rigorous solution though possible is too
involved.
With the usual spacing of conductors, sufficient accuracy is obtained
by assuming:

QA1 = QA 2 = QA 3 = QA , QB1 = QB2 = QB3 = QB , QC1 = QC 2 = QC 3 = QC

(8.44)

This assumption of equal charge/unit length of a line in the three sec-

tions of the transposition cycle requires, on the other hand, three different
144   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

values of VAB designated as VAB1, VAB2, and VAB3, in the three sections. The
solution can be considerably simplified by taking VAB as the average of
these three voltage, that is,

1
VAB (avg ) = (V + VAB2 + VAB3 )
3 AB1

1  dd d   r3  d d d 
VAB = QA log e  1 23 3  + QB log e   + QC log e  1 2 3  
3 × 2πε 0   r  d d d
 1 2 3  d1d2d3  

1  Deq r 
VAB = QA log e + QB log e (8.45)
2πε 0  r Deq 

where Deq = 3 d1d2d3 .

Similarly,

1  Deq r 
VAC = QA log e r + QC log e D  (8.46)
2πε 0  eq 

Adding Equations 8.45 and 8.46, we get

1  Deq r 
VAB + VAC = 2QA log e r + (QB + QC )log e D  (8.47)
2πε 0  eq 

And also for balanced three-phase voltages,

VAB + VAC = 3VAN

and

QB + QC = −QA

Use of these relationships in Equation 8.47 leads to

3QA Deq
3VAN = log e
2πε 0 r
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    145

QA Deq
VAN = log e (8.48)
2πµ 0 r

The capacitance of line-to-neutral of the transposed line is then given by

QA 2πε 0
CN = = F/m to neutral (8.49)
VAN log e (Deq /r )

It is obvious that for equilateral spacing Deq = D, the above (approxi-

mate) formula gives the exact result presented earlier.

8.13 EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE TRANSMISSION

LINE CAPACITANCE
While calculating the capacitance of transmission lines, the presence of
earth was ignored, so far. The effect of earth on capacitance can be conve-
niently taken into account by the method of images.

8.13.1  Method of Images

The electric field of transmission line conductors must conform to the
presence of the earth below. The earth for this purpose may be assumed
to be a perfectly conducting horizontal sheet of infinite extent. Here it is
assumed to be an equipotential surface.
The electric field of two long, parallel conductors charged +Q and −Q per
unit is such that it has a zero potential plane midway between the conduc-
tors. If a conducting sheet of infinite dimensions is placed at the zero potential
plane, the electric field remains unaltered. Further, if the conductor carry-
ing charge −Q is now eliminated, the electric field above the conducting sheet
is kept intact, while electric field below it vanishes. Using these well-known
results in reverse, we may equivalently replace the presence of ground below a
charged conductor by a fictitious conductor having equal and opposite charge
and located as far below the surface of ground as the overhead conductor
above it—such a fictitious conductor is the mirror image of the overhead con-
ductor. This method of creating the same electric field as in the presence of
earth is known as the method of images originally suggested by Lord Kelvin.

8.13.2  Capacitance of a Single-Phase Overhead Line

Considering the case of single-phase overhead line, assume conductors A′
and B′ as image conductors of conductors A and B, respectively, as shown
in Figure 8.22.
146   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

+Q –Q
r
A B
d

Earth

A′ B′

–Q +Q

FIGURE 8.22  Single-phase overhead line with images.

Let the height of conductor be h meters and +Q and −Q coulombs per

meter length be the charges on conductors A and B, respectively.
The earth is assumed to be at zero potential and it can be done only if
there is an image conductor A′ having a charge of −Q coulombs per meter
length at a depth of h meters below the earth. Similarly, there is a conduc-
tor B′ having a charge of +Q coulombs per meter length at a depth of h
meters below the earth.
The equation for the voltage drop is

1  d r 4h 2 + d 2
VAB = Q log e + QB log e + QA ′ log e
2πε 0  A r d 2h

2h 
+ QB ′ log e  (8.50)
4h 2 + d 2 

But QA = Q, QB = −Q, QA′ = − Q , and QB′ = Q .

Substituting the values of different charges in Equation 8.50, we get

1  d r 4h 2 + d 2
VAB = QA log e − QB log e − QA ′ log e
2πε 0  r d 2h

2h 
+ QB ′ log e 
4h2 + d 2 

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    147

or

Q  2hd 
VAB =  log e  (8.51)
πε 0  r 4h 2 + d 2 
 

It immediately follows that

Q Q
CAB = =
VAB
(( ))
(Q / πε 0 )  log e d / r 1 + (d 2 / 4h2 ) 
 
πε 0 (8.52)
= F/m line to line

 e ((
 log d / r 1 + (d 2 / 4h2 ) 
))


and

2πε 0
CN = F/m to neutral (8.53)
 log e (d /r 1 + (d 2 / 4h2 ) )
 

It is observed from the above equation that the presence of earth modi-
fies the radius r to r(1 + (d2/4h2))1/2. When h is large compared to d (this is
the case normally), the effect of earth on line capacitance is of negligible
order.

8.13.3  Capacitance of a Three-Phase Overhead Line

The method of images can similarly be applied for the calculation of capac-
itance of a three-phase line, shown in Figure 8.23. The line is considered to
be fully transposed. The conductors A, B, and C carry the charges QA, QB,
and QC and occupy positions 1, 2, and 3, respectively, in the first position
of the transposition cycle. The effect of earth is simulated by image con-
ductors with charges −QA, −QB, and −QC, respectively, as shown.
The equations for the three sections of the transposition cycle can be
written for the voltage drop VAB as determined by the three charged con-
ductors and their images.
For the first portion of the transposition with conductor A in position 1,
B in position 2, and C in position 3 (see Figure 8.23a).
148   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

B A C
(a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2
D23 D23 D23
D12 C D12 B D12 A
1 1 1
D31 3 D31 3 D31 3
A C B
H13 H2 H13 H2 H13 H2
H31 H31 H31
H3 H3 H3
H1 H23 H1 H23 H1 H23

H12 H12 H12

A′ C′ B′
3′ 3′ 3′
D31 D31 D31
1′ C′ 1′ 1′
D12 D12 B′ D12 A′
D23 D23 D23
2′ 2′ 2′
B′ A′ C′

FIGURE 8.23  Three-phase line with images.

1   d h   r h 
VAB1 = Q log 12 − log e 12  + QB  log e − log e 2 
2πε 0  A  e r h1   d12 h12 

 d h 
+ QC  log e 23 − log e 23   (8.54)
 d31 h31  

For the second portion of the transposition with conductor C in posi-
tion 1, A in position 2, and B in position 3 (see Figure 8.23b):

1  d23 h23   r h3 
VAB2 = QA  log e r − log e h  + QB  log e d − log e h 
2πε 0
 2 23 23

 d h 
+ QC  log e 31 − log e 31   (8.55)
 d12 h12  

For the second portion of the transposition with conductor B in posi-

tion 1, C in position 2, and A in position 3 (see Figure 8.23c):

1   d h   r h 
VAB3 = Q log 31 − log e 31  + QB  log e − log e 1 
2πε 0  A  e r h3   d 31 h 31 

 d h 
+ QC  log e 12 − log e 12   (8.56)
 d23 h23  

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    149

If the fairly accurate assumption of constant charge per-unit length

of the conductor throughout the transmission cycle is made, the average
value of VAB for the three sections of the cycle is given by

1
VAB (avg ) = (VAB1 + VAB2 + VAB3 )
3
1   Deq (h12h23h31 )1/3 
VAB = Q log − log
6πε 0  A  e r e
(h1h2h3 )1/3  (8.57)

 r (h h h )1/3  
+ QB  log e − log e 1 2 3 1/3  
 Deq (h12h23h31 )  

where Deq = 3 d12d23d31 .

Similarly,

1   Deq (h12h23h31 )1/3 

VAC = QA  log e r − log e
6πε 0   (h1h2 h3 )1/3 
 r (h h h )1/3  
+ QC  log e − log e 1 2 3 1/3   (8.58)
 Deq (h12h23h31 )  

Proceeding on the lines of Section 8.12.1 and using VAB + VAC = 3VAN

and QA + QB + QC = 0, we ultimately obtained the following expression for
the capacitance to neutral.

2πε 0
Cn = F/m to neutral (8.59)
( )
log e (Deq /r ) − log e ((h12h23h31 )1/3 )/(h1h2h3 )1/3

Equation 8.59 shows that the effect of ground gives a higher value for
the capacitance than that the obtained by neglecting the ground effect.

8.14  BUNDLED CONDUCTOR

The demand of electric power is increasing throughout the world and in
many countries it doubling every 5–8 years. The power stations (hydro,
thermal, or nuclear) are usually located far away from the load centers.
Thus transmission of large amount of power over long distances, which
can be accomplished most economically only by using extra high voltage
150   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

(or simply EHV, voltage in excess of 230 kV). An increase in transmission

voltage results in reduction of electrical losses, increases in transmission
efficiency, improvement of voltage regulation, and reduction of conductor
material requirement. At voltage above 300 kV, corona causes a significant
power loss and interference with communication circuits, if a round single
conductor per phase is used. Instead of going for a hollow conductor, it is
preferable to use more than one conductor per phase which is called the
bundling of conductors. Lines of 400 kV and higher voltage invariably use
bundled conductor.
A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more conduc-
tors, called the subconductors, per phase in close proximity compared with
the spacing between phases (Figure 8.24). The basic difference between a
composite conductor and a bundled conductor is that the subconductors
of a bundled conductor are separated from each other by a constant dis-
tance varying from 0.2 to 0.6 m depending upon the length of the line
with the help of spacers whereas the wires of a composite conductor touch
each other. The bundled conductors have filter material or air space inside
so that the overall diameter is increased.
The uses of bundled conductors per phase reduce the voltage gradient
in the vicinity of the line and reduce the possibilities of corona discharge.

8.14.1 Bundled Conductors Have Several

Advantages over Single Conductors

1. The BD lines transmit bulk power with reduced losses thereby giving
increased transmission efficiency.
2. It has a higher capacitance to neutral in comparison with single con-
ductor lines, therefore, they have higher charging current, which
helps improving the power factor.
3. By bundling GMR is increased, the inductance per phase, in com-
parison with single conductor lines, is reduced. As a result reactance
per phase is reduced.

Phase A Phase B Phase C

s
d d

FIGURE 8.24  Cross-section of a bundled conductor three-phase transmission

line.
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    151

4. Since surge impedance of a line is given by Z0 = L /C and the bun-

dled conductor lines have higher capacitance and lower inductance in
comparison with single conductor lines, therefore, bundled conductor
lines have comparatively lower surge impedance with a corresponding
increase in the maximum power transfer capability.

GMR of a bundled conductor for

1. Two conductor (duplex arrangement):

DS = r ′ s

2. Three conductor (triplex arrangement):

DS = 3 r ′ s 2

3. Four conductor (quadruplex arrangement):

DS = 4 r ′ s 3

where r′ is the GMR of each subconductor of bundle and s is the spacing

between subconductors of a bundle.

8.15  SKIN EFFECT

The distribution of current throughout the cross-section of a conductor is
uniform only when DC is passing through it. On the contrary, when AC
is flowing through a conductor, the current is nonuniformly distributed
over the cross-section in a manner that the current density is higher at
the surface of the conductor compared to the current density at its cen-
ter (Figure 8.25). This effect becomes more pronounced, as frequency is
increased. This phenomenon is called skin effect. It causes larger power
loss for a given rms AC than the loss when the same value of DC is flowing
through the conductor. Consequently, the effective conductor resistance is
more for AC then for DC.
152   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

+ + ++
+

++ +

++ +
+

+
+
+ + ++
Current No current
flows over flow
the surface

FIGURE 8.25  Cross-section of a conductor.

Imagine a solid conductor to be consisting of a large number of strands,

each carrying a small part of the current. The inductance of each strand
will vary according to its position. Thus, the strands near the center are
surrounded by a greater magnetic flux and hence have larger inductance
than that near the surface. The high reactance of inner strands causes the
alternating current to flow near the surface of the conductor. This ten-
dency of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of a conductor
is known as skin effect.
The skin effect depends upon the following factors:

1. Nature of material
2. Diameter of wire—increase with the diameter of wire
3. Frequency—increases with increase in frequency
4. Shape of wire—less for stranded conductor than the solid conductor

It may be noted that the skin effect is negligible when the supply fre-
quency is low (< 50 Hz), and the conductor diameter is small (< 1 cm).

8.16  PROXIMITY EFFECT

The inductance and, therefore, the current distribution in a conductor is
also affected by the presence of other conductor in its vicinity. This effect
is known as the proximity effect.
This is another electromagnetic effect which also results in the incre-
ment of the apparent resistance of the conductor due to the presence of
other conductors carrying current in its vicinity. When two or more con-
ductors are in proximity, their electromagnetic fields interact with each
other with the result that the current in each of them is redistributed.
Consider a two-wire line as shown in Figure 8.26. Each line conduc-
tor can be divided into sections of equal cross-sectional area (say three
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    153

c b a a′ b′ c′

FIGURE 8.26  Two-wire line.

sections). Pairs aa′, bb′, and cc′ can form three loops in parallel. The flux
linking loop aa′ (and therefore its inductance) is the least and it increases
somewhat for loops bb′ and cc′. Thus the density of AC flowing through
the conductors is highest at the inner edges (aa′) of the conductors and
is the least at the outer edges (cc′). This type of nonuniform AC current
distribution becomes more pronounced, as the distance between con-
ductors is reduced. Like skin effect, the nonuniformity of current distri-
bution caused by proximity effect also increases the effective conductor
resistance. For normal spacing of overhead lines, this effect is always of a
negligible order. However, for underground cables where conductors are
located close to each other, proximity effect causes an appreciable increase
in effective conductor resistance.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 8.1
Calculate the GMR of 6/3 mm AC, 1/3 mm steel ACSR conductor
(Figure 8.27).

D12
D13 1
3

D14 D16
4 6

FIGURE 8.27  ACSR conductor.

154   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Solution
An ACSR conductor with six outer conductors of aluminum each
of radius r = 3 mm and one central conductor of steel also of radius
r = 3 mm.

d11 = r ; d12 = d16 = d17 = 2r ; d14 = 4r , and d13 = d15 = D14

2
− D34
2

= (4r )2 − (2r )2 = 2 3r
DS1 = DS2 = DS3 = DS4 = DS5 = DS6
= 7 0.7788r × 2r × 2 3r × 4r × 2 3r × 2r × 2r
= 7 299r

DS7 = 7 2r × 0.7788r × 2r × 2r × 2r × 2r × 2r
= 7 49.8432r

Geometric mean radius is

Ds = 7 DS1 ⋅ DS2 ⋅ DS3 ⋅ DS4 ⋅ DS5 ⋅ DS6 ⋅ DS7

= r 49 2996 × 49.8432 = 2.176r = 2.176 × 3 mm = 6.528mm

EXAMPLE 8.2
A single-phase double circuit transmission line is shown in the
Figure 8.28. Conductors 1 and 2 in parallel from one path where

1 1′

1.0 m 2.0 m

2′

FIGURE 8.28  A single-phase double circuit transmission line.

 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    155

conductors 1′ and 2′ in parallel from the return path. The current is

equally shared by the two parallel lines. Determine the total induc-
tance per kilometer of the line. The diameter of each conductor is
3 cm and spacing between them is 2 m.

Solution
Radius of each conductor = 3/2 = 1.5 cm
GMR, r′ = 0.7788, r = 1.168 cm

Spacing of conductors, d11′ = 200cm

d12′ = 2002 + 1002 = 223.60 cm

′ = d12′ = 223.60 cm
d21

′ = 200 cm
d22

d11 = d22 = r ′ = 1.168 cm, d12 = d21 = 100 cm

Mutual GMD, Dm = 4 d11′ d12′ d21

′ d22
′ cm
= 4 200 × 223.60 × 223.60 × 200 = 2111.47 cm

Self GMD, Ds = 4 d11d12 d 21d 22 cm

4
= 1.168 × 100 × 100 × 1.168 cm = 10.80 cm

Dm 211.47
Loop inductance = 0.4 log e = 0.4 log e = 1.189 mH/km
Ds 10.8

EXAMPLE 8.3
A three-phase overhead line is designed with an equilateral spacing
of 3.5 m with a conductor diameter of 1.2 cm. If the line is con-
structed with horizontal spacing with suitably transposed conduc-
tors, find spacing between adjacent conductors which would give
the same value of inductance as in the equilateral arrangement
(Figure 8.29).
156   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

A
(a) (b)

A B C
3.5 m 3.5 m

d d

3.5 m
B C

FIGURE 8.29  (a) Equilateral arrangement of line conductor. (b) Horizontally

spaced line conductors.

Solution
Conductor radius, r = 1.2/2 = 0.6 cm or 6 mm
Geometric mean radius, r′ = 0.7786 × 6 = 4.6728 mm
In equilateral arrangement of line conductors spacing of
conductors = 3.5 m = 3500 mm

d
Inductance per phase, L = 2 × 10−7 log 5 , H/m
r
3500
= 2 × 10−7 log e = 1.324 × 10−6 H/m
4.6728

Let the spacing between the conductor be d mm.

The effect of transposition of line is that each conductor has the
same average inductance which is given as

(L / A) + (L / B) + (L /C )
Lav =
3

Substituting the value of LA, LB, and LC,

1  d 1
Lav = × 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 − j 0.866 log e 2
3  r ′ 2
d d 1 
+ log e + log e + log e 2 + j 0.866 log e 2  H/m
r′ r′ 2 
 d 1 
= 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 
 r ′ 3 
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    157

Substituting Lav = 1.324 × 10−6 and r′ = 4.6728 mm in above equa-

tion, we have

 d 1 
1.324 × 10−6 = 2 × 10−7  log e + log e 2 
 4 . 6728 3 

or d = 4.67286.389 = 2781.5 mm or 2.781 m.

EXAMPLE 8.4
A three-phase, 50-Hz, 132-kV overhead line conductors are placed
in a horizontal plane as shown in Figure 8.30. The conductor diam-
eter is 2 cm. If the line length is 150 km, calculate (1) capacitance per
phase, (2) charging current per phase, assuming complete transposi-
tion of the line.

Solution
Figure shows the arrangement of conductors of the three-phase line.
The equivalent equilateral spacing is

d = 3 d1d2d3 = 3 1 × 2 × 3 = 1.81 m

2
Conductor radius, r = = 1 cm
2

Conductor spacing , d = 1.81 m = 181 cm

2πε 0
1.
Line-to-neutral capacitance = F/m
log e (d /r )
2π × 8.854 × 10−12
= F/m
log e (181/1)
= 0.0107 × 10−9 F/m
= 0.0107 × 10−6 F/km
= 0.0107 µF/km

1m 2m

3m

FIGURE 8.30  Three-phase overhead line conductors (placed in a horizontal plane).

158   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

∴ Line-to-neutral capacitance for 100 km line is

C = 0.0107 × 150 = 1.605 µF

2. Charging current per phase is

Vph 132,000
IC = = × 2πfC
XC 3
132,000
= × 2π × 50 × 1.605 × 10−6 = 38.427 A
3

EXAMPLE 8.5
Find out the capacitance of a two-wire, one-phase line running at a
height of h meters above the earth. Calculate the capacitance to neu-
tral in the case of single-phase line, whose conductors with radius
of 0.25 cm are separated by 1.5 m and which are lying 7 m above
ground. Line length is 50 km.

Solution
Radius of each conductor, r = 0.25 cm
Spacing between conductors, d = 1.5 m = 150 cm
Height of the conductors above earth, h = 7 m = 700 cm
Capacitance between conductor,

πε 0
C= F/m
log
 ( )
e d r 1+ ( d 2 / 4 h2 ) 


π × 8.854 × 10−12
C=
log
(
0.25
e 120 21+ (150 /1400 ) )
= 4.5 × 10 −12
F/m

Capacitance of 50 km long wire = 4.5 × 10−12 × 50,000

= 0.225 µF
 Transmission Line Parameters    ◾    159

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by the constants of an overhead transmis-

sion line?
2. What is skin effect? Why is it absent in the DC system?
3. Find an expression for the flux linkages:
a. Due to a single current-carrying conductor
b. In parallel current-carrying conductors
4. Derive an expression for the loop inductance of a single-phase line.
5. Derive an expression for the inductance per phase for a three-phase
overhead transmission line when
a. Conductors are symmetrically placed
b. Conductors are asymmetrically placed but the line is completely
transposed
6. What do you understand by electric potential? Derive an expression
for electric potential
a. At a charged single conductor
b. At a conductor in a group of charged conductors
7. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a single-phase overhead
transmission line.
8. Deduce an expression for line-to-neutral capacitance for a three-
phase overhead transmission line, when the conductors are
a. Symmetrically placed
b. Unsymmetrically placed but transposed
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 9

Performance of
Transmission Lines

9.1 INTRODUCTION
A transmission line comprises of resistance R, inductance L, capacitance
C, and shunt or leakage conductance G. All the parameters are distributed
uniformly on the whole distance of the cable. These parameters along with
load current and power factor determine the electrical performance of the
line. The term performance includes the calculation of sending-end volt-
age, sending-end current and sending-end power factor, power loss in the
line, efficiency of transmission, regulation, and limits of power flow dur-
ing steady-state and transient conditions. The values of voltage, current,
and power factor at the receiving end are usually known. Calculation of
prior performance is helpful in system planning. The purpose of deriving
the formulae to study the performance of a line is to know the effect of the
line parameters on various loads.

9.2  CLASSIFICATION OF LINES

Transmission lines are classified as follows:

Short transmission line. For overhead lines up to 50 km, the capac-

1.
itance C is negligibly small but for cable lines, where the distance
between the conductors is small, the effect of capacitance cannot be
neglected. All low voltage (<20 kV) overhead lines having lengths up
to 50 km are generally classified as short transmission line. While

161
162   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

studying the performance of a short transmission line, only resis-

tance and inductance of the line are taken into account.
Medium transmission line. The lines ranging in length from 50
2.
to 150 km are generally termed as medium transmission line
or moderately long lines, where the voltage is moderately high
(20 < v < 100 kV). Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line,
the capacitance effects are taken into account and it is considered to
be lumped at one or more points of the line.
Long transmission line. When the length of an overhead transmis-
3.
sion line is more than 150 km and line voltage is  > 100 kV, it is con-
sidered as a long transmission line. For the treatment of such a line,
the line constants are considered uniformly distributed over the
whole line length of the line.

9.3 PERFORMANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE SHORT

TRANSMISSION LINE
As stated earlier, the effect of the line capacitance are neglected for a short
transmission line. Therefore, while studying the performance of such a
line, only resistance and inductance are taken into account. The equiva-
lent circuit of a single-phase short transmission line is shown in Figure
9.1a. Here the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concen-
trated or lumped instead of being distributed. The circuit is simple AC
circuit, where I is the load current, R is the loop resistance or resistance of
both conductors, XL is the loop reactance, Vr is the receiving-end voltage,
cos ϕR is the receiving-end power factor, Vs is the sending-end voltage, and
cos ϕS is the sending-end power factor.

(a) (b)

XL C
I R

Vs
IXL
A IR
B
Load

Vs Vr
Vr
φr
φS
O
E D I

FIGURE 9.1  (a) Equivalent circuit of a single-phase short line. (b) Phasor dia-
gram for a short line (lagging power factor).
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    163

Since the shunt capacitance and shunt conductance are neglected in

short line, the load current practically remains the same at all points along
the length of the lines, Is = Ir = I (say).
The phasor diagram of the line for lagging load power factor is shown
in Figure 9.1b. Current I is taken as the reference phasor. OA represents
the receiving-end voltage Vr leading I by ϕR. AB represents the drop IR in
phase with BC represents the inductive drop IXL and leads I by 90°. The
magnitude of VS can be found from the right angle triangle ODC.

(OC)2 = (OD)2 + (DC)2 = (OE + ED)2 + (DB + BC)2

Vs2 = (Vr cos φR + IR)2 + (Vr sin φR + IX L )2

Vs = (Vr cos φR + IR)2 + (Vr sin φR + IX L )2

The power factor of the load measured at sending end is

 OD  Vr cos φR + IR
cos φs =  =
 OC  Vs

The alternative expression for Vs can be found by using complex alge-

bra. If Vr be the reference phasor,

Vr = Vr ∠0° = Vr + j0

For lagging power factor cos φR , I = I ∠ − φR = I cos φR − j I sin φR

For leading power factor cos φR , I = I ∠ + φR = I cos φR + j I sin φR

For unity power factor cos φR , I = I ∠0° = I + j0

The line impedance is given by

Z = R + jX L
164   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The sending-end voltage is

Vs = Vr + ZI

For lagging power factor

Vs = (Vr + j0) + (R + jX L )(I cos φR − j I sin φR )

= (Vr + IR cos φR + IX sin φR ) + j(IX L cos φR − IR sin φR )

Vs = [(Vr + IR cos φR + IX Lsin φR )2 + (IX L cos φR − IR sin φR )2 ]

9.4  SHORT THREE-PHASE LINE

A balance three-phase circuit may be considered as consisting of three
separate identical single-phase circuits. Therefore, the calculations
for a balanced three-phase line are carried out in a similar manner as
explained for single-phase line, the difference being that per-phase basis
is adopted. When working with balance three-phase line, it is usual to
assume that all the given voltage are line to line values, that all the cur-
rent are line current. Similarly the given power is the total power for all
the three phases and the given reactive power volt-amperes represent
the total volt-amperes for all the three phases. Thus for three-phase line
calculations,

Power per phase = (1/3) × (Total power)

Reactive power per phase = (1/3) × (Total reactive power)

Also in Figure 9.1a and b, I is the phase current, R is the line resistance
per phase, XL is the line reactance per phase, Z is the line impedance per
phase, Vs is the sending-end-phase voltage, and Vr is the receiving-end-
phase voltage.
For balance three-phase star-connected line,

 1 
Phase voltage =  × Line voltage
 3 

 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    165

9.5  TRANSMISSION LINE AS TWO-PORT NETWORK

A transmission line may be viewed as a two-port network, as shown in
Figure 9.2. The voltage and current at input and output terminals are
expressed in the form of general equation is given by

Vs = AVr + BIr (9.1)

Is = CVr + DIr (9.2)

where Vs is the sending-end voltage, Is is the sending-end current, Vr is the

receiving-end voltage, and Ir is the receiving-end current.
The A, B, C, D constants are called general network constants. They
depend on the line parameters and in general are complex. Equations 9.1
and 9.2 can be put in the form of matrix, where

 Vs   A B   Vr 
 I  = C D  I 
 s   r 

The validity of Equations 9.1 and 9.2 is based on the fact that a trans-
mission line can be represented by a linear, passive, and bilateral network.
By virtue of reciprocity, the generalized constants are related to each other
by the following equation.

AD − BC = 1 (9.3)

9.5.1  ABCD Constants of a Short Line

The sending-end voltage and current can be written in the form of a short-
line equivalent network, as shown in Figure 9.1a:

Vs = Vr + ZIr (9.4)

Is Ir
A B
Vs Vr
C D

FIGURE 9.2  A transmission line as a two-port network.

166   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Is = Ir (9.5)

Comparing the coefficient of Equations 9.4 and 9.5 with the general
Equations 9.1 and 9.2, ABCD constants for short line are

A = 1 = D, B = Z, C = 0

9.6  LINE REGULATION

Voltage regulation of a line is defined as the change in voltage at the receiv-
ing end when full load at a given power factor is removed, the voltage at
the sending end being kept constant.
It is expressed as a percentage of the receiving-end voltage keep the
sending-end voltage constant. It can be written as

|Vrnl | − |Vrfl |
Per-unit regulation 
|Vrfl |

|Vrnl | − |Vrfl |
Percent regulation  × 100
|Vrfl |

where |Vrnl| is the magnitude of receiving-end voltage at no-load, and |Vrfl|

is the magnitude of sending-end voltage at full load.
The voltage Vs at the sending end is kept constant. It can be written as

Vs = AVr + BIr

When the load is removed,

Ir = 0, Vr = Vr 0

Therefore, Vs = AVr0, Vr0 = Vs/A, where Vr0 is the receiving-end voltage

at no-load.

|VS |/|A| − |Vrfl |

Line regulation = pu
|Vrfl |

 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    167

9.6.1  Line Regulation for Short Line

In case of a short line, when the load is removed, the voltage at the receiv-
ing end is equal to the voltage at the sending end. At full load,

|Vrfl | = |Vr |

At no-load, |Vrnl | = |Vs |

Therefore, for a short line

|Vrnl | − |Vrfl | |VS | − |Vr |

Line regulation = = pu
|Vrfl | |Vr |

9.7  LINE EFFICIENCY

The line efficiency or efficiency of transmission (ηT) is the ratio of receiving-­
end power to the sending-end power of a transmission line.

Power output Power delivered at the receiving end

ηT = pu = pu
Power input Power delivered to the receiving end
Power delivered at the receiving end
= pu
Power delivered tothereceiving end + Losses

9.8  PERFORMANCE OF MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE

It has been mentioned already that the capacitance of medium length
lines is significant. When the effect of capacitance is not negligible, it may
be assumed to be concentrated at one or more definite points along the
line. A number of localized capacitance models have been used to make
approximate line performance calculations. The following models are
commonly used:

1. Nominal T model
2. Nominal π model

It should be noted that nominal T and π models are not equivalent rep-
resentations. They are different representations for actual lines.
168   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

9.8.1  Nominal T Model

In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated
at the middle point of the line, and half the line resistance and reactance
are lumped on its either side as shown in Figure 9.3. Therefore, in this
arrangement, full charging current flows over half the line. In Figure 9.3,
one phase of three-phase transmission line is shown, as it is advantageous
to work in phase instead of line-to-line values:

Series impedance of the line = Z = R + jX L

Shunt admittance of the line = Y = jωC

Based on the assumption that Vr and Ir are known, the corresponding

sending-end quantities can be obtained by application of Kirchhoff’s volt-
age law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) to the circuit shown in
Figure 9.3.
By KVL,

Z
V1 = Vr + I
2 r

V1
Current in the capacitor , IC = = YV1
Z1

Sending-end current,

 Z 
Is = Ir + IC = Ir + YV1 = Ir + Y  Vr + Ir 
 2 

Is R/2 XL/2 Is R/2 XL/2 Ir

IC
Load

Vs V1 C Vr

Neutral

FIGURE 9.3  Nominal T model of a medium line.

 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    169

 ZY 
Is = YVr +  1 + I (9.6)
 2  r

By KVL,

Z Z Z  ZY  
Vs = V1 + Is = Vr + Ir +  YVr +  1 + I
2 2 2  2  r 

 ZY   ZY 
Vs =  1 + V + Z 1 + I (9.7)
 2  r  4  r

Equations 9.6 and 9.7 give the sending-end current and sending-end
voltage, respectively. These equations can be written in the matrix form as

 ZY  ZY  
 Vs  1 + 2 Z 1 +
 4    Vr 
I  =    (9.8)
 s  Y ZY   Ir 
 1+
2 

Also,

 Vs   A B   Vr 
 I  C D  I 
 s   r 

Hence, ABCD constants for nominal T-circuit model of medium line are

ZY  ZY 
A = D = 1+ , B = Z 1 + , C=Y
2  4 

9.8.1.1  Phasor Diagram

The phasor diagram of the nominal T circuit of Figure 9.3 as shown in
Figure 9.4. It is drawn for a lagging power factor cos ϕR. Vr is taken as the
reference phasor represented by OA. The load current Ir lags behind Vr
by ϕR. The drop AB = IrR/2 is in phase with Ir. BC = IrXL/2 leads Ir by 90°.
The phasor OC represents the voltage V1 across capacitor C. The capacitor
170   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

VS
C IS Z XL
2 IS
V1 2
IS R D
2
A Ir Z
O φs 2 XL
Vr Ir
φr 2

Ir 2
Is

R
Ir
IC B

FIGURE 9.4  Phasor diagram of the nominal T circuit.

current IC leads V1 by 90° as shown. The phasor sum of Ir and IC gives Is.
Now CD = IsR/2 is in phase with Is, while DE = Is XL/2 leads Is by 90°. Then,
OE represents the sending-end voltage Vs.

9.8.2 Nominal π Model
In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line-to-neutral) is
divided into two halves; one half being lumped at the sending end and the
other half at the receiving end as shown in Figure 9.5. It is obvious that
capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop. However, its
charging current must be added to line current in order to obtain the total
sending-end current.

V1 = Vr

1
Z1 =
Y1

IS R I XL Ir

IC2 IC1
Load

Vs C/2 C/2 Vr

Neutral

FIGURE 9.5  Nominal π model of a medium line.

 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    171

By Ohm’s law, charging current at load end is

V1 Y
IC1 = = Vr
Z1 2

Line current:

Y
IIR + IC1 = Ir + V
2 r

Voltage at the sending end:

 Y 
Vs = V2 = V1 + ZI = Vr + Z  Ir + Vr 
 2 

or

 ZY 
Vs =  1 + V + ZIr (9.9)
 2  r

By Ohm’s law:

V2 Y Y  ZY  
IC 2 = = Vs =  1 +  Vr + ZIr 
Z2 2 2  2  

Sending-end current,

Y Y  ZY  
Is = I + IC 2 = Ir + Vr +  1 +  Vr + ZIr 
2 2  2  

 ZY   ZY 
Is = Y  1 + V + 1+ I (9.10)
 4  r  2  r

Equations 9.9 and 9.10 can be written in matrix form as,

  ZY  
1+ Z
 Vs    2   V 
I  =   r 
 s   Y  1 + ZY   ZY    Ir 
  4   1 + 2  
 
172   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

C
Vs

φs A
O
Is Vr IXL
φr

IR
IC2
B
IL

Ir IC1

FIGURE 9.6  Phasor diagram of the nominal π circuit.

Also,

 Vs   A B   Vr 
 I  C D  I  (9.11)
 s   r 

Hence, ABCD constants for nominal π-circuit model of medium line are

ZY  ZY 
A = D = 1+ , B = Z, C = Y  1 + (9.12)
2  4 

9.8.2.1  Phasor Diagram

The phasor diagram of the nominal π circuit is shown in Figure 9.6. It is
also drawn for a lagging power factor of the load. Vr is taken as the refer-
ence phasor represented by OA. The load current Ir lags behind Vr by ϕR.
The charging current IC1 leads Vr by 90°. The phasor sum of Ir and IC1
gives I. The drop AB = ILR is in phase with I, whereas BC = IL XL leads I by
90°. Then, OC represents the sending-end voltage Vs. The charging current
IC2 leads Vr by 90°. The phasor OC represents the voltage V1 across capaci-
tor C. The capacitor current IC leads Vs by 90°. The phasor sum of I and
IC2 gives Is. The angle ϕs between sending-end voltage Vs and sending-end
current Is determines the sending-end pf cos ϕs.

9.9 CALCULATION OF TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY

AND REGULATION OF MEDIUM LINE
If VR denotes the line-to-neutral (phase) voltage at the receiving end in
volts, Ss denotes the sending-end volt-amperes, and Is* is the complex con-
jugate of Is, then

Ss = 3 VSP ISP
*
= Ps + jQs

 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    173

where Ps is the active power in watts at the sending end, and Qs is the reac-
tive volt-ampere at the sending end.
The transmission efficiency can be calculated as follows:

PR
ηT =
Ps

In order to calculate regulation, we have to calculate the receiving-end

voltage at no-load Vrnl.
The sending-end voltage can be written as

Vs = AVr + BIr

When the load is removed,

Ir = 0, Vr = Vrnl

where Vrnl is the receiving-end voltage at no-load.

Vs = AVrnl

Vs
Vrnl =
A

Vs
| Vrnl | =
A

Per-unit line regulation is

|Vrnl | − |Vrfl | |VS /A| − |Vrfl |

=
|Vrfl | |Vrfl |

For nominal T and π model of the line,

ZY
A = 1+
2
174   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

9.10  LONG TRANSMISSION LINE

Line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over
the entire length of the line. Figure 9.7 shows the equivalent circuit
of a three-phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral basis. The
whole line length is divided into n sections, each section having line
constants 1/nth of those for the whole line. The line constants are uni-
formly distributed over the entire length of line as is actually the case.
The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements, whereas
the leakage susceptance (B) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt ele-
ments. The leakage susceptance is due to the fact that capacitance exists
between line and neutral. The leakage conductance takes into account
the energy losses occurring through leakage over the insulators or due
to corona effect between conductors. The leakage current through shunt
admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line and decreases
continuously as the receiving end of the circuit is approached at which
point its value is zero.

9.10.1  Analysis of Long Transmission Line (Rigorous Method)

Figure 9.8 shows one phase and neutral connection of a three-phase line
with impedance and shunt admittance of the line uniformly distributed.
Consider a small element in the line of length dx situated at a distance x
from the receiving end of the line.
Let r be the resistance per-unit length of line, x1, the reactance per-unit
length of line, b, the suseptance per-unit length of line, g, the conduc-
tance per-unit length of line, z, the series impedance of the line per-unit
length = r 2 + x12 , y, the shunt admittance of the line per-unit length
= g 2 + b2 , V, the voltage at a distance x from the receiving end, V + dV,

R XL R XL
n n n n

Vs B G B G Vr
n n n n

Neutral

FIGURE 9.7  Representation of a transmission line showing the distributed

nature of parameters.
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    175

I + dI z dx I

Load
Vs V + dV y dx V Vr

dx x

FIGURE 9.8  Incremental length of the transmission line.

the voltage at distance (x + dx) from the receiving end, I + dI, the current
at distance (x + dx) from the receiving end, and I is at a distance x from
the receiving end.
Then for the small element dx,

z dx = Series impedance

y dx = Shunt admittance

The rise in voltage over the element length in the direction of increasing x.
Obviously, dV = I z dx:

dV
= Iz (9.13)
dx

The difference dI of the current between the two ends of the section
due to leakage current through the shunt admittance y dx of the section
is given by;

dI = V y dx

dI
= yV (9.14)
dx

Differentiating Equation 9.13 wrt x, we get

d2V dI
=z
dx 2 dx
176   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The value of dI/dx is substituted from Equation 9.14 to give

d2V (9.15)
= zyV
dx 2

The solution of the above differential equation is

V = A1e yz x
+ A2e − yz x (9.16)

where A1 and A2 are unknown constants, differentiating Equation 9.16 wrt

x, we get

dV
= yz  A1e yz x
− A2e − yz x  (9.17)
dx  

From Equation 9.13 we have,

dV
= Iz
dx

1
I= yz  A1e yz x − A 2e − yz x 
z  
(9.18)
y
= A e yz x − A 2e − yz x 
z 1 

Equations 9.16 and 9.17 thus give the expressions for V and I in the form
of unknown constants A1 and A2. The values of A1 and A2 can be deter-
mined by receiving-end condition as under

At receiving end = 0, V = Vr and I = Ir

Substituting these values in Equations 9.16 and 9.17, we get

Vr = A1 + A 2 (9.19)

and

Y (9.20)
Ir = [A − A 2 ]
Z 1
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    177

For transmission line z /y is constant, called the characteristic con-

stant Z c, and yz is called propagation constant δ. Both are complex
quantities.
From Equations 9.19 and 9.20, we have

1 z 1
A1 =  Vr + Ir = [V + Z cIr ]
2 y  2 r

1 z 1
A2 =  Vr − Ir = [V − Z cIr ]
2 y  2 r

Thus, the expression for V and I becomes

1 1 (9.21)
V = [Vr + Z cIr ]eδx + [Vr − Z cIr ]e − δx
2 2

 e δx + e − δx   eδx − e − δx 
V = Vr   + Z cIr  
 2   2

or

V = Vr cosh δx + Z cIr sinh δx (9.22)

1  Vr  1V 
I=  + Ir  eδx −  r − Ir  e − δx (9.23)
2  Zc  2 Z
 c 

 eδx + e − δx  Vr  eδx − e − δx 
I = Ir   + Z  
 2 c 2

or

Vr
I = Ir cosh δx + sinh δx (9.24)
Zc
178   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The sending-end voltage Vs and sending-end current Is can be obtained

by substituting x = l in the above Equations 9.23 and 9.24:

Vs = Vr cosh δl + Ir Z csinh δl (9.25)

Vr
Is = Ir cosh δl + sinh δl (9.26)
Zc

Now δl = yzl = yl × zl = YZ , where Z is the total impedance of

the line and Y is the total admittance of the line.
The expression for sending-end voltage and sending-end current is

Vs = Vr cosh YZ + Ir Z c sinh YZ (9.27)

Vr
Is = Ir cosh YZ + sinh YZ (9.28)
Zc

Comparing above equations with the general voltage and current equa-
tions of the line, we define the ABCD parameters:

A = D = cosh YZ

B = Z c sinh YZ

1
C= sinh YZ
Zc

A D − B C = 1 holds for A D − B C = cosh YZ +

2
Therelation

sinh YZ  = 1.
2


Equations 9.25 and 9.26 can be written in matrix form as

 cosh δl Z c sinh δl 
 Vs     Vr 
=
I   1  
 s   Z sinh δl cosh δl   Ir 
 c 
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    179

9.11  EVALUATION OF ABCD CONSTANTS

The hyperbolic functions involved in the transmission line equations are
not easily evaluated with the help of ordinary tables of hyperbolic func-
tions. This is due to the fact that they are functions of complex arguments.
The following methods are used to calculate the hyperbolic functions
cosh δl and sinh δl for determining the ABCD constants for a long trans-
mission line.
We have δ = α + jβ,

1. Use of complex exponential:

eαl e jβl + e − αl e − jβl 1 αl

cosh δl = cosh(αl + jβl ) = = (e ∠βl + e − αl ∠ − βl ) (9.29)
2 2 

eαl e jβl − e − αl e − jβl 1 αl

sinh δl = sinh(αl + jβl ) = = (e ∠βl + e − αl ∠ − βl ) (9.30)
2 2

2. Use of identities: In this method, the hyperbolic sines and cosines of

the complex argument δl can be separated into real and imaginary
parts of the use of following identities. Then

cosh δl = cosh(αl + jβl ) = cosh αl cos βl + j sinh αl sin βl

(9.31)

and

sinh δl = sinh(αl + jβl ) = sinh αl cos βl + j cosh αl sin βl

(9.32)

It should be noted that the unit of βl is the radian.

3. Use of power series: In this method the hyperbolic sine and cosine
are expressed in terms of their power series. The expressions are

δ 2l 2 δ 4 l 4
cosh δl = 1 + + + (9.33)
2! 4!

δ 3l 3 δ 5 l 5 (9.34)
sinh δl = δl + + +
3! 5!
180   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

  The above series converge rapidly for the values of δl usually found
for power lines. Sufficient accuracy can be obtained by taking only
the first two terms. Thus,

δ 2l 2 YZ (9.35)
cosh δl = 1 + = 1+
2! 2

δ 3l 3  1 
sinh δl = δl + = YZ  1 + YZ (9.36)
3!  2 

  Usually above approximation are satisfactory for overhead lines

up to 500 km.

YZ (9.37)
A = D = coshδl = 1 +
2

Z  1   1 
B = Z c sinhδl = × YZ  1 + YZ = Z  1 + YZ (9.38)
Y  2   2 

1 Y  1   1 
C= sinhδl = × YZ  1 + YZ = Y  1 + YZ (9.39)
Zc Z  2   2 

9.12  FERRANTI EFFECT

A long-transmission line has a large capacitance. When a long line is oper-
ating under no-load condition, the receiving-end voltage is greater than
the sending-end voltage. This is known as Ferranti effect. This phenom-
enon can be explained with the following reasoning. It was first noticed
by Ferranti on overhead lines supplying a lightly loaded network. Ferranti
effect is due to charging current of the line. The value of current at the
sending end at no-load and normal operating voltage applied at the send-
ing end is called the charging current.
A simple explanation of Ferranti effect can be given by approximating
the distributed parameters of the line by lumped impedance as shown
in Figure 9.9a. Since usually the capacitive reactance of the line is quite
large as compared to the inductive reactance, under no-load or lightly
loaded condition, the line current is of leading pf. The phasor diagram
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    181

(a) (b)
Is R XL Ir

IC XL
IC
Vs
Vs C Vr IC IC R
Neutral
Vr

FIGURE 9.9  (a) Line representation (lumped) under no-load condition. (b) Its
phasor diagram.

(Figure  9.9b) is given below for this operating condition. The charging
current produces drop in the reactance of the line which is in phase oppo-
sition to the receiving-end voltage and hence the sending-end voltage
becomes smaller than the receiving-end voltage.

9.13  ABCD CONSTANTS

We know that the sending-end quantities, that is, Vs and Is are given by

Vs = AVr + BI r (9.40)

I s = CVr + DI r (9.41)

Similar expressions for Vr and Ir can be found from these equations as

follows.
Multiply Equation 9.40 by C and Equation 9.41 by A, we get

CVs = CAVr + CBI r (9.42)

AI s = ACVr + ADI r (9.43)

Subtracting Equation 9.42 from Equation 9.43,

AI s − CVs = (AD − BC)I r

Since AD − BC = 1 and A = D,

I r = −CVs + DI s (9.44)
182   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Next to eliminate Ir from Equations 9.40 and 9.41, multiply Equation

9.40 by D and Equation 9.41 by B,

DVs = ADVr + BDI r (9.45)

BI s = BCVr + BDI r (9.46)

Subtracting Equation 9.45 from Equation 9.46,

DVs − BI s = (AD − BC)Vr

Again,

AD − BC = 1 and Vr = DVs − BI s (9.47)

9.13.1  Proof for the Relation AD − BC = 1

Consider Figure 9.10a, where a two-terminal pair network with param-
eters A, B, C, and D is connected to an ideal voltage source with zero
internal impedance at one end and the other end being short circuited.
The equation representing this condition is

Vs = E = 0 + BI 2

E (9.48)
I2 =
B

Now we short circuit the sending end and connect the generator at the
receiving end as shown in Figure 9.10b. The positive directions of flow of
current are shown in the figures.

(a) (b)
IS Ir IS Ir
+ A, B, C, D A, B, C, D +
VS E

FIGURE 9.10  (a) Two terminal pair network. (b) Source at the receiving end.
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    183

∴ 0 = AE + BI r (9.49)

Since transmission line is a linear passive bilateral network, therefore

I s = − I 2 = CE + DI r (9.50)

Eliminating Ir from Equations 9.49 and 9.50, we obtain

− AE (9.51)
− I r = CE − D
B

Since from Equation 9.48, I2 = (E/B), Equation 9.51 becomes

E − AE
− = CE + D
B B

or

1 A
− =C−D
B B

or

−1 = BC − AD

or

AD − BC = 1 (9.52)

As is said earlier that if A, B, C, and D parameters are calculated inde-

pendently, Equation 9.52 gives a check on the accuracy of the values
calculated.

9.13.2  Constants for Two Networks in Tandem

Two networks are said to be connected in tandem when the output of one
network is connected to the input of the other network. Let the constants
of these networks be A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2, D2 which are connected
in tandem as shown in Figure 9.11. These two networks could be two
transmission connected to a transmission line, etc.
184   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

IS Ir Ir
A1 B1 A2 B2
VS V Vr
C1 D1 C2 D2

FIGURE 9.11  Two networks in tandem.

The net constants of the system relating the terminal conditions can be
found as follows:

V = D1Vs − B1I s (9.53)

I = −C1Vs + A1I s (9.54)

V = A 2 ⋅ Vr + B2 I r (9.55)

I = C 2Vr + D2 I r (9.56)

From Equations 9.53 and 9.55 and Equations 9.54 and 9.56, respectively,

D1Vs − B1I s = A 2 ⋅ Vr + B2 I r (9.57)

−C1Vs + A1I s = C 2Vr + D2 I r (9.58)

Multiplying Equation 9.57 by A1 and Equation 9.58 by B1 and adding

the resulting equation.

(A1D1 − B1C1 )Vs = (A1A 2 + B1C 2 )Vr + (A1B2 + B1D2 )I r (9.59)

Multiplying Equation 9.57 by C1 and Equation 9.58 by D1 and adding

the resulting equation.

(A1D1 − B1C1 )I s = (A 2C1 + C 2D1 )Vr (B2C1 + D1D2 )I r (9.60)

Since A1D1 − B1C1 = 1, the constants for the two networks in tandem are

A = A1A 2 + B1C 2
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    185

B = A1B2 + B1D2

C = A 2C1 + C 2D1 (9.61)

D = B2C1 + D1D2

The relation is given in matrix form.

If network 2 is at the sending end and 1 is at the receiving end the over-
all constants for the two networks in tandem can be obtained by inter-
changing the subscripts in equation.

9.13.3  Constants for Two Networks in Parallel

In case two networks are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 9.12, the
constants for the overall network can be determined as follows.
For this derivation, it is assumed that the transmission line is a recip-
rocal network (symmetrical network) and we know when two reciprocal
networks are connected in parallel, the resulting network is also reciprocal.
(The resulting network is not reciprocal in case the two networks are con-
nected in tandem.)
Writing the equation for the terminal conditions,

Vs = A1Vr + B1I r1 (9.62)

Vs = A 2Vr + B2 I r2 (9.63)

Is1 A1 B1
C1 D1
Is Ir

Vs Vr

Is2 A2 B2

C2 D2

FIGURE 9.12  Two networks in parallel.

186   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Since the overall expression required is

Vs = AVr + BI r (9.64)

where I r = I r1 + I r2 .
Therefore, multiplying Equations 9.62 and 9.63 by B2 and B1, respec-
tively, and adding, we get

(B1 + B2 )Vs = (A1B2 + A 2B1 )Vr + B1B2 (I r1 + I r2 )

or

A1B2 + A 2B1 BB
Vs = Vr + 1 2 I r (9.65)
B1 + B2 B1 + B2

Comparing the coefficients of Equations 9.64 and 9.65, we get

A1B2 + A 2B1
A=
B1 + B2

and

B1B2
B= (9.66)
B1 + B2

Since transmission line is a symmetrical line is a symmetrical network,

A1B2 + A 2B1 D1B2 + D2B1

A=D= = (9.67)
B1 + B2 B1 + B2

Also since transmission line is a two-terminal pair network,

AD − BC = 1 (9.68)

Using relations (9.66) through (9.68), we obtain

(A1 − A2 )(D2 − D1 )
C = C1 + C 2 + (9.69)
B1 + B2
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    187

9.13.4  Measurement of A, B, C, and D Constants

If a transmission line is already erected, the constants can be obtained
by conducting the open- and short-circuit tests at two ends of the line as
follows.
In Figure 9.13a and b, the connection diagrams for conducting OC and
SC test on the sending end are shown, respectively. Similar connections are
made on the receiving end for performing these tests. Before proceeding fur-
ther to determine the constants, the following impedances are defined as

Zso = Sending-end impedance with receiving-end open circuited

Zss = Sending-end impedance with receiving-end short circuited
Zro = Receiving-end impedance with sending-end open circuited
Zrs = Receiving-end impedance with sending-end short circuited

Using equations

Vs = AVr + BI r (9.70)

I s = CVr + DI r (9.71)

For making impedance measurements on the sending-end side, we get

Vs A
Zso = = for I r = 0 (open-circuit test) (9.72)
Is C

(a)
Is
A
A B
Vs V V′r, I
C D

(b)
Is
A
A B
Vs V Vr = 0
C D

FIGURE 9.13  (a) Open-circuit tests. (b) Short-circuit tests.

188   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Vs B
Zss = = for Vr = 0 (short-circuit test) (9.73)
Is D

It is to be noted here that the impedances are complex quantities, the

magnitudes are obtained by the ratio of the voltage and current and the
angle is obtained with the help of Watt-meter reading.
To determine the impedances on the receiving end the following equa-
tion are made use of

Vr = DVs − BI s (9.74)

I r = −CVs + AI s (9.75)

Since the direction of sending-end current according to the above equa-

tion enters the network, while performing the tests on receiving-end side,
the direction of the current will be leaving the network, therefore, these
equations become

Vr = DVs + BI s (9.76)

− I r = − CVs − AI s

or

I r = CVs + AI s (9.77)

Therefore, for sending-end open-circuits Is = 0,

Vr D
Z ro = = (9.78)
Ir C

And for short-circuit Vs = 0,

Vr B
Z rs = = (9.79)
Ir A
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    189

From Equations 9.78 and 9.79, we obtain

D B AD − BC 1
Z ro − Z rs = − = =
C A AC AC

Z ro − Z rs 1 C 1
= = 2
Z so AC A A

Z so
A= (9.80)
Z ro − Z rs

B
Z rs =
A

Z so
B = AZ rs = Z rs (9.81)
Z ro − Z rs

A
Z so =
C

A 1 Z so
C= = (9.82)
Z so Z so Z ro − Z rs

D
Z ro =
C

Z ro Z so
D = CZ ro =
Z so Z ro − Z rs
1
= Z ro
Z so (Z ro − Z rs )

Since for a symmetric network Zro = Zso,

Z so
D=A= (9.83)
Z ro − Z rs

190   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 9.1
ABCD constants of a 220-kV line are A = D = 0.94∠1°, B = 130∠73°,
and C = 0.001∠90°. If the sending-end voltage of a line for a given
load delivered at nominal voltage is 240 kV, determine the voltage
regulation of the line.

Solution

|VR 0 | − |VR |
Voltage regulation = × 100%
|VR |

The voltage VS at the sending end is

VS = AVR + BIR

When the load is removed,

IR = 0, VR = VR 0

Therefore, VS = AVR0, VR0 = VS/A, where VR0 is the receiving-end

voltage at no-load.

|VS |/|A| − |VR |

Line regulation = × 100%
|VR |
|240/0.94| − |220|
= × 100% = 16.05%
|220||

EXAMPLE 9.2
A 220-kV transmission line represented as T model. Parameters are
A = D = 0.8∠1°, B = 170∠85°, and C = 0.2 × 10−3∠90.4°. Sending-end
voltage = 400 kV. Determine:

1. The receiving-end voltage under no-load condition

2. Increase in receiving-end voltage
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    191

Solution
Receiving-end voltage under no-load condition is

Vs
VR 0 = (∴ IR = 0)
A
220
=
0. 9
= 244.4 kV

The increase in receiving-end voltage = VR 0 − VR

= (244.4 − 220)
= 24.4 kV

EXAMPLE 9.3
Generalized circuit constants of a three-phase, 220-kV rated voltage
medium length are A = D = 0.936 ∠98°, B = 142 ∠76.4°. If the load at
receiving end is 50 MW at 220 kV with a pf 0.9 (lagging), determine
the magnitude of line to line sending-end voltage.

Solution

Sending-end line toneutral voltage = AVR + BIR

 220 × 103 
= (0.936∠98°)  
 3 
+ 142∠76.4° × IR (9.84)


Power at the receiving end,

PR = 3 × Line voltage at the receiving end × Line current

at the receiving end × pf

PR = 3 × VR × I R × cos φ

50 × 106 = 3 × 220 × 103 × I R × 0.9

192   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

I R =145.8∠ − cos −1 (0.9)

=145.8∠ − 25.8° A

 220 × 103 
Sending-end line-to-neutral = (0.936∠98°)  
 3 
+ 142∠776.4° × 145.8∠ − 25.8°
= 133∠7.77° V

∴ Sending-end line to line = 3 × 133∠7.77° V

= 230.78 kV

EXAMPLE 9.4
Three-phase, 50 Hz transmission line of length 100 km has a capac-
itance (0.03/π)μF/km. It is represented as π model. Determine the
shunt admittance at each end of transmission line.

Solution
Capacitance of each end of a π model = C/2

Y 1  1 
∴ Admittance = = j
2 2  XC 
1  1 
= j
2  XC 
1 1
= jωC = j2πfC
2 2
1  0.03 
= j(2π × 50)  × 100
2  π 
= j150 × 10−6 Siemens
= 150 × 10−6 ∠90° Siemen
ns

Therefore, the shunt admittance is 150 × 10−6∠90° Siemens.

EXAMPLE 9.5
Estimate the distance over which a load of 10,000 kW at a pf 0.8
lagging can be delivered by a three-phase transmission line having
 Performance of Transmission Lines    ◾    193

conductors each of resistance 1.5 Ω/km. The voltage at the receiving

end is to be 66 kV and the loss in the transmission is to be 5%.

Solution

Power delivered
Line current, I =
3 × Line voltage × Power factor
1000 × 103
= = 109.346 A
3 × 66 × 103 × 0.8

Line losses = 5% of power delivered = 0.05 × 10,000 = 500 kW

Let R Ω be the resistance of one conductor.
Line losses = 3I2R

500 × 103 = 3 × (109.346)2 × R

500 × 103
R= = 13.94 Ω
3 × (109.346)2

Resistance of each conductor per kilometer is 1.5 Ω (given).

13.94
∴ Length of line = km = 9.2928 km
1. 5

EXERCISES

1. What is the purpose of an overhead transmission line? How are these

lines classified?
2. Discuss the terms voltage regulation and transmission efficiency as
applied to transmission line.
3. Deduce an expression for voltage regulation of a short transmission
line, giving the vector diagram.
4. What is the effect of load power factor on regulation and efficiency of
a transmission line?
5. What do you understand by medium transmission lines? How
capacitance effects are taken into account in such lines?
194   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

6. Show how regulation and transmission efficiency are determined for

medium lines using
a. Nominal T method
b. Nominal π method
Illustrate your answer with suitable vector diagrams.
7. What do you understand by long transmission lines? How capaci-
tance effects are taken into account in such lines?
8. Using rigorous method, derive expressions for sending-end voltage
and current for a long transmission line.
9. What do you understand by generalized circuit constants of a trans-
mission line? What is their importance?
10. Evaluate the generalized circuit constants for
a. Short transmission line
b. Medium line—nominal T method
c. Medium line—nominal π method
 Chapter 10

Underground Cables

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Cables are used for transmission and distribution of electrical energy in
highly populated areas of towns and cities. Cables form the artery sys-
tem for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy. A cable is
basically an insulated conductor. External protection against mechanical
injury, moisture entry, and chemical reaction is provided on the cable. The
conductor is usually aluminum or annealed copper, while the insulation is
mostly polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other chemical compounds.
Transmission line is more expensive than overhead lines, especially at
high potentials. Besides increase in temperature is high in cables. However,
there is limitation of raising the operating voltage. In low and medium
voltage distribution in urban areas, cables are more widespread.
An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors
covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover.
In general, a cable must fulfill the following necessary requirements:

• The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or

aluminum of high conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor
may become flexible and carry more current.
• The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired
load current without overheating and causes voltage drop within
permissible limit.
• The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high
degree of safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.

195
196   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

• The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so

that it may withstand the rough use in laying it.
• The material used in the manufacture of cables should be such that
there is complete chemical and physical stability throughout.

10.2  INSULATING MATERIALS FOR CABLES

The satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great extent upon the
characteristics of insulation used. Therefore, the proper choice of insu-
lating material for cables is of considerable importance. In general, the
insulating materials used in cables should have the following properties:

1. High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.

2. High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
3. High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of
cables.
4. Nonhygroscopic, that is, it should not absorb moisture from air or
soil. The moisture tends to decrease the insulation resistance and
hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case, the insulating material
is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead
sheath.
5. Noninflammable.
6. Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
7. Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.

None insulating material possesses all the above-mentioned properties.

Therefore, the type of insulating material to be used depends upon the pur-
pose for which the cable is required and the quality of insulation to be aimed
at. The principal insulating materials used in cables are rubber, vulcanized
India rubber (VIR), impregnated paper, varnished cambric, and PVC.

Rubber:  Rubber may be obtained from milky sap of tropical trees

1.
or it may be produced from oil products. It has relative permittiv-
ity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength is about 30 kV/mm,
and resistivity of insulation is 1017 Ω cm. Although pure rubber has
reasonably high insulating properties, it suffers from some major
 Underground Cables    ◾    197

drawbacks viz., readily absorbs moisture, maximum safe tempera-

ture is low (about 38°C), soft and liable to damage due to rough han-
dling, and ages when exposed to light. Therefore, pure rubber cannot
be used as an insulating material.

VIR:  It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter such

2.
as zinc oxide, red lead, etc., and 3%–5% of sulfur. The compound so
formed is rolled into thin sheets and cut into strips. The rubber com-
pound is then applied to the conductor and is heated to a temperature of
about 150°C. The whole process is called vulcanization and the product
obtained is known as VIR. VIR has greater mechanical strength, dura-
bility, and wear resistant property than pure rubber. Its main drawback
is that sulfur reacts very quickly with copper and for this reason, cables
using VIR insulation have tinned copper conductor. The VIR insula-
tion is generally used for low and moderate voltage cables.

Impregnated paper: It consists of chemically pulped paper made

3.
from wood chippings and impregnated with some compound such as
paraffinic or naphthenic material. This type of insulation has almost
superseded the rubber insulation. It is because it has the advantages
of low cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength, and high insu-
lation resistance. The only disadvantage is that paper is hygroscopic
and even if it is impregnated with suitable compound, it absorbs
moisture and thus lowers the insulation resistance of the cable. For
this reason, paper-insulated cables are always provided with some
protective covering and are never left unsealed. If it is required to be
left unused on the site during laying, its ends are temporarily covered
with wax or tar. Since the paper insulated cables have the tendency to
absorb moisture, they are used where the cable route has a few joints.
For instance, they can be profitably used for distribution at low volt-
ages in congested areas where the joints are generally provided only
at the terminal apparatus. However, for smaller installations, where
the lengths are small and joints are required at a number of places,
VIR cables will be cheaper and durable than paper-insulated cables.

Varnished cambric:  It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with

4.
varnish. This type of insulation is also known as empire tape. The
cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the form of a tape and its
surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly compound to allow for the
sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent. As the varnished
198   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

cambric is hygroscopic, such cables are always provided with metal-

lic sheath. Its dielectric strength is about 4 kV/mm and permittivity
is 2.5–3.8.

PVC: This insulating material is a synthetic compound. It is

5.
obtained from the polymerization of acetylene and is in the form
of white powder. For obtaining this material as a cable insulation, it
is compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers which
are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticizer forms a gel and
renders the material plastic over the desired range of temperature.
PVC has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength, and
mechanical toughness over a wide range of temperatures. It is inert
to oxygen and almost inert to many alkalies and acids. Therefore,
this type of insulation is preferred over VIR in extreme environmen-
tal conditions such as in cement factory or chemical factory. As the
mechanical properties (i.e., elasticity, etc.) of PVC are not as good as
those of rubber, PVC-insulated cables are generally used for low and
medium domestic lights and power installations.

10.3  CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

Figure 10.1 shows the general construction of a three-conductor cable. The
various parts are as follows.

Conductor
Paper
insulation

Lead sheath

Bedding

Armoring

Serving

FIGURE 10.1  General construction of a three-conductor cable.

 Underground Cables    ◾    199

Cores or conductor:  A cable may have one or more than one core (con-
1.
ductor) depending upon the type of service for which it is intended.
For instance, the three-conductor cable shown in Figure 10.1 is used
for three-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or
aluminum and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to
the cable.

Insulation:  Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thick-

2.
ness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the
cable. The commonly used materials for insulation are impregnated
paper, varnished cambric, or rubber mineral compound.

Metallic sheath:  In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases

3.
or other damaging liquids (acids or alcohols) in the soil and atmo-
sphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminum is provided over the
insulation.

Bedding:  Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which

4.
consists of a fibrous material like jute or hessian type. The purpose of
bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from
mechanical injury due to armoring.

Armoring:  Over the bedding, armoring is provided which consists

5.
of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose
is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it and
during the course of handling.

Serving:  In order to protect armoring from atmospheric conditions,

6.
a layer of fibrous material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided
over the armoring. This is known as serving.

10.4  CLASSIFICATION OF CABLE

Cables for underground service may be classified into two ways:

1. The type of insulating material used in their manufacture.

2. The voltage for which they are manufactured.

However, the latter method of classification is generally preferred,

according to which cables can be divided into the following groups:
200   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

1. Low-tension (LT) cables—up to 1000 V

2. High-tension (HT) cables—up to 1100 V
3. Super-tension (ST) cables—from 22 to 33 kV
4. Extra high-tension (EHV) cables—from 33 to 66 kV
5. Extra super-voltage cables—beyond 132 kV

A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type
of service for which it is intended. It may be (a) single core, (b) two cores,
(c) three cores, and (d) four cores.
For a three-phase service, either three single core cables or three cores
can be used depending upon the operating voltage and load demand. For
three-phase, four-wire system, four-core cables may be used.
The constructional details of a single-core, low-tension cable is shown
in Figure 10.2. The cable has ordinary construction because the stress
developed in the cable for low voltage (up to 6600 V) is generally small.
It consists of one circular core of tinned stranded copper (or aluminum)
insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation is surrounded by
a lead sheath that prevents the entry of moisture into the inner parts. In
order to project the lead sheath from corrosion, an overall serving of com-
pounded fibrous material (jute, etc.) is provided. Single core cables are not
usually armored in order to avoid excessive sheath losses. The principal
advantages of single core cables are simple construction and availability
of larger copper section.

Serving

Lead
sheath

Stranded Impregnated
copper paper
conductor

FIGURE 10.2  Constructional details of a single-core, low-tension cable.

 Underground Cables    ◾    201

10.5  CABLES FOR THREE-PHASE SERVICE

In practice, underground cables are generally required to deliver three-
phase power. For the purpose, either three-core cable or three single-core
cables may be used. For voltages up to 66 kV, three-core cable (i.e., multi-
core construction) is preferred due to economic reasons. However, for
voltages beyond 66 kV, three-core cables become too large and unwieldy
and, therefore, single-core cables are used. The following types of cables
are generally used for three-phase service:

1. Belted cables—up to 11 kV

2. Screened cables—from 22 to 66 kV
3. Pressure cables—beyond 66 kV

10.5.1  Belted Cables

These cables are used for voltages up to 11 kV but in extraordinary cases,
their use may be extended up to 22 kV. Figure 10.3 shows the construc-
tional details of a three-core belted cable. The cores are insulated from
each other by layers of impregnated paper. Another layer of impregnated
paper tape, called paper belt, is wound round the grouped insulated cores.
The gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating mate-
rial (jute, etc.) so as to give circular cross-section to the cable. The cores
are generally stranded and may be of noncircular shape to make better
use of available space. The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the
cable against ingress of moisture and mechanical injury. The lead sheath

Lead sheath
Thickness of
insulation
between
conductor and
sheath

Paper belt

Thickness of insulation
between conductors

FIGURE 10.3  Three-core belted cable.

202   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

is covered with one or more layers of armoring with an outer serving (not
shown in the figure).
The belted type construction is suitable only for low and medium volt-
age, as the electrostatic stresses developed in the cables for these voltages
are more or less radial, that is, across the insulation. However, for high
voltages (beyond 22 kV), the tangential stresses also become important.
These stresses act along the layers of paper insulation. As the insulation
resistance of paper is quite small along the layers, therefore, tangential
stresses setup leakage current along the layers of paper insulation. The
leakage current causes local heating, resulting in the risk of breakdown of
insulation at any moment. In order to overcome this difficulty, screened
cables are used where leakage currents are conducted to earth through
metallic screens.

10.5.2  Screened Cables

These cables are meant for use up to 33 kV, but in particular cases, their
use may be extended to operating voltages up to 66 kV. Two principal
types of screened cables are H-type cables and separate lead (SL)-type
cables.

H-type cables:  This type of cable was first designed by H. Hochstadter

1.
and hence the name. Figure 10.4 shows the constructional details of
a typical three-core, H-type cable. Each core is insulated by layers
of impregnated paper. The insulation on each core is covered with
a metallic screen which usually consists of a perforated aluminum
foil. The cores are laid in such a way that metallic screens make
contact with one another. An additional conducting belt (copper
woven fabric tape) is wrapped round the three cores. The cable has

Lead sheath
Bedding
Conducting
Armoring belt
Paper
insulation
Metallic
screen
Serving

FIGURE 10.4  Typical three-core, H-type cable.

 Underground Cables    ◾    203

no insulating belt but lead sheath, bedding, armoring, and serving

follow as usual. It is easy to see that each core screen is in electri-
cal contact with the conducting belt and the lead sheath. As all the
four screens (three-core screens and one conducting belt) and the
lead sheath are at earth potential, the electrical stresses are purely
radial and consequently dielectric losses are reduced. Two principal
advantages are claimed for H-type cables. Firstly, the perforations in
the metallic screens assist in the complete impregnation of the cable
with the compound and thus the possibility of air pockets or voids
(vacuous spaces) in the dielectric is eliminated. The voids if present
tend to reduce the breakdown strength of the cable and may cause
considerable damage to the paper insulation. Secondly, the metallic
screens increase the heat dissipating power of the cable.

SL-type cables: Figure 10.5 shows the constructional details of a

2.
three-core, SL-type cable. It is basically H-type cable but the screen
round each core insulation is covered by its own lead sheath. There is
no overall lead sheath but only armoring and serving are provided.
The SL-type cables have two main advantages over H-type cables.
Firstly, the separate sheaths minimize the possibility of core-to-core
breakdown. Secondly, bending of cables becomes easy due to the
elimination of overall lead sheath. However, the disadvantage is that
the three lead sheaths of SL cable are much thinner than the single
sheath of H-cable and, therefore, call for greater care in manufacture.

10.5.2.1  Limitations of Solid-Type Cables

All the cables of above construction are referred to as solid-type cables
because solid insulation is used and no gas or oil circulates in the cable

Lead covering

Conductor

Cotton tape
Armoring

Serving

FIGURE 10.5  Three-core SL type cable.

204   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

sheath. The voltage limit for solid type cables is 66 kV due to the following
reasons:

1. As a solid cable carries the load, its conductor temperature increases

and the cable compound (i.e., insulating compound over paper)
expands. This action stretches the lead sheath which may be damaged.
2. When the load on the cable decreases, the conductor cools and a
partial vacuum is formed within the cable sheath. If the pinholes are
present in the lead sheath, moist air may be drawn into the cable.
The moisture reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may
eventually cause the breakdown of the cable.
3. In practice, voids are always present in the insulation of a cable.
Modern techniques of manufacturing have resulted in void free
cables. However, under operating conditions, the voids are formed
as a result of the differential expansion and contraction of the sheath
and impregnated compound. The breakdown strength of voids
is considerably less than that of the insulation. If the void is small
enough, the electrostatic stress across it may cause its breakdown.
The voids nearest to the conductor are the first to break down, the
chemical and thermal effects of ionization causing permanent dam-
age to the paper insulation.

10.5.3  Pressure Cables

For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid-type cables are unreliable because there
is a danger of breakdown of insulation due to the presence of voids.
When the operating voltages are greater than 66 kV, pressure cables are
used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by increasing the pressure of
compound and for this reason they are called pressure cables. Two types
of pressure cables viz. oil-filled cables and gas pressure cables are com-
monly used.

10.5.3.1  Oil-Filled Cables

In such types of cables, channels or ducts are provided in the cable for
oil circulation. The oil under pressure (it is the same oil used for impreg-
nation) is kept constantly supplied to the channel by means of external
reservoirs placed at suitable distances (say 500 m) along the route of the
cable. Oil under pressure compresses the layers of paper insulation and is
forced into any voids that may have formed between the layers. Due to the
 Underground Cables    ◾    205

elimination of voids, oil-filled cables can be used for higher voltages, the
range being from 66 kV to 230 kV. Oil-filled cables are of three types viz.,
single-core conductor channel, single-core sheath channel, and three-core
filler-space channels.
Figure 10.6 shows the constructional details of a single-core conduc-
tor channel, oil-filled cable. The oil channel is formed at the center by
stranding the conductor wire around a hollow cylindrical steel spiral
tape. The oil under pressure is supplied to the channel by means of exter-
nal reservoir. As the channel is made of spiral steel tape, it allows the
oil to percolate between copper strands to the wrapped insulation. The
oil pressure compresses the layers of paper insulation and prevents the
possibility of void formation. The system is so designed that when the oil
gets expanded due to increase in cable temperature, the extra oil collects
in the reservoir. However, when the cable temperature falls during light
load conditions, the oil from the reservoir flows to the channel. The dis-
advantage of this type of cable is that the channel is at the middle of the
cable and is at full voltage wrt earth, so that a very complicated system of
joints is necessary.
Figure 10.7 shows the constructional details of a single-core sheath
channel oil-filled cable. In this type of cable, the conductor is solid similar
to that of solid cable and is paper insulated. However, oil ducts are provided
in the metallic sheath as shown. In the three-core, oil-filled cable shown in
Figure 10.8, the oil ducts are located in the filler spaces. These channels are
composed of perforated metal-ribbon tubing and are at earth potential.
The oil-filled cables have three principal advantages. Firstly, formation of
voids and ionization are avoided. Secondly, allowable temperature range
and dielectric strength are increased. Thirdly, if there is leakage, the defect

Conductors
Serving
Oil duct
Bedding

Lead
sheath

Paper
insulation

FIGURE 10.6  Single-core conductor channel, oil-filled cable.

206   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Oil channels

Paper
insulation

Conductor

Grooved
sheath

FIGURE 10.7  Single-core sheath channel oil-filled cable.

in the lead sheath is at once indicated and the possibility of earth faults
is decreased. However, their major disadvantages are the high initial cost
and complicated system of laying.

10.5.3.2  Gas Pressure Cables

The voltage required to set up ionization inside a void increases as the
pressure is increased. Therefore, if ordinary cable is subjected to a suf-
ficiently high pressure, the ionization can be altogether eliminated. At
the same time, the increased pressure produces radial compression which
tends to close any voids. This is the underlying principle of gas pressure
cables.
Figure 10.9 shows the section of external pressure cable designed by
Hochstadter, Vogal, and Bowden. The construction of the cable is similar
to that of an ordinary solid type except that it is of triangular shape and
thickness of lead sheath is 75% that of solid cable. The triangular section
reduces the weight and gives low thermal resistance but the main reason

Oil ducts

Lead sheath

Conductor

Paper
insulation

FIGURE 10.8  Three-core oil-filled cable.

 Underground Cables    ◾    207

FIGURE 10.9  External pressure cable.

for triangular shape is that the lead sheath acts as a pressure membrane.
The sheath is protected by a thin metal tape. The cable is laid in a gas-tight
steel pipe. The pipe is filled with dry nitrogen gas at 12–15 atmospheres.
The gas pressure produces radial compression and closes the voids that
may have formed between the layers of paper insulation. Such cables can
carry more load current and operate at higher voltages than a normal
cable. Moreover, maintenance cost is small and the nitrogen gas helps in
quenching any flame. However, it has the disadvantage that the overall
cost is very high.

10.6  LAYING OF UNDERGROUND CABLES

The reliability of underground cable network depends to a considerable
extent upon the proper laying and attachment of fittings, that is, cable
end boxes, joints, branch connectors, etc. There are three main methods
of laying underground cables viz., direct laying, draw-in system, and the
solid system.

10.6.1  Direct Laying

Direct laying system is shown in Figure 10.10. This method of laying
underground cables is simple and cheap and is much favored in modern
practice. In this method, a trench of about 1.5 m deep and 45 cm wide is
dug. The trench is covered with a layer of fine sand (of about 10 cm thick-
ness) and the cable is laid over this sand bed. The sand prevents the entry
of moisture from the ground and thus protects the cable from decay. After
the cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered with another layer of
sand of about 10 cm thickness.
208   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Trench

Concrete
cover

Cable

Sand bed

FIGURE 10.10  Direct laying system.

The trench is then covered with bricks and other materials in order to
protect the cable from mechanical injury. When more than one cable is to be
laid in the same trench, a horizontal or vertical inter-axial spacing of at least
30 cm is provided in order to reduce the effect of mutual heating and also to
ensure that a fault occurring on one cable does not damage the adjacent cable.
Cables to be laid in this way must have serving of bituminized paper and hes-
sian tape so as to provide protection against corrosion and electrolysis.
Advantages:

1. It is a simple and less costly method.

2. It gives the best conditions for dissipating the heat generated in the
cables.
3. It is a clean and safe method as the cable is invisible and free from
external disturbances.

Disadvantages:

1. The extension of load is possible only by a completely new excavation

which may cost as much as the original work.
2. The alterations in the cable network cannot be made easily.
3. The maintenance cost is very high.
4. Localization of fault is difficult.
5. It cannot be used in congested areas where excavation is expensive
and inconvenient.
 Underground Cables    ◾    209

This method of laying cables is used in open areas where excavation can
be done conveniently and at low cost.

10.6.2  Draw-in System

In this method, conduit or duct of glazed stone or cast iron or concrete
is laid in the ground with manholes at suitable positions along the cable
route. The cables are then pulled into position from manholes. Figure 10.11
shows section through four-way underground duct line. Three of the ducts
carry transmission cables and the fourth duct carries relay protection con-
nection, pilot wires. Care must be taken that where the duct line changes
direction; depths, dips, and offsets be made with a very long radius or it
will be difficult to pull a large cable between the manholes. The distance
between the manholes should not be too long so as to simplify the pulling
in of the cables. The cables to be laid in this way need not be armored but
must be provided with serving of hessian and jute in order to protect them
when being pulled into the ducts.
Advantages:

1. Repairs, alterations, or additions to the cable network can be made

without opening the ground.
2. As the cables are not armored, joints become simpler and mainte-
nance cost is reduced considerably.
3. There are very less chances of fault occurrence due to strong mechan-
ical protection provided by the system.

Disadvantages:

1. The initial cost is very high.

Ducts

Concrete
covering

FIGURE 10.11  Four-way underground duct line.

210   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2. The current carrying capacity of the cables is reduced due to the

close grouping of cables and unfavorable conditions for dissipation
of heat.

This method of cable laying is suitable for congested areas where exca-
vation is expensive and inconvenient, for once the conduits have been
laid, repairs or alterations can be made without open undergrounding the
ground. This method is generally used for short length cable routes such as in
workshops, road crossings where frequent digging is costlier or impossible.

10.6.3  Solid System

In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes or troughs dug
out in earth along the cable route. The toughing is of cast iron, stoneware,
asphalt, or treated wood. After the cable is laid in position, the trough-
ing is filled with a bituminous or asphaltic compound and covered over.
Cables laid in this manner are usually plain lead covered because trough-
ing affords good mechanical protection.
Disadvantages:

1. It is more expensive than direct laid system.

2. It requires skilled labor and favorable weather conditions.
3. Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current carrying capacity
of the cable is reduced.

In view of these disadvantages, this method of laying underground

cables is rarely used nowadays.

10.7  INSULATION RESISTANCE OF A SINGLE-CORE CABLE

The cable conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulating
material in order to prevent leakage current. The path for leakage cur-
rent is radial through the insulation. The opposition offered by insula-
tion to leakage current is known as insulation resistance of the cable.
For satisfactory operation, the insulation resistance of the cable should
be very high.
Consider a single-core cable of conductor radius r1and internal sheath
radius r2 as shown in Figure 10.12. Let l be the length of the cable and ρ be
the resistivity of the insulation.
 Underground Cables    ◾    211

dx
r1

x
r2

FIGURE 10.12  Cross-sectional view of a single-core cable for measurement of

insulation resistance.

Consider a very small layer of insulation of thickness dx at a radius x.

The length through which leakage current tends to flow is dx and the area
of cross-section offered to this flow is 2πxl.
Therefore, insulation resistance of considered layer is

dx
ρ
2πxl

Insulation resistance of the whole cable is

r2 r2
dx ρ dx
R= ρ
∫ =
2πxl 2πl x ∫
r1 r1

ρ r
R= log e 2
2πl r1

This shows that insulation resistance of a cable is inversely proportional

to its length. In other words, if the cable length increases, its insulation
resistance decreases and vice versa.

10.8  CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-CORE CABLE

The single-core cable can be considered to be equivalent to two co-axial
cylinders. The conductor of the cable is the inner cylinder while the outer
cylinder is represented by lead sheath which is at the earth potential.
Consider a single core cable with conductor diameter d and inner sheath
diameter D (Figure 10.13). Let the charge per meter axial length of the
cable be Q coulombs and ε be the permittivity of the insulation material
212   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

between core and lead sheath. Obviously ε = ε0 εr, where εr is the relative
permittivity of the insulation.
Consider a cylinder of radius x meters and axial length l meter. The
surface area of this cylinder is = 2πx × 1 = 2πx m2.
Therefore, electric flux density at point P on the considered cylinder is
Dx = (Q/2πx)c/m2.
Electric intensity at point P, Ex = (Dx/ε) = Q/(2πxε0εr) V/m.
Potential difference between the capacitor plates (between core and
sheath):
D /2 D /2
Q Q D
∫
V = E x dx =
∫ 2πxε ε dx = 2πε ε log
0 r 0 r
e
d
d /2 d /2

Capacitance of the cable is

Q Q
C= = F/m
V (Q /2πε 0 ε r )log e (D /d )

or
2πε 0 ε r 2πε r × 8.854 × 10−12
c= F/m = F/m
log e (D /d ) 2.303 log10 (D /d )
εr
= × 10−9 F/m
41.4 log10 (D /d )

If the cable has a length of l meters, then capacitance of the cable is

εr l
= × 10−9 F/m
41.4 log10 (D /d )

Sheath

d/2 dx

D x
2
P

FIGURE 10.13  Cross-sectional view of a single-core cable for measurement of

capacitance.
 Underground Cables    ◾    213

10.9  DIELECTRIC STRESS IN A SINGLE-CORE CABLE

Under the operating conditions, the insulation of a cable is subjected to
electrostatic forces. This is known as dielectric stress. The dielectric stress
at any point in a cable is in fact the potential gradient (or electric intensity)
at that point.
Consider a single core cable with diameter d and internal sheath diam-
eter D.
Electric intensity at a point x meters from the center of the cable is

Q
Ex = V/m
2πε 0 ε r x

By definition, electric intensity is equal to potential gradient. Therefore,

potential gradient s at a point x meters from the center of cable is

g = Ex

or

Q
g = V/m (10.1)
2πε 0 ε r x

Now potential difference V between conductor and sheath is

Q D
V = log e V
2πε 0 ε r d

or

2πε 0 ε rV
Q= (10.2)
log e (D /d )

Substituting the value of Q from Equation 10.2 in Equation 10.1,

(2πε 0 ε rV /log e (D /d )) V
g = = V/m (10.3)
2πε 0 ε r x x log e (D /d )

It is clear from Equation 10.3 that potential gradient varies inversely

as the distance x. Therefore, potential gradient will be maximum when x
214   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

is minimum that is, when x = d/2 or at the surface of the conductor. On

the other hand, potential gradient will be minimum at x = D/2 at sheath
surface.
Putting x = d/2 in Equation 10.3, maximum potential gradient is

2V
g max = V/m
d log e (D /d )

Putting x = D/2 in Equation 10.3, minimum potential gradient is

2V
g min = V/m
D log e (D /d )

g 2V /(d log e (D /d )) D
∴ g max = =
min 2V /(D log e (D /d )) d

The variation of stress in the dielectric is shown in Figure 10.14. It is

clear that the dielectric stress is maximum at the conductor surface and
its value goes on decreasing as we move away from the conductor. It may
be noted that maximum stress is an important consideration in the design
of a cable. For instance, if a cable is to be operated at such a voltage that
maximum stress (at the conductor surface) is 5 kV/mm, then the insula-
tion used must have a dielectric strength of at least 5 kV/mm, otherwise
breakdown of the cable will become inevitable.

10.10  MOST ECONOMICAL CONDUCTOR SIZE IN A CABLE

It has already been shown that maximum stress in a cable occurs at the
surface of the conductor. For safe working of the cable, dielectric strength
of the insulation should be more than the maximum stress. Rewriting the
expression for maximum stress, we get

2V
g max = V/m
d log e (D /d )
(10.4)

The values of working voltage V and internal sheath diameter D have

to be kept fixed at certain values due to design considerations. This
 Underground Cables    ◾    215

εr

d
D 2
2

gmax

gmin

FIGURE 10.14  Cross-sectional view of a single-core cable for measurement of

dielectric stress.

leaves conductor diameter d to be the only variable in Equation 10.4.

For given values of V and D, the most economical conductor diameter
will be one for which gmax will be minimum when d loge D/d is maxi-
mum, that is,

d  D
 d log e  = 0
dd  d

or

D d −D
log e +d⋅ ⋅ 2 = 0
d D d

or

D
log e −1 = 0
d

or

D D
log e =1 = e = 2.718
d d
216   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Therefore, most economical conductor diameter is d = D /2.718 and as

putting loge(D/d) = 1 in Equation 10.4, the value of gmax under this condi-
tion is

2V
g max = V/m
d

For low- and medium-voltage cables, the value of conductor diameter

arrived at by this method (i.e., d = 2V/gmax) is often too small from the
point of view of current density. Therefore, the conductor diameter of such
cable is determined from the consideration of safe current density. For
high-voltage cables, design based on this theory give a very high value of
d, much too large from the point of view of current carrying capacity and
it is, therefore, advantageous to increase the conductor diameter to this
value. There are three ways of doing this without using excessive copper:

1. Using aluminum instead of copper because for the same current,

diameter of aluminum will be more than that of copper.
2. Using copper wires stranded round a central core of hemp.
3. Using a central lead tube instead of hemp.

10.11  GRADING OF CABLES

The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of
cables is known as grading of cables.
It has already been shown that electrostatic stress in a single core cable
has a maximum value (gmax) at the conductor surface and goes on decreas-
ing as we move toward the sheath. The maximum voltage that can be
safely applied to a cable depends upon gmax, that is, electrostatic stress at
the conductor surface. For safe working of a cable homogeneous dielectric,
the strength of dielectric must be more than gmax. If a dielectric of high
strength is used for a cable, it is useful only near the conductor where it
is maximum. But as we move away from the conductor, the electrostatic
stress decreases. So the dielectric will be unnecessarily overstrong.
The unequal stresses distribution in a cable is undesirable for two
­reasons. Firstly, insulation of greater thickness is required which increases
the cable size. Secondly, it may lead to the breakdown of insulation. In
order to overcome above disadvantages, it is necessary to have a uniform
stress distribution in cables. This can be achieved by distributing the stress
 Underground Cables    ◾    217

in such a way that its value is increased in the outer layers of dielectric.
This is known as grading of cables. The following are the two main meth-
ods of grading of cables:

1. Capacitance grading
2. Intersheath grading

10.11.1  Capacitance Grading

The process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric stress by using layer
of different dielectrics is known as capacitance grading.
In capacitance grading, the homogeneous dielectric is replaced by a
composite dielectric. The composite dielectric consists of various layers
of different dielectrics in such a manner that relative permittivity εr of
any layer is inversely proportional to its distance from the center is shown
in Figure 10.15. Under such conditions, the value of potential gradient at
any point in the dielectric is constant and is independent of its distance
from the center. In other words, the dielectric stress in the cable is same
everywhere and the grading is ideal one. However, ideal grading requires
the use of an infinite number of dielectric which is an impossible task. In
practice, two or three dielectrics are used in the decreasing order of per-
mittivity. The dielectric of highest permittivity being used near the core.

ε3 ε2 ε1

d
2

d1
2 d2
D 2
gmax 2

FIGURE 10.15  Capacitance grading.

218   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

There are three dielectrics of outer diameter d1, d2, and D and rela-
tive permittivity ε1, ε2, and ε3, respectively. If the permitivities such that
ε1 > ε2 > ε3 and three dielectric are worked at the same maximum stress,
then

1 k
εr ∝ , ∴ εr ∝
x x

where k is a constant.

Q Q Q
= = = constant
2πε 0 ε r x 2πε 0 (k / x )x 2πε 0 k

This shows that if the condition ε r ∝ (1/ x ) is fulfilled, potential gradi-

ent will be content throughout the dielectric cable.

Q Q Q
g 1max = , g 2 max = , g 3max =
2πε 0 ε1d πε 0 ε 2d1 πε 0 ε 3d2

If g1max = g1max = g2max = g3max = gmax (say), then

1 1 1
= =
ε1d ε 2d1 ε 3d2

∴ ε1d = ε 2d1 = ε 3d2

Potential difference across the linear layer is

d1 /2 d1 /2
Q Q d g d
V1 =
∫ g dx =
∫ 2πε 0 ε1x
dx =
2πε 0 ε1
log e 1 = max d log e 1
d 2 d
d /2 d /2

Similarly, potential across second layer (V2) and third layer (V3) is
given by

g max d g D
V2 = d1 log e 2 , V3 = max d2 log e
2 d1 2 d2
 Underground Cables    ◾    219

Total potential difference between core and earthed sheath is

g max  d1 d2 D
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = d log e d + d1 log e d + d2 log e d 
2  2 
1

If the cable had homogeneous dielectric, then for the same values of
d, D, and gmax, the permissible potential difference between core earthed
sheath would have been

g max D
V′ = d log e
2 d

Obviously V > V ′, that is, for given dimensions of the cable, a

graded cable can be worked at a greater potential than nongraded cable.
Alternatively, for the same safe potential, the size of graded cable will be
less than that of nongraded cable. The following points may be noted:

1. As the permissible values of gmax are peak values, therefore all the
voltages in above expressions should be taken as peak values and not
the rms values.
2. If the maximum stress in the three dielectrics is not the same, then,

g 1max d g d g D
V = d log e 1 + 2 max d1 log e 2 + max d2 log e
2 d 2 d1 2 d2

The principal disadvantage of this method is that there are a few high-
grade dielectrics of reasonable cost whose permitivities vary over the
required range.

10.11.2  Intersheath Grading

In this method of cable grading, a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it
is divided into various layers by placing metallic intersheaths between the
core and lead sheath. The intersheaths are held at suitable potentials which
are in between the core potential and the earth potential. This arrange-
ment improves voltage distribution in the dielectric of the cable and con-
sequently more uniform potential gradient is obtained.
220   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Consider a cable of core diameter d and outer lead sheath of diameter D

shown in Figure 10.16. Suppose that two intersheaths of diameters d1 and
d2 are inserted into the homogeneous dielectric and maintained at some
fixed potentials. Let V1, V2, and V3, respectively, be the voltage between
core and intersheaths 1, between intersheaths 1 and 2 and between inter-
sheath 2 and outer lead sheath. As there is a definite potential difference
between the inner and outer layers of each intersheath, therefore each
sheath can be treated like a homogeneous single core cable.
Therefore, maximum stress between core and intersheath 1 is

V1
g 1max =
(d /2)log e (d1 /d )

Similarly,

V2
g 2 max =
(d1 /2)log e (d2 /d1 )

V3
g 3 max =
(d2 /2)log e (D /d2 )

Lead
sheath

Inter-
sheath 1

Inter-
sheath 2
d
2
d1
2 d2
2
D
2
gmax

FIGURE 10.16  Intersheath grading.

 Underground Cables    ◾    221

Since the dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress in each layer

is the same, that is, g1max = g2max = g3max = gmax (say)

V1 V2 V3
∴ = =
(d /2)log e (d1 /d ) (d1 /2)log e (d2 /d1 ) (d2 /2)log e (D /d2 )

As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, all the potential are
in phase, that is, voltage between conductor and earthed lead sheath is

V = V1 + V2 + V3

Disadvantages

1. There are complications in fixing the sheath potentials.

2. The intersheaths are likely to be damaged during transportation and

insulation which might result in local concentration of potential
gradient.
3. There are considerable losses in the intersheaths due to charging.

For this reasons, intersheath grading is rarely used.

10.12  CAPACITANCE IN A THREE-CORE-BELTED CABLE

The conductors in a cable are separated from each other by the dielec-
tric. Similarly, there is dielectric between the conductors and the sheath.
When a potential difference is applied between the conductors the cable,
in effect, is a combination of six capacitances. The capacitances between
the conductors are represented by Cc. While those between conductors
and the sheath by Cs (or Ce). Thus a three-phase, belted cable may be rep-
resented by a system of capacitances connected in star and delta as shown
in Figure 10.17.
The delta-connected capacitances Cc may be replaced by equivalent star
connect capacitances C1 (Figure 10.18). The capacitances between pairs of
terminals will be the same in the two systems.
Capacitance between a and b in the delta system = Cc + 0.5 Cc = 1.5 Cc
and the capacitance between A and B in the star system = 0.5C1.
222   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

A
Ce
A
Cc Cc Cs
Cc Cc
S
B C
Cc Ce Cs Cs
Ce
B C
Cc

FIGURE 10.17  Capacitance in a three-core belted cable.

For the two systems to be equivalent,

1.5Cc = 0.5C1

or

C1 = 3Cc

The cable may, therefore, be represented by Figure 10.19. If the neutral

point N of the system be earthed, and the sheath be also at zero potential,
N and S will become equipotential, and Figure 10.19 then becomes equiva-
lent to that shown in Figure 10.20.
Since C1 and Cs are in parallel, they are combined into a single capaci-
tance (C1 + Cs).
Finally, we see that the system of capacitances in a cable is reduced
to a system of three star-connected capacitances (Figure 10.21). The
­capacitances of each conductor to neutral or equivalent capacitance is
given by

C0 = C1 + Cs = 3Cc + Cs

A
A

CC CC C1

C1
C1
B C
CC B C

FIGURE 10.18  Equivalent star connect capacitances.

 Underground Cables    ◾    223

CS

C1
N
C1 C1

B C
CS CS

S S

FIGURE 10.19  Equivalent circuit capacitances of a three-core belted cable.

If VL = line voltage, Vp = phase voltage, the charging current per phase is

VL
I c = Vp ωC0 = ω(3Cc + Cs )A
3

The charging kVA/phase = VpIc × 10−3.

Total charging kVA = 3VpIc × 10−3 = 3VL I c × 10−3 kVA.
It is to be noted that C0 is the capacitance between any conductor and
screen for a three-core screened cable.

C1 CS

N
C1 C1

CS CS

B C

FIGURE 10.20  Equivalent circuit with C1 and CS in parallel.

224   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

C0

N
C0
C0

B C

FIGURE 10.21  Final equivalent circuit with three capacitances in star connection.

10.13  MEASUREMENT OF CC AND CS

Cable capacitance is determined from actual measurements instead
of relying on the results obtained from the geometry of the cable. The
­nonuniformity of the insulation material, the variation in the shape of
conductors, and the use of fillers make it difficult to estimate the capaci-
tance of a cable from its diameter. The following tests are generally
performed:

1. One conductor, say C, is connected to the sheath or insulated and

the capacitance is measured between the remaining two conductors
A and B. Figure 10.22a then reduced to Figure 10.22b.
The total capacitance CL measured between the cores A and B is

C c + Cs 1 1
CL = Cc + = (3Cc + Cs ) = C0
2 2 2

The single measurement is sufficient for calculating the charging

current per conductor.
2. The three conductors are connected or bunched together (Figure
10.23) and the capacitance is measured between this bunch and the
sheath. Let it be denoted by Cb. Here Cc becomes zero and Cb = 3Cs.
Two conductors, say A and B, are joined together and the capaci-
tance is measured between them and the remaining conductor. The
arrangement then becomes as shown in Figure 10.24.
 Underground Cables    ◾    225

(a) A (b)
A

CC CS
CC
CC CS
S

CS CS CC
C
B C
CC
CC CS

FIGURE 10.22  (a) Conductor C is connected to the sheath. (b) Equivalent circuit
of (a).

The capacitance between B and C = Cc + Cc + (2/3)Cc = (2/3)

(3Cc + Cs) = (2/3)C0
3. Two conductors say B and C are connected to sheath and the capaci­tance
measured between these and the third conductor A (Figure 10.25).

The capacitance measured in this case = Cs + Cc + Cc = 2Cc + Cs.

From the above tests the value of Cc and Cs can also be determined
separately.

10.14  CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY

The safe current carrying capacity of an underground cable is determined
by the maximum permissible temperature rise. The cause of temperature
rise is the losses that occur in a cable which appear as heat. These losses are

CS Sheath
CS
A
CS
A, B, C S
CS
B CS
C
CS

FIGURE 10.23  Conductors A, B, and C are bunched together.

226   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

CC
A

CC
B C

CS CS

CS

FIGURE 10.24  Two conductors A and B are joined together.

1. Copper losses in the conductor

2. Hysteresis losses in the dielectric
3. Eddy current losses in the sheath

The safe working temperature is 65°C for armored cables and 50°C for
lead-sheathed cables laid in ducts. The maximum steady temperature con-
ditions prevail when the heat generated in the cable is equal to the heat
dissipated. The heat dissipation of the conductor losses is by conduction
through the insulation to the sheath from which the total loss (including

CC CC
CS

B C

FIGURE 10.25  Two conductors B and C are connected to the sheath.

 Underground Cables    ◾    227

dielectric and sheath losses) may be conducted to the earth. Therefore, in

order to find permissible current loading, the thermal resistivities of the
insulation, the protective covering, and the soil must be known.

10.15  THERMAL RESISTANCE

The thermal resistance between two points in a medium (e.g., insulation)
is equal to temperature difference between these points divided by the
heat flowing between them in a unit time. That is, thermal resistance is

Temperature difference between point D

S=
Heat flowing in a unit time

In SI units, heat flowing in a unit time is measured in watts.

Therefore, thermal resistance is

Temperature rise (t )
S=
Watts dissipated (P )

or

t
S=
P

The SI unit of thermal resistance is °C per watt. This is called thermal

ohm.
Like electric resistance, thermal resistance is directly proportional to
length L in the direction of transmission of heat and inversely propor-
tional to the cross-section area a at right angles to that direction

L
∴S ∝
a

or

L
S=k
a

where k is the constant of proportionality and known as thermal resistiv-

ity k = (Sa / L).
Unit of k = (Thermal ohm × m2/m) = Thermal ohm meter.
228   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

10.16 THERMAL RESISTANCE OF DIELECTRIC

OF A SINGLE-CORE CABLE
Let us now find the thermal resistance of the dielectric of a single-core
cable.
Let r be the radius of the core in meter, r1, the inside radius of the sheath
in meter, and k, the thermal resistivity of the insulation (i.e., dielectric).
Consider 1 m length of the cable. The thermal resistance of small
­element of thickness dx at radius x is in Figure 10.26.

dx
dS = k ×
2πx

Therefore, thermal resistance of the dielectric is

r1
dx
S= k×
∫
r
2πx
r1
k dx
=
2π x ∫
r

Therefore, S = (k /2π)log e (r1/r ) thermal ohms per meter length of the

cable.
The thermal resistance of lead sheath is small and is generally neglected
in calculations.

r r1

X
dx

FIGURE 10.26  Cross-sectional view of single-core cable.

 Underground Cables    ◾    229

10.17  TYPES OF CABLE FAULTS

Cables are generally laid directly in the ground or in ducts in the under-
ground distribution system. For this reason, there are little chances of
faults in underground cables. However, if a fault does occur, it is dif-
ficult to locate and repair the fault because conductors are not visible.
Nevertheless, the following are the faults most likely to occur in under-
ground cables.

Open-circuit fault. When there is a break in the conductor of a cable,

1.
it is called open-circuit fault. The open-circuit fault can be checked
by a megger. For this purpose, the three conductors of the three-core
cable at the far end are shorted and earthed. Then resistance between
each conductor and earth is measured by a megger. The megger will
indicate zero resistance in the circuit of the conductor that is not
broken. However, if the conductor is broken, the megger will indi-
cate infinite resistance in its circuit.
Short-circuit fault. When two conductors of a multi-core cable come
2.
in electrical contact with each other due to insulation failure, it is
called a short-circuit fault. Again, we can seek the help of a megger
to check this fault. For this purpose, the two terminals of the megger
are connected to any two conductors. If the megger gives zero read-
ing, it indicates short-circuit fault between these conductors. The
same step is repeated for other conductors taking two at a time.
Earth fault. When the conductor of a cable comes in contact with
3.
earth, it is called earth fault or ground fault. To identify this fault,
one terminal of the megger is connected to the conductor and the
other terminal connected to earth. If the megger indicates zero
reading, it means the conductor is earthed. The same procedure is
repeated for other conductors of the cable.

10.18 LOOP TESTS FOR LOCATION OF FAULTS

IN UNDERGROUND CABLES
There are several methods for locating the faults in underground cables.
However, two popular methods known as loop tests are

1. Murray loop test

2. Varley loop test
230   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

These simple tests can be used to locate the earth fault or short-circuit fault
in underground cables provided that a sound cable runs along the faulty cable.
Both these tests employ the principle of Wheatstone bridge for fault location.

10.18.1  Murray Loop Test

The Murray loop test is the most common and accurate method of locat-
ing earth fault or short-circuit fault in underground cables.

10.18.1.1  Earth Fault

Figure 10.27 shows the circuit diagram for locating the earth fault by
Murray loop test. Here AB is the sound cable and CD is the faulty cable;
the earth fault occurring at point F. The far end D of the faulty cable is
joined to the far end B of the sound cable through a low resistance link.
Two variable resistances P and Q are joined to ends A and C, respectively,
and serve as the ratio arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
Let R be resistance of the conductor loop up to the fault from the test
end, and X, resistance of the other length of the loop.
Note that P, Q, R, and X are the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge. The
resistances P and Q are varied till the galvanometer indicates zero deflection.
In the balanced position of the bridge, we have

P R
=
Q X

Test end Far end

R
P A Sound cable B

G
Low
K2 resistance
Q C Faulty cable D connection
K1 X F

+
B
– Earth fault

E
Earth path

FIGURE 10.27  Circuit diagram for locating the earth fault by Murray loop test.
 Underground Cables    ◾    231

or

P R
+1 = +1
Q X

or

P +Q R+ X
=
Q X

If r is the resistance of each cable, then R + X = 2r .

P + Q 2r
∴ =
Q X

or

Q
X= × 2r
P +Q

If l is the length of each cable in meters, then resistance per meter length
of cable = r/1.
Therefore, distance of fault point from test end is

X Q 1 Q
d= = × 2r × = × 2l
(r /l ) P + Q r P +Q

or

Q
d= × (Loop length) meters
P +Q

Thus the position of the fault is located. Note that resistance of the
fault is in the battery circuit and not in the bridge circuit. Therefore, fault
resistance does not affect the balancing of the bridge. However, if the fault
resistance is high, the sensitivity of the bridge is reduced.
232   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

10.18.1.2  Short-Circuit Fault

Figure 10.28 shows the circuit diagram for locating the short-circuit fault
by Murray loop test. Again P, Q, R, and X are the four arms of the bridge.
Note that fault resistance is in the battery circuit and not in the bridge
circuit. The bridge in balanced by adjusting the resistances P and Q. In the
balanced position of the bridge:

P R
=
Q X

or

P + Q R + X 2r
= =
Q X X

Q
∴X = × 2r
P +Q

or

Test end Far end

R
P A Sound cable B
G
Low
K2 resistance
Q C Faulty cable D
+ connection
B X
–
Short circuit
fault

K1

FIGURE 10.28  Circuit diagram for locating the short-circuit fault by Murray
loop test.
 Underground Cables    ◾    233

Q
d= × (Loop length) meters
P +Q

Thus, the position of the fault is located.

10.18.2  Varley Loop Test

The Varley loop test is also used to locate earth fault or short-circuit fault in
underground cables. This test also employs Wheatstone bridge ­principle.
It differs from Murray loop test in that here the ratio arms P and Q are
fixed resistances. Balance is obtained by adjusting the variable resistance
S connected to the test end of the faulty cable. The connection diagrams
for locating the earth fault and short-circuit fault by Varley loop test are
shown in Figure 10.29 and Figure 10.30, respectively.
For earth fault or short-circuit fault, the key S1 is first thrown to posi-
tion 1. The variable resistance S is varied till the bridge is balanced for
resistance value of S1. Then,
P R
=
Q X + S1

or
P + Q R + X + S1
=
Q X + S1

Test end Far end

R
P Sound cable
G
Low
K1 resistance
Q S Faulty cable connection
+
B X
–

K2 2

FIGURE 10.29  Circuit diagram for locating the earth fault by Varley loop test.
234   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Far end
Test end R
P Sound cable
G
Low
K1 resistance
Q S connection
+
B X
–
Short circuit
2
fault

K2
1

Faulty cables

FIGURE 10.30  Circuit diagram for locating the short-circuit fault by Varley loop
test.

or

Q(R + X ) − PS1
X= (10.5)
P +Q

Now, key K2 is thrown to position 2 (for earth fault or short-circuit

fault) and bridge is balanced with new value of resistance S2. Then,

P R+X
=
Q S2

or

(R + X )Q = PS2 (10.6)

From Equations 10.5 and 10.6, we get

P (S2 − S1 )
X=
P +Q
 Underground Cables    ◾    235

Since the values of P, Q, S1, and S2 are known, the value of X can be
determined.

P
Loop resistance = R + X = S
Q 2

If r is the resistance of the cable per meter length, then distance of fault
from the test end is

X
d= m
r

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 10.1
The insulation resistance of a single-core cable is 500 MΩ/km. If the
core diameter is 3 cm and resistivity of insulation is 3.5 × 1014 Ω cm,
find the insulation thickness.

Solution
Length of cable, l = 1 km = 1000 m
Cable insulation resistance, R = 500 MΩ = 500 × 106 Ω
Conductor radius, r1 = (3/2) = 1.5 cm
Resistivity of insulation, ρ = 3.5 × 1014 Ω cm = 3.5 × 1012 Ω m
Let r2 centimeter be the internal sheath radius.
ρ r
Now, R = log e 2
2πl r1
or

r2 2πlR 2π × 1000 × 500 × 106

log e = = = 0.897
r1 ρ 3.5 × 1012
or

r2
2.3 log10 = 0.897
r1

or

r2 0.897
= Antilog = 2.45
r1 2. 3
236   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

or

r2 = 2.45r1 = 2.45 × 1.5 = 3.68 cm

∴ Insulation thickness = R2 − r1 = 3.68–1.5 = 2.18 cm.

EXAMPLE 10.2
A single core cable for use on 11 kV, 50 Hz system has conductor area
of 0.5 cm2 and internal diameter of sheath is 3 cm. The p ­ ermittivity
of the dielectric used in the cable is 3. Find (1) the maximum
­electrostatic stress in the cable, (2) minimum electrostatic stress in
the cable, (3) capacitance of the cable per kilometer length, and (4)
charging current.

Solution
Area of cross-section of conductor, a = 0.5 cm2
Diameter of the conductor,

4a 4 × 0. 5
d= = = 0.798 cm
π π

Internal diameter of sheath, D = 3 cm.

1. Maximum electrostatic stress in the cable is

2V 2 × 11
g max = = = 20.82 kV/cmrms
d log e (D /d ) 0.798 log e (3/0.798)

2. Minimum electrostatic stress in the cable is

2V 2 × 11
g min = = = 5.53 kV/cmrms
D log e (D /d ) 3 log e (3/0.798)

εr l
3. Capacitance of cable, C =  41.4 log (D /d ) × 10 F
−9
10
Here εr = 3, l = 1 km = 1000 m

3 × 1000
C= × 10−9  = 0.125 × 10−6 F = 0.125 µF
41.4 log10 (3/0.798)
 Underground Cables    ◾    237

4. Charging current, Ic = (V/XC) = 2πfCV = 2π × 50 × 0.125

× 10−6 × 11,000 = 0.413 A

EXAMPLE 10.3
Find the most economical size of a single-core cable working on a
66 kV, three-phase system, if a dielectric stress of 40 kV/cm can be
allowed.

Solution
Phase voltage of cable =  (66/ 3 )  = 38.10 kV
Peak value of phase voltage, V = 38.10 ×  2  = 53.88 kV
Maximum permissible stress, gmax = 40 kV/cm
Therefore, most economical conductor diameter is

2V 2 × 53.88
d= = = 2.64 cm
g max 40

Internal diameter of sheath, D = 2.718 d = 2.718 × 2.64 = 7.32 cm.

Therefore, the cable should have a conductor diameter of 2.64 cm
and internal sheath diameter of 7.32 cm.

EXAMPLE 10.4
A single core cable employing three layers of insulation with dielec-
tric constant Er1  = 8, Er2  = 6, and Er3  = 4, respectively, has conductor
of radius 3 cm. Assuming that all the three insulating materials are
worked at a same maximum potential gradient, work out the potential
difference in kV between core and earthed sheath. The inner radius of
the sheath is 3 cm and the maximum potential gradient is 50 kV/cm.

Solution
Diameter of conductor = 2  × 1.5 = 3 cm
The diameter over the insulation, D = 2 × 3.0 = 6 cm
Maximum potential gradient, gmax = 50 kV/cm
Let the diameters over the insulation of relative permittivities 8
and 6 be d1 and d2, respectively.
As the maximum stress in three dielectric is same

Er1 d = Er2 d1 = Er3 d2

238   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

or

Er1 8
d1 = d = × 3 = 4 cm
Er2 6

and

Er1 8
d2 = d = × 3 = 6 cm
Er3 4

Permissible peak voltage for the cable is

g max 
d log (ed1 / d ) + d1 log e 2 1 + d2 log e 2 
(d /d ) ( D /d )

2  

50
3 log (e4 /3) + 4 log (e6/ 4 ) + 6 log (e6/6)  = 62.12 kV
2 

So working voltage (rms) for the cable =  (62.12/ 2 )  = 43.92 kV.

EXAMPLE 10.5
A 33 kV, single core metal sheathed cable is to be guarded by means
of a metallic inter sheath. Calculate the diameter of inter sheath
and the voltage at which it must be maintained in order to obtain
minimum overall cable diameter. The maximum voltage gradient at
which the insulating material can be worked is 40 kV/cm.

Solution
RMS value of cable voltage, Vmax = 33 kV
Peak value of cable voltage = 33 ×  2  = 46.67 kV
Maximum permissible potential gradient of dielectric,
gmax = 40 kV/cm
Let d be the conductor diameter, d1, the outer diameter of the
insulating layer, and D, the outer diameter of outer insulating layer.
If V1 =  potential difference between core and sheath and
V2 = potential difference between inter sheath and the outer sheath,
then
 Underground Cables    ◾    239

V1 V2
g max = =
(d /2)log 5 (d1 /d ) (d1 /2)log 5 (D /d1 )

For minimum overall diameter of the cable, conductor diameter,

d, is

2Vmax 2 × 46.67
d= = = 0.858 cm
e × g max 2.71828 × 40

Diameter of inter sheath = e × d = 2.71828 × 0.858 = 2.33 cm.

Voltage between conductor and inter sheath is

V 46.67
V1 = = = 17.17 kV
e 2.71828

Voltage between the inter sheath and sheath overall is

V − V1 = 46.67 − 17.17 = 29.50 kV

EXERCISES

1. Compare the merits and demerits of underground system versus

overhead system.
2. With a neat diagram, show the various parts of a high voltage single-
core cable.
3. What should be the desirable characteristics of insulating materials
used in cables?
4. Describe briefly some commonly used insulating materials for
cables.
5. What is the most general criterion for the classification of cables?
Draw the sketch of a single-core, low-tension cable and label the var-
ious parts.
6. Draw a neat sketch of the cross-section of the following:
a. Three-core belted cable
240   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

b. H-type cable
c. SL-type cable
7. What are the limitations of solid-type cables? How are these over-
come in pressure cables?
8. Write a brief note on oil-filled cables.
9. Describe the various methods of laying underground cables. What
are the relative advantages and disadvantages of each method?
10. Derive an expression for the insulation resistance of a single-core
cable.
11. Deduce an expression for the capacitance of a single-core cable.
12. Show that maximum stress in a single-core cable is

2V
d log e (D /d )

where V is the operating voltage, and d and D are the conductor and
sheath diameter.
13. Prove that gmax/gmin in a single-core cable is equal to D/d.
14. Find an expression for the most economical conductor size of a
­single core cable.
15. Explain the following methods of cable grading:
a. Capacitance grading
b. Intersheath grading
16. Write short notes on the following:
a. Laying of 11 kV underground power cable
b. Capacitance grading in cables
c. Capacitance of three-core belted cables
17. Derive an expression for the thermal resistance of dielectric of a
­single-core cable.
 Underground Cables    ◾    241

18. What do you mean by permissible current loading of an under-

ground cable?
19. With a neat diagram, describe Murray loop test for the location of (i)
earth fault and (ii) short-circuit fault in an underground cable.
20. Describe Varley loop test for the location of earth fault and short-
circuit fault in an underground cable.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 11

Distribution Systems

11.1 INTRODUCTION
The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyed to
the consumers through a network of transmission and distribution sys-
tems. It is often difficult to draw a line between the transmission and
distribution systems of a large power system. The transmission and dis-
tribution systems are similar to a human circulatory system. The trans-
mitting system may be compared to arteries in the human body and
distribution system with capillaries. They serve the same purpose of
supplying the ultimate consumer in the city with the life giving blood of
civilization—electricity.
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use
is known as distribution system.
In the general distribution system is the electric system between the
substation fed by the transmitting system and the consumers’ meters. It
mostly consists of feeders, distributors, and the service main. Figure 11.1
shows the single-line diagram of a typical low-tension distribution sys-
tem. Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the
most significant factor responsible for delivering expert service to the
­consumers. For this purpose, design of feeders and distributors requires
careful consideration.

Feeders. A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation to

1.
the area where power is to be distributed. Generally no tapings
are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same
throughout. A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current

243
244   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

s
ain B
m
ice
rv
Se

Feeder Feeder
C S A

Feeder
Se
rv
ic
em
ai
ns D

FIGURE 11.1  Typical distribution system.

carrying capacity while the voltage drop consideration is relatively

­unimportant. It is because voltage drop in a feeder can be compen-
sated by means of voltage regulating equipment at the substation.
Distributor. A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are
2.
taken for supply to the consumers. In Figure 11.1, AB, BC, CD, and
DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not con-
stant because tapings are taken from various places along its length.
A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop
in it. It is because a distributor supplies power to the consumers and
there is a statutory limit of voltage variations at the consumer’s ter-
minals (±6% of rated value). The size and length of the distributor
should be such that voltage at the consumer’s terminals is within the
permissible limits.
Service mains. A service main is generally a small cable which con-
3.
nects the distributor to the consumer’s terminal.

11.2  CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

A distribution system may be classified in various ways:

1. According to nature of current, the distribution systems may be clas-

sified as
a.
DC distribution systems
b.
AC distribution systems
 Distribution Systems    ◾    245

2. According to the type of construction, the distribution systems may

be classified as
a. Overhead systems
b. Underground systems
3. According to the scheme of connection, the distribution systems
may be classified as
a. Radial systems
b. Ring main systems
c. Interconnected systems
4. According to the number of wires, the distribution systems may be
classified as
a. Two-wire systems
b. Three-wire systems
c. Four-wire systems
5. According to the character of service, the distribution systems may
be classified as
a. General light and power
b. Industrial power
c. Railway
d. Street lighting

11.3  DC DISTRIBUTION
It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively generated,
transmitted, and distributed as AC. However, for certain applications, DC
supply is absolutely necessary. For instance, DC supply is required for the
operation of variable speed machinery (i.e., DC motors), for electrochemical
work and for congested areas where storage battery reserves are necessary.
For this purpose, AC power is converted into DC power at the substation by
using converting machinery, for example, mercury arc rectifiers, rotary con-
verters, and motor-generator sets. The DC supply from the substation may
be obtained in the form of (a) two wires or (b) three wires for distribution.
246   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

V L L M

FIGURE 11.2  Two-wire DC distribution system.

+
V L
Neutral 2V
M
wire
V
–

FIGURE 11.3  Three-wire DC distribution system.

11.3.1  Two-Wire DC System

This system of distribution consists of two wires. One is the outgoing or
positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire. The loads such
as lamps, motors, etc., are connected in parallel between the two wires as
shown in Figure 11.2. This system is never used for transmission purposes
due to low efficiency but may be employed for distribution of DC power.

11.3.2  Three-Wire DC System

It consists of two outer and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the
substation. The voltage of the outer is twice the voltage between outer and
neutral wire, as shown in Figure 11.3. The principal advantage of this sys-
tem is that it makes available two voltage at the consumer terminals viz.,
V between any outer and the neutral and 2V at the outer. Loads requiring
high voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outer, whereas lamps
and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected between outer
and neutral.

11.4  CONNECTION SCHEMES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In
practice, the following distribution circuits are generally used.

11.4.1  Radial System

In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the
distributors at one end only. Figure 11.4a shows a single-line diagram of a
 Distribution Systems    ◾    247

(a) Feeder Distributor (b) Feeder Distributor

B B
Loads
Loads

11 kV/400 V, 230 V
Sub- Sub-
station O A C station O A C
Feeder Feeder

Feeder Feeder

FIGURE 11.4  (a) Radial DC distribution system. (b) Radial AC distribution system.

radial system for DC distribution, where a feeder OC supplies a distributor

AB at point A. Obviously, the distributor is fed at one end only, that is, point
A is this case. Figure 11.4b shows a single-line diagram of radial system for
AC distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is gener-
ated at low voltage, and the substation is located at the center of the load.
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks:

1. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily
loaded.
2. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distrib-
utor. Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off sup-
ply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the
substation.
3. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be sub-
jected to serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distribu-
tor changes.

11.4.2  Ring Main System

In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The
loop circuit starts from the substation bus bars, makes a loop through
the area to be served, and returns to the substation. Figure 11.5 shows
the single-line diagram of ring main system for AC distribution, where
substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors are
tapped from different points M, O, and Q of the feeder through distribu-
tion transformers.
248   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Distributor Loads

L F N
M
Distributor
Sub- S Primary
O
station ring
Loads
Q
R P
Distribution
Transformer

Distributor Loads

FIGURE 11.5  Ring main AC distribution system.

Advantages:

1. There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.

2. The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via two feeders.
In the event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of
supply is maintained. For example, suppose that fault occurs at any
point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then section SLM of the feeder
can be isolated for repairs and at the same time continuity of supply
is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.

11.4.3  Interconnected System

When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating sta-
tions or substations, it is called interconnected system. Figure 11.6 shows
the single-line diagram of interconnected system where the closed feeder
ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C,
respectively. Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q, and R of the
feeder ring through distribution transformers.
Advantages:

1. It increases the service reliability.

2. Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can
be fed from the other generating station. This reduces reserve power
capacity and increases efficiency of the system.
 Distribution Systems    ◾    249

Distributor
Loads
S1 S2
D C
P
Distributor Q Distributor
O

Loads Loads
R
A B
Distribution
Transformer

Distributor Loads

FIGURE 11.6  Interconnected system.

11.5  TYPES OF DC DISTRIBUTORS

The most general method of classifying DC distributors is the way they are
fed by the feeders. On this basis, DC distributors are classified as

1. Distributor fed at one end

2. Distributor fed at both ends
3. Distributor fed at the center
4. Ring distributor

11.5.1  Distributor Fed at One End

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at one
end, and loads are taken at different points along the length of the dis-
tributor. Figure 11.7 shows the single-line diagram of a DC distributor AB
fed at the end A (also known as singly fed distributor) and loads I1, I2, and
I3 tapped off at points C, D, and E, respectively.

A I1 +I2 +I3 C I2 +I3 D I3 E B

I1 I2 I3

FIGURE 11.7  Distributor fed at one end.

250   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The following points are worth noting in a singly fed distributor:

1. The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feed-
ing point goes on decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more
than the current in section CD and current in section CD is more
than the current in section DE.
2. The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on
decreasing. Thus in Figure 11.7, the minimum voltage occurs at the
load point E.
3. In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole
distributor will have to be disconnected from the supply mains.

11.5.2  Distributor Fed at Both Ends

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply mains
at both ends and loads are tapped off at different points along the length
of the distributor. The voltage at the feeding points may or may not be
equal. Figure 11.8 shows a distributor AB fed at the ends A and B and
loads of I1, I2, and I3 tapped off at points C, D, and E, respectively. Here, the
load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding point
say A, reaches minimum value, and then again starts rising and reaches
maximum value when we reach the other feeding point B. The minimum
voltage occurs at some load point and is never fixed. It is shifted with the
variation of load on different sections of the distributor.
Advantages:

1. If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continu-

ity of supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
2. In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of
supply is maintained from the other feeding point.
3. The area of cross-section required for a doubly fed distributor is
much less than that of a singly fed distributor.
A C D E B

I1 I2 I3

FIGURE 11.8  Distributor fed at both ends.

 Distribution Systems    ◾    251

A I1 I1 +I2 C I3 +I4 I4 B

I1 I2 I3 I4

FIGURE 11.9  Distributor fed at the center.

I1

Distributor ring
B
Feeder
A C I2
D

I3

FIGURE 11.10  Ring mains distributor.

11.5.3  Distributor Fed at the Center

In this type of feeding, the center of the distributor is connected to the
supply mains as shown in Figure 11.9. It is equivalent to two singly fed
distributors, each distributor having a common feeding point and length
equal to half of the total length.

11.5.4  Ring Mains

In this type, the distributor is in the form of a closed ring as shown in
Figure 11.10. It is equivalent to a straight distributor fed at both ends with
equal voltage, the two ends being brought together to form a closed ring.
The distributor ring may be fed at one or more than one point.

11.6  DC DISTRIBUTION CALCULATIONS

In addition to the methods of feeding discussed above, a distributor may
have

1. Concentrated loading
2. Uniform loading
3. Both concentrated and uniform loadings
252   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The concentrated loads are those which act on particular points of

the distributor. A common example of such loads is that tapped off for
domestic use. On the other hand, distributed loads are those which act
uniformly on all points of the distributor. Ideally, there are no distributed
loads. However, a nearest example of distributed load is a large number
of loads of same wattage connected to the distributor at equal distances.
In DC distribution calculations, one important point of interest is the
determination of point of minimum potential on the distributor. The point
where it occurs depends upon the loading conditions and the method of
feeding the distributor. The distributor is so designed that the minimum
potential on it is not less than 6% of rated voltage at the consumer’s terminals.

11.7 DC DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END—

CONCENTRATED LOADING
Figure 11.11 shows the single-line diagram of a two-wire DC distributor
AB fed at one end A and having concentrated loads I1, I2, I3, and I4 tapped
off at points C, D, E, and F, respectively.
Let r1, r2, r3, and r4 be the resistances of both wires (go and return) of the
sections AC, CD, DE, and EF of the distributor, respectively.

Current fed from point A = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4

Current in section AC = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
Current in section CD = I2 + I3 + I4
Current in section DE = I1I3 + I4
Current in section EF = I4
Voltage drop in section AC = r1(I1 + I2 + I3 + I4)
Voltage drop in section CD = r2(I2 + I3 + I4)
Voltage drop in section DE = r3(I3 + I4)

A C D E F B
r1 r2 r3 r4

I1 I2 I3 I4

FIGURE 11.11  DC distributor fed at one end with concentrated loading.

 Distribution Systems    ◾    253

Voltage drop in section EF =r4I4

∴ Total voltage drop in the distributor

= r1 (I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 ) + r2 (I 2 + I 3 + I 4 ) + r3 (I 3 + I 4 ) + r4 I 4

It is easy to see that the minimum potential will occur at point F, which
is farthest from the feeding point A.

11.8 DC DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END—UNIFORMLY

LOADED
Figure 11.12 shows the single-line diagram of a two-wire DC distribu-
tor AB fed at one end A and loaded uniformly with i amperes per meter
length. It means that at every 1 m length of the distributor, the load tapped
is i amperes. Let l meters be the length of the distributor and r ohm be the
resistance per meter run.
Consider a point C on the distributor at a distance x meters from the
feeding point A as shown in Figure 11.13. Then current at point C is

Current = il − ix ampere = i(1 − x ) ampere

Now, consider a section of very small length dx near point C. Its resis-
tance is r dx and the voltage drop over length dx is,

dv = i(l − x )r dx = ir (l − x ) dx

A B

i i i i

FIGURE 11.12  DC distributor fed at one end with uniform loading.

l
C
A B
x dx

FIGURE 11.13  Point C on the distributor at a distance x meters from the feeding
point A.
254   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Total voltage drop in the distributor up to point C is

x
 x2 
∫
v = ir (l − x )dx = ir  lx − 
 2
0

The voltage drop up to point B (i.e., over the whole distributor) can be
obtained by putting x = l in the above expression.

∴ Voltage drop over the distributor AB

 l2 
= ir  l × l − 
 2
1 1 1
= irl 2 = (il )(rl ) = IR
2 2 2

where il = I, the total current entering at point A, and rl = R, the total resis-
tance of the distributor.
Thus, in a uniformly loaded distributor fed at one end, the total volt-
age drop is equal to that produced by the whole of the load assumed to be
concentrated at the middle point.

11.9 DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS—CONCENTRATED

LOADING
The two ends of the distributor may be supplied with (1) equal voltage
and (2) unequal voltage.

11.9.1  Two Ends Fed with Equal Voltage

Consider a distributor AB fed at both ends with equal voltage V volts and
having concentrated loads I1, I2, I3, I4, and I5 at points C, D, E, F, and G,
respectively, as shown in Figure 11.14. As we move away from one of the
feeding points, say A, voltage goes on decreasing till it reaches the minimum
value at some load point, say E, and then again starts rising and becomes V
A C D E F G B

x y

V V
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5

FIGURE 11.14  Distributor fed at both ends at equal voltage with concentrated
loading.
 Distribution Systems    ◾    255

volts as we reach the other feeding point B. All the current tapped off between
points A and E (minimum pd point) will be supplied from the feeding point
A, while those tapped off between B and E will be supplied from the feeding
point B. The current tapped off at point E itself will be partly supplied from A
and partly from B. If these current are x and y, respectively, then

I3 = x + y

Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that at the point of

minimum potential, current comes from both ends of the distributor.

11.9.1.1  Point of Minimum Potential

It is generally desired to locate the point of minimum potential. There is a
simple method for it. Consider a distributor AB having three concentrated
loads I1, I2, and I3 at points C, D, and E, respectively. Suppose that current
supplied by feeding end A is IA. Then current distribution in the various
sections of the distributor can be worked out as shown in Figure 11.15a.
Thus

I AC = I A , I CD = I A − I1
I DE = I A − I1 − I 2 , I EB = I A − I1 − I 2 − I 3

Voltage drop between A and B = Voltage drop over AB
or
V − V = I A RAC + (I A − I1 )RCD + (I A − I1 − I 2 )RDE
+(I A − I1 − I 2 − I 3 )REB

From this equation, the unknown IA calculated as the values of other
quantities are generally given. Suppose actual directions of current in the
various sections of the distributor are indicated in Figure 11.15b. The load
point where the current are coming from both sides of the distributor is the
point of minimum potential, that is, point E in this case.
(a) A C D E B (b) A C D E B

IA

V V V V
I1 I2 I3 I1 I2 I3

FIGURE 11.15  (a) Current distribution in the various sections of the distributor.
(b) Actual directions of current in the various sections of the distributor.
256   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

A C D E F B

V1 V2
I1 I2 I3 I4

FIGURE 11.16  Distributor fed at both ends at unequal voltage with concentrated
loading.

11.9.2  Two Ends Fed with Unequal Voltage

Figure 11.16 shows the distributor AB fed with unequal voltage; end A
being fed at V1 volts and end B at V2 volts. The point of minimum potential
can be found by following the same procedure as discussed above.

Voltage drop between A and B = Voltage drop over AB

or V1 − V2 = Voltage drop over AB

11.10 DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS—UNIFORMLY

LOADED
11.10.1  Distributor Fed at Both Ends with Equal Voltage
Consider a distributor AB of length l meters, having resistance r ohms
per meter run and with uniform loading of i amperes per meter run as
shown in Figure 11.17. Let the distributor be fed at the feeding points A
and B at equal voltage, say V volts. The total current supplied to the dis-
tributor is il. As the two end voltage are equal, current supplied from each
feeding point is il/2.
Consider a point C at a distance x meters from the feeding point A, then
current at point C is
il l 
− ix = i  − x 
2 2 

l
xx dx
A B
C

V V
i i i i i

FIGURE 11.17  Distributor fed at both ends at equal voltage with uniform dis-
tributed loading.
 Distribution Systems    ◾    257

Now, consider a small length dx near point C. Its resistance is r dx and

the voltage drop over length dx is

l  l 
dv = i  − x  rdx = ir  − x 
2  2 

Voltage drop up to point C is

x
l   lx x 2  ir
∫ ir  − x  dx = ir  −  = (lx − x 2 )
2  2 2 2
0

Obviously, the point of minimum potential will be the midpoint.

Therefore, maximum voltage drop will occur at midpoint, that is, where
x = 1/2. Hence,

ir
Max. voltage drop = (lx − x 2 )
2
ir  l l2 
=  l × −  [Putting x = l/2]
2 2 4
1 1 1
= irl 2 = (il )(rl ) = IR
8 8 8

where il = I, the total current fed to the distributor from both ends, and
rl = R, the total resistance of the distributor.

IR
Minimum voltage = V − volts
8

11.10.2  Distributor Fed at Both Ends with Unequal Voltage

Consider a distributor AB of length l meters having resistance r ohms
per meter run and with a uniform loading of i amperes per meter run as
shown in Figure 11.18. Let the distributor be fed from feeding points A
and B at voltage VA and VB, respectively.
Suppose that the point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance
x meters from the feeding point A. Then current supplied by the feeding
point A will be ix.
258   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

x l–x
C B
A

VA VB
i i i i i

FIGURE 11.18  Distributor fed at both ends at unequal voltage with uniform dis-
tributed loading.

irx 2
Voltage drop in section AC = volts
2

As the distance of C from feeding point B is (l − x), current fed from B

is i(l − x).

ir (l − x )2
Voltage drop in section BC = volts
2

Voltage at point C , VC = VA − Drop over AC

irx 2
= VA − (11.1)
2

Also, voltage at point C,

VC = VB − Drop over BC
ir (l − x )2 (11.2)
= VB −
2

From Equations 11.1 and 11.2, we get

irx 2 ir (l − x )2
VA − = VB −
2 2

Solving the equation for x, we get

VA − VB l
x= +
irl 2
 Distribution Systems    ◾    259

As all the quantities on the right hand side of the equation are known,
the point on the distributor where minimum potential occurs can be
calculated.

11.11  RING DISTRIBUTOR

A distributor arranged to form a closed loop and fed at one or more
points is called a ring distributor. Such a distributor starts from one
point, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to the
original point. For the purpose of calculating voltage distribution, the
distributor can be considered as consisting of a series of open distribu-
tors fed at both ends. The principal advantage of ring distributor is that
by proper choice in the number of feeding points, great economy in cop-
per can be affected.

11.12  RING MAIN DISTRIBUTOR WITH INTERCONNECTOR

Sometimes a ring distributor has to serve a large area. In such a case, volt-
age drops in the various sections of the distributor may become excessive.
In order to reduce voltage drops in various sections, distant points of the
distributor are joined through a conductor called interconnector. Figure
11.19 shows the ring distributor ABCDEA. The points B and D of the ring
distributor are joined through an interconnector BD. There are several
methods for solving such a network. However, the solution of such a net-
work can be readily obtained by applying Thevenin’s theorem. The steps
of procedure are as follows:

1. Consider the interconnector BD to be disconnected (Figure 11.20a)

and find the potential difference between B and D. This gives
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit voltage E0.

I1

A B

I2
E C
I4
D

I3

FIGURE 11.19  Ring distributor ABCDEA (with interconnector).

260   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

(a) I1 (b)
B R0
A

+
E E0 RBD
C I2 –
I4
D

I3

FIGURE 11.20  (a) Ring distributor ABCDEA (without interconnector). (b)

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

2. Next, calculate the resistance viewed from points B and D of the

network composed of distribution lines only. This gives Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit series resistance R0.
3. If RBD is the resistance of the interconnector BD, then Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit will be as shown in Figure 11.20b.

E0
Current in interconnector BD =
R0 + RBD

Therefore, current distribution in each section and the voltage of load

points can be calculated.

11.13  AC DISTRIBUTION
One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in
preference to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can be con-
veniently changed in magnitude by means of a transformer.
It can be classified as follows.

11.13.1  Primary Distribution System

It is that part of AC distribution system which operates at voltage some-
what higher than general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical
energy than the average low-voltage consumer uses. The voltage used for
primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed
and the distance of the substation required to be fed. The most commonly
used primary distribution voltage are 11, 6.6, and 3.3 kV. Due to economic
 Distribution Systems    ◾    261

Primary distribution

Substation

3-Phase
3-Wire 11 kV

33 kV
Substation
33/11 kV

Big consumers Substation

(Factory)

FIGURE 11.21  Three-phase, three-wire primary distribution system.

considerations, primary distribution is carried out by three-phase, three-

wire system.
Figure 11.21 shows a typical primary distribution system. Electric
power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to
the substation located in or near the city. At this substation, voltage is
stepped down to 11 kV with the help of step-down transformer. Power
is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big consumers at
this voltage.

11.13.2  Secondary Distribution System

It is that part of AC distribution system which includes the range of volt-
age at which the ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered
to consumer. The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, three-phase,
four-wire system.
Figure 11.22 shows a typical secondary distribution system. The pri-
mary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called
distribution substations. The substations are situated near the consum-
ers’ localities and contain step down transformers. At each distribution
substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is delivered
by three-phase, four-wire AC system. The voltage between any two phases
is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single-phase
domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral,
whereas three-phase, 400-V motor loads are connected across three-phase
lines directly.
262   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

11 kV Phase R
Three-phase Phase Y 400V
400V
Three-wire Phase B 400V 230V
230V
Neutral 230V
Three-phase delta/star
distribution transformer
11/0.4 kV

House 1 House 2 House 3

Factory three-phase
load

FIGURE 11.22  Three-phase, four-wire secondary distribution system.

11.14  AC DISTRIBUTION CALCULATION

AC distribution calculations differ from those of DC distribution in the
following respects:

1. In case of DC system, the voltage drop is due to resistance alone.

However, in AC system, the voltage drops are due to the combined
effects of resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
2. In a DC system, additions and subtractions of current or voltage are
done arithmetically but in case of AC system, these operations are
done vectorially.
3. In an AC system, power factor has to be taken into account. Loads
tapped off from the distributor are generally at different power fac-
tors. There are two ways of referring power factor viz.
 Distribution Systems    ◾    263

a. It may be referred to supply or receiving end voltage which is

regarded as the reference vector.
b. It may be referred to the voltage at the load point itself.

11.15  METHODS OF SOLVING AC DISTRIBUTION PROBLEMS

As mentioned above, there are two ways of referring power factors.

11.15.1  Power Factors Referred to Receiving End Voltage

Consider an AC distributor AB with concentrated loads of I1 and I2 tapped
off at points C and B as shown in Figure 11.23. Taking the receiving end
voltage VB as the reference vector, let lagging power factors at C and B be
cos ϕ1 and cos ϕ2 wrt VB. Let R1, X1, and R2, X2 be the resistance and reac-
tance of sections AC and CB of the distributor.

Impedance of section AC, Z AC = R1 + jX1

Impedance of section CB, Z CB = R2 + jX2

Load current at point C, I1 = I1 (cos φ1 − j s i n φ1 )

Load current at point B, I2 = I2 (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )

Current in section CB, ICB = I2 = I 2 (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )

Current in section AC, IAC = I1 + I2

= I1 (cos φ1 − j sin φ1 ) + I 2 (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )

A R1 + j X1 C R2 + j X2 B

I1, cos φ1 I2, cos φ2

FIGURE 11.23  AC distributor.

264   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Voltage drop in section CB, VCB = ICB Z CB = I 2 (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )

(R2 + jx2 )

Voltage drop in section AC, VAC = IAC Z AC = (I1 + I2 )Z AC

= I1 (cos φ1 − j sin φ1 ) + I 2 (cos φ2
− j sin φ2 )(R1 + jx1 )

Sending end voltage, VA = VB + VCB + VAC

Sending end current, IA = I1 + I2

The vector diagram of the AC distributor under this condition is shown

in Figure 11.24. Here, the receiving end voltage VB is taken as the reference
vector. As power factors of loads are given wrt VB, I1 and I2 lag behind VB
by ϕ1 and ϕ2, respectively.

11.15.2  Power Factors Referred to Respective Load Voltage

Suppose the power factors of loads in the previous Figure 11.23 are referred
to their respective load voltage. Then ϕ1 is the phase angle between VC and
I1 and ϕ2 is the phase angle between VB and I2. The vector diagram of the
AC distributor under this condition is shown in Figure 11.25.

Voltage drop in section CB = I2 Z CB = I 2 (cosφ2 − j sin φ2 )(R2 + jx2)

VA
X1
VC I AC
φS
I AC

θ
R1

I2 X 2
φ2 VB I2
φ1 R
I2 2

I1

IAC

FIGURE 11.24  Phasor diagram of Figure 11.23 for pf with respect to receiving end.
 Distribution Systems    ◾    265

VA

VC X1
I AC

I AC
α

R1
φ2 VB I2 X2
I2
φ1 R
I2 2

I1
IAC

FIGURE 11.25  Phasor diagram of Figure 11.23 but with pf with respect to load
points.

Voltage at point C = VB + Drop in section CB = VC ∠ ∝ (say )

I1 = I1∠ − φ1 wrt voltage VC

I1 = I1∠ − (φ1 − ∝) wrt voltage VB

I1 = I1[cos(φ1 − ∝) − j sin φ1 − ∝)]

Now , IAC = I1 + I2
= I1[cos(φ1 − ∝) − j sin (φ1 − ∝)] + I 2 (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )

Voltage drop in section AC = IAC Z AC

Voltage at point A = VB + Drop in CB + Drop in AC

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 11.1
The load distribution on a two-wire DC distributor is shown in Figure
11.26. The cross-sectional area of each conductor is 0.36 cm2. The end A
is supplied at 230 V. Resistivity of the wire is ρ = 1.97 μΩ cm. Calculate
(1) the current in each section of the conductor, (2) the two-core resis-
tance of each section, and (3) the voltage at each tapping point.
266   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

A 100 m B 125 m C 75 m D
230 V

10 A 12 A 15 A

FIGURE 11.26  Load distribution on a two-wire DC distributor.

Solution
1. Current in the various sections are

Section CD,  ICD = 15 A

Section BC,  IBC = 15 + 12 = 27 A
Section AB,  IAB = 15 + 12 + 10 = 37 A.

2. Single-core resistance of the section of 100 m length is

l 100 × 100
ρ = 1.97 × 10−6 × = 0.054 Ω
a 0.36

The resistances of the various sections are

RAB = 0.054 × 1 × 2 = 0.108 Ω

RBC = 0.054 × 1.25 × 2 = 0.135 Ω
RCD = 0.054 × 0.75 × 2 = 0.081 Ω

3. Voltage at tapping point B is

VB = VA − I AB × RAB = 230 − (37 × 0.108) = 226 V

Voltage at tapping point C is

VC = VB − I BC × RBC = 226 − (27 × 0.135) = 222.35 V

Voltage at tapping point D is

VD = VC − I CD × RCD = 222.35 − (15 × 0.081) = 221.14 V

EXAMPLE 11.2
Calculate the voltage at a distance of 250 m of a 350 m long distribu-
tor uniformly loaded at the rate of 1 A/m. The distributor is fed at
 Distribution Systems    ◾    267

one end at 230 V. The resistance of the distributor (go and return)
per meter is 0.00018 Ω. Also find the power loss in the distributor.

Solution
Voltage drop at a distance x from supply end is
 x2 
ir  lx − 
 2

Here i = 1 A/m, l = 350 m, x = 250 m, r = 0.00018 Ω/m. Therefore,

 2502 
Voltage drop = 1 × 0.00018 ×  350 × 250 − = 10.125 V
 2 

Voltage at a distance of 250 m from supply end = 230 − 10.125 ​=

219.875 V.
Power loss in the distributor is

i 2rl 3 12 × 0.00018 × 3503

P= = = 2572.5 W
3 3

EXAMPLE 11.3
A ring distributor is supplied through a feeder AB and is loaded as
shown below: calculate the cross-section volume of copper. Assume
that the maximum voltage drop from A to the point of minimum
potential is 15 V. Take ρ = 1.73 µΩ/cm3 (Figure 11.27).

20 A
60 A
100 m
C D
100 m
A 500 m 150 m
B
180 A

250 m E

100 A

FIGURE 11.27  A ring distributor is supplied through a feeder AB.

268   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Solution
Let the resistance per 100 m of ring distributor length (both conduc-
tors) be r ohms.
Resistance of both conductors of various section is determined as
below:

r
RBC = × 100 = r Ω
100

Similarly,

r
RCD = × 100 = r Ω
100

r
RDE = × 150 = 1.5r Ω
100

and

r
REB = × 250 = 2.5r Ω
100

Let current Ix be flowing in section BC, then current in sections

CD, DE, and EB will be (Ix − 20), (Ix − 80), and (Ix − 180) amperes,
respectively.
According to Kirchoff’s second law voltage drop in this closed
loop will be equal to zero. So,

I BC RBC + I CD RCD + I DE RDE + I EB REB = 0

or

I x r + (I x − 20)r + (I x − 80)1.5r + (I x − 180)2.5r = 0

or

6 I x r = 590 or I x = 98.333 A

 Distribution Systems    ◾    269

Hence current in section BC, CD, DE, and EB will be equal to

98.333, 78.333, 18.333, and −81.667 A, respectively.
Hence, E is the point of minimum potential.
Let αF and αD be the cross-sectional areas of the feeder and
­distributor, respectively, resistance of section BE for both go and
return:

1.73 × 10−6 × 250 × 2 × 100 0.0865

= Ω
αD αD

Resistance of feeder AB for both go and return:

1.73 × 10−6 × 500 × 2 × 100 0.173

= Ω
αF αF

Maximum voltage drop = Voltage drop in feeder + Voltage drop in

distributor
= v F + vD = 15 V

and

180 × 0.173
vF = (11.3)
αF

and

81.667 × 0.0865
vD = (11.4)
αD

Volume of copper used in feeder = 500 × 100 × 2 × α F cm3

180 × 0.173
= 500 × 100 × 2 ×
vF
3,114,000 3,114,000
= = (11.5)
vF 15 − v D 
270   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Volume of copper used in distributor = 600 × 100 × 2 × α D

120, 000 × 81.667 × 0.08
=
vD
847,700 3
= cm (11.6)
vD 

Total volume of copper required,

3,114,000 847,700
vOC = +
15 − v D vD

For volume of copper to be minimum d(vOC)/dv D should be zero.

That is,

3,114,000 847,700
− =0
(15 − v D )2 v D2

or

2.2663 v D2 + 25.431 vD − 190.7325 = 0

or

−25.431 ± 25.4312 − 4 × 2.2663 × 190.7325

vD =
2 × 2.2663
= 5.143 V

v P = 15 − 5.143 = 9.857 V. Neglecting negative sign giving higher

value.
Substituting the value of v D and v F in expressions 11.3 and 11.4,
we get

180 × 0.173 180 × 0.173

αF = = = 3.16 cm2
vF 9.857
 Distribution Systems    ◾    271

and

81.667 × 0.0865 81.667 × 0.0865

αD = = = 1.3736 cm2
vD 5.143

EXAMPLE 11.4
A two-wire DC street mains AB, 600 m long is fed from both ends
at 230 V. Loads of 20, 40, 50, and 30 A are tapped at distances of
100, 250, 400, and 500 m from the end A, respectively. If the area of
cross-section of distributor conductor is 1 cm2, find the minimum
consumer voltage. Take ρ = 1.7 × 10−6 Ω cm.

Solution
Figure 11.28 shows the distributor with its tapped current. Let IA
amperes be the current supplied from the feeding end A. Then
current in the various sections of the distributor are as shown in
Figure 11.28.
Resistance of 1 m length of distributor,

1.7 × 10−6 × 100

2× = 3.4 × 10−4 Ω
1

Resistance of section AC, RAC = (3.4 × 10−4 ) × 100 = 0.034 Ω

Resistance of section CD, RCD = (3.4 × 10−4 ) × 150 = 0.051 Ω

Resistance of section DE, RDE = (3.4 × 10−4 ) × 150 = 0.051 Ω

Resistance of section EF, REF = (3.4 × 10−4 ) × 100 = 0.034 Ω

A IA C IA – 20 D IA – 60 E IA – 110 F IA – 140 B
100 m 150 m 150 m 100 m 100 m

230 V 230 V
20 A 40 A 50 A 30 A

FIGURE 11.28  A distributor with its tapped currents.

272   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Resistance of section FB, RFB = (3.4 × 10−4 ) × 100 = 0.034 Ω

Voltage at B = Voltage at A − Drop over length AB
or

VB = VA − [ I A RAC + (I A − 20)RCD + (I A − 60)RDE ]

+(I A − 110)REF + (IA − 140)RFB

or

230 = 230 − [0.034 I A + 0.051(I A − 20) + 0.051(I A − 60)]

+0.034(I A − 110) + 0.034(I A − 140)

or

230 = 230 − [0.204 I A − 12.58]

or

0.204 I A = 12.58
or

12.58
IA = = 61.7 A
0.204

The actual distribution of current in the various sections of the

distributor is shown in Figure 11.28. It is clear that current are com-
ing to load point E from both sides, that is, from point D and point F.
Hence, E is the point of minimum potential.
Therefore, minimum consumer voltage is

VE = VA − [I AC RAC + I CD RCD + I DE RDE ]

= 220 − [61.7 × 0.034 + 41.7 × 0.051 + 1.7 × 0.051]
= 230 − 4.31
= 225.69V

EXAMPLE 11.5
A two-wire DC distributor AB is fed from both ends. At feeding
point A, the voltage is maintained as at 220 V and at B 225 V. The
total length of the distributor is 200 m and loads are tapped off as
 Distribution Systems    ◾    273

under: 25 A at 50 m from A, 50 A at 75 m from A, 30 A at 100 m

from A, and 40 A at 150 m from A. The resistance per kilometer of
one conductor is 0.3 Ω. Calculate:
a. Current in various sections of the distributor
b. Minimum voltage and the point at which it occurs

Solution:
Figure 11.29 shows the distributor with its tapped current. Let IA amperes
be the current supplied from the feeding point A. Then ­current in the
various sections of the distributor are as shown in Figure 11.29.
Resistance of 1000 m length of distributor (both wires):

2 × 0.3 = 0.6 Ω

50
Resistance of section AC, RAC = 0.6 × = 0.03 Ω
1000

5
Resistance of section CD, RCD = 0.6 × = 0.015 Ω
1000

5
Resistance of section DE, RDE = 0.6 × = 0.015 Ω
1000

50
Resistance of section EF, REF = 0.6 × = 0.03 Ω
1000

50
Resistance of section FB, RFB = 0.6 × = 0.03 Ω
1000

Voltage at B = Voltage at A − Drop over length AB

A IA C IA – 25 D IA – 75 E IA – 105 F IA – 145 B
50 m 25 m 25 m 50 m 50 m

230 V 225 V
25 A 50 A 30 A 40 A

FIGURE 11.29  A two-wire DC distributor AB is fed from both ends.

274   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

or

VB = VA − [I A RAC + (I A − 25)RCD + (I A − 75)RDE ]

+(I A − 105)REF + (I A − 145)RFB

or

225 = 220 − [0.03I A + 0.015(I A − 25) + 0.015(I A − 75)]

+ 0.03(I A − 105) + 0.03(I A − 145)

or

225 = 220 − [0.12 I A − 9]

or

229 − 225
IA = = 33.34 Ω
0.012

Therefore, current in section AC is

I AC = I A = 33.34 A

Current in section CD, I CD = I A − 25 = 33.34 − 25 = 8.34 A

Current in section DE, I DE = I A − 75 = 33.34 − 75

= −41.66 A from D to E
= 41.666 A from E to D

Current in section EF, I EF = I A − 105 = 33.34 − 105

= −71.66 A from E to F
= 71..66 A from F to E

Current in section FB, I FB = I A − 145 = 33.34 − 145

= −111.66 A from F to B
= 111.66A from B to F

 Distribution Systems    ◾    275

The current are coming to load point D from both sides of

the distributor. Therefore, load point D is the point of minimum
potential.

Voltage at D, VD = VA − [ I A RAC + I CD RCD ]

= 220 − [33.34 × 0.03 + 8.34 × 0.015]]
= 220 − 1.125 = 218.875 V

EXAMPLE 11.6
A two-wire DC distributor cable 900 m long is loaded with
0.6 A/m. Resistance of each conductor is 0.08 Ω/km. Calculate the
maximum voltage drop if the distributor is fed from both ends with
equal voltage of 230 V. What is the minimum voltage and where it
occurs?

Solution
Current loading, i = 0.6 A/m
Resistance of distributor/m, r = 2 × 0.08/1000 = 0.16 × 10−3 Ω
Length of distributor, l = 900 m
Total current supplied by distributor, I = il = 0.6 × 900 = 540 A
Total resistance of the distributor, R = rl = 0.16 × 10−3 × 900 = 0.1
442 Ω

IR 540 × 0.1442
∴ Maximum voltage drop = = = 9.72 V
8 8

Minimum voltage will occur at the midpoint of the distributor

and its value is

230 − 9.72 = 220.28 V

EXAMPLE 11.7
A 800-m, two-wire DC distributor AB fed from both ends is uni-
formly loaded at the rate of 1.25 A/m run. Calculate the voltage at
the feeding points A and B if the minimum potential of 220 V occurs
276   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

at point C at a distance of 450 m from the end A. Resistance of each

conductor is 0.05 Ω/km.

Solution
Figure 11.30 shows the single-line diagram of the distributor.

Current loading , i = 1.25 A/m

0.05
Resistance of distributor/m, r = 2 × = 0.0001 Ω
1000

Voltage at C, VC = 220 V

Length of distributer , l = 800 m

Distance of point C from A, x = 450 m

irx 2 1.25 × 0.0001 × (450)2

Voltage drop in section AC = =
2 2
= 12.65 V

∴ Voltage at feeding point A, VA = 220 + 12.65 = 232.65 V

ir (l − x )2 1.25 × 0.0001 × (800 − 450)2

Voltage drop in section BC = =
2 2
= 7..65 V

∴ Voltage at feeding point B, VB = 220 + 7.65 = 227.65 V

450 m 350 m
A B
C

FIGURE 11.30  A two-wire DC distributor AB fed from both ends is uniformly

loaded.
 Distribution Systems    ◾    277

EXAMPLE 11.8
A single-phase distributor 1 km long has resistance and reactance
per conductor of 0.2 and 0.3 Ω, respectively. At the far end, the volt-
age VB = 220 V and the current is 150 A at a pf of 0.8 lagging. At
the midpoint M of the distributor, a current of 150 A is tapped at a
pf of 0.6 lagging with reference to the voltage VM at the midpoint.
Calculate:

1. Voltage at midpoint
2. Sending end voltage
3. Phase angle between VA and VB

Solution
Figure 11.31 shows the single-line diagram of the distributor AB
with M as the midpoint.
Total impedance of distributor = 2(0.2 + j0.3) = (0.4 + j0.6)Ω

Impedance of section AM, Z AM = (0.2 + j0.3)Ω

Impedance of section MB, Z MB = (0.2 + j0.3)Ω

Let the voltage VB at point B be taken as the reference vector.

Then, VB = 220 + j0.

1. Load current at point B, I2 = 150 (0.8 − j 0.6) = 120 − j 90

Current in section MB, IMB = I2 = 120 − j90

Drop in section MB, VMB = IMB Z MB

= (120 − j90) × (0.2 + j0.3) = 51 + j18

A 500 m M 500 m B

I1 = 100 A I2 = 100 A
cos φ1 = 0.6 lag cos φ2 = 0.8 lag

FIGURE 11.31  Single-line diagram of the distributor AB with M as the midpoint.

278   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

∴ Voltage at point M, VM = VB + VMB = (220 + j0) + (51 + j18)

= 271 + j18

Its magnitudes is

2712 + 182 = 271.6 V.

18
Phase angle between VM and VB , α = tan −1 = tan −1 0.0276 = 3.8°.
217

2. The load current I1 has a lagging pf of 0.6 wrt VM. It lags behind
VM by an angle ϕ1 = cos−1 0.6 = 53.13°.

∴ Phase angle between I1 and VB , φ′1 = φ1 − α = 53.13 − 3.8 = 49.33°

Load current at M, I1 = I1 (cos φ′1 − j sin φ′1 ) = 100(cos 49.33°

− j sin 49.33°)
= 97.75 − j113.77

Current in section AM, IAM = I1 + I2 = (97.75 − j113.77) + (120 − j90)

= 217.75 − j203.77

Drop in section AM, VAM = IAM Z AM = (217.75 − j203.77)(0.2 + j0.3)

= 104.681 + j24.571

Sending end voltage, VA = VM + VAM = (271 + j18)

+ (104.681 + j24.571)
= 375.68 + j 42.571

Its magnitudes is

(375.681)2 + (42.571)2 = 378.08 V.

3. The phase difference θ between VA and VB is given by:

42.571
tan θ =
375.681
 Distribution Systems    ◾    279

or

θ = 6.46°

Hence, supply voltage is 378.08 V and leads VB by 6.46°.

EXERCISES

1. Describe briefly the different types of DC distributors.

2. What are the advantages of a doubly fed distributor over singly fed
distributor?
3. Derive an expression for the voltage drop for a uniformly loaded dis-
tributor fed at one end.
4. What is the purpose of interconnector in a DC ring main distributor?
5. Explain three-wire DC system of distribution of electrical power.
6. What are the advantages of three-wire distribution over two-wire
distribution?
7. How does AC distribution differ from DC distribution?
8. What is the importance of load power factors in AC distribution?
9. Describe briefly how will you solve AC distribution problems?
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 12

Fault Analysis

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Most faults on the power system occur when two or more conductors that
normally operate with a potential difference come in contact with each
other. These faults may be caused by sudden failure of a piece of equip-
ment, accidental damage, short circuit to overhead lines, or by insulation
failure resulting from lightning surges. When such a condition occurs, a
large current (called short-circuit current) flows through the equipment,
doing reasonable damage to the equipment and interruption of service to
the consumer. The choice of apparatus and the design and arrangement
of practically every equipment in the power system depends upon short-
circuit current considerations.

12.2  CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS

In power system, fault may be classified as follows:

Unsymmetrical faults.  The faults on the power system which give rise
1.
to unsymmetrical fault current (i.e., unequal fault current in the lines
with unequal phase displacement) are known as unsymmetrical faults.
If an unsymmetrical fault occurs, the current in the three lines
become unequal and so is the phase displacement among them. It
may be noted that the term “unsymmetry” applies only to the fault
itself and the resulting line current. However, the system impedances
and the source voltage are always symmetrical through its main ele-
ments, namely generators, transmission lines, synchronous reactors,
etc. There are three ways in which unsymmetrical faults may occur
in a power system.

281
282   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

a. Single line-to-ground fault (L–G)

b. Line-to-line fault (L–L)
c. Double line-to-ground faul (L–L–G)
The solution of unsymmetrical faults can be obtained by either (a)
Kirchhoff’s laws or (b) symmetrical component method.
Symmetrical component method is preferred because of the
­following reasons:
a. It is a simple method and gives more generality to be given to
fault performance studies.
b. It provides an useful tool for the protection engineers, particu-
larly in connection with tracing out of fault current.

Symmetrical faults.  The fault on the power system which gives rise
2.
to symmetrical fault current (i.e., equal fault current in the line with
120° displacements) is called a symmetrical fault.
The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a
three-phase line are brought together simultaneously into a short-
circuit condition. This type of fault gives rise to symmetrical current,
that is, equal fault current with 120° displacement. Because of bal-
anced nature of fault, only one phase need to be considered in calcu-
lations since condition in the other two phases will also be similar.
The following points may be particularly noted:
a. The symmetrical fault rarely occurs in practice as majority of the
faults are of unsymmetrical nature. However, symmetrical fault
calculations are being discussed in this chapter to enable the
reader to understand the problems that short-circuit conditions
present to the power system.
b. The symmetrical fault is the most severe and imposes more heavy
duty on the circuit breaker.

12.3  SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT METHOD

In 1918, Dr. C.L. Fortescue, an American scientist, showed that any unbal-
anced system of three-phase current (or voltage) may be regarded as being
composed of three separate sets of balance vectors, that is,
 Fault Analysis    ◾    283

(a) Vc1 (b) V (c)

b2

Va2 Va0
Va1 Vb0
Vc0

Vc2
Vb1

FIGURE 12.1  (a) Positive-sequence component. (b) Negative-sequence compo-

nent. (c) Zero-sequence component.

1. Positive-sequence components
2. Negative-sequence components
3. Zero-sequence components

1. Positive-sequence components. These components are present in all

kinds of fault. Positive-sequence components have three vectors of equal
magnitude but displaced in phase from each other by 120° and have the
same phase sequence as the original vectors.
2. Negative-sequence components. These components are present in all
kinds of fault except three-phase fault. Negative sequence components
have three vectors of equal magnitude but displaced in phase from each
other by 120° and have the phase sequence opposite to the original vectors.
3. Zero-sequence components. These components have three vectors
of equal magnitude and is also in phase with each other. Zero-sequence
components present when the neutral of the system is grounded and the
fault is also grounded.
The components have been shown in Figure 12.1. The voltage vectors
have been designated as Va, Vb, and Vc and the phase sequence is assumed
here as a, b, and c. The subscripts 1, 2, 0 are being used to represent posi-
tive, negative, and zero-sequence quantities, respectively.

12.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF POSITIVE-, NEGATIVE-,

AND ZERO-SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
The vectors are equal in magnitude and 120° apart in phase, in which
the time order of arrival of the phase vectors at a fixed axis of reference
corresponds to the generated voltage. This really means that if a set of
284   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

positive-sequence voltage is applied to the stator windings of the alterna-

tor, the direction of rotation of stator field is same as the rotor. On the
other hand, if we fed negative-sequence voltage to the stator windings of
the alternator, the direction of rotation of stator field is opposite to that of
the rotor. The zero-sequence voltage is single-phase voltage and therefore,
they give rise to an alternating field in space. Since the three-phase wind-
ings are 120° apart in space, at any particular instant, the three vector
fields due to the three phases are 120° apart and therefore, assuming com-
plete symmetry of the windings, the net flux in the air gap will be zero.
From Figure 12.1, the following relations between the original unbal-
anced vectors and their corresponding symmetrical components can be
written as

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

(12.1)

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0 (12.2)

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0 (12.3)

12.5  OPERATOR (α)

It has a magnitude of unity and rotation through 120° magnitude, that is,
when any vector is multiplied by α, the vector magnitude remains same
but is rotated anticlockwise through 120°.
Assuming phase a as the reference as shown in Figure 12.1, the follow-
ing relations between the symmetrical components of phases b and c in
terms of phase a can be written with the use of operator. Thus

α = 1∠120°

In the complex form,

α = cos 120° + j sin120°

j 3
= −0.5 +
2
= −0.5 + j0.866
 Fault Analysis    ◾    285

α2 = α ⋅ α
= 1∠120° ⋅ 1∠120°
= 1∠240°
= cos 240° + j sin 240°
= −0.5 − j0.866

α3 = α ⋅ α ⋅ α
= 1∠120° ⋅ 1∠120° ⋅ 1∠120°
= 1∠360°
= cos 360° + j sin 360°

Therefore,

α3 = 1

or

(α 3 − 1) = 0

or

(α − 1)(α 2 + α + 1) = 0

Since α ≠ 1 as α is a complex quantity as defined above,

α2 + α + 1 = 0

Now we go back to deriving relations between the symmetrical compo-

nents of phases b and c in terms of symmetrical components of phase a.
From Figure 12.1,

Vb1 = α 2Va1

This means in order to express Vb1 in terms of Va1, Va1 should be rotated
anticlockwise through 240°.
286   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Similarly,

Vc1 = –Va1

For negative-sequence vectors,

Vb2 = αVa2 and Vc2 = α 2Va2

For zero-sequence vectors,

Va 0 = Vb0 = Vc0

and

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 (12.4)

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0 (12.5)

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0 (12.6)

Substituting these relations in Equations 12.4 through 12.6,

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 (12.7)

Vb = α 2Va1 + αVa 2 + Va0 (12.8)

Vc = αVa1 + α 2Va2 + Va0 (12.9)

Equations 12.7 through 12.9 can be put in matrix form

Va  1 1 1  Va1 
    
Vb  = 1 α α  Va2  (12.10)
2

Vc  1 α α 2  Va0 
  
 Fault Analysis    ◾    287

and

−1
Va1  1 1 1 Va 
     
Va 2  = 1 α α Vb 
2

Va 0  1 α α 2  Vc 
    

Va1  1 α α 2  Va 
  1  
∴ Va2  = 1 α 2 α  Vb  (12.11)
3
Va0  1 1 1  Vc 
  

In terms of separate equations, we may write

1 (12.12)
Va1 = (V + αVb + α 2Vc )
3 a

1 (12.13)
Va2 = (V + α 2Vb + αVc )
3 a

1 (12.14)
Va0 = (V + Vb + Vc )
3 a

Similarly, these relations for current are given as

1 (12.15)
I a1 = (I + αI b + α 2 I c )
3 a

1
Ia 2 = (I + α 2 I b + αI c ) (12.16)
3 a

1 (12.17)
Ia 0 = (I + I b + I c )
3 a

In the equations above, Va, Vb, and Vc may be line-to-ground voltage,

line-to-neutral voltage, line-to-line voltage at a point in the network or
they may be the generated or induced voltage, in fact any set of three
288   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

voltage revolving at the same rate which may exist in the three-phase sys-
tem. Similarly three current could be phase current, line current, and the
current following into a fault from the line conductors.

12.6  VOLTAGE OF THE NEUTRAL

The potential of the neutral, when it is grounded through some imped-
ance or is isolated, will not be at ground potential under unbalanced
­conditions such as unsymmetrical faults. Potential of the neutral is given
as Vn = −In Zn, where Zn is the neutral grounding impedance and In is the
neutral current.
For a three-phase system,

In = Ia + I b + I c
= (I a1 + I a2 + I a 0 ) + (α 2 I a1 + αI a2 + I a 0 ) + (αI a1 + α 2 I a2 + I a0 )
= I a1 (1 + α + α 2 ) + I a2 (1 + α + α 2 ) + 3I a0
= 3I a0 ∵ (α 2 + α + 1) = 0

∴ Vn = −3I a 0 Z n (12.18)

Neutral current is three times that of the zero-sequence current. Here

negative sign indicates the voltage of the neutral point is lower than the
ground potential.
Since the positive- and negative-sequence components of current
through the neutral are absent, the drop due to these current are also
zero. In addition, for a balanced set of current or voltage, the neutral is at
ground potential; therefore, for positive- and negative-sequence networks,
neutral of the system will be taken as reference.

12.7  SEQUENCE NETWORK EQUATIONS

These equations will be delivered for an unloaded alternator with neutral
solidly grounded (Figure 12.2), assuming that the system is balanced, that
is, the generated voltage are of equal magnitude and displaced by 120°.
Since the sequence impedances per phase are same for all the three
phases and we are considering initially a balanced system, the analysis
will be done on single-phase basis.

Positive-sequence network. The positive-sequence component of

1.
voltage at the fault point is the positive-sequence-generated voltage
 Fault Analysis    ◾    289

Ia

Ea
Zn
N
Eb
Ec

Ib

Ic

FIGURE 12.2  A balanced three-phase system.

minus the drop due to positive-sequence current in positive-sequence

impedance (as positive-sequence current does not produce drop in
negative and zero-sequence impedance). The corresponding sequence
network for the unloaded alternator is shown in Figure 12.3.

Va1 = Ea − I a1Z1 (12.19)

Negative-sequence network. The negative-sequence component of

2.
voltage at the fault point is the generated negative-sequence volt-
age minus the drop due to negative-sequence current in negative-
sequence impedance (as negative-sequence current does not produce

Ia1
Z1

Ea Ia1
Z1
N Va1
Eb
Ec Ea
Z1 Z1
Ib1
ZBP

Ic1

FIGURE 12.3  Positive-sequence network.

290   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

drop in positive- and zero-sequence impedance). The corresponding

sequence network for the unloaded alternator is shown in Figure 12.4.

Va 2 = Ea 2 − I a 2 Z 2

The negative-sequence voltage generated is zero because the phase

sequence of negative-sequence components is opposite to the actual
phase sequence. Therefore,

Va2 = − I a2 Z 2 (12.20)

Zero-sequence network.  For zero-sequence voltage,

3.

Ea0 = 0

Va0 = Vn − I a0 Z g 0 = −3I a0 Z n − I a0 Z g 0 = − I a 0 (Z g 0 + 3Z n )

where Zg0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the generator and Zn is

the neutral impedance.
And

Z 0 = Z g 0 + 3Z n

Va 0 = − I a 0 Z 0 (12.21)

Ia2

Z2
Ia2

N Va2
Z2 Z2
Z2

Ib2
ZBP

Ic2

FIGURE 12.4  Negative-sequence network.

 Fault Analysis    ◾    291

Ia1

Z0
Ia0

N Va0
Z0 Z0
Z0

Ib0
ZBP

Ic0

FIGURE 12.5  Zero-sequence network.

The corresponding sequence network for the unloaded alternator is

shown in Figure 12.5.

12.8 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF POWER

SYSTEM ELEMENTS
The concept of impedances of various elements of power system (e.g., gen-
erators, transformers, transmission lines, etc.) to positive-, negative-, and
zero-sequence current is of considerable importance in determining the
fault current in a three-phase unbalanced system. A complete consider-
ation of this topic does not fall within the scope of this book, but a short
preliminary explanation may be of interest here. The following three main
pieces of equipment will be considered:

1. Synchronous generators
2. Transformers
3. Transmission lines

1. Synchronous generators.  The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence

impedances of rotating machines are generally different. The positive-
sequence impedance of a synchronous generator is equal to the syn-
chronous impedance of the machine. The negative-sequence impedance
is much less than the positive-sequence impedance. The zero-sequence
impedance is a variable item and if its value is not given, it may be assumed
to be equal to the positive-sequence impedance. In short,
292   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Negative-sequence impedance < Positive-sequence impedance

Zero-sequence impedance = Variable item
= May be taken equal to positive-sequence
impedance if its value is not given

It may be worthwhile to mention here that any impedance Ze in the

earth connection of a star-connected system has the effect to introduce
an impedance of three Ze per phase. It is because the three equal zero-
sequence current, being in phase, do not sum to zero at the star point, but
they flow back along the neutral earth connection.
2. Transformers. Since transformers have the same impedance with
reversed phase rotation, their positive- and negative-sequence impedances
are equal; this value being equal to the impedance of the transformer.
However, the zero-sequence impedance depends upon earth connection.
If there is a through circuit for earth current, zero-sequence impedance
will be equal to positive-sequence impedance otherwise it will be infinite.
In short,

Positive-sequence impedance = Negative-sequence impedance

= Impedance of transformer

Zero-sequence impedance = Positive-sequence impedance,

if there is circuit for earth current
= Infinite, if there is no through circuit
for earth current

3. Transmission lines.  The positive- and negative-sequence impedances

of a line are the same; this value being equal to the normal impedance
of the line. This is expected because the phase rotation of the current
does not make any difference in the constants of the line. However, the
zero-sequence impedance is usually much greater than the positive- or
negative-sequence impedance.
In short,

Positive-sequence impedance = Negative-sequence impedance

= Impedance of the line

 Fault Analysis    ◾    293

Zero-sequence impedance = Variable item

= May be taken as three times the
positive-sequence
impedance if its value is not given

12.9  ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS

In the analysis of unsymmetrical faults, the following assumptions will
be made:

1. The generated electromotive force system is of positive sequence only.

2. No current flows in the network other than due to fault, that is, load
current are neglected.
3. The impedance of the fault is zero.
4. Phase “a” shall be taken as reference phase.

12.10  SINGLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT (L–G)

Figure 12.6 represents a three-phase unloaded alternator.
Let the fault take place on phase a. The boundary condition is

Ib = 0 (12.22)

a
Ia

Ea
N
Eb
Ec

b Ib
c

Ic

FIGURE 12.6  A solidly grounded, unloaded alternator: L–G fault on phase a.

294   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Ic = 0 (12.23)

Va = 0 (12.24)

The sequence network equations are

Va1 = Ea − I a1Z1 (12.25)

Va 2 = − I a 2 Z 2 (12.26)

Va 0 = − I a 0 Z 0 (12.27)

The solution of these six equations will give six unknowns Va1, Va2, Va0,
and Ia1, Ia2, Ia0.
Also we know

1
I a1 = (I + αI b + α 2 I c ) (12.28)
3 a

1
Ia 2 = (I + α 2 I b + αI c ) (12.29)
3 a

1 (12.30)
Ia 0 = (I + I b + I c )
3 a

Putting Ib = 0 and Ic = 0 in Equations 12.28 through 12.30, we get

1
I a1 = I
3 a

1
Ia 2 = I
3 a

1
Ia 0 = I
3 a

Therefore, Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (1/3)Ia.
 Fault Analysis    ◾    295

Also we know

Va = Va1 + Va 2 + Va 0

Now substituting the values of Va1, Va2, Va0 from the sequence network
equation,

0 = Ea − I a1Z1 − I a 2 Z 2 − I a 0 Z 0 (12.31)

∵ I a1 = I a 2 = I a 0

Equation 12.31 becomes

Ea − I a1 (Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 ) = 0

Ea
I a1 = (12.32)
(Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 )

From Equation 12.32, it is clear that to simulate an L–G fault, all

the three sequence networks are required, and since the current are all
equal in magnitude and phase angle, therefore, the three sequence net-
works must be connected in series. The voltage across each sequence
network corresponds to the same sequence component of Va. The inter-
connection of sequence network for L–G fault is shown in Figure 12.7
(Table 12.1).

Ia1

+ + +
Z1 Z2 Z0
Ea – – –

FIGURE 12.7  Interconnection of sequence network for L–G fault.

296   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

TABLE 12.1  Probability of Different Types of Fault

Types of Fault Probability

Single line-to-ground fault 80%–90%

Line-to-line fault 10%–15%
Double line-to-ground fault 5%–10%
Three-phase fault 1%–2%

The assumption made in arriving at Equation 12.32 is that the fault

impedance is zero. However, if the fault impedance is Zf, then expression
becomes

Ea
I a1 = (12.33)
(Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f )

It may be added here that if the neutral is not grounded, then zero-
sequence impedance will be infinite and the fault current is zero. This is
expected because now no path exists for the flow of fault current.

12.11  LINE-TO-LINE FAULT

As shown in Figure 12.8, the line-to-line fault takes place on phases b and c.
The boundary condition is

Ib + Ic = 0 (12.34)

a
Ia

Ea
N
Eb
Ec

b Ib
c

Ic

FIGURE 12.8  L–L fault on an unloaded and neutral grounded alternator.

 Fault Analysis    ◾    297

Ia = 0 (12.35)

Vb = Vc (12.36)

The sequence network equations are

Va1 = Ea − I a1Z1 (12.37)

Va 2 = − I a 2 Z 2 (12.38)

Va0 = − I a0 Z 0 (12.39)

The solution of these six equations will give six unknowns.

Using the relations,

1
I a1 = (I + αI b + α 2 I c )
3 a

1
Ia 2 = (I + α 2 I b + αI c )
3 a

1
Ia 0 = (I + I b + I c )
3 a

Substituting for Ia, Ib, and Ic,

1 1 1
I a1 = (I + αI b + α 2 I c ) = (αI b − α 2 I b ) = I b (α − α 2 )
3 a 3 3

1 1
Ia 2 = (0 + α 2 I b + αI c ) = (α 2 I b − αI b ) = I b (α 2 − α)
3 3

1
Ia0 = (0 + 0 + 0) = 0
3
298   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

For line-to-line fault, the zero-sequence component of current is absent.

Therefore,

I a1 = − I a 2 (12.40)

And we know

Vb = (α 2Va1 + αVa 2 + Va 0 )

Vc = αVa1 + α 2Va 2 + Va 0

Substituting these relation in Equation 12.36:

(α 2Va1 + αVa 2 + Va 0 ) = αVa1 + α 2Va 2 + Va 0

Va1 (α 2 − α) = Va 2 (α 2 − α)

Va1 = Va 2 (12.41)

That is, positive-sequence component of voltage equals the negative-

sequence component of voltage. This also means that the two sequence
networks are connected in opposition.
Now making use of the sequence network equation and the Equation
12.41,

Ea − I a1Z1 = − I a 2 Z 2

or

Ea − I a1Z1 = I a1Z 2

Ea
I a1 = (12.42)
Z1 + Z 2

Since Z0 is absent, no zero-sequence component is available in L–L fault.

The interconnection of sequence network for simulation of L–L fault is
shown in Figure 12.9.
 Fault Analysis    ◾    299

Ia1 Ia2

+ +
Z1 Z2
Va1 Va2
– –

Ea

FIGURE 12.9  Interconnection of sequence network for L–L fault.

The assumption made in arriving at Equation 12.42 is that the fault

impedance is zero. However, if the fault impedance is Zf, then expression
becomes:

Ea
I a1 = (12.43)
Z1 + Z 2 + Z f

12.12  DOUBLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT

As shown in Figure 12.10, the double line-to-ground fault takes place on
phases b and c.

a
Ia

Ea
N
Eb
Ec

b Ib
c

Ic

Ib + Ic

FIGURE 12.10  L–L–G fault on an unloaded and neutral grounded alternator.

300   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The boundary condition is

Ia = 0 (12.44)

Vb = 0 (12.45)

Vc = 0 (12.46)

The sequence network equations are

Va1 = Ea − I a1Z1 (12.47)

Va 2 = − I a 2 Z 2 (12.48)

Va 0 = − I a 0 Z 0 (12.49)

The solution of these six equations will give six unknowns.

We know

1
Va1 = (V + αVb + α 2Vc )
3 a

1
Va 2 = (V + α 2Vb + αVc )
3 a

1
Va 0 = (V + Vb + Vc )
3 a

Substituting for Va, Vb, and Vc from Equations 12.45 and 12.46,

1
Va1 = Va
3

1
Va 2 = Va
3

1
Va 0 = Va
3
 Fault Analysis    ◾    301

that is,

Va1 = Va 2 = Va 0 (12.50)

Using this relation of voltage and substituting in the sequence network

equations:

Va1 = Va 2

Ea − I a1Z1 = − I a 2 Z 2

I a1Z1 − Ea
Ia 2 = (12.51)
Z2

Similarly,

Va 2 = Va 0

− Ia 2 Z2 = − Ia 0 Z0

Z2
Ia 0 = Ia 2 (12.52)
Z0

Now from Equation 12.46,

I a = (I a1 + I a2 + I a0 ) = 0

Substituting the values of Ia2 and Ia0 from Equations 12.51 and 12.52,

I a1Z1 − Ea  I a1Z1 − Ea  Z 2
I a1 + +  ⋅ Z = 0
Z2  Z2 0

I a1Z1 Ea I a1Z1 Ea
I a1 + − + − =0
Z2 Z2 Z0 Z0
302   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Ia1 Ia2 Ia0

+ + +
Z1 Z2 Z0
Va2 Va0
Va1 – – –

Ea

FIGURE 12.11  Interconnection of sequence network for L–L–G fault.

 Z Z   1 1
I a 1  1 + 1 + 1  = Ea  +
 Z2 Z0   Z 2 Z 0 

Ea ((Z 0 + Z 2 )/Z 2 Z 0 )
I a1 =
(1 + (Z1/Z 2 ) + (Z1/Z 0 ))

Ea ( Z 0 + Z 2 )
I a1 =
Z 2 Z 0 + Z1Z 0 + Z1Z 2

Ea ( Z 0 + Z 2 )
I a1 =
Z 2 Z 0 + Z1 (Z 2 + Z 0 )

Ea
I a1 = (12.53)
Z1 + (Z 2 Z 0 /(Z 0 + Z 2 ))

From Equation 12.53, it is clear that all the three sequence networks
are required to simulate L–L–G fault and also that the negative and zero-
sequence networks are connected in parallel. Interconnection of sequence
network for (L–L–G) as shown in Figure 12.11.

12.13  L–L–L FAULT/THREE-PHASE FAULT/SYMMETRICAL FAULT

Three-phase fault (dead short circuit) is the most dangerous fault because
the fault impedance is minimum in case of L–L–L fault.
 Fault Analysis    ◾    303

a
Ia

Ea
N
Eb
Ec

b Ib
c

Ic

FIGURE 12.12  A three-phase neutral grounded and unloaded alternator three-

phase shorted.

As shown in Figure 12.12, boundary conditions are

Va = Vb = Vc (12.54)

(Ia + I b + I c ) = 0 (12.55)

Since |Ia| = |Ib| = |Ic| and if Ia is taken as reference,

I c = αI a and I b = α 2 I a

Using the relation,

1
I a1 = (I + αI b + α 2 I c )
3 a

1
Ia 2 = (I + α 2 I b + αI c )
3 a

1
Ia 0 = (I + I b + I c )
3 a

Substituting the values of Ib and Ic,

1
I a1 = (I + – 3 Ia + – 3 Ia )
3 a
304   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

I a1 = I a (12.56)

1
Ia 2 = (I + α 4 Ia + α 2 Ia )
3 a

1 1
Ia 2 = I (1 + α 4 + α 2 ) = I a (1 + α 3 ⋅ α + α 2 )
3 a 3

1
Ia 2 = I (1 + α + α 2 )
3 a

I a2 = 0 (12.57)

1
Ia 0 = (I + I b + I c )
3 a

I a0 = 0 (12.58)

Which means that for a three-phase fault, zero as well as negative-

sequence components of current are absent and the positive-sequence
component of current is equal to the phase current.
Now using the voltage boundary relation

1
Va1 = (V + αVb + α 2Vc )
3 a

1
Va1 = Va (1 + α + α 2 ) = 0 (12.59)
3

Since

Va1 = 0 = Ea − I a1Z1

Ea
I a1 = (12.60)
Z1

Interconnection of sequence network for (L–L–L) is shown in Figure

12.13.
 Fault Analysis    ◾    305

Ia1
+
Z1
–

Ea

FIGURE 12.13  Interconnection of sequence network for three-phase fault.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 12.1
100 MVA, 20 kV generator has subtransient reactance which is the
same as the positive- and negative-sequence reactance, and it is 20%.
Its neutral is grounded through a reactance 0.32 Ω and the zero-
sequence reactance of the generator Xg0 is 5%. The generator is oper-
ating at rated voltage at no load and disconnected from system when
a line-to-ground fault occurs, find the subtransient current in fault
phase. Neglect reactance.

Solution
Let the line-to-neutral voltage at the fault point before the fault be 1 pu:
3 Ea
Fault current I f ( pu ) =
x1( pu ) + x2( pu ) + x o( pu )

(MVA)base 0.32 × 100
Reactance of the neutral X n( pu ) = X n.ohm =
(kV)2 base 202
= 0.08 pu

X o( pu ) = X g 0( pu ) + 3 X n( pu )
= 0.05 + 0.24
= 0.29 pu

X1( pu ) = X2( pu ) = 0.2 pu

3 × 1. 0
I f ( pu ) = = 4.34 pu
0.2 + 0.2 + 0.29
306   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

4.34 × (VA)base 100 × 106

I f (amp) = I f ( pu ) × I base = = 4.34 ×
3Vbase 3 × 20 × 103
= 12.52 kA

EXAMPLE 12.2
With reference to Example 12.1, determine the subtransient current
in fault phase when a line-to-line fault occurs. Neglect resistance.

Solution
Let the line-to-neutral voltage at the fault point before the fault be
1 pu:

3 Ea 3 ×1
Fault current I f ( pu ) = = = 4.33 pu
x1( pu ) + x2( pu ) 0.2 + 0.2

4.33 × (VA)base 100 × 106

I f (amp) = I f ( pu ) × I base = = 4.33 × = 12.5
3Vbase 2 × 20 × 103

EXAMPLE 12.3
Positive-sequence current for a line-to-line fault of a 2-kV sys-
tem is 1400 A, current for double line-to-ground fault is 2220 A.
Determine the zero-sequence impedance of the system. Neglect
resistance.

Solution

Ea
Fault current for L – L fault , I f (amp) =
X1 + X2
= 1400

Here the line voltage is 2 kV. But we consider the phase voltage as
a reference voltage,

2000
∴ Ea = V
3
 Fault Analysis    ◾    307

2000
∴ = 1400 A
3 ( X1 + X2 )

X1 + X2 = 0.82 Ω

or

0.82
X1 + X2 = = 0.41
2

Then, fault current for L–L–G fault

Ea
I f (L − L −G) = = 2220 A
X1 + ( X2 X0 )

2000
∴ = 2220
3[0.41 + (0.41 X0 )]

∴ X0 = 0.15 Ω

EXAMPLE 12.4
Zero-sequence current of a line-to-ground fault is (j2.4) pu.
Determine the current through neutral during fault and ­neutral
potential if neutral reactance is 5%.

Solution
Current through the neutral is

I n = 3I a0 = 3 × j2.4 = j7.2 pu

Neutral potential Vn = I n X n = ( j7.2 × 0.52) = j0.360 pu

EXAMPLE 12.5
At a 220-kV substation of a power system, it is given that 3-ϕ fault
level is 4000 MVA and line-to-ground fault level is 5000 MVA.
308   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Determine (1) the positive-sequence and (2) zero-sequence driving

point reactance at the bus. Neglect resistance.

Solution
1. Fault current for L–L–L fault is

Ea
If =
X1

MVA during fault, (MVA)sc = 3Ea × I f = 4000

Ea
∴ 3 Ea × = 4000 × 106
X1

( )
2
3 (220 × 103 )/ 3
= 4000 × 106
X1

Positive-sequence driving point reactance, X1 = 12.1 Ω.

2. Fault current for L–G fault is

3 Ea
If =
X1 + X2 + X0
Let X1 = X2

MVA during fault, (MVA)sc = 3Ea × I f = 5000

 3 Ea 
∴ 3 Ea  = 5000 × 106
 2 X1 + X0 

( )
2
9 × (220 × 103 )/ 3
∴ = 5000 × 106
2 X1 + X0

 3 Ea 
∴ 3 Ea  = 5000 × 106
 2 X1 + X0 
 Fault Analysis    ◾    309

( )
2
9 × (220 × 103 )/ 3
∴ = 5000 × 106
2 X1 + X0

Zero-sequence driving point reactance, X0 = 4.84 Ω.

EXERCISES

1. What is a 3-ϕ unsymmetrical fault? Discuss the different types of

unsymmetrical faults that can occur on a 3-ϕ system.
2. Discuss the “symmetrical components method” to analyze an unbal-
anced 3-ϕ system.
3. What is operator “α”?
4. Express unbalanced phase current in a 3-ϕ system in terms of sym-
metrical components.
5. What do you understand by positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
impedances? Discuss them with reference to synchronous genera-
tors, transformers, and transmission lines.
6. Derive an expression for fault current for single line-to-ground fault
by symmetrical components method.
7. Derive an expression for fault current for line-to-line fault by sym-
metrical components method.”
8. Derive an expression for fault current for double line-to-ground fault
by symmetrical components method.
9. What do you understand by sequence networks? What is their
importance in unsymmetrical fault calculations?
10. Write short notes on the following:
a. Positive-sequence network
b. Negative-sequence network
c. Zero-sequence network
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 13

Circuit Breakers

13.1 INTRODUCTION
A circuit breaker (CB) is a device that can operate under normal or abnor-
mal conditions to make or break the circuit by manually, automatically,
or remote control. It can act in different voltage levels from low to high
and some big CBs have the auto reclosing facility by which they can
close their constants automatically when the fault subsides from the
system.
The CB cannot operate individually without the help of relay, CT and
PT, and other some auxiliary equipments. The function of a relay is to
sense the fault in a system and to give a signal to the CB and the CB opens
the circuit by tripping automatically. The necessary power of tripping is
supplied from a DC source. The time from the occurrence of the fault to
the total clearing of the fault is known as fault-clearing time and it is in the
order of fraction of a second (two to three cycles).

13.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CB AND FUSE

1. Fuse can operate in only low and medium voltage level and its appli-
cation is limited, whereas the CB can operate in a wide range of volt-
age from low to high.
2. No fuse has the auto reclosing facility and it needs to be connected
manually when the fault subsides. On the other hand, large CB has
the auto reclosing capacity and its contacts close automatically when
the system comes healthy from its fault condition.

311
312   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

3. Reliability of CB, that is, on the probability of tripping under faulty

condition is very high wrt fuse.
4. The fuse (except the high-rupturing capacity fuse) has normally no
arc extinguishing medium, whereas the CB has different cooling
medium such as transformer oil, forced air, and sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6) gas to cool down the arc generated at the time of fault.
5. The structure of CB is much more complex wrt fuse.
6. The cost of CB is very high and sometimes it is uneconomical to be
used in the low-voltage level.

13.3 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF CB
The function of a CB is to isolate the faulty part of the power system in case
of abnormal condition such as faults. A protective relay detects abnormal
conditions and sends a tripping signal to CB. After receiving the trip signal
from the relay the CB isolates faulty part of the power system. The simpli-
fied diagram of the CB control for opening operation is shown in Figure
13.1. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit the relay connected to the
CT and VT detects the fault, actuates, and closes its contacts to complete
the trip circuit. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit. As the
trip coil of the CB energized, the CB operating mechanism is actuated and
it operates for the opening operation to disconnect the faulty element. A
CB has two contacts—a fixed and a moving. These are placed in a closed

Bus bar

VT

Relay
CT

CB Trip coil Trip

circuit

Line

FIGURE 13.1  Simplified diagram of circuit breaker control for opening operation.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    313

chamber containing a fluid i­nsulating medium which quenches the arc

formed between the contacts. Under normal condition the contacts remain
in closed position. When the CB is required to isolate the fault part, the
moving contact moves to interrupt the circuit. On the separation of con-
tacts an arc is formed between them and the current continues to flow from
one contact to other through the arc. The circuit is interrupted when the
arc is finally extinguished. As a result, the trip circuit of the CB is closed
and the moving contact opens from its fixed contacts to open the circuit.
The necessary power of tripping is supplied from a DC source whose volt-
age varies depending on the system voltage and the power ratings of the
CB in substations; normally this voltage is taken as 30 V. The DC source is
considered as the “heart” of the substation. When the two contacts are dis-
connected from each other a large amount of voltage which is known as the
switching serge voltage is generated across the contacts and due to it a heavy
electrostatic stress in created in between the contacts. It leads to ionization
of the path and fault current continues to flow. As a result of it large amount
of heat loss takes place. Some part of this heat energy is converted to light
energy of shorter wave length and this phenomenon is known as the “arc.”

13.4 ARC PHENOMENON
After the occurrence of the fault, when the contacts of the CB begins to
separate an arc is established in the contact gap. The physics behind this
arc can be categorically described in two steps:

1. Initiation of arc
2. Maintenance of arc

1. Initiation of arc: The contact gap after separation gets ionized due to
following two reasons:
Thermionic emission. At the time of separation the contact area
a.
sharply decreases and the current density becomes very high. It
is worthwhile to remember that the fault current is much higher
than the normal. This increased density of current causes the
generation of high heat which ultimately leads to thermionic
emission at the contact gap.
Field emission. During separation of contacts as contact area
b.
decreases resistance increases. The high fault current flowing
314   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

through the resistance causes considerable voltage drop. If the

voltage gradient at the contact surface becomes sufficient to dis-
lodge electron. Ionization takes place. The gradient can be more
than 106 V/cm. This is known as field emission.
2. Maintenance of arc: The electric arc is a self-sustained discharge of
electricity between the electrodes. As the path is ionized the fault
current flows even through the air after the contacts are finally sepa-
rated from each other. This arc increases the temperature of the zone
and facilitates further ionization. A part of the power loss taking
place during arc is converted to light energy.

13.5 PRINCIPLES OF ARC EXTINCTION

The two main causes responsible for generating arc between the contacts
of a CB are as follows:

1. Potential difference (PD) between the contacts: When the contacts

have a small separation, the pd between them is sufficient to main-
tain the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts
to such a distance that pd becomes inadequate to maintain the arc.
However, this method is impracticable in high-voltage system where
a separation of many meters may be required.
2. Ionized particles between contacts: The ionized particles between
the contacts tend to maintain the arc. If the arc path is deionized,
the arc extinction will be facilitated. This may be achieved by cooling
the arc or by bodily removing the ionized particles from the space
between the contacts.

13.6 METHODS OF ARC EXTINCTION

There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in CBs viz.

13.6.1 High Resistance Method

In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so that cur-
rent is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the arc. Consequently,
the current is interrupted or the arc is extinguished. The principal
­d isadvantage of this method is that enormous energy is dissipated in
the  arc. Therefore, it is employed only in DC CBs and low-capacity
AC CBs.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    315

The resistance of the arc may be increased by:

Lengthening the arc. The resistance of the arc is directly proportional

1.
to its length. The length of the arc can be increased by increasing the
gap between contacts.
Cooling the arc. Cooling helps in the deionization of the medium
2.
between the contacts. This increases the arc resistance. Efficient
cooling may be obtained by a gas blast directed along the arc.
Reducing cross-section of the arc. If the area of cross-section of the
3.
arc is reduced, the voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased.
In other words, the resistance of the arc path is increased. The cross-
section of the arc can be reduced by letting the arc pass through a
narrow opening or by having smaller area of contacts.
Splitting the arc. The resistance of the arc can be increased by split-
4.
ting the arc into a number of smaller arcs in series. Each one of these
arcs experiences the effect of lengthening and cooling. The arc may
be split by introducing some conducting plates between the contacts.

13.6.2 Low Resistance or Current Zero Method

This method is employed for arc extinction in AC circuits only. In this
method, arc resistance is kept low until current is zero where the arc extin-
guishes naturally and is prevented from restriking in spite of the rising
voltage across the contacts. All modern high-power AC CBs employ this
method for arc extinction.
In an AC system, current drops to zero after every half cycle. At
every  ­current zero, the arc extinguishes for a brief moment. Now the
medium between the contacts contains ions and electrons so that it has
small dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by the rising con-
tact voltage known as restriking voltage. If such a breakdown does occur,
the arc will persist for another half cycle. If immediately after current zero,
the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts is built up more
rapidly than the voltage across the contacts, the arc fails to restrike and the
current will be interrupted. The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the
medium near current zero can be achieved by

1. Causing the ionized particles in the space between contacts to

recombine into neutral molecules.
316   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2. Sweeping the ionized particles away and replacing them by union-

ized particles.
3. The dielectric strength of the medium is proportional to length of
the gap between contacts.
4. Creating high pressure surrounding the arc which causes higher rate
of deionization, etc.

13.7 SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

Arc voltage. It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the CB
1.
during the arcing period. Its value is low except for the current zero
because arc can be considered as a short path between the contacts.
At current zero, the arc voltage rises rapidly to peak value (2 Em). It
tends to maintain the current flow in the form of arc. As the arc path
is more or less resistive, the arc voltage is almost in phase with the arc
current.
Restriking voltage. It is the transient voltage that appears across the
2.
contacts at or near current zero during arcing period. At current
zero, a high-frequency transient voltage appears across the contacts
and is caused by the rapid distribution of energy between the mag-
netic and electric fields associated with the plant and transmission
lines of the system. This transient voltage is known as restriking
voltage (Figure 13.2). The current interruption in the circuit depends
upon this voltage. If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than
the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts, the arc
will persist for another half cycle. On the other hand, if the dielectric
strength of the medium builds up more rapidly than the restriking
voltage, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted.
Recovery voltage. It is the normal frequency (50 Hz) rms voltage that
3.
appears across the contacts of the CB after final arc extinction. It is
approximately equal to the system voltage. When contacts of CB are
opened, current drops to zero after every half cycle. At some cur-
rent zero, the contacts are separated sufficiently apart and dielectric
strength of the medium between the contacts attains a high value due
to the removal of ionized particles. At such an instant, the medium
between the contacts is strong enough to prevent the breakdown by
the restriking voltage. Consequently, the final arc extinction takes
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    317

Current i

Restriking
voltage

2Em
Recovery
Em voltage

Time

System voltage Arc voltage

FIGURE 13.2  Arc voltage, restriking voltage, recovery voltage.

place and circuit current is interrupted. Immediately after final

current interruption, the voltage that appears across the contacts
has a transient part (Figure 13.2). However, these transient oscilla-
tions subside rapidly due to the damping effect of system resistance
and normal circuit voltage appears across the contacts. The voltage
across the contacts is of normal frequency and is known as recovery
voltage.

13.8 EXPRESSION FOR RESTRIKING VOLTAGE TRANSIENTS

Figure 13.3a shows a short-circuit fault on a feeder beyond the location of
the CB. Figure 13.3b shows an equivalent electrical circuit, where L and

L CB
(a) (b)

CB

V C

FIGURE 13.3  (a) Fault on a feeder near circuit breaker. (b) Equivalent electrical
circuit for analysis of restriking voltage.
318   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

C are the inductance and capacitance per phase of the system up to the
point of CB location, respectively. The resistance of the circuit has been
neglected. During the time of fault, a heavy fault current flows in the cir-
cuit. When the CB is closed, the fault current flows through L and the
contacts of the CB, the capacitance C being short circuited by the fault.
Hence, the circuit of Figure 13.3b becomes completely reactive and the
fault current is limited entirely by inductance of the system.
The fault is cleared by opening of the CB contacts. The parting of
the CB contacts does not in itself interrupt the current because an arc
is established in between the parting contacts and the current continues
to flow through the arc. Successful interaction depends upon controlling
and finally extinguishing the arc. Extinction of the arc takes place at the
instant when current passes through zero.
Since the circuit of Figure 13.3b is completely reactive, the voltage at
the instant of current zero will be at its peak. The voltage across the CB
contacts, and therefore across the capacitor C, is the arc voltage. In high-
voltage circuits, it is usually only a small percentage of the system voltage.
Hence, the arc voltage may be assumed to be negligible.
For the analysis of this circuit, the time is measured from the instant of
interruption, when the fault current comes to zero. Since the voltage is a
sinusoidally varying quantity and is at its peak at the moment of current
zero, it is expressed as “Vmcos ωt.”
When the CB contacts are opened and the arc is extinguished, the current
i is diverted through the capacitance C, resulting in a transient condition.
The inductance and the capacitance from a series oscillatory circuit. The volt-
age across the capacitance which is restriking voltage rises and oscillates.

Vm cos ωt
Vm cos ωt = Vm

The natural frequency of oscillation is given by

1
fn = (13.1)
2π LC

And the natural angular frequency is

1
ωn = (13.2)
LC
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    319

The voltage across the capacitance which is the voltage across the con-
tacts of the CB can be calculated in terms of L, C, fn, and system voltage.
The mathematical expression for the transient condition is as follows:

di 1

L +
dt C ∫
i dt = Vm cosωt

(13.3)

Immediately after the instant of arc extinction, the voltage across

the capacitance which is the restriking voltage, oscillates at the natural
­f requency given by Equation 13.1. Since the natural frequency of oscil-
lation is a fast phenomenon, it persists for only a small period of time.
During this short period which is of interest, the change in the power
frequency term is very little and, hence negligible, because cos ωt = 1.
Hence, the sinusoidally varying voltage Vm cos ωt can be assumed to
remain constant at Vm during this short interval of time, that is, the
transient period.
Substituting Vm cos ωt ≈ Vm, the Equation 13.3 can be written as

di 1

L +
dt C ∫
i dt = Vm

(13.4)

dq d(cv c )
i= = (13.5)
dt dt

where vc = voltage across the capacitor = restriking voltage.

Therefore,

di d 2 (cv c ) d 2v c
= = c (13.6)
dt dt 2 dt 2

1 q
C∫i dt = = v c
c
(13.7)

Substituting these values in Equation 13.4, we get

d 2v c
LC + v c = Vm (13.8)
dt 2
320   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Taking Laplace transform of both sides of Equation 13.8, we get

Vm
LCS 2v c (s) + v c (s) =
s

where vc(s) is the Laplace transform of vc

Other terms are zero as initially q = 0 at t = 0 or

Vm
v c (s)[LCS 2 + 1] =
s

Vm Vm
or v c (s) = =
s(LCS 2 + 1) LCS[s 2 + (1/LC )]
1 1
ωn = , ∴ ω 2n =
LC LC

1 1
ωn = , ∴ ω 2n = (13.9)
LC LC

Taking the inverse Laplace of Equation 13.9, we get

∫
vc (t ) = ω nVm sin ω nt
0
t
 − cos ω nt 
= ω nVm  
 ω n 0

As vc(t) = 0 at t = 0, constant = 0.

v c (t ) = Vm (1 − cos ω nt ) (13.10)

This is the expression for restriking voltage.

The maximum value of the restriking voltage occurs at

π
t= = π LC
ωn
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    321

Hence, the maximum value of restriking voltage = 2Vm

= 2 × Peak value of
the system voltage

The amplitude factor of the restriking voltage is defined as the ratio of

the peak of the transient voltage to the peak value of the system frequency
voltage. If losses are ignored, this factor becomes 2.
The rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV)

d
RRRV = [V (1 − cos ω nt )]
dt m

or RRRV = Vmωnsin ωnt. The maximum value of RRRV occurs when

ωnt = π/2, that is, when t = π/2ωn.
Hence, the maximum value of RRRV = Vmωn.

13.9 CURRENT CHOPPING
It is the phenomenon of current interruption before the natural current
zero is reached. Current chopping mainly occurs in air-blast CBs because
they retain the same extinguishing power irrespective of the magnitude
of the current to be interrupted. When breaking low current (e.g., trans-
former magnetizing current) with such breakers, the powerful deionizing
effect of air blast causes the current to fall abruptly to zero well before the
natural current zero is reached. This phenomenon is known as current
chopping and results in the production of high-voltage transient across
the contacts of the CB as discussed below.
Suppose the arc current is i when it is chopped down to zero value as
shown by point a in Figure 13.4. As the chop occurs at current i, the energy
stored in inductance is L i2/2. This energy will be transferred to the capac-
itance C, charging the latter to a prospective voltage e given by

1 2 Ce 2
Li =
2 2 (13.11)
i L
e= V
C

The prospective voltage e is very high as compared to the dielectric strength

gained by the gap so that the breaker restrikes. As the deionizing force is still
322   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Current finally suppressed

before natural current zero
Natural
current zero
t
First current
chop i
Arc current a
t
Arc Recovery
voltage voltage
Restriking
voltage Voltages at which
arc restrikes

FIGURE 13.4  Current chopping.

in action, chop occurs again but the arc current this time is smaller than the
previous case. This induces a lower prospective voltage to reignite the arc.
In fact, several chops may occur until a low enough current is interrupted
which produces insufficient induced voltage to restrike across the breaker
gap. Consequently, the final interruption of current takes place.

13.10 RESISTANCE SWITCHING
It has been discussed above that current chopping, capacitive current
breaking, etc., give rise to severe voltage oscillations. These excessive volt-
age surges during circuit interruption can be prevented by the use of shunt
resistance R connected across the CB contacts as shown in the equivalent
circuit in Figure 13.5. This is known as resistance switching.

R
(a) (b)
Oscillatory
L CB restriking voltage
Voltage

Recovery
voltage
e C

Damped
restriking voltage
Time

FIGURE 13.5  (a) Equivalent circuit for analysis of resistance switching. (b)
Restriking voltage oscillation.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    323

When a fault occurs, the contacts of the CB are opened and an arc is
struck between the contacts. Since the contacts are shunted by resistance
R, a part of arc current flows through this resistance. This results in the
decrease of arc current and an increase in the rate of deionization of the
arc path. Consequently, the arc resistance is increased. The increased arc
resistance leads to a further increase in current through shunt resistance.
This process continues until the arc current becomes so small that it fails
to maintain the arc. Now, the arc is extinguished and circuit current is
interrupted.
The shunt resistor also helps in limiting the oscillatory growth of
restriking voltage. It can be proved mathematically that natural frequency
of oscillations of the circuit shown in Figure 13.5a is given by

1 1 1
fn = −
2π LC 4 R2C 2

In order to keep RRRV within the rating of CB, the critical value of
resistance R can be determined by making fn, that is,

1 1 1
fn = − =0
2π LC 4 R2C 2
1 1 1 1
− = 0 or =
LC 4 R C2 2 LC 4 R2C 2
∴ R = 0.5 L /C

Figure 13.5b shows the oscillatory growth and exponential growth

when the circuit is critically damped.
Resistors across breaker contacts may be used to perform one or more
of the following functions:

1. To reduce the RRRV and the peak value of restriking voltage.

2. To reduce the voltage surges due to current chopping and capacitive
current breaking.
3. To ensure even sharing of restriking voltage transient across the var-
ious breaks in multi-break CBs.
324   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

13.11 CB RATINGS
A CB may be called upon to operate under all conditions. However, major
duties are imposed on the CB, when there is a fault on the system in which
it is connected. Under fault conditions, a CB is required to perform the
following three duties:

1. It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking the fault
current.
2. It must be capable of being closed on to a fault.
3. It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time, while
another CB (in series) is clearing the fault.

Corresponding to the above-mentioned duties, the CBs have three rat-

ings viz.

Breaking capacity. It is current (rms) that a CB is capable of breaking

1.
at given recovery voltage and under specified conditions (e.g., power
factor, RRRV). The breaking capacity is always stated at the rms
value of fault current at the instant of contact separation. When a
fault occurs, there is considerable asymmetry in the fault current due
to the presence of a DC component. The DC component dies away
rapidly, a typical decrement factor being 0.8 per cycle. Referring to
Figure 13.6, the contacts are separated at AA′. At this instant, the
fault current has

D
D-D′, instant of constant
separation
B

A x
y
o
Normal
C zero

D′

FIGURE 13.6  Short-circuit current waveform.

 Circuit Breakers    ◾    325

x = Maximum value of AC component

y = DC component

Symmetrical breaking current = rms value of AC component
x
=
√2

Asymmetrical breaking current = rms value of combined sum of AC

and DC components.
Generally the breaking capacity in MVA by taking into account
the rated breaking current and rated service voltage. Thus, if I is the
rated breaking current in amperes and V is the rated service line
voltage in volts, then for a three-phase circuit,

Breaking capacity = 3 × V × I × 10−6 MVA

In India (or Britain), it is a usual practice to take breaking cur-

rent equal to the symmetrical breaking current. However, American
practice is to take breaking current equal to asymmetrical breaking
current.
Making capacity. There is always a possibility of closing or making
2.
the circuit under short-circuit conditions. The capacity of a breaker
to “make” current depends upon its ability to withstand and close
successfully against the effects of electromagnetic forces. These
forces are proportional to the square of maximum instantaneous
current on closing. Therefore, making capacity is stated in terms of
a peak value of current instead of rms value. The peak value of cur-
rent (including DC component) during the first cycle of current wave
after the closure of CB is known as making capacity. It may be noted
that the definition is concerned with the first cycle of current wave
on closing the CB. This is because the maximum value of fault cur-
rent possibly occurs in the first cycle only when maximum asymme-
try occurs in any phase of the breaker. In other words, the making
current is equal to the maximum value of asymmetrical current. To
find this value, we must multiply symmetrical breaking current by
2 to convert this from rms to peak, and then by 1.8 to include the
“doubling effect” of maximum asymmetry. The total multiplication
factor becomes 2 × 1.8 = 2.55 .
326   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Making capacity = 2.55 × Symmetrical breaking capacity

Short-time rating. The short-time rating of a CB depends upon its abil-

3.
ity to withstand the electromagnetic force effects and the temperature
rise. The oil CBs have a specified limit of 3 s when the ratio of sym-
metrical breaking current to the rated normal current does not exceed
40. However, if this ratio is more than 40, then the specified limit is 1 s.
It is the period for which the CB is able to carry fault current while
remain closed.

13.11.1 Normal Current Rating

It is the rms value of current which the CB is capable of carrying continu-
ously at its rated frequency under specified conditions.
The important condition for normal working of an oil CB is that the
temperature of oil should not be more than 40°C and that of contacts
should not be more than 35°C.

13.12 AUTORECLOSING
The fault which exist on the system. Depending upon the time are classi-
fied as follows:

1. Transient fault
2. Semi-permanent fault
3. Permanent fault

It has been found that above 80% fault are transient fault, and 12% are
semi-permanent faults.
Transient faults are exist only for a short time. It can be removed faster
still if the line is disconnected from the system momentarily so that the
arcs blows out. After the arc is deionized, the line can be reclosed to
restore normal service. Semi-permanent fault may occur due to twig fall-
ing on the power conductor or the bird spanning the power conductor.
The reclosing could be restored with some delay so that the cause of the
fault could be dispensed with during a time delay trip and the line could
be reclosed to restore normal service. In case of permanent fault, reclosing
does not help as it is to be attended or removed, and the line is to be taken
out till the fault is cleared. Therefore, if the fault is not cleared after first
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    327

reclosure, a double or triple shot reclosing is required. If the fault is still

persist, the line is taken out of service. Autoreclosing may be single- or
three-phase type. Mostly one-phase autoreclosing breakers are preferred,
as most of the transmission faults are single phase to ground fault. Auto
reclosing in one phase also improves stability as the power remains trans-
mitted through the two healthy phases when one phase is interrupted.
Mostly, single shot or double shot auto reclousure breakers are available.
The breakers may be autoreclosing type or delayed autoreclosing type.

13.13 CLASSIFICATION OF CBs
There are several ways of classifying the CBs. However, the most general
way of classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction.
The medium used for arc extinction is usually oil, air, SF6, or vacuum.
Accordingly CBs may be classified into the following:

1. Oil CBs
2. Air-blast CBs
3. SF6 CBs
4. Vacuum CBs

13.14 OIL CBs
In such CBs, some insulating oil (e.g., transformer oil) is used as an arc
quenching medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck
between them.
The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into
a substantial volume of gaseous hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen
gas occupies a volume about one thousand times that of the oil decom-
posed. The oil is, therefore, pushed away from the arc and an expanding
hydrogen gas bubble surrounds the arc region and adjacent portions of the
contacts (Figure 13.7).
The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two processes:

1. The hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools the arc, thus
aiding the deionization of the medium between the contacts.
2. The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between
contacts, thus eliminating the arcing products from the arc path. The
result is that arc is extinguished and circuit current interrupted.
328   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Parting
contacts

Arc Bubble of
oil vapor
Oil

FIGURE 13.7  Gas bubble surrounds the arc region and adjacent portions of the
contacts of an oil CB.

Advantages: The advantages of oil as an arc quenching medium are as

follows:

1. It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases which have
excellent cooling properties.
2. It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between live
conductors and earthed components.
3. The surrounding oil presents cooling surface in close proximity to
the arc.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages of oil as an arc quenching medium are

1. It is inflammable and there is a risk of a fire.

2. It may form an explosive mixture with air.
3. The arcing products (e.g., carbon) remain in the oil and its quality
deteriorates with successive operations. This necessitates periodic
checking and replacement of oil.

13.15 TYPES OF OIL CBs

The oil CBs find extensive use in the power system. This can be classified
into the following types.

13.15.1 Bulk-Oil CBs
Bulk-oil CBs use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two purposes.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    329

Firstly, it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts. Secondly,

it insulates the current conducting parts from one another and from the
earthed tank.
Such CBs may be classified into

1. Plain break oil CBs

2. Arc control oil CBs

13.15.2 Low-Oil CBs
Low-oil CBs use minimum amount of oil. In such CBs, oil is used only
for arc extinction; the current conducting parts are insulated by air or
­porcelain or organic insulating materials.

13.16 PLAIN-BREAK OIL CBs

A plain-break oil CB involves the simple process of separating the con-
tacts under the whole of the oil in the tank. There is no special system for
arc control other than the increase in length caused by the separation of
contacts. The arc extinction occurs when a certain critical gap between the
contacts is reached.
It has a very simple construction. It consists of fixed and moving con-
tacts enclosed in a strong weather-tight earthed tank containing oil up
to a certain level and an air cushion above the oil level. The air cushion
provides sufficient room to allow for the reception of the arc gases without
the generation of unsafe pressure in the dome of the CB. It also absorbs
the mechanical shock of the upward oil movement. Figure 13.8 shows a
double break plain oil CB. It is called a double break because it provides
two breaks in series.
The arc extinction is facilitated by the following processes:

1. The hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc cools the arc
column and aids the deionization of the medium between the
contacts.
2. The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and helps in eliminating the arc-
ing products from the arc path.
3. As the arc lengthens due to the separating contacts, the dielectric
strength of the medium is increased.
330   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Air cushion

Oil level

Fixed
contacts
Moving
contacts
Transformer oil

FIGURE 13.8  Double break plain oil circuit breaker.

Disadvantages:

1. There is no special control over the arc other than the increase in
length by separating the moving contacts. Therefore, for successful
interruption, long arc length is necessary.
2. These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing times.
3. These breakers do not permit high-speed interruption.

Due to these disadvantages, plain-break oil CBs are used only for low-
voltage applications where high breaking capacities are not important. It
is a usual practice to use such breakers for low-capacity installations for
voltage not exceeding 11 kV.

13.17 ARC CONTROL OIL CBs

In case of plain break oil CB discussed above, there is very little artificial
control over the arc. Therefore, comparatively long arc length is essential in
order that turbulence in the oil caused by the gas may assists in quenching
it. However, it is necessary and desirable that final arc extinction should
occur while the contact gap is still short. For this purpose, some arc con-
trol is incorporated and the breakers are then called arc control CBs.
There are two types of such breakers, namely

1. Self-blast oil CBs

2. Forced-blast oil CBs
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    331

13.17.1 Self-Blast Oil CBs

In this type of CB, the gases produced during arcing are confined to a
small volume by the use of an insulating rigid pressure chamber or pot
surrounding the contacts. Since the space available for the arc gases is
restricted by the chamber, a very high pressure is developed to force the oil
and gas through or around the arc to extinguish it. The magnitude of pres-
sure developed depends upon the value of fault current to be interrupted.
As the pressure is generated by the arc itself, such breakers are sometimes
called self-generated pressure oil CBs.
The design of the chamber or pot should be such that the pressure
developed is sufficient to quench the arc even at low values of current but
not so much as to break the pot on heavy current. This has lead to manu-
facture of a variety of pots, such as

1. Plain explosion pot

2. Cross-jet explosion pot
3. Self-compensated explosion pot

13.17.1.1 Plain Explosion Pot

It is a rigid cylinder of insulating material and encloses the fixed and mov-
ing contacts (Figure 13.9). The moving contact is a cylindrical rod passing
through a restricted opening (called throat) at the bottom. When a fault
occurs, the contacts get separated and an arc is struck between them. The
heat of the arc decomposes oil into a gas at very high pressure in the pot.
This high pressure forces the oil and gas through and round the arc to

Fixed contact

Pot

Throat

Moving
contact

FIGURE 13.9  Plain explosion pot.

332   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

extinguish it. If the final arc extinction does not take place while the mov-
ing contact is still within the pot, it occurs immediately after the mov-
ing contact leaves the pot. It is because emergence of the moving contact
from the pot is followed by a violent rush of gas and oil through the throat
producing rapid extinction. The principal limitation of this type of pot is
that it cannot be used for very low or for very high fault current. With low
fault current, the pressure developed is small, thereby increasing the arc-
ing time. On the other hand, with high fault current, the gas is produced
so rapidly that explosion pot is liable to burst due to high pressure. For
this reason, plain explosion pot operates well on moderate short-circuit
current only where the rate of gas evolution is moderate.

13.17.1.2 Cross-Jet Explosion Pot

This type of pot is just a modification of plain explosion pot and is illus-
trated in Figure 13.10. It is made of insulating material and has channels
on one side which act as arc splitters. The arc splitters help in increasing
the arc length, thus facilitating arc extinction. When a fault occurs, the
moving contact of the CB begins to separate. As the moving contact is
withdrawn, the arc is initially struck in the top of the pot. The gas gener-
ated by the arc exerts pressure on the oil in the back passage. When the
moving contact uncovers the arc splitter ducts, fresh oil is forced across
the arc path. The arc is, therefore, driven sideways into the “arc splitters”
which increase the arc length, causing arc extinction. The cross-jet explo-
sion pot is quite efficient for interrupting heavy fault current. However, for

Gas bubble

Fixed
Back contact
passage

Arc
Path of
cool oil Oil forced
out
Arc splitters

Moving contact

FIGURE 13.10  Cross-jet explosion pot.

 Circuit Breakers    ◾    333

low fault current, the gas pressure is small and consequently the pot does
not give a satisfactory operation.

13.17.1.3 Self-Compensated Explosion Pot

This type of pot is essentially a combination of plain explosion pot and
cross-jet explosion pot. Therefore, it can interrupt low as well as heavy
short-circuit current with reasonable accuracy. Figure 13.11 shows the
schematic diagram of self-compensated explosion pot. It consists of two
chambers, the upper chamber is the cross-jet explosion pot with two arc
splitter ducts, while the lower one is the plain explosion pot. When the
short-circuit current is heavy, the rate of generation of gas is very high and
the device behaves as a cross-jet explosion pot. The arc extinction takes
place when the moving contact uncovers the first or second arc splitter
duct. However, on low short-circuit current, the rate of gas generation is
small and the tip of the moving contact has the time to reach the lower
chamber. During this time, the gas builds up sufficient pressure as there is
very little leakage through arc splitter ducts due to the obstruction offered
by the arc path and right angle bends. When the moving contact comes
out of the throat, the arc is extinguished by plain pot action. It may be
noted that as the severity of the short-circuit current increases, the device
operates less and less as a plain explosion pot and more and more as a
cross-jet explosion pot. Thus the tendency is to make the control self-com-
pensating over the full range of fault current to be interrupted.

13.17.2 Forced-Blast Oil CB
The major limitation of such breakers is that arcing times tend to be long
and inconsistent when operating against current considerably less than
the rated current. It is because the gas generated is much reduced at low

Fixed contact
Cross-jet explosion pot
P

Arc splitters

M Plain explosion pot

Moving contact
Throat

FIGURE 13.11  Self-compensated explosion pot.

334   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

values of fault current. This difficulty is overcome in forced blast oil CBs in
which the necessary pressure is generated by external mechanical means
independent of the fault current to be broken.
In this breaker, oil pressure is created by the piston-cylinder arrange-
ment. The movement of the piston is mechanically coupled to the moving
contact. When a fault occurs, the contacts get separated by the protective
system and an arc is struck between the contacts. The piston forces a jet of
oil toward the contact gap to extinguish the arc.
Advantages:

1. Since, oil pressure developed is independent of the fault current to be

independent, the performance at low current is more consistent than
with self-blast oil CBs.
2. The quantity of oil required is reduced considerably.

13.18 LOW-OIL CBs
The oil in the bulk oil CB serves two purposes.
Firstly, it acts as an arc quenching medium and secondly, it insulates
the live parts from earth. It has been found that only a small percentage
of oil is actually used for arc extinction while the major part is utilized for
insulation purposes. For this reason, the quantity of oil in bulk oil CBs
reaches a very high figure as the system voltage increases. Consequently
besides increase in the expenses, tank size and weight of the breaker the
fire risk and maintenance problems are also increase. This factors led to
the development of a low-oil CB. A low-oil CB employs solid materials for
insulation purposes and uses a small quantity of oil which is just sufficient
for arc extinction.

13.18.1 Construction
Figure 13.12 shows the cross-section of a single phase low-oil CB. There are
two compartments separated from each other but both filled with oil. The
upper chamber is the circuit-breaking chamber while the lower one is the
supporting chamber. The two chambers are separated by a partition and
oil from one chamber is prevented from mixing with the other chamber.

Supporting chamber. It is a porcelain chamber mounted on a metal

1.
chamber. It is filled with oil which is physically separated from the oil
in the circuit-breaking compartment. The oil inside the supporting
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    335

Top chamber
(a) (b)
Gas vent Oil level Breather

Fixed Circuit breaking

contact chamber
Arc extinction
Moving
device
contact

Supporting
chamber

Operating rod

Drain valve

FIGURE 13.12  (a) Low oil circuit breaker and (b) cross-section of a single phase.

chamber and the annular space formed between the porcelain insu-
lation and bakelized paper is employed for insulation purposes only.
Circuit-breaking chamber. It is a porcelain enclosure mounted on the
2.
top of the supporting compartment. It is filled with oil and has the
following parts:
a. Upper and lower fixed contacts
b. Moving contact
c. Turbulator
The moving contact is hollow and includes a cylinder which moves
down over a fixed piston. The turbulator is an arc control device and
has both axial and radial vents. The axial venting ensures the inter-
ruption of low current, whereas radial venting helps in the interrup-
tion of heavy current.
Top chamber. It is a metal chamber and is mounted on the circuit-
3.
breaking chamber. It provides expansion space for the oil in the cir-
cuit-breaking compartment.

13.18.2 Operation
Under normal operating conditions, the moving contact remains engaged
with the upper fixed contact. When a fault occurs, the moving contact is
336   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

pulled down by the tripping springs and an arc is struck. The arc energy
vaporizes the oil and produces gases under high pressure. This action con-
strains the oil to pass through a central hole in the moving contact and
results in forcing series of oil through the respective passages of the tur-
bulator. The process of turbulation is orderly one, in which the sections of
the arc are successively quenched by the effect of separate streams of oil
moving across each section in turn and bearing away its gases.
Advantages: A low-oil CB has the following advantages over a bulk oil CB:

1. It requires lesser quantity of oil

2. It requires smaller space
3. There is reduced risk of fire
4. Maintenance problems are reduced

Disadvantages: A low-oil CB has the following disadvantages over a

bulk oil CB:

1. Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonization is

increased
2. There is a difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in
time
3. The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to high
degree of carbonization

13.19 MAINTENANCE OF OIL CBs

The maintenance of oil CB is generally concerned with a checking of con-
tacts and dielectric strength of oil. After a CB has interrupted fault current a
few times or load current several times, its contacts may get burned by arc-
ing and the oil may loss some of its dielectric strength due to carbonization.
This results in the reduced rupturing capacity of the breaker. Therefore, it is a
good practice to inspect the CB at regular intervals of 3 or 6 months. During
inspection of the breaker, the following points should be kept in view:

1. Check the current carrying parts and arcing contacts. If the burning
is severe, the contacts should be replaced.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    337

2. Check the dielectric strength of the oil. If the oil is badly discolored,
it should be changed or reconditioned.
3. Check the insulation for possible damage. Clean the surface and
remove carbon deposits with a strong and dry fabric.
4. Check the oil level.
5. Check closing and tripping mechanism.

13.20 AIR-BLAST CBs
These breakers employ a high pressure air blast as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are opened in a flow of air blast established by the
opening of blast valve. The air blast cools the arc and sweeps away the
arcing products to the atmosphere. This rapidly increases the dielectric
strength of the medium between contacts and prevents from re-establish-
ing the arc. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of current is
interrupted.
Advantages: An air-blast CB has the following advantages over a low-
oil CB:

1. Cheapness and free availability of the interrupting medium, chemi-

cal stability and inertness of the air.
2. High-speed operation.
3. Elimination of fire hazard.
4. Short and consistent time and therefore, less burning of contacts.
5. Less maintenance.
6. Stability for frequent operation.
7. Facility for high-speed reclosures.

Disadvantages:

1. The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing properties.

2. The air-blast CBs are very sensitive to the variations in the RRRV.
3. Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant
which supplies the air blast.
338   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

(a) (b) (c)

Fixed
Fixed Blast
contact
contact

Blast Blast

Fixed Moving
Moving Moving contact contact
contact contact

FIGURE 13.13  (a) Axial-blast type. (b) Cross-blast type. (c) Radial-blast type.

The air-blast CBs are find in wide applications in high-voltage installa-

tions. Majority of the CBs for voltage beyond 110 kV are of this type.

13.21 TYPES OF AIR-BLAST CB
Depending upon the direction of air blast in relation to the arc, air-blast
CB may be classified into the following types:

Axial-blast type in which the air blast is directed longitudinally, that

1.
is, in the line with the arc as shown in Figure 13.13a.
Cross-blast type in which the air blast is directed at right angles to the
2.
arc path as shown in Figure 13.13b.
Radial-blast type in which the air blast is directed radially as shown
3.
in Figure 13.13c.

13.22 VACUUM CBs
In such breakers, vacuum (VCB, degree of vacuum being in the range
from 10−7 to 10−5 torr) is used as the arc quenching medium. Since, vacuum
offers the highest insulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching
properties than any other medium.

13.22.1 Construction
Figure 13.14 shows the parts of a typical vacuum CB. It consists of fixed
contact, moving contact, and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum cham-
ber. The movable member is connected to the control mechanism by
stainless steel bellows. This enables the permanent sealing of the vacuum
chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of leak. A glass vessel or ceramic
vessel is used as the outer insulating body. The arc shield prevents the dete-
rioration of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic vapors
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    339

Insulating vessel

Arc shield Arc shield

Arcing range Movable
Bellows member

Fixed
member

Contacts

Main arc shield

Insulating vessel

FIGURE 13.14  Vacuum circuit breaker.

falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating cover. The vapor con-
densing shield is made of synthetic resin.

13.22.2 Working Principle
When the breaker operates, the moving contact separates from the fixed con-
tact and an arc is struck between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors
of contacts. However, the arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic
vapors, electrons, and ions produced during arc rapidly condense on the sur-
faces of the CB contacts, resulting in quick recovery of dielectric strength.
Advantages:

1. They are compact, reliable, and have longer life.

2. There are no fire hazards.
3. There is no generation of gas during and after operation.
4. They can interrupt any fault current. The outstanding feature of a
VCB is that it can break any heavy fault current perfectly just before
the contacts reach the definite open position.
340   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

5. They require little maintenance and are quiet in operation.

6. They can successfully withstand lightning surges.
7. They have low arc energy.
8. They have low inertia and hence require smaller power for control
mechanism.

13.22.3 Application
In India, where distances are quite large and accessibility to remote
areas is difficult, the installation of such outdoor, maintenance free CBs
should proof a definite advantage. Vacuum CBs are being employed for
outdoor applications ranging from 22 to 66 kV. Even with limited rating
of say 66–100 MVA, they are suitable for a majority of applications in
rural areas.

13.23 SF6 CBs
SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free
electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of
SF6 gas and an arc is struck between them. The conducting free electrons
in the arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile nega-
tive ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up
enough insulation strength to blow out the arc.
Owing to the following properties, SF6 proves superior to other medium
such as oil or air for use in CB:

1. Very high dielectric strength.

2. No-reactive to the other component of the CB.
3. About 100 times more effective than air is extinction of arc.
4. Owing to its high density, its heat transfer property is about 1.6 times
that of the air.
5. Can be stored at a relatively smaller pressure than that of air (since
thermal time constant of SF6 is low).

SF6 breakers can withstand severe RRRV and this are most suitable for
short line faults without switching resistors and can interrupt capacitive
current without restriking.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    341

Insulated rods SF6 gas

for operating inlet
moving member

Moving
member Contacts Arcing
horn

Fixed
Arc chamber
Gas chamber
outlet

FIGURE 13.15  SF6 circuit breakers.

13.23.1 Construction
It consists of an interruption chamber which houses fixed and moving con-
tacts and is connected to SF6 gas reservoir (Figure 13.15). When the break-
ers contacts open, the valve mechanism permits a high pressure SF6 gas
from the reservoir to flow toward the interruption chamber.
The fixed contact is a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted
with an arc horn.
The moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in
the sides to permit the SF6 gas to let out through these holes after flowing
along and across the arc. The tips of fixed contact, moving contact and arc-
ing horn are coated with copper–tungsten arc-resistant material. SF6 gas
being costly, it is reconditioned and reclaimed by suitable auxiliary system
after each operation of the breaker.

13.23.2 Working
When the breaker in closed position of the breaker, the contacts remain
surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure of about 2.8 bar. As the breaker oper-
ates, the moving contact is pulled apart and an arc is struck between the
contacts. The movement of the moving contact is synchronized with
the opening of a valve which permits SF6 gas at 14 kg/cm2 pressure from
the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber. The high pressure flow of
SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form immobile
negative ions which are ineffective as charge carriers. The result is that the
342   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

medium between the contacts quickly builds up high dielectric strength

and causes the extinction of arc. After the arc extinction the valve is closed
by the action of a set of springs.
Advantages:

1. Very short arching time, this reduces contacts erosion.

2. No risk of fire (since SF6 gas is noninflammable).
3. No reduction of dielectric strength (since no CO2 is formed).
4. Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is two to three times that of
air, such breakers can interrupt much longer current.
5. Silent operation.
6. The closed gas enclosure keeps the interior dry so that moisture
problem is almost eliminated.
7. Being totally enclosed, these breakers are particularly suitable where
explosion hazard exist (e.g., coal mines).

Disadvantages:

1. SF6 breakers are costly due to the high cost of SF6.

2. Since SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the
breaker, additional equipment is required for this purpose.

13.24 HIGH-VOLTAGE DC CB
In AC circuit, current passes through natural current zeros, and hence it
is possible to design AC CB to interrupt large current. This feature is not
available in DC. If a high current is suppressed abruptly in DC, a very
high-transient voltage appears across the contacts of the CBs. Therefore,
in DC CB, some external circuit have to be provided to bring down the
current from full valve to zero, smoothing without suppressing it abruptly.
The additional circuit creates artificial current zeros which are utilized for
arc interruption as shown in Figure 13.16.
A schematic diagram of high-voltage DC (HVDC) CB is shown in Figure
13.17. HVDC CB consists of a main CB (MCB) and a circuit to produce
artificial current zero and to suppress transient voltage. MCB may either be
an SF6 or vacuum CB. R and C are connected in parallel with the MCB to
reduce dv/dt after the final current zero. L is a saturable reactor in series with
the MCB. It is used to reduce di/dt before current zero. CpLp are connected
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    343

Current
Idc

Time

FIGURE 13.16  Artificial current zero in DC.

R C

L MCB

Cp Lp S

FIGURE 13.17  HVDC circuit breaker.

in parallel to produce artificial current zero after the separator of the con-
tacts in the MCB. A nonlinear resistor is used to suppress the transient over-
voltage which may be produce across the contacts of the MCB.
Switch S, which is a triggered vacuum gap, is switched immediately after
the opening of the contacts of the main CB. The capacitor Cp is precharged
in the direction as shown in figure when S is closed, the precharged capac-
itor Cp is discharges through the main CB and sends a current in opposi-
tion to the MCB. This will force the main circuit current to become zero
with a few oscillations. The arc is interrupted at a current zero.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 13.1
A CB interrupts the magnetizing current of a 50-MVA t­ ransformer
at 110 kV. The magnetizing current of the transformer is 6% of the
full load current. Determine the maximum voltage which may
appear across the gap of the breaker when the magnetizing current
is interrupted at 50% of its peak value. The stray capacitance is 2000
μF. The inductance is 25 H.
344   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Solution

50 × 106
The full load current of the transformer = = 262.43A
3 × 110 × 103

6
Magnetizing current = × 262.43 = 15.75 A
100

Current chopping occurs at 0.50 × 15.75 × 2 = 11.13 A

1 2 1
Li = CV 2
2 2
1 1
× 25 × (11.13)2 = × 2000 × 10−6 V 2
2 2
V = 1.244 kV

EXAMPLE 13.2
For a 110 kV system, the reactance and capacitance up to the location
of the CB is 2 Ω and 0.012 μF, respectively. Calculate the following:

1. The frequency of transient oscillation

2. The maximum value of restricting voltage across the con-
tacts of the CB
3. The maximum value of RRRV

Solution
2
L=
1. = 6.36 mH = 0.00636H
2π × 50

1 1
fn = = = 18.218 kHz
2π LC 2π 0.00636 × 0.012 × 10−6

2. The restricting voltage Vc = Vm[1 − cos wnt]

The maximum value of the restricting voltage = 2Vm

110 2
=2× = 179.63
3
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    345

3.
The maximum value of RRRV = wnVm
110
= 2πf n × × 2 × 1000
3
132
= 2π × 18.218 × 1000 ×
3
× 2 × 1000 V/s
= 20.56 kV/µs

EXAMPLE 13.3
In a short-circuit test on a CB, the following readings were obtained
on single frequency transient:
1. Time to reach the peak restriking voltage, 60 μs.
2. The peak restriking voltage, 110 kV
Determine the average RRRV and frequency of oscillation.

Solution
Peak restriking voltage
Average RRRV =
Time to reach peak value
110 kV
= = 1.83 kV/µs = 1.83 × 106 kV/s
60 µs

Natural frequency of oscillations,

1
fn =
2 × Time to reach peak value
1
= = 8.33 kHz
2 × 60 × 10−6

EXAMPLE 13.4
In a 132 kV system, the reactance and capacitance up to the location
of CB is 6 Ω and 0.020 µF, respectively. A resistance of 500 Ω is con-
nected across the contacts of the CB determine the following:

1. Natural frequency of oscillation

2. Damped frequency of oscillation
346   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

3. Critical value of resistance which will give no transient

oscillation
4. The value of resistance which will give damped frequency of
oscillation, one-fourth of the natural frequency of oscillation

Solution
XL 6
L= = = 0.019 H
2πf 2π50

1 1
Natural frequency of oscillation =
1.
2π LC
1
=
2π 0.019 × 0.020 × 10−6
= 8.143 kHz
2. Frequency of damped oscillation,

1 1 1
f = −
2π LC 4c 2 R2
= 1.825 kHz

3. The value of critical resistance,

1 L
R= = 487.34 Ω
2 C

4. The damped frequency of oscillation is

1
× 8.14 kHz = 2035 Hz
4
1 1 1
2035 = −
2π LC 4c 2 R2
R = 503.22 Ω

EXERCISES

1. What is a circuit breaker? Describe its operating principle.

2. Discuss the arc phenomenon in a circuit breaker.
 Circuit Breakers    ◾    347

3. Explain the various methods of arc extinction in a circuit breaker.

4. Define and explain the following terms as applied to circuit breakers:
a. Arc voltage
b. Restriking voltage
c. Recovery voltage
5. Describe briefly the action of an oil circuit breaker. How does oil
help in arc extinction?
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of oil circuit breakers.
7. Explain with neat sketches the construction and working of the fol-
lowing circuit breakers:
a. Plain explosion pot
b. Cross-jet explosion pot
c. Self-compensated explosion pot
8. Explain the difference between bulk oil circuit breakers and low-oil
circuit breakers.
9. Discuss the constructional details and operation of a typical low-oil
circuit breaker? What are its relative merits and demerits?
10. Discuss the principle of operation of an air-blast circuit breaker.
What are the advantages and disadvantages? of using air as the arc
quenching medium?
11. Explain briefly the following types of air-blast circuit breakers:
a. Axial-blast type
b. Cross-blast type
12. What are the important components common to most of circuit
breakers? Discuss each component briefly.
13. Write a short note on
a. The rate of restriking voltage indicating its importance in the arc
extinction
b. Auto-reclosing
348   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

14. Discuss the phenomenon of

a. Current chopping
b. Capacitive current breaking
15. Write short notes on the following:
a. Resistance switching
b. Circuit breaker ratings
c. Circuit interruption problems
16. What is the difficulty in the development of high-voltage DC circuit
breaker? How does this difficulty is overcome?
 Chapter 14

Different Types of Relays

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Relay is a device which is used to sense fault. It sends information to the cir-
cuit breaker (CB), which interrupts the faulty circuit as early as possible (gen-
erally within two or three cycles). If the fault exists for a long time, it results in

1. Discontinuity in the service

2. Massive damage to the system
3. Spreading of the effects of fault into the healthy part of the system

It is a fault-sensing device which serves the information of the fault to the

CB for disconnecting the faulty part from the healthy part of the system.

14.2  ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION

Basic requirements of a good protection system are those qualities which
are essential for satisfactory operation of a protective scheme comprising
of relay, CB, and other protective devices. The fundamental qualities are
as follows.

Speed. The faulty part of the system should be isolated within a mini-
1.
mum possible time after the occurrence of a fault. If a particular type
of fault is allowed to exist in the system for a abnormally long time,
it may result more faults in addition to the existing one. So the speed
of the protective system should be reasonably high. The operating

349
350   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

time of a protective relay is usually one or half cycle. For distribution

systems, the operating time is allowed to be more than one cycle.
Selectivity. It is the quality by which a relay can locate the faulty
2.
part correctly and disconnect it by tripping the nearest CB not
interfering into the healthy part of the system. The relay should
also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient con-
dition like power surges or inrush of transformer’s magnetizing
current.
Sensitivity. The less value of the actuating parameters of a relay and
3.
VA burden of that relay the more is its sensitivity. The parameters
may be current, voltage, impedance, frequency, phase angle, etc.
Highly sensitive relay is a very expensive one.
Reliability. The reliability means that relay system must function in
4.
case of any type of fault without fail. A highly reliable system is so
designed that it can act also on assumption. A simple system is more
reliable. Reliability of a protection scheme should be at least 95%. To
achieve high degree of reliability greater attention should be given to
the design, installation, maintenance, and testing of various elements
of the protective scheme.
Simplicity. From the maintenance point of view, a relay system should
5.
be simple. It cuts down cost and increases reliability. But a simple
system sacrifices more amount of sensitivity; so a compromise is
made judiciously between simplicity, reliability, and sensitivity.
Economy. Lastly on electrical system must be economical. For an ideal
6.
protection, system cost is very high. On the other hand, we have to
place reliability before economy in case of protection of generator,
power transformer, transmission line, etc. Actually here also a com-
promise is adopted.
Stability. A protective system should be remaining stable even when
7.
a large current is flowing through its protective zone due to an exter-
nal fault, which does not lie in its zone.

14.3  CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY

Depending on the construction and operation, protective relays can be
broadly classified into three categories:
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    351

1. Electromechanical
2. Static relay

3. Numerical relay

Electromechanical relays are further classified into two categories:

1. Electromagnetic relays

2. Thermal relays

Electromagnetic relays are also classified into two categories:

1. Electromagnetic attraction type

2. Electromagnetic induction type

According to the speed of operation relay also can be classified into four
categories:

1. Instantaneous relay

2. Definite time lag relay

3. Inverse-time lag relay

4. Inverse definite minimum time lag relay (IDMT)

Further relay can be classified into six categories depending on their

function:

1. Under voltage

2. Overcurrent

3. Directional reverse current relay

4. Directional reverse power relay

5. Differential relay

6. Distant relay
352   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

14.4  BASIC RELAY TERMINOLOGY

Operating torque. It is the torque for which the relay contacts close.
1.
Restraining torque. It is the torque which opposes the closure of the
2.
relay contacts.
Pickup level. It is the threshold or boundary value of the actuat-
3.
ing parameter (current, voltage, frequency, phase angle, etc.) above
which the relay operates.
Dropout or reset level. It is the value of the actuating parameter below
4.
which the relay goes back to its normal position. The ratio of the
dropout or reset value is called dropout or reset ratio. Its value is less
than or equal to 1.
Burden. It is the power (VA) consumed by relay circuit.
5.
Operating time. It is the time calculated from the moment when the
6.
actuating parameter attains its pickup value until the relay operates.
Reach of distance protection of line. The limiting distance covered by
7.
the protection, the faults beyond which are not within the reach of
the protection and should be covered by other relay.
Over reach. The operations of distant relay for a fault beyond its set
8.
protected distance is called it’s over reaches.
Under reach. Failure of distant relay to operate within set protected
9.
distance is known as under reach.
10. Actuating parameter. The electrical quantity, that is, current, volt-
age, frequency, impedance, etc. Either alone or in conjunction with
other electrical quantities required for the functioning of the relay is
known as the actuating parameter of the relay.
Setting. The actual value of actuating parameter at which relay is
11.
designed to operate under given conditions is known as setting of relay.
12. Reset time. It is the time that elapses from the moment the actuating
quantity falls below its reset value to the instant when the relay come
back to its initial position.
13. Auxiliary relay. Auxiliary relays assist the protective relays. They repeat
the operations of protective relays and control switches. The auxiliary
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    353

relay may be instantaneous or may have a time lag and may operate
within large limits of the actuating quantity.
14. Seal-in-relay. This is a kind of an auxiliary relay. It is energized by the
contacts of the main relay. Its contacts are placed in parallel with that
of the main relay and designed to relieve the contacts of the main
relay from their current carrying duty. The seal-in contacts are usu-
ally heavier in comparison with the main relay.

15. Backup relay. A backup relay operates after a slight delay, if the main
relay fails to operate.

16. Flag or target. Flag is a device that gives visual indication whether a
relay has operated or not.

Unit system of protection. A unit system of protection is one which is

17.
able to detect and respond to faults occurring only within its own zone
of protection. It does not respond to the faults occurring beyond its own
zone of protection. Examples are differential protection of alternators.
18. Residual current. It is the algebraic sum of all current in a multiphase
system. It is denoted by Ires. In a three-phase system,

Ires = IA + IB + IC

14.5  ZONES OF PROTECTION

The total electrical system is divided into several protective zones such as
generator, low-voltage switchgear, transformer, high-voltage switchgear, and
transmission line. Every zone is overlapped with its adjacent zone. The vari-
ous protective zones of a typical power system are shown in Figure 14.1.
When a fault arises in a particular zone, the CB nearest to the fault
will only be disconnected leaving the rest of the system healthy. If the
switchgear in a particular zone fails in for any reason, the overlapping
zone will act to subside the fault if necessary provision of backup protec-
tion is made. The protected zone is that part of a power system protective
scheme for each individual equipment such as generator protection, bus-
bar protection, transformer protection, etc. It usually contains on or at the
most two elements of the power system. The zones are arranged to overlap
so that no part of the system remains unprotected. Overlapping must be
done in both sides of a particular CB, otherwise blind spots will be gener-
ated as shown in Figure 14.1.
354   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

1 3 5 8 10 12

2 4 6 9 11 13

Generator
Low-voltage Power High-voltage Transmission High-voltage
protection transformer switchgear line protection switchgear
switchgear
protection protection protection protection

FIGURE 14.1  Zones of protection.

Zone B
Zone A
X
C

FIGURE 14.2  Dead spot (X) in protective zone.

It can be seen that for a fault at X, the CB of zone B, including breaker

C will be tripped, however, this does not interrupt the flow of fault cur-
rent from zone A. So here X is a dead spot. If the overlapping is done
keeping C in the overlapping area, this type of spot will not be generated
(Figure 14.2).
If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone, more CBs (of both adjacent
zones) than the maximum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the
system would trip. A relativity low extent of overlap reduces the probabil-
ity of faults in this region, and consequently, tripping of too many break-
ers does not occur frequently.

14.6  PRIMARY AND BACKUP PROTECTION

The system is divided in a number of protection zones as explained earlier,
each having its own protection scheme. If a fault occurs in a particular
zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    355

element. The primary relay fails to operate; there is a backup protective

scheme to clear the fault as second line of defense.
The backup relays are made independent of those factors which might
cause primary relays to fail. A backup relay operates after a time delay to
give the primary relays sufficient time to operate. When a backup relay
operates, a larger part of the power system is disconnected from the
source, but this is unavoidable.
There are three types of backup relays.

14.6.1  Remote Backup

In this type of backing up, the backup relays are placed in the neighboring
station. It is the cheapest and simplest and so widely used for protection
of transmission lines. It does not fail due to factors causing failure of the
primary protection scheme.

14.6.2  Relay Backup

Here an additional relay is required for the backup protection. It is also
known as local backup. It trips the same CB if the primary relay fails. This
scheme is costly. The principle of operation of backup relays should be dif-
ferent from those of the primary protection. They should be supplied from
separate current transformer (CT) and potential transformer (PT).

14.6.3  Breaker Backup

This is also a kind of local backup. This type of backup is necessary for a
bus-bar system where a number of CBs are connected to it. When a pro-
tective relay operates in response to a fault but the CB fails to trip, the fault
treated as a bus-bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes necessary that
all other CB on that bus bar should trip. After a time delay, the main relay
closes the contact of a backup relay which trips all other CBs on the bus
bar if the proper breaker does not trip coil is energized.

14.7  CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES

A protective scheme is used to protect equipment or a selection of the line.
It includes one or more relays of the same or different types. Protective
schemes can be classified into four major categories.

14.7.1  Overcurrent Protection

This scheme of protection is used in case of the protection of distribution
lines, large motors, equipments, etc. It includes one more overcurrent
356   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

relays. An overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds its

pickup value.

14.7.2  Distance Protection

This protection is used for transmission line mainly, usually up to 132 kV.
The distance relays measure the distance in terms of impedance between
the relay location and fault point. The relay operates if the fault takes place
within the protected zone. There are various kinds of distance relays such
as impedance relay, mho relay, and reactance relay. An impedance relay
measures the impedance; a reactance relay measures reactance and mho
relay measures admittance.

14.7.3  Differential Protection

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of generators, trans-
formers, motors of very large size, bus zone, etc. CTs are placed on both
sides of the each winding of a machine. The output of their secondary’s
are applied to the relays coil. The relay compares the current entering a
machine winding and leaving the same. Under normal condition, these
two current are same and their difference is zero. But under abnormal
condition, there will be difference in current which actuates the relay. In
bus zone protection, relays are placed on both sides of the bus bar.

14.7.4  Carrier-Current Protection

This scheme of protection is mainly used in case of lines above 132 kV. A
carrier signal in the range of 50–500 kc/s is generated for the purpose. A
transmitter and a receiver are installed at each end of a transmission line
to be protected. Information regarding the direction of the fault current is
transmitted from one end of the line section to the other. Depending on
the information, relays placed at each end trip if the fault lies within their
protected section. Relays do not trip in case of external faults. The relays
are of distance type.

14.8 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING

PRINCIPLES OF RELAY
14.8.1  Electromagnetic Induction Relay
Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their opera-
tion. Their principle of operation is same as that of a single-phase induc-
tion motor. Hence, they can be used for AC current only. Two types of
construction of this relays are fairly standard.
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    357

14.8.1.1  Induction Disk Relay

There are two types of construction of induction disk relays namely the
shaded pole type and Watt-hour meter type.
Shaded pole construction. In shaded pole type (Figure 14.3) of relay,
1.
there is a C-shaded electromagnet. It is energized by the coil fed
from the secondary winding of the protection CT. One half of the
each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band
known as shading ring. The shaded portion of the pole produces a
flux which is displaced in space and times cut the disk and produce
eddy current in it. Torque is produced by the interaction of each
flux with the eddy current produced by the other flux. The resultant
torque causes the disk to rotate. There is a break magnet whose field
can apply breaking action on the movement of the disk. An arm is
fitted with the movement of the disk to close the trip circuit. The
length of travel of this arm should not be large. Otherwise operating
time will be large.
Watt-hour type construction. This structure gets name from the fact
2.
that is looks like Watt-hour meter, that is, the energy meter. Here,
there are two magnets as shown in Figure 14.4—one is the upper
magnet and other is lower magnet. The fault current coming from
CT secondary flows in the primary winding and it induces electro-
motive force as well as current I2 in the secondary just like trans-
former. Each magnet produces an alternating flux that cuts the disk.
To obtain a phase displacement between two fluxes produce by the
upper and lower magnets, their coils may be energized by two differ-
ent sources. If they are energized by the same source, the resistances
and reactances of the two circuits are made different, so that there
will be sufficient phase difference between two fluxes. The flux ϕ2 in

ϕs To actuating
Disk ϕu
Shading quantity source
ring

FIGURE 14.3  Shaded pole-type induction disk relay.

358   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Upper magnet
I1 Primary

Secondary

I2 ϕ1
To trip
circuit

ϕ2
Lower magnet

FIGURE 14.4  Watt-hour meter type construction.

the lower magnet will interact with flux ϕ1 (phase displaced by an

angle θ) to produce the torque acting on the disk and the trip circuit
is closed in same manner like shaded pole relays. The net torque is
proportional to |ϕ1||ϕ2| sin θ. VA burden in these relays is somewhat
higher in comparison with that of the attraction relays. It is of the
order of 2.5 VA. These are robust and reliable. The only disadvantage
of these relays is that the opening of the secondary winding makes
the relays inoperative.

14.8.1.1.1  Torque Production in an Induction Relay  In both shaded pole

type and Watt-hour meter type, there are two fluxes. These are sinusoi-
dally varying fluxes with phase angle θ between them.
Let

φ1 = |φ1 | sin ωt (|φ1 | being the maximum value of φ1 )

φ2 = |φ2 | sin(ωt + θ) (|φ2 | being the maximum value of φ2 )

The fluxes induce current iϕ1 and current iϕ2 in the aluminum disk. The
direction of this current will be according to left hand rule.
Now assuming the self-inductance of the disk being negligible, the disk
current will be in phase with their voltage:
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    359

dφ1
iφ1 ∝
dt

iφ1 ∝
(
d |φ1| sin ωt )
dt

iφ1 ∝ |φ1| cos ωt (14.1)

iφ2 ∝ |φ2| cos(ωt + θ) (14.2)

The fluxes interacting with current produce forces with direction indi-
cated in Figure 14.5 above.
The net force,

F = |F2 − F1 | ∝ |φ2iφ1 − φ1iφ2|

F = |F2 − F1| ∝ (|φ2 | sin (ωt + θ) ⋅ |φ1| cos ωt − |φ1| sin ωt ⋅ |φ2 | cos(ωt + θ)
∝ |φ1||φ2 |[sin (ωt + θ) cos ωt − sin ωt cos(ωt + θ)]
∝ |φ1||φ2 | sin θ

Average force ∝ |φ1||φ2 | sin θ

The greater the phase angle θ between the fluxes, the greater is the net
force applied to the disk. Obviously, the maximum force will be produced,
when the two fluxes are 90° out of phase.

ϕ2 ϕ1
ϕ2 ϕ1

i2
i1
i2 i1 i2

F2 F1
i1

FIGURE 14.5  Troque produced in an induction relay.

360   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

14.8.1.1.2  Induction Cup Relay  The induction cup relay (Figure 14.6) may
have two, four, or more number of poles. These poles are energized by the
current from CT. There is a stationary iron core and the center over which
a hollow metallic cup (rotor conductor) is placed. This cup is free to rotate.
It just resembles an induction motor. By the method of induction eddy
current are produced in metallic cup. These current interact with the flux
produced to avoid continuous rotation. A control spring is attached to the
spindle of rotating cup. The rotating cup carries an arm that closes the
contact of trip circuit.
The basic theory is same for the disk relay and cup relay. In both cases,
the net torque varies as ϕ1 ϕ2 sin θ. But the cup relays are more efficient
torque producer and hence they are faster. A modern induction cup relay
may have an operating time in the order of 0.01 s.

14.8.1.2  Electromagnetic Attraction Relay

Electromagnetic attraction relays are also classified into the following
categories.

14.8.1.2.1  Attracted Armature Type  These are simplest type of relays shown
in Figure 14.7. These relays have a coil or an electromagnet energized by
coil. The coil is energized by operating quantity which may be propor-
tional to circuit current or voltage. A plunger or armature is subjected
to the action of magnetic field produced by operating quantity. It is basi-
cally a single actuating quantity relay. Attracted armature relay responds
to both AC and DC because torque is proportional to I2. These relays are
fast relays. They have fast operation and fast reset because of small length

Rotor

To trip circuit
S1
Stationary core

S2

FIGURE 14.6  Induction cup relay.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    361

To trip
C circuit

FIGURE 14.7  Simple construction of an attracted armature type relay.

of travel and light moving parts. They are described as instantaneous but
their operating time does vary with current. Slow operating and reset-
ting time can be obtained by decaying of flux in the magnetic circuit by
fitting a Cu ring around the magnet. The eddy current produced in the
ring opposes the very cause as per Lenz’s law so effective flux is reduced.
Operating time may be as slow as 0.1 s and resetting time may be as slow
as 0.5 s. On the other hand, very high operating speed is possible. A mod-
ern relay has an operating time of 0.5 ms. As fault current increases oper-
ating time decreases, so they have the inverse relationship which leads to a
hyperbolic curve (Figure 14.8).
The only disadvantage of this type of relays is that they are so fast that
they can operate even in transient state. VA burden depends upon their
construction. For a typical relay, it is in order of 0.2–0.6 VA. These relay
are compact, robust, and reliable.
Operating Principle: The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving
elements is proportional to the square of the operating current.
Operating time

Pickup
value

O A Current

FIGURE 14.8  Time current characteristics.

362   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

To trip
circuit

Electromagnet Armature

FIGURE 14.9  Hinged armature type construction.

Let F = net force, K1 = constant, I = current in operating coil, and

K2 = restraining force including friction.

F = K1 I 2 − K 2

On the verge of the operation F = 0, I = K 2 /K1 = constant .

By adjusting the restraining force, one can adjust the relay for new cur-
rent setting.
The following are the different types of construction of attracted arma-
ture type relays.

Hinged armature type relay. Figure 14.9 shows a hinged armature

1.
type construction. In the hinged armature type relay, there is an
electromagnet which is excited by the current of secondary winding
of the protection CT. When energized, it drags the hinged armature
and thus the trip circuit becomes closed.
Plunger type relay. Figure 14.10 shows a plunger type relay. In plunger
2.
type of relay, the energized electromagnet creates the necessary force
to drag the plunger down to close the trip circuit.

To trip
circuit

Iron
plunger

FIGURE 14.10  Plunger type relay.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    363

To trip
circuit

N S Spring

FIGURE 14.11  Polarized moving iron type relay.

Polarized moving iron type relay. Figure 14.11 shows a polarized

3.
moving iron type relay. In this relay, the armature made of iron is
attracted by the electromagnet energized by the abnormal current
supplied by CT and thus the trip circuit is closed. In normal condi-
tion, the force is not sufficient to move the iron piece.

14.8.1.2.2  Balanced Beam Relay  Figure 14.12 shows a balance beam relay.
This type of balance beam relay consists of a horizontal beam pivoted cen-
trally with one electromagnet attached to either side. The beam remains in
horizontal position till the operating force become more than restraining
force. The beam is just given a slight mechanical bias by means of spring
such that in normal condition the contacts are open. When operating,
torque increases the beam tilts and the contacts closes.
Operating Principle: Neglecting spring effect, the net torque

T = K1 I 2 − K 2 I 22

on the verge of operation, T > 0,

Iron
armature

To
trip Spring
circuit

Fixed
coil

FIGURE 14.12  Balance beam relay.

364   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

I1 K2
= = Constant
I2 K1

These relays are fast and instantaneous. It has the time in the order of
one cycle. Its VA burden varies from 0.2 to 0.6 VA.

14.8.1.3  Thermal Relays

The operation of these relays is based on the principle of electrothermal
effect of the actuating quantity. Such type of the relays is mainly used
for the protection of small motors against overloading and unbalanced
current.
There are mainly three types of thermal relays namely: (a) bimetallic
thermal, (b) unimetallic thermal, and (c) bimetallic spiral type.
Figure 14.13a shows the bimetallic thermal relay in which two metal
strips of different coefficient of thermal expansion are joined together.
In abnormal condition of the line, the current of the CT secondary flows
through heating coil and thereby heating the bimetallic strip. One strip
expands more than the other, resulting in bending of the strip. After bend-
ing, it deflects and closes the relay contacts.
Bimetallic strip is in spiral (Figure 14.13b) form. The unequal expan-
sions of the two metals cause the unwinding of the spiral, which results
in closure of the contacts. In the third type, the unimetallic strips (Figure
14.13c) are also used as thermal elements in a hair-pin-like shape. When
the strip gets heated, it expands and closes the contacts.
For the protection of the three-phase motors, three bimetallic strips are
used. They are energized by the current from the three phases. Their con-
tacts are arranged in such a way that if any one of the spirals moves differ-
ently from the others, due to an unbalance exceeding 12%, their contacts
meet and cause the CB to trip.

14.8.1.4  Static Relay

When the relay circuit has no moving parts within it, it is designated as
a static relay. In this relays, there is one master relay followed by a slave
relay. The master relay actually performs the function of measurement
and comparison of the actuating quantity. The slave relay only closes the
contacts depending on the information obtained from the master relay.
These relays are economical to use because of their low cost. Normally
thyristor are used as slave relay. A static relays also known as solid-state
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    365

(a) To trip (b)

circuit To trip
circuit

Bimetallic
strip

Heater coil

(c)
To trip
circuit

Heating Unimetallic
element strip

FIGURE 14.13  (a) Bimetallic thermal relay. (b) Bimetallic spiral type thermal
relay. (c) Unimetallic thermal relay.

relay employs semiconductor diodes, transistors, zener diodes, thyris-

tors, logic gates, etc., as its components. Sometimes integrated circuits
are also used in place of transistors. They are reliable and compact. Now
a days, the use of static relay is slowly taking the place of popular induc-
tion relays.

14.9  OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

The overcurrent relays operate when the load current either in normal or
abnormal condition exceeds a preset value, known as pickup value. These
relays are used extensively for the protection of distribution lines, large
motors, power equipment, etc., a scheme that incorporates such relays for
the protection of an element of a power system is called overcurrent pro-
tection scheme. An overcurrent scheme of protection may use a number
of overcurrent relays. Electromagnetic or induction relays are commonly
used in this scheme.

14.10  TIME–CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

The different types of time current characteristics available for the over-
current relays are as follows.
366   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Definite time overcurrent relay. This relay operates after a predeter-

1.
mined value of time, when the current exceeds the pickup value of
the relay. The operating time of such relays does not depend upon the
magnitude of current. The desired definite time can be set by suitable
mechanism of the relay. Figure 14.14 shows the time current charac-
teristic of this relay.
Instantaneous relay. These relays operate almost instantaneously
2.
after the current attaining the pickup value. The operating time is
less than 0.1 s. They have fast operation and the operating time does
not change with the magnitude of current. This characteristic can be
achieved with the help of the hinged armature relays.
Inverse-time overcurrent relay. As shown in the above Figure 14.14,
3.
in the inverse time, overcurrent relays the operating time inversely
varies with the magnitude of current. It means the operating
time decreases as the current increases. The characteristics can be
achieved with induction type relays by using a suitable core which
does not saturate for a large value of fault current.
IDMT relay. This type of relay gives an inverse time–current charac-
4.
teristic at lower values of the fault current and definite time charac-
teristic at higher values of the fault current. IDMT relays are widely
for the protection of distribution lines. The particular time–current
relationship for IDMT relays is given by

0.14
t=
(I − 1)
0.02

b
Operating time

Inverse-time characteristic

a Definite-time characteristic

Pickup value

Actuating quantity

FIGURE 14.14  Definite time- and inverse-time characteristics of overcurrent relays.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    367

  The general expression for time–current characteristic of overcur-

rent relay is given by

k
t=
(I n − 1)

  This can be achieved by using a core of the electromagnet which

gets saturated for current slightly greater than the pickup current.
Very inverse-time overcurrent relay. This relay gives more inverse
5.
characteristic than that of an IDMT relay. Its time current charac-
teristic lies between IDMT and extremely inverse-time relays. It has
better selectivity than IDMT relays. Its standard time current rela-
tionship is given by

13.5
t=
(I − 1)

Extremely inverse-time overcurrent relay. An extremely inverse-time

6.
current relay gives a time–current characteristic more inverse than
that of the very inverse and IDMT relays. It has the time current
relationship given by

80
t=
(I − 1)
2

These types of relays are very suitable for the protection of machines
against overheating, protection of alternators, power transformers, earth-
ing transformers, expensive cables, and railway trolley wires. They have
highest selectivity.

14.11  CURRENT SETTING

The pickup level of current of a relay can be set at any desired value. This
is known as current setting of the relay. It is usually achieved by the use
of tapings on the relay operating coil. The taps are brought out to a plug
bridge as shown in Figure 14.15. It permits to alter the number of turns
on the relay coil. This changes the torque on the disk and hence the time
of operation of the relay. The values assigned to each tap are expressed
in terms of percentage of full load rating of CT with which the relay is
368   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

50 75 100 125 150 175 200

To relay
operating
coil

FIGURE 14.15  Plug bridge.

associated and represented the value above which the disk commences to
rotate and finally closes the trip circuit.

Pickup current = Rated secondary current of CT × Current setting

For example, let current setting is at 125%. If the relay fed from the CT
of ratio 200/5, then pickup current will be 1.25 × 5 = 6.25 A.

14.12  PLUG SETTING MULTIPLIER

Plug setting multiplier (PSM) defined as the ratio of current in the CT
secondary and the relay current setting.

Secondary current of CT
PSM =
Relay current setting
Actual fault current of CT primary
=
Relay current setting × CT ratio

Figure 14.16 shows the curve between time of operation and PSM of a
typical relay.

14.13  TIME MULTIPLIER SETTING

The operating time of the relay can be set at a desired value. In induction
disk type relay, the angular distance by which the moving parts of the
relay travels for closing the contacts can be adjusted to get different oper-
ating time. There are 10 steps in which time can be set. Time multiplier
setting (TMS or TSM) is used for these steps of time setting. The values of
TSM (see Figure 14.17) are 0.1, 0.2, 0.3,…, 0.9, 1.
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    369

12

10

8
Operating time (s)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
PSM

FIGURE 14.16  Standard IDMT characteristic.

0.4

0.6

Time
0.2 multiplier

0.8

0 1.0

FIGURE 14.17  Time multiplier setting.

Suppose that at a particular value of the current or PSM, the operating

time is 4 s with TMS = 1. The operating time for the same current with
TMS = 0.5 will be 4 × 0.5 = 2 s. The operating time with TMS = 0.2 will be
(4 × 0.2) = 0.8 s.

14.14  OVERCURRENT PROTECTION SCHEME

Overcurrent protection scheme are widely used for the protection of dis-
tribution lines. For proper selectivity of the relays, the following systems
are required.
370   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Time-graded system. In time graded system, definite time overcur-

1.
rent relays are used.
  In this operation, the relays are graded using a definite time inter-
val of approximately 0.5 s. The operating time of the relay is adjusted
in increasing order from the far end of the feeder, which is shown in
Figure 14.18. In Figure 14.18, the relay R3 at the extremity of the net-
work is set to operate in the fastest possible time, while its upstream
relay R 2 is set 0.5 s higher. Relay operating time sequentially at 0.5 s,
intervals on each section moving back toward the source. With fast
CBs and modern relays, it is now possible to reduce the time gap to
0.4 or 0.3 s.
  When a fault occurs beyond c, all relays come into action as the
fault current flows through all of them. The least time setting is
for the relay placed at c. So it operates after 0.5 s, and the fault is
cleared. Now the relays at A and B are reset. If the relay or CB at
C fails to operate after 1 and 1.5 s, CB at B and CB at A will trip,
respectively. The drawback of this scheme is that for fault near the
power source, the operating time is more. If a fault near the power
source, it involves a large current and hence it should be cleared
quickly. But this scheme takes the longest time in clearing the heavi-
est fault, which is understandable because the heaviest fault is the
most destructive.
Current-graded system. In this scheme, the pickup values of cur-
2.
rent gradually increase toward the source. The relays used here are
fast instantaneous relays. The operating time for all the relays is
kept same, to protect different sections of the feeder, as shown in
Figure 14.19. Ideally the relay at B should operate for faults within B
and C. But it should not operate for faults beyond C. Similarly, the

A B C

Time 1.5 s 1s
0.5 s

FIGURE 14.18  Time graded overcurrent protection of a feeder.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    371

Time characteristic

A B C

80%

FIGURE 14.19  Instantaneous overcurrent protection of a feeder.

relay at A should trip for fault A and B. The relay at C should trip for
fault beyond C.
  The ideal operation is not achieved due to the following reasons:
a. The relay at A is not able to differentiate between faults very close
to B which may be on either side of B. If a fault in the section BC
is very close to the section B, the relay at A understands that it
is in section AB. This happens due to the fact that there is very
little difference in fault current if a fault occurs at the end of the
section AB or in the beginning of the section BC.
b. The magnitude of the current cannot be accurately determined,
as all the circuit parameters may not be known.
  Consequently to obtain proper discrimination, relays are set to
protect only a part of the feeder; usually about 80%. Since this scheme
cannot protect the entire feeder, this system is not used along. It may
be used in conjunction with IDMT (Figure 14.20).
  The advantage of this system as compared to the time graded
scheme is that the operating time is less near the power source.
Time

A B C

FIGURE 14.20  Combined instantaneous and IDMT protection.

372   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Combination of current and time grading. This scheme is widely used

3.
for the protection of the distribution line. IDMT relays are employed
in this scheme; they have the combined features of the current and
time grading. IDMT relays have current as well as time setting
arrangements. The current setting of the relay is made according to
the fault current level of the particular section to be protected. The
relays are set to pick up progressively at higher current levels, toward
the source. Time setting is also done in a progressively increasing
order toward the source. The difference in operating time of two
adjacent relays is kept 0.5 s. If fault current is higher (in case of fault
in that particular section), then operating time will be less, but if the
fault takes place in other section then fault current is less operating
time will be more.

14.15  DIRECTIONAL POWER OR REVERSE POWER RELAY

An electromechanical directional relay is shown in Figure 14.21a. This
relay is energizes by two quantities—voltage and current. The interaction
torque produced by ϕ1 and ϕ2 is given by

T = φ1φ2 sinθ

So T varies as I1I2 sin θ, because the fluxes are produced by I1 and I2.

Here I2 is the current produced in the voltage coil and its lags V by 90°.

(a) Potential coil

To trip
circuit (b)
From PT
V
ϕ2
ϕ

θ
I (or I1)
I2

Current
ϕ1 coil

From CT

FIGURE 14.21  Induction disk-type directional relay.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    373

On the other hand, I1 is the load current coming from CT secondary lags
V by an angle ϕ (Figure 14.21b). Therefore,

θ = (90° − φ)
T = I1I 2 sin (90° − φ) ∝ I1I 2 cos φ ∝ VI cos φ

In induction cup, construction can also be used to produce a torque

proportional to VI cos ϕ.
Torque produced is positively when cos ϕ is positive, that is, ϕ is less
than 90° (Figure 14.22a) when ϕ is more than 90° (between 90° and 180°),
the torque is negative. At a particular relay location, when power flows in
the normal direction, the relay is connection to produce negative torque.
The angle between the actuating quantities supplied to the relay is kept
(180° − ϕ), to produce negative torque. If due to any reason, the power
flows in the reverse direction, the relay product a positive torque and it
operates.
In this condition, the angle between the actuating quantities ϕ is kept
less than 90° to produce a positive torque.
For normal flow of power, the relay is supplied with V and −I. For
reverse flow, the actuating quantities becomes V and I. Torque becomes
VI cos ϕ, that is, positive. This can be achieved easily by reversing the cur-
rent coil (Figure 14.22b).

14.16  DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY

Figure 14.23 shows a directional overcurrent relay. A directional over-
current relay operated when the current exceeds a specified value in a

(a) (b)

–I Current coil
For normal power flow
–ve torque
V
ϕ
For reverse V Voltage Loads
power flow coil
I +ve torque

FIGURE 14.22  (a) Phasor diagram for directional relay. (b) Connection of cur-
rent coil for reverse power relay.
374   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Potential coil

From PT

Directional
1 element
2

Current
coil

From CT

Overcurrent element
(nondirectional
To trip
element)
circuit

FIGURE 14.23  Directional overcurrent relay.

specified direction. It contains two relaying units. One overcurrent unit

and the other a directional unit. For directional control, the secondary
winding of the overcurrent unit is kept open. When the directional unit
operated, it closes the open contacts of the secondary winding of the over-
current unit. Thus, a directional feature is attributed to the overcurrent
relay. The overcurrent unit may be either Watt-hour meter type or shaded
pole type of construction.

14.17  PROTECTION OF PARALLEL FEEDER

The word feeder here means the connecting link between two circuits.
The feeder could be in the form of transmission line, or this could be a
distribution circuit.
Figure 14.24 shows an overcurrent protection scheme for parallel
feeder. At the sending end of the feeders (at A and B), nondirectional relays
are required. The double-headed arrow symbol indicates a nondirectional
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    375

A C

Load

B D

FIGURE 14.24  Protective scheme for parallel feeder.

relay. At other end of the feeders (at C and D), directional overcurrent
relays are required. The arrow marks for the directional relay placed at C
and D indicate that the relay will operate if the current flows in the direc-
tion shown by the arrow. If a fault current occurs at F, the directional relay
at D trip, as the direction of the current is reversed. The relay at C, does
not trip, as current flows in the normal direction. The relay at B trips for
a fault at F. Thus the faulty feeder is isolated and the supply of the healthy
feeder is maintained. For faults at feeders, the direction of current at A
and B does not change and hence relays used at A and B are nondirec-
tional and also current graded. In other arrangement, if nondirectional
relays are used at C and D, then healthy feeder will also be tripped which
is highly undesirable.

14.18  PROTECTION OF RING MAINS

Compared with radial feeders, the protection of ring feeders is costly and
complex. Each feeder requires two relays. Figure 14.25 shows a protection
scheme of parallel feeder. A nondirectional relay is required at one end
and a directional relay at the other end. If a fault occurs at F1, then only
relay at C′ and at D′ will trip. Hence the faulty feeders will be isolated. In
all other directional relays, direction of current is such that they will not
trip. The nondirectional relays are current and time graded. So for a fault,
only the nearest relay will trip, other will not.

14.19  EARTH FAULT PROTECTION SCHEME

A fault that involves ground is called earth fault, for example, L–G fault,
L–L–G fault, etc. The protection scheme of an element of a power system
against earth fault is known as earth fault protection.
376   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

B B′
0.1 1.1

Cu
1.6 lt rre 0.6
u nt
Fa
A C
Infeed
A′ C′
Fa t F1
ul n
1.6 t rre 0.6
F
2
Cu

0.1 1.1
D D′

FIGURE 14.25  Protection of ring feeders.

Relays used in earth fault protection are known as earth fault relays. The
PSM of earth fault relays varies from 20% to 80% of the CT. These relays
are highly sensitive. Figure 14.26a shows current in the secondary of CTs
of different phases. Earth fault relays are mainly energized by the residual
current in a three-phase system, that is, (IA + IB + IC), which is zero under
balanced condition. But in earth fault condition, this current will have a
value. If this value is higher than the pickup value of the relay then it oper-
ates. Theoretically its current setting may be at any value above zero. But in
practical cases, it is normally 20%–30% PSM. The manufacturer provides
a range of plug settings for earth fault relay from 20% to 80% of the CT
secondary rating in steps of 10%.
The magnitude of the earth fault current depends on the fault imped-
ance. In case of earth fault, the fault impedance depends on the system
parameter and on the type of the neutral earthing. The neutral may be
solidly grounded or grounded through resistance and reactance. The
fault impedance for earth faults is much higher than that for phase faults.
Hence, the earth fault current is low compared to phase fault current. An
earth fault relay is independent of load current. Its setting is below normal
load current.
Figure 14.26b and c show an earth fault relay used for the transformer
and alternator, respectively. When an earth fault occurs, zero sequence
current flows through the neutral. This current is actually responsible for
actuating the relay. Figure 14.26d shows the connection of an earth fault
relay using a special type of CT, known as core balance CT or ring CT,
which encircles the three-phase conductor.
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    377

(a) (b) A

CTs
A
ia
B
ib
C
ic B
R C

CT R

(c)
Ring CT

A
B
C

FIGURE 14.26  Various earth fault protective schemes.

14.20  DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEME

Distance protection is mainly used in the extra high-voltage and high-
voltage transmission and subtransmission lines. The relays used in this
scheme basically measure the impedance or some components of the line
impedance at the relay location. The measured quantity is proportional to
the line length between the location of the relay and the point where the
fault has occurred. The measured quantity proportional to the distance
along the measuring relay is known as distance relay. Modern distance
relays provide high-speed fault clearance. They are used for the protec-
tion of transmission and subtransmission lines at 220, 132, 66, and 33 kV.
Sometimes, they are also used at 11 kV. In recent times, carrier current
protection is largely used in lines above 132 kV. The relaying used in car-
rier current protection are distance relays. A distance protection scheme
is a non-unit system of protection. A single scheme provides both primary
and backup protection.
378   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The distance relays have the following types:

1. Impedance relays
2. Reactance relays
3. Mho relays
4. Angle impedance relays
5. Quadrilateral relays

14.21  IMPEDANCE RELAY

It is already stated that the impedance relay measures the impedance of
the line between relay location and the fault point. The impedance relay
is an indirect measurement of the line length and the impedance includes
both resistance and the reactance of the said line segment.

14.21.1  Operating Principle

In impedance relays, current (from CT) is compared with voltage (from
PT) at the relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating
torque) and voltage produces a negative torque (restraining torque). The
equation can be written as

T = K1I 2 − K 2V 2 − K 3

where K1, K2, and K3 are constants, K3 being the torque due to the control
spring effect. Neglecting the spring effect, we have

T = K1I 2 − K 2V 2

For the operation of the relay, the following operation should be satisfied.

K1 I 2 > K 2V 2

V2 K
or < 1
I2 K2
V    where K is a constant
or   < K
I
or Z < K
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    379

The relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than a given

present value.

14.21.2 Characteristic
The characteristic of impedance relay can be shown in Figure 14.27a, in
terms of voltage and current at the relay location. The curve is slightly
bent due to the control spring effect. The R-X diagram (Figure 14.27b) of
the impedance relay is also shown below. Here Z = K represents a circle
and Z < K indicates the area within the circle. It is the operating zone of
the relay. The radius of the circle is setting of the relay. Here ϕ is the phase
angle between V and I. The operating time is constant, irrespective of the
fault location within the protected section.

14.21.3  Directional Units Used with Impedance Relays

Impedance relays are basically nondirectional relays. As its characteristic
is a circle, the relay will trip for a fault point lying within the circle, irre-
spective of the fact that the fault point lies either in forward direction or
in the reverse direction. In the R-X diagram, the relay will trip for a fault
point at F which is behind the relay location. It is always desired that the
relay should trip in the forward direction only. So a directional relay is
used in series. At any location, three impedance relays along with a direc-
tional unit is employed as shown in Figure 14.28. Here zone 2 and zone 3
will backup zone 1 if the relay fails at zone 1. The operating time of these
relays is different from each other. Here t3 > t2 > t1.

(a) (b)

x
+ve torque Operating
region characteristic z
Block
I –ve torque region
ϕ
Trip R

FIGURE 14.27  (a) Operating characteristic of an impedance relay. (b) Operating

characteristic of an impedance relay on the R-X diagram.
380   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Z3

+ve torque
III zone Z2
t3
II zone Z1 t
t1 2
I zone α

–ve torque

Directional
relay

FIGURE 14.28  Characteristics of three-zone impedance relays with directional

unit.

14.22  REACTANCE RELAY

The reactance type distance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional
element that either aids or opposes the overcurrent element. In other
words, a reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional restraint.
The directional element is so designed that its maximum torque angle is
90°, that is, α = 90°.

14.22.1  Operating Characteristic

The operating characteristic of reactance type distance relay can be
derived as follows:

T = K1 I 2 − K 2VI cos(θ − α) − K 3

T = K1 I 2 − K 2 VI sin θ − K 3 (θ is positive when I lags)

where T is the torque, V is the voltage, I is the current, K1, K2 are the con-
stants, and K3 is the spring constant.
K1I2 represents the characteristic of overcurrent relay, and K2VI sin θ
represents the characteristic of directional element.
At balance point

K1 I 2 = K 2VI sin θ + K 3
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    381

Dividing both sides by I2, we get

V K
K1 = K 2 sinθ + 23
I I

or

V K K
sin θ = Z sin θ = 1 − 3 2
I K2 K2I

Neglecting control spring effect,

K1
X= = Constant
K2

This is an equation of straight line and operating characteristic will be

as shown in Figure 14.29.
In this type of relay, the resistance component of the impedance has no
effect on its operation and the relay responds solely to the reactance com-
ponent. The structure that is generally used for reactance type distance
relay is induction cup and double induction loop structure.

14.23  MHO TYPE DISTANCE RELAY

The significance of the name of mho relay is that the mho characteris-
tic when plotted in the admittance instead of impedance axis indicates a
straight line. The mho relay supersedes impedance and reactance relays,

+ve torque +X
Operating
characteristic
–ve torque

–R +R

–X

FIGURE 14.29  Operating characteristic of a reactance relay.

382   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

due to the fact that it has more stable swings than reactance or impedance
relay.
This relay has a voltage restraining element that opposes the directional
element. The operation of this relay is same as that of impedance type
distance relay but with a difference that no separate directional unit is
required because mho units are inherently directional.
The torque equation is given as

T = K1VI cos(θ − α) − K 2V 2 − K 3

At balance point:

K 2V 2 = K1VI cos(θ − α) − K 3

Dividing both side by K2VI, we get

V K K3
= Z = 1 cos(θ − α) −
I K2 K 2VI

If the control spring effect is neglected,

K1
Z= cos(θ − α)
K2

The operating characteristic of such a relay, which is circular one, is

shown in Figure 14.30.

14.24  UNIVERSAL TORQUE EQUATION

Most of the protection relay consists of some arrangement of electro-
magnet which have current winding, voltage winding or both. Current
winding produce magnetic fluxes and torque is developed by interac-
tion between the fluxes of same windings or between fluxes of both the
windings.

Torque developed by current winding = K1I 2

Torque developed by voltage winding = K2V 2
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    383

+X

+ve torque
area

–ve torque
area

α
90º
+R
–R

–X

FIGURE 14.30  Operating characteristic of mho relay.

If both the current and voltage winding are employed, torque devel-
oped by the interaction between fluxes is

= K 3VI cos(θ − α)

where θ is the angle between V and I, and α is the value of torque angle
(known as relay maximum torque angle). It is the design control of the relay.
Where all elements are present, the torque will be produce by all the
three cases, so that the total torque produce in general case is

T = K1 I 2 + K 2V 2 + K 3VI cos(θ − α) + K 4

where K1, K2, K3 are the tap settings or constants of I and V, and K4 is the
mechanical constraint due to a spring or gravity.
By assigning plus or minus sign to some of the terms and letting others
be zero and sometime adding some terms having a combination of volt-
age and current, the operating characteristics of all types of relays can be
obtained.
For example, for overcurrent relay K2 = 0, K3 = 0 and the spring torque
will be K4. Similarly for directional relay K1 = 0, K2 = 0.

14.25  DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS

Differential relay is a suitably connected overcurrent relay which oper-
ates when the phasor difference of current at the two ends of a protected
384   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

element exceeds a pre determined value. Most of the differential relays are
of current differential types.
The following are the various type of differential relays:

1. Simple (basic) differential relay

2. Percentage (biased) differential relay
3. Balanced (opposed) voltage differential relay

14.26  SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

Figure 14.31 shows the arrangement of an overcurrent relay connected to
work on the simple differential principle. In this arrangement, a pair of
CT are fitted on either ends of the element to be protected and secondary
winding of CTs are connected in series so that they carry induced current
in the same direction.
Under normal conditions, where there is no fault or there is external
fault, the current in two CTs secondary are equal and relay operating coil,
therefore does not carry any current.
Whenever there is an interal fault, current in the two secondaries of
CTs (fitted on either end) are different, the relay operating coil gets ener-
gized by the current equal to their difference, and the trip circuit is com-
pleted to operate the CBs.
For the simple differential relay, the stability ratio is very poor, so a per-
centage differential relay has been developed.

14.27  PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

The schematic diagram of the percentage-biased differential relay is shown
in Figure 14.32. This relay is designed to respond to the differential current

CT CT
I1 I2

To load

i1 i2

Operating coil of
overcurrent relay
i1
i2

FIGURE 14.31  Principle of simple differential relay.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    385

I1 CT CT I2

i1 i2
O = Operating coil
R = Restraining coil
O i1 – i2
i1 i2

FIGURE 14.32  Principle of percentage-biased differential relay.

in the form of its fractional relation to the current following through the
protected section. It is essentially an overcurrent balanced beam type relay
with an additional restraining coil. The restraining coil produce a bias
force in the opposite direction to the operating force.
Under normal and through conditions, the bias force due to restrain-
ing coil is greater than the operating force therefore the relay remains
inoperative.
When an internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias
force and consequently the trip contacts are closed to open the CB.
The differential current in the operating coil O is (i1 − i2), while the cur-
rent in the restraining coil R is ((i1 + i2)/2), since the operating coil is con-
nected to the midpoint of the restraining coil. The number of turns in the
restraining coil is Nr, so the total ampere turns are ((i1Nr/2) + (i2Nr/2)).
Now the ampere turns of the operating coil, (AT)o = No(i1 − i2).
Neglecting spring restraint, the relay will operate when

( AT )o > ( AT )r
i + i 
N o (i1 − i2 ) > N r  1 2 
 2 

or

N r  i1 + i2 
(i1 − i2 ) >
N o  2 

∴ io > Kir

Thus, at the threshold of operation of the relay, the ratio of the dif-
ferential operating current (io) to the restraining current (ir) is a fixed
386   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

percentage. And for operation of the relay, the differential operating

current must be greater than this fixed percentage of the restraining
(through fault) current. Hence this relay is called percentage differential
relay. The percentage differential relay is also known as “biased differen-
tial relay.”

14.28  BALANCED VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

Figure 14.33 shows a balanced voltage differential relay. In this scheme
of protection, two similar CTs are connected at either end of the element
to be protected by means of pilot curves. The secondaries of CT are con-
nected in series with a relay in such a manner that under normal condition
their induced electromotive forces are in opposition.
Under normal condition, equal current (i1 = i2) flow in both the pri-
mary windings. Therefore, the secondary voltage of the two transformers
are balanced against each other and no current will flow through relay
operating coil.
Whenever fault occurs in the protected zone, the current in the two
primaries will differ from one another (i.e., i1 ≠ i2) and their secondary
voltage will no longer be in balance. Consequently, a circulating current
will flow through the operating coil, causing the trip circuit to close.
Disadvantages:

1. In order to achieve the accurate balance between CT pairs, a multi-

gap transformer construction is required.
2. Owing to the capacitance of pilot wires, this system is suitable for
protection of cables of relatively short lengths. On long cables, the
charging current may be sufficient to operate the relay even if a per-
fect balance of CT is attained.

Alternator
I1 winding I2

To load
e1 e2

Relay operating
coil

FIGURE 14.33  Principle of balanced voltage differential relay.

 Different Types of Relays    ◾    387

The above disadvantages have been overcome in Translay (modified)

balanced voltage system.

14.29  TRANSLAY RELAY

Translay relay is similar to overcurrent relay except that (1) secondary is
not closed on itself and also (2) the central limb is provided with cop-
per loop or ring. Figure 14.34 shows a simplified diagram of a Translay
scheme.
Under healthy condition, when the current at the two ends of the feeder
is the same, the primaries of the two relays carry the same current includ-
ing equal voltage in the secondaries, which are so connected that their
voltage are in opposition. Hence no current flows in the two secondary
circuits under the condition and so no torque results.
Whenever the current leaving the feeder differs the current entering
the feeders, unequal voltage are induced in the secondaries. Consequently,
a circulating current flows in the secondary circuit causing torque to be
exerted on the disk of each relay. Since the direction of secondary cur-
rent will be opposite in the two relays, therefore torque in one relay will
tend to close the trip circuit while, in other relay, the torque will hold the
movement in the operated condition. It may be noted that the resulting
operating torque depends upon the position and nature of the fault in the
protected zone and at least one element of either relay will operate under
any fault condition. A Translay relay is extensively used in Translay pro-
tection applied to feeders. This relays used embrace the function of trans-
former as well as relay.

CT Feeder CT

Pilot wires

FIGURE 14.34  Simplified diagram of a Translay scheme.

388   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 14.1
The current setting of an IDMT relay is 5 A. The relay has a plug set-
ting of 125% and the TMS of 0.6. The CT ratio is 400/5. Determine
the operating time of the relay for a fault current 4000 A. At TMS = 1,
operating time at various PSH are given in Table 14.1.

Solution

Secondary current
CT ratio =
Relay current setting
primary current)) / CT ratio
(Fault current(p
=
Relay current settings
4000/80
= =8
6.25

The operating time from the given table at PSM 8 is 3 s with
TMS = 1.
Therefore, with PSM = 8, TMS = 0.6, operating time top = 0.6 ×
3 = 1.8 s.

EXAMPLE 14.2
A 20-MVA transformer, which may be called upon to operate at 25%
overload, feeds 11-kV bus bars through a CB; other CB supply outgo-
ing feeders. The transformer CB is equipped with 1000/5 A CTs and
the feeder CBs with 500/5 A CTs and all sets of CTs feed induction-
type overcurrent relays. The relays on the feeder CBs have a 125%
plug seeting and a 0.4 time setting. If a three-phase fault current of
7500 A flows from the transformer to one of the feeders, find the
operating time of the feeder relay, the minimum plug setting of the
transformer relay, and its time setting assuming a discriminative
time margin of 0.5 s. The time–current characteristic of the relays is
same as shown in Figure 14.16.

TABLE 14.1  Operating Times at Various PSM

PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    389

Solution
1. Feeder:

5
Secondary current = 7500 × = 75 A
500

Relay current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 = 6.25 A

Secondary current 75
PSM = = = 12
Relay current setting 6.25

From the curve in Figure 14.16, the operating time at PSM of 12

for a TMS of 1 = 2.8 s
Since TMS of the relay = 0.4, operating time of the relay =
0.4 × 2.8 = 1.12 s
2. Transformer:

(1.25 × 20) × 103

Overload current = = 1312 A
√ 3 × 11

5
Secondary current = 1312 × = 6.56 A
1000

6.56
PSM =
PS × 5

where PS means plug setting of the relay.

Since the transformer relay must not operate to overload cur-
rent, its PSM must be less than 1, that is, PS × 5 > 6.56. Thus,
PS > 6.56/5 > 1.31 or 131%.
The plug setting are restricted to standard values in intervals of
25%, so the nearest value is 150%.

5
Secondary fault current = 7500 × = 37.5 A
1000

Relay current setting = 150% of 5 A = 1.5 × 5 A = 7.5 A

390   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Secondary current 37.5

PSM = = =5
Relay current setting 7. 5

The operating time from the curve in figure at PSM of 5 and TMS
of 1 = 4.7 s. But,

Actual operating time required

= Operating time of feeder relay + Discriminative time margin
  = 1.12 s + 0.5 s
  = 1.62 s

Hence required TMS = 1.62/4.7 = 0.345.

EXERCISES

1. What is protective relay? Explain its function in an electrical system.

2. Discuss the fundamental requirements of protective relaying.
3. Describe briefly some important types of electromagnetic attraction
relays.
4. Derive the equation for torque developed in an induction relay.
5. Write a brief note on relay timing.
6. Define and explain the following terms as applied to protective
relaying:
a. Pickup value
b. Current setting
c. Plug-setting multiplier
d. Time-setting multiplier
7. Sketch a typical time/PSM curve.
8. Explain with the help of neat diagram the construction and working of:
a. Nondirectional induction type overcurrent relay
b. Induction type directional power relay
 Different Types of Relays    ◾    391

9. Describe the construction and principle of operation of an induction

type directional overcurrent relay.
10. Explain the working principle of distance relays.
11. Write a detailed note on differential relays.
12. Describe the Translay scheme of protection.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 15

Protection of Alternators
and Transformers

15.1 INTRODUCTION
The modern power system comprises of several elements that include
alternators, transformers, induction motors, bus bar, transmission lines,
and other equipment. It is suitable and necessary to protect each element
from a mixture of fault conditions. The protective relays can be produc-
tively applied to detect the unlawful conduct of any circuit element and
initiate disciplinary measures. As a matter of convenience, this chapter
deals with the protection of alternator and transformers only.

15.2 PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS
The generator or alternator is the most important and costly equipment
of the power system. It is subjected to most number of faults and the
nature of the faults is most severe. So the protection of alternator is com-
plex and elaborate. A modern generator is provided with the following
protections:

1. Stator protection:
a. Percentage differential protection
b. Protection against stator inter-turn faults
c. Stator overheating protection

393
394   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2. Rotor protection:
a. Field ground fault protection
b. Loss of excitation protection
c. Protection against rotor overheating because of unbalanced 3ϕ
stator current

3. Miscellaneous:

a. Overvoltage protection
b. Overspeed protection
c. Protection against motoring
d. Protection against vibration
e. Bearing overheating protection
f. Protection against auxiliary failure
g. Protection against voltage regulator failure

15.3 STATOR PROTECTION
15.3.1 Percentage Differential Protection
This protection is used for the generators above 1 MW. It protects genera-
tors against internal winding faults, that is, phase-to-phase and phase-to-
ground faults. This is also called bias differential protection. The polarities
of the secondary voltages of current transformers (CTs) at a particular
moment for an external fault are shown in Figure 15.1a. This polarity is
also true for normal direction of current flow in healthy condition.
In the operating coil, the current sent by the upper CT is cancelled by
the current sent by the lower CT and the relay does not operate. For an
internal fault, the polarity of the secondary voltage of the upper CT is
reversed, as shown in Figure 15.1b, in that particular phase affected by the
fault. Now, the operating coil carries the sum of the current sent by the
upper CT and the lower CT, it operates and trips the circuit breaker (CB).
This protection does not respond to external faults and overloads.
This protection is also known as circulating current protection or
Merz–Price protection.
 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    395

(a)

ic
+ +
CTs + ia Ib
– – –
ia

CB ia′

Ic Ib Bias coil
Ia

+ + + Operating
CTs – ia′ coil
ib′ ic′
–
–

(b)

IC IB IA ic
+ +
CTs – ib
– – + ia
ia

CB ia′

Restraining
IC IB coil
IA2

+ + + ia′ Operating
CTs – ib′ coil
– ic′
–

FIGURE 15.1  (a) Percentage of differential protection for external fault condi-
tion (instantaneous current directions shown for external fault condition). (b)
Percentage of differential protection for generator (instantaneous current direc-
tions shown for internal fault condition).
396   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

A B C

R
R
R
CTs
CTs O O O

Generator
windings

O = Operating coil of the relay

R = Bias coil

FIGURE 15.2  Transverse percentage of differential protection for multi-winding

generator.

15.3.2 Protection against Stator Inter-turn Faults

Longitudinal percentage differential protection does not detect stator
inter-turn faults. A transverse percentage differential protection shown in
Figure 15.2 is employed for the protection of the generator against sta-
tor inter-turn faults. This type of protection is used for generators having
parallel windings separately brought out to the terminals. The coil of the
modern large steam turbine-driven generators usually have only one turn
per phase per slot and hence they do not need inter-turn fault protection.
But hydro generators having parallel windings in each phase employ such
protection which thus provides backup protection and detects inter-turn
faults. This scheme is also known as split-phase protection.

15.3.3 Stator Overheating Protection

Overheating of the stator may be caused by the failure of the cooling
system, overloading, or core faults like short-circuited laminations and
failure of core bolt insulation. Modern generators employ two methods
to detect overheating both being used in large generators (above 2 MW).
 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    397

AC supply
Polarizing coil
of the relay

Series
resistor

Operating coil
of the relay

Fixed bridge Resistance

resistors temperature
detector

FIGURE 15.3  Stator-overheating protection.

In one method, the inlet and outlet temperature of the cooling medium
which may be hydrogen/water are compared for detecting overheating.
In the other method, the temperature sensing elements are embedded in
the stator slots to sense the temperature. Figure 15.3 shows a stator over-
heating relaying scheme. When the temperature exceeds a certain pres-
ent maximum temperature limit, the relay sounds an alarm. The scheme
employs a temperature detector limit, relay, and Wheatstone bridge for
the purpose. The temperature sensing elements may either be thermistors,
thermocouples, or resistance temperature indicators. They are embedded
in the stator slots at different locations. These elements are connected to a
multiway selector switch which checks each one in turn for a period long
enough to operate an alarm relay.
For small generators, a bimetallic strip heated by the secondary current
of the CT is placed in the stator circuit. This relay will not operate for the
failure of cooling system.

15.4 ROTOR PROTECTION
15.4.1 Field Ground-Fault Protection
As the field circuit is operated undergrounded, a single ground fault does
not affect the operation of the generator or cause any damage. However,
a single rotor fault to earth increases the stress to the ground in the field
when stator transient induces an extra voltage in the field winding. Thus,
398   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

the probability of occurrence of the second ground fault is increased. In

case a second ground fault occurs, a part of the field winding is bypassed,
thereby increasing the current through the remaining portion of the field
winding. This causes an unbalance in the air-gap fluxes, thereby creat-
ing an unbalance in the magnetic forces on opposite sides of the rotor.
The unbalancing in the magnetic forces makes the rotor shaft eccentric.
This also causes vibrations. Even though the second ground fault may not
bypass enough portion of the field winding to cause magnetic unbalance,
the arcing at the fault causes local heating which slowly distorts the rotor
producing eccentricity and vibration. Figure 15.4 shows the schematic
diagram of rotor earth protection.
For this protection, a DC voltage is impressed between the field circuit
and earth through polarized moving iron relay. It is not necessary to trip the
machine when a single field earth fault occurs. Usually an alarm is sounded.
Then immediate steps are taken to transfer the load from the faulty gen-
erator and to shut it down as quickly as possible to avoid further problem.

15.4.2 Loss of Excitation Protection

When the excitation of a generator is lost, it speeds up slightly and oper-
ates as an induction generator. Round rotor generators do not have
damper windings and hence they are not suitable for such an operation.
The rotor is overheated quickly due to heavy induced current in the rotor
Exciter
output

Field
Gen

Auxiliary
AC supply

Sensitive relay
Trip

FIGURE 15.4  Earth fault protection.

 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    399

iron. The rotors of salient pole generators are not overheated because they
have damper windings which carry induced current. The stators of both
salient and non-salient pole generators are overheated due to wattles cur-
rent drawn by the machines as magnetizing current from the system. The
stator overheating does not occur as quickly as rotor overheating. A large
machine may upset the system stability because it draws reactive power
from the system when it runs as an induction generator, whereas it supplies
reactive power when it runs as a generator. A machine provided with a
quick-acting automatic voltage regulator and connected to a very large sys-
tem may run for several minutes as an induction generator without harm.
Field failure may be caused by the failure of excitation. A protective
scheme employing offset mho or directional impedance relay.

15.4.3 Protection against Rotor Overheating

Because of Unbalanced 3ϕ Current
The unbalanced condition of an alternator may arise due to the following
reasons:

1. When a fault occurs in the stator winding

2. An unbalanced external fault which is not cleared quickly
3. Open circuiting of a phase
4. Failure of one contact of one contact of the CB

Due to the unbalancing, the negative sequence component of current

is produced. It causes double frequency current to be induced in the rotor
iron. This results in severe overheating of the rotor.
The time for which the rotor can be allowed to withstand such a condi-
tion is related by the expression:

I 22t = K

where I2 is the negative sequence component of the current, t is the time,

and K is the constant that depends on the type of generating set and cool-
ing system.

K = 7 for turbo generator with direct cooling

= 60 for salient pole hydro
o generator

400   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Generator
windings CTs
A

CB
B

Negative
sequence filter

Overcurrent
relay

FIGURE 15.5  Protection against unbalanced stator current.

Figure 15.5 shows a protective scheme using negative sequence filter

and relay. The overcurrent relay used in the negative-phase sequence pro-
tection has a long over rating time with a facility of range setting to permit
its characteristic to be matched to I 22t characteristic of a machine. A typi-
cal time range of the relay is 0.2–2000 s. It has a typical construction with
a special electromagnet. It has shaded pole construction with a Mu-metal
shunt. The negative sequence filter gives an output proportional to I2. It
actuates an alarm as well as the time current relay which has a very inverse
characteristic. The alarm unit also starts a timer which is adjustable from
8% to 40% of negative sequence component. The timer makes a delay in
the alarm to prevent the alarm from sounding unnecessarily on unbal-
anced loads of short duration.

15.5 MISCELLANEOUS
15.5.1 Overvoltage Protection
Overvoltage protection may be caused by a defective voltage regulator or it
may occur due to sudden loss of electrical load on generator. When a load
is lost, there is an increase in speed and hence the voltage also increases.
Overvoltage relays are provided.

15.5.2 Overspeed
A turbo generator is provided with a mechanical overspeed device. The
speed governor normally controls its speed. It is designed to prevent
any  speed rise even with 100% load rejection. An emergency centrifu-
gal overspeed device is also incorporated to trip emergency steam valves
when the speed exceeds 110%.
 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    401

15.5.3 Protection against Motoring

When the steam supply is cut off the generator runs as a motor. The steam
turbine gets overheated because insufficient steam passes through the tur-
bine to carry away the heat generated by windage loss. Therefore, a protec-
tive relay is required for the protection of the steam turbine. Generally, a
sensitive reverse power relay is available to give protection of the alterna-
tor against motoring.

15.5.4 Field Suppression
When a fault occurs in the generator winding the CB trips and the gen-
erators is isolated from the system. However, the generator still continues
to feed the fault as long as the excitation is maintained, and the damage
increases.
Therefore, it is desirable to suppress the field as quickly as possible. The
field cannot be destroyed immediately. The energy associated with the flux
must be dissipated into an external device. To achieve this, the field wind-
ing is connected to a discharging resistor to absorb the stored energy. The
discharged resistor is connected in parallel with the field winding before
opening the field CB.

15.6 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Transformer faults may be classified as follows:

1. External faults
2. Internal faults

15.6.1 External Faults
In case of external faults, the transformer must be disconnected if other
protective devices meant to operate for such faults, fails to operate within
a predetermined time. For external faults, time-graded overcurrent relays
are employed as backup protection. Also in case of sustained overload
conditions, the transformer should not be allowed to operate for long
duration. Thermal relays are used to detect overload condition and give
an alarm.

15.6.2 Internal Faults
Internal faults are classified into two groups.
402   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Short circuit in the transformer windings and connections. These are

1.
electrical faults of serious nature and are likely to cause immedi-
ate damage. Such faults are detectable at the winding terminals by
unbalances in voltage or current. These types of fault include line to
ground or line to line and inter-turn faults on high-voltage (HV) and
low-voltage (LV) windings.
Incipient fault. Initially, such faults are of minor nature but slowly
2.
might develop into major faults. Such faults include poor electrical
connections, core faults, failure of coolant, regulator faults, bad load
sharing between transformers, etc.

15.7 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

This protection is also known as circulating current protection or Merz–
Price protection. It is used specially for short circuits within the transformer
of rating 5 MVA or above. This scheme is employed for the protection of
transformers against internal short circuits. It is not capable of detecting
incipient faults. Figure 15.6 shows the schematic diagram of percentage
differential protection for a Y − Δ transformer. The current entering end
has been marked as positive. The end at which current is leaving has been
marked negative. O and R are the operating and restraining coils of the
relay, respectively. The connection are made in such a way that under nor-
mal conditions or in case of external faults, the current flowing in the relay
operating coil due to CTs of the primary side. Consequently relay does not
operate under such conditions.
If a fault (earth fault or short circuit) occurs on the winding the polar-
ity of the induced voltage of the CT of the secondary side is reversed. Now
IB − IA IA IA IA
IC − IB − + I IB − + IB
B
IA − IC − + I IC − + IC
C
−+ − +
IA − IC
IB − IA
IC − IB

O O O
R

R R

FIGURE 15.6  Percentage of differential protection for a Y − ∆ transformer.

 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    403

the current in the operating coil from CTs of both sides is in the same
direction and causes the operation of the relay. In the star side of the trans-
former, CTs are connected in delta or vice versa.

15.8 OVERHEATING PROTECTION
Overheating of transformer is usually caused by sustained overloads or
short circuits and very occasionally by the failure of the cooling system.
The relay protection is also not provided against this contingency, and
thermal accessories are generally used to sound an alarm.

15.9 RATE OF RISE OF PRESSURE RELAY

This device is capable of detecting rapid rise of pressure, rather than abso-
lute pressure. Its operation is quicker than the pressure relief valve.
It is employed in transformers that are provided with gas cushions
instead of conservators as shown in Figure 15.7. A modern pressure relay
contains a metallic bellows full of silicone oil. The bellows is placed in the
transformer oil. The relay is placed at the bottom of the tank where main-
tenance jobs can be performed conveniently. It operates on the principle
of rate or increase of pressure. It is usually design to trip the transformer.

15.10 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Overcurrent relays are used for the protection of transformers of rating
100 kVA and below 5 MVA. An earth fault tripping element is also pro-
vided with overcurrent protection. For small transformers, OC relays are
used for both overload and fault protection. An extremely inverse relay
is desirable for overload for light faults, with instantaneous OC relay for
heavy faults.

15.11 OVERFLUXING PROTECTION
The magnetic flux increases when voltage increases. This results in
increased iron loss and magnetizing current. The core and core bolts
get heated and the lamination insulation is affected. Protection against
overfluxing is required where overfluxing due to sustained overvoltage
can occur. The reduction in frequency also increases the flux density and
consequently, it has similar effects as those due to overvoltage.
The expression of flux in a transformer is given by

E
φ=K
f
404   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Power transformer
Supply
Load

Residual
overcurrent
relay Restricted earth
fault relay

FIGURE 15.7  Earth fault protection for power transformer.

where ϕ is the flux, f is the frequency, E is the applied voltage, and K is the
constant. Therefore, to control the flux, the ratio E/f is controlled.
Electronic circuits with suitable relays are available to measure E/f ratio.
Usually 10% overfluxing can be allowed without damage. If E/f exceeds
1:1, overfluxing protection operates. Overfluxing does not require high-
speed tripping and hence instantaneous operation is undesirable when
momentary disturbances occur.

15.12 EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

A simple overcurrent and earth fault relay does not provide good protec-
tion for a star-connected winding, particularly when the neutral point is
earthed through impedance. Restricted earth fault protection, as shown in
Figure 15.7 provides better protection. This scheme is used for the wind-
ing of the transformer connected in star, where the neutral point is either
solidly earthed or earthed through impedance. The relay used is of high
impedance type to make the scheme stable for external faults.
For delta connection or ungrounded star winding of the transformer,
residual overcurrent relay is employed. The relay operates only for a ground
fault in the transformer.
The differential protection of the transformer is supplemented by
restricted earth fault protection in case of a transformer with its neu-
tral grounded through resistance. For such a case, only about 40% of the
winding is protected with a differential relay pickup setting as low as 20%
of the CT rating.

15.13 BUCHHOLZ RELAY
Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay installed in oil-immersed trans-
formers for protection against all kinds of faults. Named after its inventor,
 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    405

Conservator

Buchholz
relay

9.5°

Transformer
main tank

FIGURE 15.8  Transformer tank, Buchholz relay, and conservator.

Buchholz, it is used to give an alarm in case of incipient (i.e., slow develop-

ing) faults in the transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the
supply in the event of severe internal faults. It is usually installed in the
pipe connecting the conservator to the main tank as shown in Figure 15.8.
It is a universal practice to use Buchholz relays on all such oil-immersed
transformers having ratings in excess of 750 kVA.
Figure 15.9 shows the constructional details of a Buchholz relay. It takes
the form of a domed vessel placed in the connecting pipe between the main
tank and the conservator. The device has two elements. The upper element
consists of a mercury type switch attached to a float. The lower element con-
tains a mercury switch mounted on a hinged type flap located in the direct
path of the flow of oil from the transformer to the conservator. The upper
element closes an alarm circuit during incipient faults, whereas the lower
element is arranged to trip the CB in case of severe internal faults.
In case of incipient faults within the transformer, the heat due to fault
causes the decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tank. The
products of decomposition contain more than 70% of hydrogen gas. The
hydrogen gas being light tries to go into the conservator and in the pro-
cess gets entrapped in the upper part of relay chamber. When a predeter-
mined amount of gas gets accumulated, it exerts sufficient pressure on the
float to cause it to tilt and close the contacts of mercury switch attached
to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm. If a serious fault
occurs in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the
main tank. The oil in the main tank rushes toward the conservator via
406   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Release
To cock
alarm circuit Float

Mercury
switch

Hinged To
point trip circuit

Mercury
switch
From To
transformer conservator
main tank

Flap Test cock

FIGURE 15.9  Buchholz relay.

the Buchholz relay and in doing so tilts the flap to close the contacts of
mercury switch. This completes the trip circuit to open the CB controlling
the transformer.
Advantages:

1. It is the simplest form of transformer protection.

2. It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than is possible
with other forms of protection.

Disadvantages:

1. It can only be used with oil-immersed transformers equipped with

conservator tanks.
2. The device can detect only faults below oil level in the transformer.
Therefore, separate protection is needed for connecting cables.
 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    407

G
CB
T
O

FIGURE 15.10  Differential protection of generator transformer unit.

15.14 GENERATOR TRANSFORMER UNIT PROTECTION

In a modern system, each generator is directly connected to delta con-
nected primary winding of the power transformer. The star-connected
secondary winding is HV windings and it is connected to the HV bus
through a CB. In addition to normal protection of the generator and
transformer, an overall biased differential protection is provided to pro-
tect both the generator and transformer as one unit. Figure 15.10 shows an
overall differential protection. Usually harmonic retrained is not provided
because the transformer is only connected to the bus bar at full voltage.
However, there is a possibility of a small inrush current when a fault near
the bus bar is cleared, suddenly restoring the voltage.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 15.1
The neutral point of a three-phase, 20-MVA, 11-kV alternator is earthed
through a resistance of 5 Ω. The relay is set to operate when there is an
out of balance current of 1.5 A. The CTs have a ratio of 1000/5. Deter­
mine (1) the percentage of protected winding, and (2) value of earthing
resistance required to protect 90% of the winding (Figure 15.11).
R
X%

B Y

FIGURE 15.11  Neutral point of a three-phase alternator is earthed through a

resistance.
408   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Solution

1. The minimum current for which relay operators during fault

condition = 1.5  ×  (1000/5) = 300 A
Let x% be unprotected winding.

11
EMF induced = x % × kV
3
x 11 × 103
= ×
100 3
110 x
=
3

where EMF is the electromotive force.

110 x / 3
Fault current through it =
R
110 x / 3 22 x
= = A
5 3

Now fault current = 300 A. Therefore,

22 x
= 300
3
x = 23.6%

Percentage of winding protected = (100 – 23.6) % = 76.4%.

2. Now, 90% of the winding is protected.

10% of the winding is unprotected.
Unprotected winding x = 10% = (1/10)

11,000 1
∴ EMF induced in 10% winding = ×
3 10
1100
= V
3
 Protection of Alternators and Transformers    ◾    409

When the fault current becomes 300 A, the relay will trip.

1100/ 3
∴ = 300
R
R = 2.12 Ω

EXAMPLE 15.2
A 3-ϕ transformer of 33,000/6600 line volts is connected in star/
delta. The protective transformers on LV side have ratio 300/5. What
should be the CT ratio on HV side?

Solution

Phase voltage on the 33,000 V side is

VL
Vph =
3
33,000
= V
3
= 19,052 V

Phase voltage on the 6600 V side is

Vph = VL = 6600 V

Now turns ratio is

n1 V1 19,052
= = = 2.887
n2 V2 6600

Finding the ratio of CT on HV side we have,

I1 I1 I n
= = 1 = 2
I 2 300/5 60 n1

60
I1 = = 20.8 A
2.887

Therefore, CT ratio on HV side is 20.8:1.

410   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

EXERCISES

1. Discuss the important faults on an alternator.

2. Explain with a neat diagram the application of Merz–Price circulat-
ing current principle for the protection of alternator.
3. Describe with a neat diagram the balanced earth protection for
small-size generators.
4. What factors cause difficulty in applying circulating current prin-
ciple to a power transformer?
5. Describe the construction and working of a Buchholz relay.
6. Describe the Merz–Price circulating current system for the protec-
tion of transformers.
7. Write short notes on the following:
a. Earth-fault protection for alternator
b. Earth-fault protection for transformers
 Chapter 16

Traveling Wave

16.1 INTRODUCTION
A transmission line is a distributed parameter circuit with the unique
ability to support traveling waves of voltage and current. Finite velocity
of electromagnetic field propagation is present in a circuit which have dis-
tributed parameters. In such a circuit, the changes in voltage and current
do not occur simultaneously in all parts of the circuit but spread out in
the form of traveling waves and surges. When a transmission line is sud-
denly connected to a voltage source by closing a switch, the whole of the
line is not energized all at once. This is due to the presence of distributed
constants (inductance and capacitance in a loss free line). When a switch
S is closed, the inductance L1 acts as an open circuit and capacitance C1
as short circuit instantaneously. The same instant next section cannot
be charged because the voltage across capacitor C1 is zero. So unless the
capacitor C1 is charged to the some value whatsoever, charging of the
capacitor C2 through L2 is not possible which, of course, will take some
finite time. The same line of reasoning applies to the third section, fault
section, and hence along. Thus, it has been ascertained that the potential
at the successive section builds up step by step. This gradual buildup of
potential over the transmission line conductor can be regarded, as though
a voltage wave is traveling from one terminal to another final stage, and
the gradual loading of the capacitances is due to associated current wave.
The current wave, which is accompanied by a voltage wave, sets up a mag-
netic field in the surrounding space. At junction and terminations, these
surges undergo reflections and refractions. In an extensive network with
many lines and junctions, the number of traveling waves initiated by a

411
412   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

single incident wave will mushroom at a considerable rate as the wave split
and multiple reflections occur. It is rightful that the entire energy of the
resulting waves cannot exceed the energy of the incident wave. However,
it is possible for the voltage buildup at certain junctions due to reinforc-
ing action of several waves. For a perfect study of the phenomenon, the
use of Bewely lattice diagram or digital data processor is necessary. The
study of traveling wave, therefore, plays an important role in knowing the
voltage and current at all points in a power system. It assists in the design
of insulators, protective equipment, the insularity of the terminal equip-
ment, and overall insulation coordination.

16.2  SURGE IMPEDANCE AND VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION

Thus far, we have analyzed the transient behavior of several circuits with
lumped parameters. However, there are some parts of a power system where
this approach is inadequate. The most obvious instance is the transmis-
sion line. Here the L, C, and R are uniformly distributed over the length of
the line. For steady-state operation of the line, the transmission line could
be exemplified by their actual circuit, that is, distributed parameters. We
say that for a 50-Hz supply and short transmission line, the sending end
current equals receiving end current and the change in voltage from send-
ing end to receiving end is smooth. This is not so when transmission line
is subjected to a transient. To understand the traveling wave phenomenon,
overtransmission line has been represent in Figure 16.1 by a large number
of L and C π sections. The line is assumed to be lossless. Let us consider C
as the capacitance per-unit length and L, the inductance per-unit length.
As already noted in the presiding para, the gradual establishment of a line
voltage can be considered as due to voltage wave traveling from the supply
source and toward the far end, and the progressive charging of the line
capacitances will account for the associated current wave.

S L1 L2 L3
Load

V C1 C2 C3

Neutral

FIGURE 16.1  Equivalent π-section of a long transmission line.

 Traveling Wave    ◾    413

Suppose that the wave after time t has travelled through a distance x.
Since, we have assumed lossless lines, whatever is the value of voltage and
current waves at the kickoff, they remain same throughout the change of
location. Take a distance dx which is moved by the waves in time dt. The
electrostatic flux is related with the voltage wave and the electromagnetic
flux with the current wave. The electrostatic flux which is equal to the
charge between the conductors of the line up to a distance x given by

q = CVx (16.1)

The current in the conductor is determined by the rate at which the

charge flows into and out of the line.

dq dx
I = = CV (16.2)
dt dt

Here, dx/dt is the velocity of the traveling wave over the line conductor
and is represented by v, then

I = VCv (16.3)

Likewise, the electromagnetic flux linkages created around the conduc-

tors due to the current following in them up to a distance of x is given by

ψ = ILx (16.4)

The voltage is the rate at which the flux linkages link with the
conductor:

dψ dx
V = = IL = ILv (16.5)
dt dt

Dividing Equation 16.5 by 16.3,

V LIv LI
= =
I VCv VC
414   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

or

V2 L
=
I 2 C

or

V L
=
I C

L
Zn = (16.6)
C

The expression is the ratio of voltage and current which has the dimen-
sions of impedance and is therefore here designated as surge impedance
of the line. It is also called the natural impedance because this impedance
has nothing to do with the load impedance, but depends only on the line
constant. The value of this impedance is 400–600 Ω for an overhead line
and 40–60 Ω for a cable.
Multiplying Equations 16.3 and 16.5:

VI = CVv × LIv

I = LCv 2

1
v=
LC

Now expressions for L and C for overhead lines are

d
L = 2 × 10−7 ln H/m
r

2πε
C= F/m
ln(d /r )
 Traveling Wave    ◾    415

1
v=
2 × 10 ln(d /r ) ⋅ [(2π × 8.854 × 10−12 )/ ln(d /r )]
−7

= 3 × 10−8 m/s

This is the velocity of light. This means the velocity of propagation of

the traveling waves over a transmission line equals the velocity of light. In
actual practice because of the resistance of the line, the velocity of approx-
imately 250 m/μs is assumed. The velocity of propagation over the cables
will be smaller than that of the overhead lines because in case of overhead
lines εr = 1 while for cables εr > 1.

16.3  REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF WAVES

If a traveling wave arrives at a point where the impedance suddenly
changes, the wave is partly transmitted and partly reflected. Loading
points, line–cable junctions, and even faults constitute such discontinui-
ties. Independent waves meeting along a line will combine in accordance
with polarity to provide different voltage and current level at the meeting
point. It is convenient to adopt a standard sign convention and in what
follows, forward waves of current and voltage are given the same p ­ olarity.
If the wave is being reflected, the corresponding current and voltage waves
are given opposite polarity. This may be illustrated by considering waves
of current and voltage being transmitted along a line of characteristic
impedance ZC terminated by an impedance Z (Figure 16.2).
Let V and I represent inclined waves, VT and IT represent the transmit-
ted or refracted waves and VR and IR the reflected waves. The following
relations hold good for incident, transmitted and reflected voltage, and
current waves.

V = IZ C (16.7)

E
Zc

FIGURE 16.2  Line terminated through impedance Z.

416   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

VT = I T Z (16.8)

VR = − I R Z C (16.9)

The negative sign Equation 16.9 is because of the fact that VR and IR are
traveling in the negative direction of x or backwards on the same line. The
transmitted voltage and a current will be, respectively, the algebraic sum
of incident and reflected voltage and current waves.

VT = V + VR (16.10)

IT = I + IR (16.11)

Substituting the values of I, IR, and IT from Equations 16.7 through 16.9
in Equation 16.11, we have

VT V VR
= − (16.12)
Z ZC ZC

From Equations 16.10 and 16.12, we have

VT V VT − V
= −
Z ZC ZC

or

ZC
VT × + VT = 2V
Z

or

 Z 
VT  1 + C  = 2V
 Z 

or

2Z
VT = V ⋅ (16.13)
Z + ZC

 Traveling Wave    ◾    417

The coefficient 2Z/(Z  +  ZC) is called transmitting coefficient or refrac-

tion coefficient. It is denoted by β.

VT = β ⋅ V

Now,

VT 2V 2 IZ C
IT = = = (16.14)
Z Z + ZC Z + ZC

2ZV Z − ZC
VR = VT − V = −V =V ⋅ (16.15)
Z + ZC Z + ZC

Z − ZC
VR = V ⋅ (16.16)
Z + ZC

The coefficient (Z − ZC)/(Z + ZC) is called reflection coefficient. It is

denoted by α.

VR = α ⋅ V

Now,

Z − ZC Z + ZC + Z − ZC 2Z
1+ α = 1+ = = = β (16.17)
Z + ZC Z + ZC Z + ZC

16.4 RECEIVING END TRANSMISSION OPERATING

ON A NO-LOAD CONDITION
If the line is open circuited (Figure 16.3) at the receiving end, Z is infinite.
An open circuit at the end of a line demands that the current at that point
must be zero.
As IR = 0, electromagnetic energy stored by inductor  =  (1/2)LI2 = 0
and electrostatic energy stored by C = (1/2)CV2.
According to law of conservation of energy, energy can never be destroyed
but only can be converted from one form to another, that is, electromag-
netic energy is converted into electrostatic energy, so electrostatic energy
418   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

+
V
–

FIGURE 16.3  Case of an open-ended line.

increases. Electrostatic energy is increased due to increase in v­ oltage. Let e

be increase in voltage.

1 2 1 2
LI = Ce
2 2

or

LI 2 = Ce 2

L
e=I = IZ C = V
C

that is, voltage at the open-circuited receiving end increases by incident

voltage V. Therefore, the total potential of the open end when the wave
reaches this end is

V + V = 2V

As soon as the incident current wave I reaches the open end, the cur-
rent at the open end is zero. That means a current wave of I magnitude
travels back over the transmission line. This means for an open-end line,
a current wave is reflected with negative sign and coefficient of reflection
unity. The variation of current and voltage waves over the line is explained
in Figure 16.4.
After the voltage and current waves are reflected back from the open
end, they reach the source end, the voltage over the line becomes 2V and
the current is zero. The voltage at source end cannot be more than the
source voltage V; therefore, a voltage wave −V and current wave of −I are
 Traveling Wave    ◾    419

Voltage Current

T = 0+ V I

T=1 V I

2V
T = 1+ V I
–I
T = 2l 2V
I=0
–V
T = 2l+ V 2V

–I
T = 3l V
–I
T= 3l+ V
I
–V –I
V=0 I=0
T = 4l

FIGURE 16.4  Variation of voltage and current in an open-ended line.

reflected back into the line. It can be seen that after the waves have travelled
through a distance of 4l, where l is the length of the line, they would have
wiped out both the current and voltage wave, leaving the line momentarily
in its original state. The above cycle repeats itself.

16.5 RECEIVING END OPERATING ON

A SHORT CIRCUIT CONDITION
If the line is short circuited (Figure 16.5) at the receiving end, Z = 0. The
unique characteristic of the short circuit is that voltage across it is zero.
Electromagnetic energy stored by L in magnetic field = (1/2)LI2
Electrostatic energy stored by C in electric field = 0 (as V = 0)

+
V
–

FIGURE 16.5  Case of a short-circuited line.

420   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Energy can never be destroyed but only can be converted from one
to another, that is, electrostatic energy is converted to electromagnetic
energy. So electromagnetic energy increases.
Let i be the increase in current,

1 1
CV 2 = Li 2
2 2

CV 2 = Li 2

V V
i= = =I
L /C ZC

that is, current at short circuit receiving end increases by incident cur-
rent I. As a result the total current at the shorted end, when the current
waves reaches the end is I + I = 2I A.
Therefore, for a short-circuit end, a current wave is reflected back with
positive sign and coefficient of reflection as unity. Since the voltage at
the shorted end is zero, a voltage wave of −V could be considered to have
been reflected back into the line with coefficient of reflection as unity.
The variation of voltage and current waves over the line is explained in
Figure 16.6.
It is seen from above that the voltage wave periodically reduces to
zero after it has travelled through a distance of twice the length of the
line, whereas after each reflection at either end, the current is built
up by an amount V/Z n = I. Theoretically, the reflection will be infi-
nite and ­t herefore the current will reach infinite value. But practically
in an actual system, the current will be limited by the resistance of the
line.

16.6  REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT A T-JUNCTION

A voltage is traveling over the line with surge impedance Z1, as shown in
Figure 16.7.
When it reaches the junction, it looks a change in impedance and,
therefore, suffers reflection and refraction. Let VT2, IT2, and VT3, IT3 be the
voltage and current in the lines having surge impedance Z2 and Z3, respec-
tively. Since Z2 and Z3 form a parallel path as far as the surge wave is con-
cerned, VT2 = VT3 = VT. Therefore, following relations hold good,
 Traveling Wave    ◾    421

Voltage Current

T = 0+ V I

T=I V I

I
T = I+ V I 2I
–V
2I
T = 2I V=0

I
T = 2I+ V 3I 2I

3I
T = 3I V

3I 4I
T = 3I+ V
–V

4I
T = 4I V=0

FIGURE 16.6  Variation of voltage and current in a short-circuited line.

Z2
Z1

Z3

FIGURE 16.7  A bifurcated line.

VT = V + VR

V + VR = VT

V V
I = , IR = − R
Z1 Z1

VT V
I T2 = , I T3 = T
Z2 Z3
422   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

I + I R = I T2 + I T3

V VR VT VT
− = +
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z3

Substituting for VR = VT − V,

V VT − V VT VT
− = +
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z3

2V 1 1 1 
= VT  + + 
Z1 Z
 1 Z Z 3
2

2V /Z1
VT =
(1/Z1 ) + (1/Z 2 ) + (1/Z 3 )

Similarly, other quantities can be derived.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 16.1
An overhead line with surge impedance of 400 Ω is connected in
series with an underground cable having a surge impedance of
100 Ω. If a surge of 50 kV travels from line toward cable, determine
the transmitted voltage wave at junction.

Solution

2Z
Transmitting coefficient, β =
Z + ZC

2Z 2 × 100
Transmitted voltage, VT = V = 50 × = 20 kV
Z + ZC 100 + 400

EXAMPLE 16.2
A surge of 100 kV is traveling in a line of impedance 600 Ω arrives at
a junction with two lines of impedance 800 and 200 Ω. Determine
the transmitted voltage and currents.
 Traveling Wave    ◾    423

Solution
In the problem, Z1 = 600 Ω, Z2 = 800 Ω, Z3 = 200 Ω, and V = 100 kV.

2V /Z1
Transmitted voltage, VT =
(1/Z1 ) + (1/Z2 ) + (1/Z3 )
(2 × 100)/600
= = 42.04 kV
(1/600) + (1/800) + (1/200)

Transmitted currents of two lines are IT2 and IT3, respectively.

VT 42.04 × 1000
I T2 = = = 52.55 A
Z2 800

VT 42.04 × 1000
I T3 = = = 210.2 A
Z3 200

EXAMPLE 16.3
A surge of 20 kV magnitude travels along a lossless cable toward its
junction with two identical lossless overhead transmission lines. The
inductance and capacitance of the cable are 0.4 mH and 0.5 μF/km,
and the same of the overhead transmission lines are 1.5 mH and
0.015 μF/km. Find out the magnitude of voltage at the junction due
to surge.

Solution
 2/Z Cable 
Transmitted voltage, VT = V 
 (1/Z L1 ) + (1/Z L 2 ) + (1/Z Cable ) 

Now,

L 0.4 × 10−3
Z Cable = = = 28.28 Ω
c 0.5 × 10−6

Now, impedances of lines are

L 1.5 × 10−3
Z L1 = Z L 2 = = = 316.22 Ω
c 0.015 × 10−6
424   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

 2/28.28 
∴ VT = 20  = 33.93 kV
 (2/316.22) + (1/28.28) 

EXERCISES

1. Explain what is meant by the surge impedance of a line and show

upon what factors it depends.
2. Obtain an expression for the surge impedance of a transmission line
and for the velocity of propagation of electric waves in terms of the
line inductance and capacitance.
3. Derive an expression for the surge impedance of a transmission line.
Explain what is meant by surge impedance of a transmission line
and derive its value in terms of the line constants. Derive expres-
sions for the values of transmitted and reflected waves of current and
voltage relative to those of incident waves at a point where the surge
impedance changes from Z1 to Z2.
 Chapter 17

Earthing

17.1 INTRODUCTION
The term “earthing” or “grounding” means connecting the noncurrent-
carrying parts of the electrical equipment or the neutral point of the sup-
ply system to the general mass of earth in such a manner that all times an
immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger. The
neutral grounding is an important aspect of power system design because
the performance of the system in terms of short circuits, stability, protec-
tion, etc., is greatly affected by the condition of the neutral.

17.2  OBJECTS OF EARTHING

1. To save human life from danger or shock or by death by blowing fuse
of any apparatus which becomes leaky.
2. To protect all machines fed from overhead lines from lightning.
3. To protect large buildings from atmospheric lightning.
4. To maintain the line voltage constant (since neutral of every alterna-
tor, transformer is earthed).

17.3  CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING

Earthing may be classified as

1. Equipment grounding
2. System grounding

425
426   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

17.3.1  Equipment Grounding

The process of connecting noncurrent-carrying metal parts (i.e., metal-
lic enclosure) of the electrical equipment to earth (i.e., soil) in such a way
that in case of insulation failure, the enclosure effectively remains at earth
potential is called equipment grounding.
We are frequently in touch with electrical equipment of all kinds, rang-
ing from domestic appliances and hand-held tools to industrial motors.
We shall illustrate the need of effective equipment grounding by consid-
ering a single-phase circuit composed of a 230-V source connected to a
motor M (see Figure 17.1). Note that neutral is solidly grounded at the
service entrance. In the interest of easy understanding, we shall divide the
discussion into three heads:

Ungrounded enclosure. Figure 17.1 shows the case of ungrounded neu-

1.
tral enclosure. If a person touches the metal enclosure, nothing will
happen if the equipment is functioning correctly. But if the winding
insulation becomes faulty, the resistance Re between the motor and
the enclosure drops to a low voltage (a few hundred ohms or less). A
person having a body resistance Rb would complete the current path as
shown in Figure 17.1. If Re is small, the leakage current IL through the
person’s body could be dangerously high. As a result the person would
get electric shock which may be fatal. Therefore, this system is unsafe.
Enclosure connected to neutral wire. It may appear that the above
2.
problem can be solved by connecting the enclosure to the grounded
neutral wire as shown in Figure 17.2. Now the leakage current flows
from the motor, through the enclosure, and straight back to the
neutral wire. Therefore, the enclosure remains at earth potential.
Consequently, the operator would not experience any electric shock.
  The trouble with this method is that the neutral wire may become
open either accidentally or due to a faulty installation. For example, if

S Line IL
Re
Metal
230 V enclosure M IL
Neutral Rb

IL

FIGURE 17.1  A person having a body resistance Rb would complete the current path.
 Earthing    ◾    427

S Line IL
Re

230 V M
IL Rb
IL Neutral

FIGURE 17.2  Connecting the enclosure to the grounded neutral wire.

the switch is inadvertently in series with the neutral rather than the
live wire shown in Figure 17.3, the motor can still be turned on and
off. However, if someone touched the enclosure when the motor is off,
he would receive a severe electric shock. It is because when the motor
is off, the potential of the enclosure rises to that of the live conductor.
Ground wire connected to enclosure. To get rid of this problem, we
3.
install a third wire, called ground wire, between the enclosure and
the system ground as shown in Figure 17.4. The ground wire may be
bare or insulated. If it is insulated, it is colored green.

17.3.2  System Grounding

The process of collecting some electric parts of the power system (e.g.,
neutral point of a star connected system, one conductor of the secondary
of a transformer, etc.) to earth is called system grounding.
Line
Re

230 V M IL
S Rb
Neutral

IL

FIGURE 17.3  Switch is inadvertently in series with the neutral.

Line IL
Re

230 V M
S IL Rb
Neutral

Ground IL
conductor

FIGURE 17.4  Ground wire, between the enclosure and the system ground.
428   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

17.4  ISOLATED NEUTRAL OR UNDERGROUNDED NEUTRAL

A simple three-phase system with isolated neutral is shown in Figure 17.5.
The line conductors have capacitances between one another and the earth,
the former being delta connected, while the latter star connected. The
effect of line capacitances on the grounding characteristic of the system
is little and therefore can be neglected. The circuit then reduces to the
one shown in Figure 17.6a. First of all consider a three-phase line (per-
fectly transposed) having some capacitances to ground. In such a line, the
charging currents for each line to earth capacitor lead the phase voltage by
90° and are equal.

Vph
I CR = I CY = I CB =
XC

where Vph is the phase voltage and XC is the reactance due to the capaci-
tance of the line to ground.
R

Y
N

CR CB
CY

FIGURE 17.5  A simple three-phase system with isolated neutral.

(a) (b)
R VYN
ICR
N Y
ICY
ICB
B
ICB ICY
CR CB
CY
VRN ICR VBN

FIGURE 17.6  (a) Three phase system with isolated neutral. (b) Phasor diagram
for isolated neutral system.
 Earthing    ◾    429

The capacitive currents ICR, ICY, and ICB are balanced and their resultant
is zero and no current flows to the earth and the potential of neutral is the
same as the ground potential. Phasor diagram as shown in Figure 17.6b.

17.4.1  Circuit Behavior under Single Line-to-Ground Fault

Now consider a phase to earth fault in line Y say at point F. The circuit
then becomes as shown in Figure 17.7a. Under these circumstances, the
faulty line takes up the earth potential, while the potentials of remaining
two healthy lines R and B rise from phase value to line value. The capaci-
tance current becomes unbalanced and fault current IF flows through the
faulty line into the fault and returns to the system via earth and the earth
capacitances CR and CB. Thus fault current IF has two components ICR and
ICB which flows through capacitances CR and CB, respectively, under the
potential differences of VRY and VBY, respectively. The currents lead their
respective voltages by 90° and their phasor sum is equal to fault current IF.
Phasor diagram is shown in Figure 17.7b.

VRY 3Vph
I CR = =
XCR XC

Similarly,

VBY 3Vph
I CB = =
XCB XC

Now IF is equal to phasor sum of ICR and ICB. Magnitude of ICR and ICB
are equal to angle between them 60°.

(a) (b) VRN

R
F
N Y
B IF
ICR ICB VRY
ICB
CR CY
IF
VYN 60° ICR
VBN VBR

FIGURE 17.7  (a) Isolated neutral system with fault on one phase. (b) Phasor
­diagram for fault on phase Y.
430   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Therefore, resultant capacitive fault current is given by

60°
I F = 2 I R cos
2
= 2 I R cos 30°
3
= 2I R = 3I R
2

Therefore,

3Vph 3Vph
I F = 3 I CR = 3 × =
XC XC
= 3 × Per-phase capacitive current under normal condition

When a single line-to-ground fault occurs on an underground neutral

system, following effects are produced in the system:

1. The potential of the faulty phase becomes equal to ground potential.

However, the voltages of the two remaining healthy phases rise from
their normal phase voltage to full line value. This may result in insu-
lation breakdown.

2. The capacitive current in the two healthy phases increase to 3 times

the normal value.
3. The capacitive fault current IF becomes three times the normal per-
phase capacitive current.
4. The system cannot provide adequate protection against earth faults.
It is because the capacitive fault current is small in magnitude and
cannot operate protective device.
5. The capacitive fault current flows IF into earth. Experience shows
that IF in excess of 4 or 5 A is sufficient to maintain an arc in the
ionized path of the fault. If this current is once maintained, it may
exist even after the earth fault is cleared. This phenomenon of per-
sistent arc is called arcing ground. Due to arcing ground, the system
capacity is charged and discharged in a cyclic order. This sets up high
frequency oscillation on the whole system, and the phase voltage of
 Earthing    ◾    431

healthy conductors may rise to five to six times its normal value. The
over voltages in healthy conductors may damage the insulation in
the line.

Due to above disadvantage undergrounded system is not used these

days. The modern high-voltage three-phase system employs grounded neu-
tral owing to a number of advantages.

17.5  ADVANTAGES OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING

The following are the advantages of neutral grounding:

1. Voltages of the healthy phases with respect to ground remain at nor-

mal value.
2. The high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated.
3. The protective relays can be used to provide protection against earth
faults.
4. The over voltages due to lightning arc discharged to earth.
5. It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.

17.6  METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING

The methods commonly used for grounding the neutral point of a three-
phase system are

1. Solid or effective grounding

2. Resistance grounding
3. Reactance grounding
4. Peterson-coil grounding

17.6.1  Solid Grounding

When the neutral point of a three-phase system (e.g., three-phase gen-
erator, three-phase transformer, etc.) is directly connected to earth (i.e.,
soil) through a wire of negligible resistance and reactance, it is called solid
grounding or effective grounding. Figure 17.8 shows the solid grounding
of the neutral point.
432   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

N Y

FIGURE 17.8  Solid grounding of neutral.

When there is a ground fault over any phase, the phase to earth volt-
age of a grounded phase will become zero, but the voltage to earth of the
remaining two healthy phases will be the normal phase voltage as in this
case neutral point will not shift. Under a line-to-ground fault on phase
B, as shown in Figure 17.9a, the neutral and the terminal B are at earth
­potential. The phasor diagram for such a condition is shown in Figure
17.9b. The reversed phasor is shown at VB. Capacitive current ICR leads VNR
by 90° and ICY leads VNY by 90°. The resultant capacitive current IC will be
phasor sum of ICR and ICY. It should be noted that in this system, in addition
to capacitive current, the supply source also supplies the fault current IF.
This current will go to the fault point F through the faulty phase and then
return back to supply source through the earth and neutral connection.
The fault current IF lags behind the faulty phase voltage by approximately
90° since the circuit is predominately inductive (due to transformers,
machines, and line inductance). The fault current IF will be in phase oppo-
sition to capacitive current IC. Due to this effect the capacitive current IC
will be faulty neutralized by the large fault current. Therefore, no arcing
ground phenomenon or over voltage condition can occur.
(a) ICR (b) R
R
ICY
N Y
IC
IF
B ICY
ICR ICY 90°
IF IC CR CY ICR
90°
IF
IF B Y
IF
IC IC

FIGURE 17.9  (a) Solidly grounded system with ground fault on one phase. (b)
Phasor diagram for fault on phase B.
 Earthing    ◾    433

In case of solid grounding when there is an earth fault on any phase of

the system, the phase to earth voltage of the faulty phase becomes zero.
However, the phase to earth voltage of the remaining two healthy phases
remains at normal-phase voltage because the potential of the neutral is
fixed at earth potential. This permits to insulate the equipment for phase
voltage. Therefore, there is a saving in the cost of equipment.
When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, large fault cur-
rent flows between the fault point and the grounded neutral. This permits
the easy operation of earth relay.
This method also has some limitations:

1. The solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the
fault has to be cleared by the circuit breaker, the heavy earth fault
currents may cause the burning of circuit breaker contacts.
2. The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in
neighboring communication line.

Application. This system of grounding is used for voltages up to 33 kV

with total power capacity not exceeding 5000 kVA.

17.6.2  Resistance Grounding

When it becomes necessary to limit earth fault current, a current limiting
device is introduced in the neutral and earth. One method of introducing
a current limiting device is resistance earthing or grounding.
The value of R should neither be very low or nor very high. If the value
of is very low, the earth fault current will be large and the system becomes
similar to solid grounding system. On the other hand, if the earthing
resistance R is very high, the system condition becomes similar to under-
grounded system.
When there is a ground fault over any phase, neutral is displaced and
the maximum voltage across the healthy phases becomes equal to line-to-
line voltage. Figure 17.10a shows a ground fault on phase B of a resistance
grounded system. The phasor diagram for such a condition is illustrated
in Figure 17.10b. Capacitive current ICR and ICY leads VBR and VBY, respec-
tively, by 90°. Fault current IF lags the phase voltage of the faulted phase by
an angle ϕ, which depends on the grounding resistance R and independent
of the system up to the fault point. The fault current IF can be resolved into
two components, one in phase with the faulty phase voltage and the other
lagging the faulty phase voltage by 90° (IF sin ϕ). The lagging component of
434   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

(a) ICR (b) R

R
ICY
N Y IC
IF ICY
B
R ICR ICY N
CR CY ICR
EB Y
IF
IF IF sin φ IF
IC IC

FIGURE 17.10  (a) Resistance grounded system with ground fault on one phase.
(b) Phasor diagram for fault on phase B.

fault current is in phase opposition to the capacitive current IC. By adjust-

ing the value of grounding resistance R to a sufficient low value, it is pos-
sible to neutralize the effect of IC so as to avoid the occurrence of transient
oscillations due to the arcing ground.
In case the grounding resistance R is made sufficiently large so that the
lagging component of fault current becomes less than capacitive current
IC, then the system conditions approach that of the isolated neutral system
the risk of high transient voltage occurrence.
Application. Resistance grounding is usually employed for the systems
operating on voltage exceeding 3.3 kV but not exceeding 33 kV. For circuit
below 3.3 kV (i.e., say 400 V distribution networks), the external resis-
tance in the neutral circuit is unnecessary because the voltage available
between phase and ground is only 230 V.

17.6.3  Reactance Grounding

In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and ground as
shown in Figure 17.11. The purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault
R

N
Y

Reactance B

FIGURE 17.11  Reactance grounding.

 Earthing    ◾    435

current. By changing the earthing resistance, the earth fault current can
be changed to obtain the condition similar to that of solid grounding.
This method is not used these days because of the following disadvan-
tages:

1. In this system the fault current required to operate the protective

device is higher than that of resistance grounding for the same fault
conditions.
2. High transient voltages appear under fault conditions.

17.6.4  Arc Suppression Coil Grounding (or Resonant Grounding)

We have seen that capacitive currents are responsible for producing arc-
ing grounds. These capacitive currents flow because capacitance exists
between each line and earth. If inductance L of appropriate value is con-
nected in parallel with the capacitance of the system, the fault current IF
flowing through L will be in phase opposition to capacitive current IC of
the system. If L is so adjusted that IL = IC, then resultant current in the
fault will be zero. This condition is known as resonant grounding.
When the value of L of arc suppression coil is such that the fault cur-
rent IF exactly balances the capacitive current IC, it is called Resonant
grounding.
An arc suppression coil (also called Peterson coil) is an iron-cored coil
connected between the neutral and earth as shown in Figure 17.12. The
reactor is provided with tapings to change the inductance of the coil. By
adjusting the tapings on the coil, the coil can be tuned with the capaci-
tance of the system, that is, resonant grounding can be achieved.
ICR VYN
(a) (b)
R
N ICY
Y
IF F
B VBY IC
IF ICR ICY ICR
Arc CR CY N
suppression 60° I
CY
coil VBR
VRN B
IF IC
IF

FIGURE 17.12  (a) Resonant grounded system with ground fault on one phase. (b)
Phasor diagram for fault on phase B.
436   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

On occurrence of a ground fault (say on phase B), a lagging reactive

current flows from the faulted phase to the ground and returns to the sys-
tem through the inductive coil. Simultaneously capacitive current flows
from healthy phase to ground. The lagging fault current IF and leading
capacitive current IC are almost in phase opposition. By a proper selection
of the value of inductance L of the arc suppression coil, the two current
can be made almost equal so that there is no current through the ground
fault and so there will be no arc. The combination of neutral reactance L
and line capacitance C acts as a parallel resonant circuit.

ICR = I CY = 3Vph ωC

Capacitive current

I C = I CR + I CY = 3 × 3Vph ωC = 3Vph ωC

For balance condition,

IL = IC
VP 1
= 3Vph ωC or L =
WL 3ω 2C

Advantages of Peterson coil grounding:

1. The Peterson coil grounding is an effective method of clearing both

transient faults due to lightning and sustained single line-to-ground
faults.
2. There is no tendency of arcing grounds to occur, and the arcs are
usually self-extinguishing.
3. Voltage drops to single line-to-ground faults are minimized.

Disadvantages of Peterson coil grounding:

1. There is a need for retuning after any network modification.

2. The line should be transposed.
3. There is an increase in corona and radio interference in the event of
a double line-to-ground fault.
 Earthing    ◾    437

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 17.1
Calculate the reactance of arc suppression coil suitable for a 33-kV,
three-phase transmission line having a capacitance to earth of each
conductor as 4.5 μF. Assume supply frequency to be 50 Hz.

Solution
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz.
Line to earth capacitance, C = 4.5 μF = 4.5 × 10−6 F.
For Peterson coil grounding, reactance XL of the arc suppression
coil should be equal to XC/3, where XC is line to earth capacitive reac-
tance. Therefore, reactance of arc suppression coil is

XC 1 1
XL = = =
3 3ωC 3 × 2πf × C
1
= = 235.8 Ω
3 × 2π × 50 × 4.5 × 10−6

EXAMPLE 17.2
A 66-kV, three-phase, 50-Hz, 100-km transmission line has a
capacitance to earth of 0.03 μF/km per phase. Calculate the induc-
tance and kVA rating of the Peterson coil used for earthing the
above system.

Solution
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz.
Capacitance of each line to earth, C = 100 × 0.03 = 3 × 10−6 F.
Required inductance of Peterson coil is

1
L=
3ω 2C
1
= = 1.12 H
3 × (2π × 50)2 × 3 × 10−6

Current through Peterson coil is

Vph 66 × 103 / 3
IF = = = 108.296 A
XL 2π × 50 × 1.12
438   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Voltage across Peterson coil is

VL 66 × 103
Vph = = V
3 3

Therefore, rating of Peterson coil is

66 × 103 1
Vph × I F = × 108.296 × = 4126.63 kVA
3 1000

EXAMPLE 17.3
A 33-kV, three-phase, 50-Hz transmission line of 100 km long con-
sists of three conductors of effective diameter 30 mm arranged in a
vertical plane with 3 m spacing and regularly transposed. Find the
inductance and kVA rating of the arc suppression coil in the system.

Solution
Radius of conductor, r = 30/2 = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Conductor spacing, d = 3 m

∴ Capacitance between phase and neutral or earth

2πε 0 2π × 8.854 × 10−12
= F/m = = 10.53 × 10 −12 F/m
log e (d /r ) log e (3/0.015)
= 10.53 × 10 −9 F/km m

Therefore, capacitance C between phase and earth for 100 km

line is

C = 100 × 10.53 × 10−9 = 10.53 × 10−7 F

The required inductance L of the arc suppression coil is

1 1
L= = = 3.207 H
3ω 2C 3 × (2π × 50)2 × 10.53 × 10−7
 Earthing    ◾    439

Current through the coil,

Vph 33 × 103⁄ 3
IF = = = 18.91 A
X L 2π × 50 × 3.207

33
∴ Rating of the coil = Vph × I F = × 18.91 = 360.29 kVA
3

EXERCISES

1. What do you mean by grounding or earthing? Explain it with an

example.
2. Describe ungrounded or isolated neutral system. What are its
disadvantages?
3. What do you mean by equipment grounding?
4. Illustrate the need of equipment grounding.
5. What is neutral grounding?
6. What are the advantages of neutral grounding?
7. What is solid grounding? What are its advantages?
8. What are the disadvantages of solid grounding?
9. What is resistance grounding? What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
10. Describe arc suppression coil grounding.
11. What is resonant grounding?
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 18

Substation

18.1 INTRODUCTION
The modern electrical power system is generated, transmitted, and dis-
tributed in the form of alternating current. The electric power is produced
at the power stations which are located in suitable places, generally quite
away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large
network of transmission and distribution. At many places in the line of
the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some char-
acteristic (e.g., voltage, AC to DC, frequency, power factor [pf], etc.) of
electric supply. For that, in between the power station and ultimate con-
sumer, a number of transformations and switching stations have to be cre-
ated. These are generally known as substation.

18.2 SUBSTATION
The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g., volt-
age, AC to DC, frequency, pf, etc.) of electric supply is called a substation.
Substations are important part of power system. The continuity of sup-
ply depends to a considerable extent upon the successful operation of sub-
stations. It is, therefore, essential to exercise utmost care while designing
and building a substation. The following are the important points which
must be kept in view while laying out a substation:

1. It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible, it should be

located at the center of gravity of load.
2. It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consid-
eration must be given to the maintenance of regulation clearances,
441
442   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

facilities for carrying out repairs and maintenance, abnormal occur-

rences such as possibility of explosion or fire, etc. For reliability,
consideration must be given for good design and construction, the
provision of suitable protective gear, etc.
3. It should be easily operated and maintained.
4. It should involve minimum capital cost.

18.3  CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS

There are several ways of classifying substations. However, the two most
important ways of classifying them are according to (1) service require-
ment and (2) constructional features.

18.3.1  According to Service Requirement

A substation may be called upon to change voltage level or improve power
factor or convert AC power into DC power, etc. According to the service
requirement, substations may be classified as follows:

Transformer substations. Those substations which change the voltage

1.
level of electric supply are called transformer substations. These substa-
tions receive power at some voltage and deliver it at some other voltage.
Obviously, transformer will be the main component in such substa-
tions. Most of the substations in the power system are of this type.
Switching substations. These substations do not change the voltage
2.
level, that is, incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage.
However, they simply perform the switching operations of power
lines.
Power factor correction substations. Those substations which improve
3.
the power factor of the system are called power factor correction sub-
stations. Such substations are generally located at the receiving end
of transmission lines. These substations generally use synchronous
condensers as the power factor improvement equipment.
Frequency changer substations. Those substations which change the
4.
supply frequency are known as frequency changer substations. Such
a frequency change may be required for industrial utilization.
Converting substations. Those substations which change AC power
5.
into DC power are called converting substations. These substations
 Substation    ◾    443

receive AC power and convert it into DC power with suitable appa-

ratus (e.g., ignitron) to supply for such purposes as traction, electro-
plating, electric welding, etc.
Industrial substations. Those substations which supply power to
6.
individual industrial concerns are known as industrial substations.

18.3.2  According to Constructional Features

A substation has many components (e.g., circuit breakers, switches, fuses,
instruments, etc.) which must be housed properly to ensure continuous
and reliable service. According to constructional features, the substations
are classified as follows:

Indoor substations. For voltages up to 11 kV, the equipment of the

1.
substation is installed indoors because of economic considerations.
However, when the atmosphere is contaminated with impurities,
these substations can be erected for voltages up to 66 kV. According
to construction, indoor distribution transformer substations and
high voltage switchboards are further subdivided into following
categories:
Substation integrally built type. In such a substation the appara-
i.
tus is installed on site. The structures are constructed of concrete
or brick.
Substation of the composite built-up type. Here, the assemblies and
ii.
parts are factory and workshop prefabricated, but are assembled
on site within a substation switchgear room. The components of
substations take the form of metal cabinets or enclosures, each of
which contains the equipment of one main connection cell. Within
such cabinets or enclosures an oil circuit breaker, a load interrupter
switch, and one or more voltage transformers may be mounted.
Unit type factory fabricated substations and metal clay switch-
iii.
boards. These are built in electrical engineering workshops and are
shipped to the site of installation fully preassembled. After instal-
lation of the substations switchboard-only connections to the
incoming and outgoing power circuits are required.
Outdoor substations. For voltages beyond 66 kV, equipment is invari-
2.
ably installed outdoor. It is because for such voltages, the clearances
444   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

between conductors and the space required for switches, circuit

breakers, and other equipments become so great that it is not eco-
nomical to install the equipment indoor.
Underground substation. In thickly populated cities, there is scar-
3.
city of land as well as the prices of land are very high. This has led
to the development of underground substation. In such substations,
the equipment is placed underground. Figure 18.1 shows a typical
underground substation.
Pole-mounted substation. It is a distribution substation placed over-
4.
head on a pole. It is the cheapest form of substation as it does not
involve any building work. Figure 18.2a shows the layout of pole-
mounted substation, whereas Figure 18.2b shows the schematic con-
nections. The transformer and other equipments are mounted on
H-type pole (or four-pole structure).

The 11 kV line is connected to the transformer (11 kV/400 V) through

gang isolator and fuses. The lightning arresters are installed on the
high-tension (HT) side to protect the substation from lightning strokes.
The transformer steps down the voltage to 400-V, three-phase, four-wire
supply. The voltage between any two lines is 400 V, whereas the volt-
age between any line and neutral is 230 V. The oil circuit breaker (OCB)
installed on the low-tension side automatically isolates the transformer

Entrance
Ground level

Switchgear
Transformer

FIGURE 18.1  A typical underground substation.

 Substation    ◾    445

(a) Lightning arresters (b)

11 kV O.H. line

Fuse

Fuse Lightning
Isolator arrester Isolating
400 switch
V
400 V
R R
Y Y Transformer
B B
N N
Transformer OCB
11 kV/400 V LT
OCB

Operating 400 V 400 V

handle
for isolators

FIGURE 18.2  (a) Layout of pole-mounted substation. (b) Schematic connections

of of pole-mounted substation.

from the consumers in the event of any fault. The pole-mounted substa-
tions are generally used for transformer capacity up to 200 kVA. The fol-
lowing points may be noted about pole-mounted substations:

• There should be periodical checkup of the dielectric strength of oil in

the transformer and OCB.
• In case of repair of transformer or OCB, both gang isolator and OCB
should be shut off.

18.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN OUTDOOR

AND INDOOR SUBSTATIONS
The comparison between outdoor and indoor substations is given in the
following table:

S. No. Particular Outdoor Substation Indoor Substation

1 Space required More Less
2 Time required Less More
for extension
3 Future extension Easy Difficult
446   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

4 Fault location Easier because the Difficult due to closed

equipment is in full view equipment
5 Capital cost Low High
6 Operation Difficult Easier
7 Possibility of Less due to greater More
fault escalation clearances can be provided

18.5  TRANSFORMER SUBSTATIONS

The majority of the substations in the power system are concerned with
the changing of voltage level of electric supply. These are known as trans-
former substations because transformer is the main component employed
to change the voltage level. Depending upon the purpose served, trans-
former substations may be classified into

1. Step-up substation
2. Primary grid substation
3. Secondary substation
4. Distribution substation

Figure 18.3 shows the block diagram of a typical electric supply system,
indicating the position of above types of substations. It may be noted that
it is not necessary that all electric supply schemes include all the stages
shown in the figure. For example, in a certain supply scheme there may
not be secondary substations and in another case, the scheme may be so
small that there are only distribution substations.

Step-up substation. The generation voltage (11 kV in this case) is

1.
stepped up to high voltage (220 kV) to affect economy in transmis-
sion of electric power. The substations which accomplish this job are
called step-up substations. These are generally located in the power
houses and are of outdoor type.
Primary grid substation. From the step-up substation, electric power
2.
at 220 kV is transmitted by three-phase, three-wire overhead system
to the outskirts of the city. Here, electric power is received by the
primary grid substation which reduces the voltage level to 66 kV for
secondary transmission. The primary grid substation is generally of
outdoor type.
 Substation    ◾    447

Generating
station
(11 kV)

Step up 11/220 kV
substation

Primary grid
substation
220/66 kV
Inter
66/11 kV Secondary connection Secondary 66/11 kV
substation substation

High voltage Distributed Distributed Distributed High voltage

consumer substation substation substation consumer
(11 kV) (11 kV)

11/0.04 kV 11/0.04 kV 11/0.04 kV

FIGURE 18.3  Block diagram of a typical electric supply system.

Secondary substation. From the primary grid substation, electric

3.
power is transmitted at 66 kV by three-phase, three-wire system to
various secondary substations located at the strategic points in the
city. At a secondary substation, the voltage is further stepped down
to 11 kV. The 11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the
city. It may be noted that big consumers (having demand more than
50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling
with their own substations. The secondary substations are also gen-
erally of outdoor type.
Distribution substation. The electric power from 11 kV lines is
4.
delivered to distribution substations. These substations are located
near the consumer’s localities and step down the voltage to 400 V,
three phases, four wires for supplying to the consumers. The voltage
between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral
it is 230 V. The single-phase residential lighting load is connected
between any one phase and neutral, whereas three-phase, 400-V
motor load is connected across three-phase lines directly. It may be
worthwhile to mention here that majority of the distribution substa-
tions are of pole-mounted type.
448   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

18.6  EQUIPMENT IN A TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION

The equipment required for a transformer substation depends upon the
type of substation, service requirement, and the degree of protection
desired. However, in general, a transformer substation has the following
main equipment:

Bus bars. When a number of lines operating at the same voltage

1.
have to be directly connected electrically, bus bars are used as the
common electrical component. Bus bars are copper or aluminum
bars (generally of rectangular cross-section) and operate at constant
voltage. The incoming and outgoing lines in a substation are con-
nected to the bus bars. The most commonly used bus-bar arrange-
ments in substations are
a. Single bus-bar arrangement
b. Single bus-bar system with sectionalization
c. Double bus-bar arrangement
Insulators. The insulators serve two purposes. They support the con-
2.
ductors (or bus bars) and confine the current to the conductors. The
most commonly used material for the manufacture of insulators is
porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g., pin type, sus-
pension type, postinsulator, etc.), and their use in the substation will
depend upon the service requirement. For example, postinsulator is
used for bus bars. A postinsulator consists of a porcelain body, cast
iron cap, and flanged cast iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded
so that bus bars can be directly bolted to the cap.
Isolating switches. In substations, it is often desired to disconnect
3.
a part of the system for general maintenance and repairs. This is
accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator. An isolator is essen-
tially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load.
In other words, isolator switches are operated only when the lines in
which they are connected carry no current.
  Figure 18.4 shows the use of isolators in a typical substation. The
entire substation has been divided into five sections. Each section
can be disconnected with the help of isolators for repair and main-
tenance. For instance, if it is desired to repair section II, the pro-
cedure of disconnecting this section will be as follows. First of all,
 Substation    ◾    449

3′ 4′

1 2 3 4

LA

Incoming Line OCB Bus bar OCB Transformer

line
Section I Section II Section III Section IV Section V

FIGURE 18.4  Use of isolators in a typical substation.

open the circuit breaker in this section and then open the isolators 1
and 2. This procedure will disconnect section II for repairs. After the
repairs has been done, close the isolators 1 and 2 first and then the
circuit breaker.
Circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is equipment which can open
4.
or close a circuit under normal as well as fault conditions. It is so
designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control)
under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions.

Power transformers. A power transformer is used in a substation

5.
to step-up or step-down the voltage. Except at the power station,
all the subsequent substations use step-down transformers to
gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply and finally deliver
it at utilization voltage. The modern practice is to use three-phase
transformers in substations; although three single-phase bank of
transformers can also be used. The use of three-phase transformer
(instead of three single-phase bank of transformers) permits two
advantages:

a. Only one three-phase load-tap changing mechanism can be used.

b. Its installation is much simpler than the three single-phase

transformers.

Instrument transformers. The lines in substations operate at high

6.
voltages and carry current of thousands of amperes. The measuring
instruments and protective devices are designed for low voltage (gen-
erally 110 V) and current (about 5 A). Therefore, they will not work
450   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

satisfactorily if mounted directly on the power lines. This difficulty is

overcome by installing instrument transformers on the power lines.
The function of these instrument transformers is to transfer voltage
or current in the power lines to values which are convenient for the
operation of measuring instruments and relays. Two types of instru-
ment transformers are as follows:
Current transformer (CT). A CT is essentially a step-up transformer
a.
which steps down the current to a known ratio. The primary of this
transformer consists of one or more turns of thick wire connected
in series with the line. The secondary consists of a large number of
turns of fine wire and provides for the measuring instruments and
relays a current which is a constant fraction of the current in the
line. Suppose a CT rated at 100/5 A is connected in the line to mea-
sure current. If the current in the line is 100 A, then current in the
secondary will be 5 A. Similarly, if current in the line is 50 A, then
secondary of CT will have a current of 2.5 A. Thus the CT under
consideration will step down the line current by a factor of 20.
Potential transformer. It is essentially a step down transformer
b.
and steps down the voltage to a known ratio. The primary of
this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire
connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a
few turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a
voltage which is a known fraction of the line voltage. Suppose
a potential transformer rated at 66 kV/110 V is connected to a
power line. If line voltage is 66 kV, then voltage across the sec-
ondary will be 110 V.
Metering and indicating instruments. There are several metering and
7.
indicating instruments (e.g., ammeters, voltmeters, energy meters,
etc.) installed in a substation to maintain watch over the circuit
quantities. The instrument transformers are invariably used with
them for satisfactory operation.
Miscellaneous equipment. In addition to above, there may be follow-
8.
ing equipments in a substation:
a. Fuses
b. Carrier-current equipment
c. Substation auxiliary supplies
 Substation    ◾    451

18.7  BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENTS IN SUBSTATIONS

Bus bars are the important components in a substation. There are several
bus-bar arrangements that can be used in a substation. The choice of a
particular arrangement depends upon various factors such as system volt-
age, position of substation, degree of reliability, cost, etc. The following are
the important bus-bar arrangements used in substations.

18.7.1  Single Bus-Bar System

As the name suggests, it consists of a single bus bar, and all the incoming
and outgoing lines are connected to it. The chief advantages of this type
of arrangement are low initial cost, less maintenance, and simple opera-
tion. However, the principal disadvantage of single bus-bar system is that
if repair is to be done on the bus bar or a fault occurs on the bus, there is
a complete interruption of the supply. This arrangement is not used for
voltages exceeding 33 kV. The indoor 11 kV substations often use single
bus-bar arrangement.
Figure 18.5 shows single bus-bar arrangement in a substation. There
are two 11-kV incoming lines are connected to the bus bar through circuit
breakers and isolators. The two 400-V outgoing lines are connected to the
bus bars through transformers (11 kV/400 V) and circuit breakers.

18.7.2  Single Bus-Bar System with Sectionalization

In this arrangement, the single bus bar is divided into sections, and load is
equally distributed on all the sections. Any two sections of the bus bar are

11 kV Bus bar

Isolator LA
Bus bar
Trip coil

11 kV OCB
CB

CT
CT
F Relay coil

Transformer Transformer
11 kV/400 V 11 kV/400 V

PT PT
Incoming
line
11 kV Outgoing Outgoing Incoming
line line line
400 V 400 V 11 kV

FIGURE 18.5  Single bus-bar arrangement in a substation.

452   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

connected by a circuit breaker and isolators. Two principal advantages are

claimed for this arrangement. Firstly, if a fault occurs on any section of the
bus, that section can be isolated without affecting the supply from other
sections. Secondly, repairs and maintenance of any section of the bus bar
can be carried out by de-energizing that section only, eliminating the pos-
sibility of complete shutdown. This arrangement is used for voltages up to
33 kV. Bus bar with sectionalization where the bus has been divided into
two sections.
Figure 18.6 shows bus bar with sectionalization where the bus has been
divided into two sections. There are two 33-kV incoming lines connected
to sections I and II as shown through circuit breaker and isolators. Each
11 kV outgoing line is connected to one section through transformer
(33/11 kV) and circuit breaker. It is easy to see that each bus section
behaves as a separate bus bar.

33 kV Bus-section I Bus-section II 33 kV

Isolator

Bus bar
Trip coil
33 kV 33 kV
OCB OCB CB

CT
CT
F Relay coil

33 kV 33 kV
OCB OCB

CT

Trans- Trans-
former LA former
33/11 kV 33/11 kV

PT PT
Incoming
line
33 kV Outgoing Outgoing Incoming
line 11 kV line 11 kV line
33 kV

FIGURE 18.6  Bus bar with sectionalization.

 Substation    ◾    453

18.7.3  Duplicate Bus-Bar System

This system consists of two bus bars, a “main” bus bar and a “spare” bus
bar. Each bus bar has the capacity to take up the entire substation load.
The incoming and outgoing lines can be connected to either bus bar with
the help of a bus-bar coupler that consists of a circuit breaker and isola-
tors. Ordinarily, the incoming and outgoing lines remain connected to the
main bus bar. However, in case of repair of main bus bar or fault occurring
on it, the continuity of supply to the circuit can be maintained by transfer-
ring it to the spare bus bar. For voltages exceeding 33 kV, duplicate bus-bar
system is frequently used.
Figure 18.7 shows the arrangement of duplicate bus-bar system in a
typical substation. The two 66 kV incoming lines can be connected to
either bus bar by a bus-bar coupler. The two 11-kV outgoing lines are
connected to the bus bars through transformers (66/11 kV) and circuit
breakers.

Bus 1 Main bus 66 kV

LA

Bus 2 66 kV 66 kV 66 kV Spare bus

CT
LA
Bus-coupler

OCB Bus bar

Trip coil

CB

CT

F Relay coil
Transformer
66/11 kV

Incoming circuit Outgoing circuit

FIGURE 18.7  Duplicate bus-bar system.

454   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

18.8  KEY DIAGRAM OF 11 kV/400 V INDOOR SUBSTATION

Figure 18.8 shows the key diagram of a typical 11 kV/400 V indoor substa-
tion. The key diagram of this substation can be explained as follows:

1. The three-phase, three-wire 11-kV line is tapped and brought to the

gang operating switch installed near the substation. The GO switch
consists of isolators connected in each phase of the three-phase line.
2. From the GO switch, the 11 kV line is brought to the indoor substa-
tion as underground cable. It is fed to the HT side of the transformer
(11 kV/400 V) via the 11 kV OCB the transformer steps down the
voltage to 400 V, three phases, four wires.
3. The secondary transformer supplies to the bus bars via the main
OCB. From the bus bars, 400-V, three-phase, four-wire supply is
given to the various consumers via 400 V OCB. The voltage between
any two phases 400 V and between any phase and neutral it is 230 V.
The single-phase residential load is connected between any one
phase and neutral, whereas three-phase, 400-V motor load is con-
nected across three-phase lines directly.
4. The CTs are located at suitable places in the substation circuit and
supply for the metering and indicating instruments and relay circuit.

11 kV line

GO switch

Cable box

Underground
cable

11 kV OCB

50 : 5 CT

To To Bus bar
1 MVA 11 kV/400V
consumers consumers Trip coil

CB
400 V Main 400 V
OCB OCB OCB CT
CT
1200/5
200 : 5 F Relay coil

400 V bus bar

FIGURE 18.8  Key diagram of a typical 11 kV/400 V indoor substation.

 Substation    ◾    455

EXERCISES
1. What is a substation? Name the factors that should be taken care of
while designing and erecting a substation.
2. Discuss the different ways of classifying the substations.
3. Give the comparison of outdoor and indoor substations.
4. What is a transformer substation? What are the different types of
transformer substations? Illustrate your answer with a suitable block
diagram.
5. Draw the layout and schematic connection of a pole-mounted
substation.
6. Draw the layout of a typical underground substation.
7. Write a short note on the substation equipment.
8. What are the different types of bus-bar arrangements used in substa-
tions? Illustrate your answer with suitable diagrams.
9. What are terminal and through substations? What is their purpose
in the power system?
10. Draw the key diagram of a typical 11 kV/400 V indoor substation.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 19

Power System Stability

19.1 INTRODUCTION
The stability of an interconnected power system is its ability to return
to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to some form
of disturbance. Conversely, instability means a condition denoting loss
of synchronism or falling out of step. Stability considerations have been
recognized as an essential part of power system planning for a long time.
With interconnected systems continually growing in size and extending
over vast geographical regions, it is becoming increasingly more difficult to
maintain synchronism between various parts of a power system. The stabil-
ity problem is concerned with the behavior of synchronous machines after
a disturbance. Under stable conditions the system stays in synchronism.
Synchronous stability may be divided into two main categories depend-
ing upon the magnitude of disturbance.

Steady-state stability. Steady-state stability refers to the ability of the

1.
power system to regain synchronism after small and slow distur-
bance, such as gradual power changes.
Transient stability. Transient stability is the ability of the system to
2.
regain synchronism after a large disturbance. The large disturbance
can occur due to sudden changes in application or removal of large
loads, line switching operations, faults on the system, sudden outage
of a line, or loss of excitation. Transient stability studies are needed
to ensure that the system can withstand the transient conditions fol-
lowing a major disturbance. Frequently, such studies are conducted
when new generating and transmitting facilities are planned.
457
458   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Steady-state stability is subdivided into static stability and dynamic

stability.

Static stability. Static stability refers to inherent stability that prevails

1.
without the aid of automatic control devices such as governors and
voltage regulators.
Dynamic stability. Dynamic stability, on the other hand, denotes
2.
artificial stability given to an inherently unstable system by auto-
matic control devices. Dynamic stability is concerned with small
disturbances lasting for times of the order of 10–30 s with the inclu-
sion of automatic control devices.

Stability studies are helpful for the following purposes:

1. Determination of critical clearing time of circuit breakers (CBs)

2. Investigation of schemes of protective relaying
3. Determination of voltage levels
4. Transfer capability between systems

Analysis of power system stability is complex and nonlinear.

Consequently, final designs are generally based on computer simulations.
For approximate purposes, simplified calculations are used. Simplified
calculations provide a starting point for, and check of, computer simula-
tions. They are also useful in studying the factors that influence the power
system stability. Invariably stability studies of power systems are carried
out on a digital computer. In the following, special cases to illustrate cer-
tain principles and basic concepts are presented.

19.2 STABILITY LIMITS AND POWER

TRANSMISSION CAPABILITY
The stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred in a
network between sources and loads without loss of synchronism. The
steady-state limit is the maximum power that can be transferred without
the system becoming unstable when the load is increased gradually under
steady-state conditions. Transient limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred without the system becoming unstable when a sudden or large
disturbance occurs.
 Power System Stability    ◾    459

The system experiences a shock by sudden and large power changes

and violent fluctuations of voltage occur. Consequently, individual
machines or group of machines may go out of step. The rapidity of appli-
cation of a large disturbances is responsible for the loss of stability, oth-
erwise it may be possible to maintain stability if the same large load is
applied gradually. Thus, the transient stability limit is lower than the
steady-state limit.

19.2.1  Power Transmission Capability

The power transmission capability of a line is limited by the thermal
loading limit and the stability limit. The real power loss increases the
conductor temperature. This will increase the sag of the conductors
between the transmission towers. The thermal limit is specified by the
current-carrying capacity of the conductor and is available in the manu-
facturer’s data.
Let Ithermal be the current-carrying capacity, Sthermal, the thermal loading
of the line, Vp, the rated phase voltage, and Sthermal, the 3Vp Ithermal.

19.3  INFINITE BUS

In a power system, normally more than two generators operate in
­parallel. The machines may be located at different places. A group of
machines located at one place may be treated as a single large machine.
Also, the machines not connected to the same bus but separated by lines
of low reactance may be grouped into one large machine. The operation
of one machine connected in parallel with such a large system compris-
ing many other machines is of great interest. The capacity of the system
is so large that its voltage and frequency may be taken constant. The
connection or disconnection of a single small machine on such a system
would not affect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency.
Such a system of constant voltage and constant frequency regardless of
the load is called infinite bus-bar system or simply infinite bus. Physically
it is not possible to have a perfect infinite bus. An infinite bus is an ideal
voltage source.

19.4 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
CONNECTED TO AN INFINITE BUS
Consider a simple system consisting of a synchronous generator connected
to an infinite bus through a network presented by the ABCD parameters
as shown in Figure 19.1.
460   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Is Ir
Infinite bus
A B
Vs Vr
C D

FIGURE 19.1  A synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus through a

two-port network.

The sending end and receiving end voltages are assumed as

VS = VS ∠δ, Vr = Vr ∠0°

We have

Vs = AVr + BIr

Vs A V ∠δ A∠α V AVr
Ir = − V = S − V ∠0° = S ∠(δ − β) − ∠(α − β)
B B r B∠β B∠β r B B

Complex power received at the infinite bus is

Sr = Vr Ir* = Pr + jQr

where I r* is the complex conjugate of Ir.

Vs AVr
I*r = ∠(β − δ) − ∠(β − α)
B B

VsVr AVr2
Pr + jQr = Vr I*r = ∠(β − δ) − ∠(β − α)
B B
VV AVr2
= s r [cos(β − δ) + j sin(β − δ)]− [cos(β − α) + js(β − α)]
B B

Equating real and imaginary part, we get

VsVr AVr2
Pr = cos(β − δ) − cos(β − α)
B B

VsVr AVr2
Qr = sin(β − δ) − sin(β − α)
B B
 Power System Stability    ◾    461

The power received is a maximum when δ = β. Therefore,

VsVr AVr2
Pr max = − cos(β − α)
B B

19.5  POWER–ANGLE CURVE

Figure 19.2 shows a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus
through a transmission line of reactance X1. Let us assume that line resis-
tance and capacitances are neglected.
Let V = V∠0° be the voltage of infinite bus, E = E∠δ, the voltage behind
the direct axis synchronous reactance of the machine, and Xd, the syn-
chronous/transient reactance of the machine.
The complex power delivered by the generator to the system is

*
 E∠δ − V ∠0° 
S = VI = V 
*

 j( X d + X l )  (19.1)

Let

Xd + Xl = X
(19.2)

 E∠δ V
S =V  +j 
 X ∠90° X

EV V2 EV EV V2
∠(90° − δ) − j = sin δ + j cos δ − j
X X X X X

Xd XI I

Xd XI Infinite
E δ V 0° bus
V 0°
Infinite E δ
bus

FIGURE 19.2  Synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus through a

transmission line of series reactance Xl.
462   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

EV  EV V2 
Pe + jQe = sin δ + j cos δ − (19.3)
X  X X 

Active power transferred to the system is

EV (19.4)
Pe = sinδ
X

The reactive power transferred to the system is

 EV V2 
Qe =  cosδ − (19.5)
 X X 

The maximum steady-state power transfer occurs when δ = 90°. From

Equation 19.4,

EV EV (19.6)
Pe max = sin90° =
X X

Pe = Pe max sinδ (19.7)

The graphical representation of power Pe and the load angle δ is called

the power–angle diagram or power–angle curve. Such diagram is widely
used in power-system stability studies. A power–angle diagram is shown
in Figure 19.3.
Maximum power is transferred when δ = 90°. As δ is increased beyond
90°, Pe decreases and becomes zero at δ = 180°. Beyond δ = 180°, Pe becomes
negative which implies that the power flow direction is reversed and the
power is supplied from the infinite bus to the generator, the value of Pe max is
often called the pull-out power. It is also called the steady-state limit.
The total reactance X between two voltage sources V and E is called the
transfer reactance. It is seen that the maximum power limit is inversely
proportional to the transfer reactance. Equation 19.4 is valid for both
steady-state and transient conditions. For steady-state conditions, we use
synchronous reactance and we take E as the electromotive force behind syn-
chronous reactance. For transient conditions, the transient reactance X d′ is
used and E is taken as the electromotive force behind transient reactance.
 Power System Stability    ◾    463

Prmax

Generator
action

180° 360°
0 δ
90°
Motor
action

FIGURE 19.3  Power–angle curve.

19.6 POWER–ANGLE RELATIONS FOR GENERAL

NETWORK CONFIGURATION
In general, active power flow from bus i to bus j of an AC network when
resistances are neglected is given by

VV
i j
Pij = sinδ ij (19.8)
Xij

where Pij is the active power flow from bus i to bus j, Vi is the voltage at bus
i, Vj is the voltage at bus j, δij is the angle between bus i and bus j with bus
i taken as reference, and Xij is the equivalent transfer reactance between
buses i and j.
The reactive power flow is given by

VV
i j Vij2
Qij = cosδ ij = (19.9)
Xij Xij

where Qij is the reactive power flow from bus i to bus j.

Let us determine the power–angle relation for the network configura-
tion, as shown in Figure 19.4.
Here EG is the generator voltage, V is the infinite bus voltage, XG is the
generator reactance, Xs is the system reactance, Xf is the fault reactance,
and Pe is the machine electrical power output.
464   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

XS
(a) XG XS (b) XG
I

Xf
E δ Xf
V 0° E δ V
Xf XS +Xf

FIGURE 19.4  An equivalent series circuit of T-circuit.

We can replace the T-circuit of Figure 19.4a by a series circuit, as shown

in Figure 19.4b.
From Equation 19.8,

E(( X f )/( Xs + X f )V ) EV
Pe = sin δ =
XG + (( Xs X f )/( Xs + X f )) XG (( Xs + X f )/X f ) + Xs
(19.10)
EV
sin δ = sin δ
XG + Xs + (( XG Xs )/X f )

Equation 19.10 gives the power–angle relation for the network configu-
ration, as shown in Figure 19.4a.

19.7  STEADY-STATE STABILITY CRITERION

The rate dP/dδ, that is, the differential power increase obtained per
differential load angle increase is called the synchronizing power
­coefficient or electrical stiffness of the synchronous machine. It is
taken as the ­measure of the stability of the system. The direct-state
synchronous s­tability criterion for a simple system is dP/dδ > 0,
­
that  is,  the ­synchronizing coefficient is positive. The steady-state sta-
bility limit  is reached when dP/dδ = 0 and if dP/dδ < 0, the system is
unstable.
The criterion of stability holds only under conditions satisfying the fol-
lowing assumptions:

1. Generator are represented by constant impedances in series with the

no-load voltages.
2. The mechanical power input is constant.
3. Damping is negligible.
 Power System Stability    ◾    465

4. Load angle variation are small.

5. Speed variations are negligible.

When the effect of inertia of machines, governor action, and automatic

voltage regulators are considered the problem become more complex. The
criterion dP/dδ = 0 alone gives a low fault which is safe.

19.8  TRANSIENT STABILITY

The transient stability is the ability of system to maintain synchronous
operation and to reach a stable state or the one close to it after a large dis-
turbance. The following simplifying assumptions are made in the study of
transient stability:

1. System resistance may be reduced to an equivalent two-machine

system.
2. Each machine has cylindrical rotor. The direct-axis reactance (Xd) is
equal to the quadrature-axis reactance (Xq).
3. The system may be reduced to an equivalent two-machine system.
4. Each machine may be assumed to supply an infinite bus.
5. Direct axis transient reactance (Xd) is used for machine represen-
tation.
6. The shaft input power may be assume constant for few seconds after
occurrence of a disturbance. This assumption may be valid on the
grounds that the mechanical system involving governors, steam
valves, etc., is relatively sluggish in operation as compared to rapidly
charging electrical quantities. With fast action valves, the assump-
tion of constant input will not be true.

The problem of stability removes around the determination of whether

or not the torque angle δ will stabilize after a sudden disturbance. In
case δ continues to increase after a disturbance, the machine will loss
synchronism.
In a synchronous generator, the input is the mechanical or shaft torque
and the output is the electromagnetic torque. Both these torques are
assumed positive in the following discussion. For a synchronous motor,
the input is the electromagnetic torque and the output is the shaft torque.
466   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Based upon the sign conventions adopted for synchronous generators, the
value of the shaft torque and electromagnetic torque are taken as negative
for motor action.
Let Te be the electromagnetic torque and Ts, the shaft torque. If the
losses are neglected, the difference between the shaft torque and the elec-
tromagnetic torque is equal to the accelerating or deceleration torque. For
a generator, when Ts > Te, then Ta is positive and the rotor accelerates. In
case of synchronous motor Ta is positive only when Te > Ts, since Ts and Te
are both negative.

19.9  SWING EQUATION

The behavior of a synchronous machine during transient is described
by the swing equation. Let θ be the angular position of the rotor at any
instant t. However, θ is continuously changing with time. It is conve-
nient to measure θ with respect to reference axis that is rotating at syn-
chronous speed. If δ is the angular displacement of the rotor in electrical
degrees from the synchronously rotating reference axis and ωs the syn-
chronous speed in electrical radians, then θ can be express as the sum
of (1) time varying angle ωst on the rotating reference axis, plus (2) the
torque angle δ of the rotor with respect to the rotating reference axis. In
other word,

θ = ω st + δ electrical radians (19.11)

Differentiating Equation 19.11 with respect to t, we get

dθ dδ
= ωs + (19.12)
dt dt

Differentiation of Equation 19.12 gives

d 2θ d 2δ (19.13)
= 2
dt 2 dt

Angular acceleration of rotor is

d 2θ d 2δ (19.14)
α= = 2 elec. rad/s2
dt 2 dt
 Power System Stability    ◾    467

If damping is neglected the accelerating torque, a in a synchronous gen-

erator is equal to the difference of input mechanical or shaft toque Ts and
the output electromagnetic (electrodynamics) torque Te. That is,

Ta = Ts − Te (19.15)

Let ω be the synchronous speed of the rotor, J, the moment of inertia

of the rotor, M, the angular momentum of the rotor, Ps, the mechani-
cal power input, Pe, the electrical power input, and Pa, the accelerating
power. Now

M = Jω (19.16)

Multiplying both the sides of Equation 19.15 by ω, we get

ωTa = ωTs − ωTe

Pa = Ps − Pe

But

d2θ d2δ
J = Ta , J = Ta
dt 2 dt 2

d2δ
ωJ = ωTa
dt 2

d2δ
M = Pa = Ps − Pe (19.17)
dt 2

Equation 19.17 gives the relation between the accelerating power and
angular acceleration. It is called the swing equation. It is a nonlinear dif-
ferential equation of the second order. With this differential equation, we
can discuss stability in a quantitative way, because it describes swings in
the power angle δ during transient.
468   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

19.10  SWING CURVES

A graph of δ (usually in electrical radians) versus time in seconds is
called the swing equation. Swing curves (Figure 19.5) provide informa-
tion regarding stability. They show any tendency of δ to oscillate and/or
increase beyond the point of return. If δ increases continuously with time,
the system is unstable. While if starts decreasing after reaching a maxi-
mum value, it is inferred that the system will remain stable.
Swing curves are useful in determining the adequacy of relay protec-
tion on power system with regard to the clearing of faults before one or
more machines become unstable and fall out of synchronism. The critical
clearing time is found to specify the correct speed of the CB.
The solution of swing equation involves elliptic integrals. Step-by-step
method may be used for numerical solution of swing equation. At present
digital computer is used for solving swing equation.

19.11  M AND H CONSTANTS

The transient conditions of synchronous machine depend, in part, on the
mechanical constant of the rotor and load or prime mover.
Let ω be the synchronous speed of the rotor in rad/s, m, the mass
of the rotor in kilogram, r, the radius of gyration in meter, j, the moment
of inertia of the rotor in kg m2, M, the angular momentum of the rotor in
Js/rad, W, the kinetic energy of the rotor in J, F, the system frequency in

δ
Unstable

Stable

0 t

FIGURE 19.5  Swing curves.

 Power System Stability    ◾    469

Hz, T, the torque in N m, P, the power in watts, and α, the angular accel-
eration of the rotor.

19.11.1  M Constant
Now, j = mr2

1 2
W = Jω
2

2W
M = Jω =
ω

ω = 2πf rad/s = 360 f elec.deg/s

T = Jα

P = ωT = ωJα = Mα

P
M=
α

Thus, M constant may be defined as the power in MW required to pro-

ducer unit angular acceleration.

19.11.2  H Constant or Per-Unit Inertia Constant

Another constant H, called the unit per-unit inertia constant, is more
frequently used by the manufactures. The per-unit inertia constant H is
defined as the kinetic energy stored in the parts of the machine at syn-
chronous speed per-unit megavolt amperes (MVA) of the machine.
Thus

Kinetic energy in MJ at rated speed

H =
Machine rating in MVA

It is expressed in MJ/MVA.
If W is the stored energy in megajoles. MJ and S is the rating of the
machine in MVA.
470   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Then

W ωM 2πfM πfM
H = = = = (19.18)
S 2S 2S S

HS
M= MJs/elec.radian (19.19)
πf

HS
M= MJs/elec. degree (19.20)
180 f

The value of angular momentum M varies over a wide range of MVA

for a given type of machine and prime mover, but the value of H is fairly
constant. Hence H is more convenient use, typically value are

• Cylindrical-rotor alternator 4–10

• Salient-pole alternator 2–4
• Synchronous compensators 1–2
• Salient-pole synchronous motors 0.5–2

The swing equation can be written as

HS d 2δ
= Ps − Pe (19.21)
180 f dt 2

By combining Equations 19.20 and 19.21 and divided by S, we obtain

the per-unit swing as

HS d 2δ
= Ps pu − Pe pu = Pa pu (19.22)
180 f dt 2

19.11.3  H Constant on a Common Base

An inertia constant Hmach based on a machine, own MVA rating may be
converted to value Hsyst relative to the system base Ssyst with the formula
 Power System Stability    ◾    471

Smach
H syst = H mach
Ssyst

A convenient system base value is 100 MVA.

19.12  EQUIVALENT SYSTEM

Suppose that a number of generators are connected in parallel to the same
bus bars.
Let S1, S2, …, Sn be the MVA rating of individual machines, Se, the MVA
rating of the equivalent machine, Sb, the base MVA, H1, H2, …, Hn, the
inertia constant of individual machine, He, the inertia constant of a single
equivalent machine, and S, the total rating of the machine.
Energy stored by the equivalent machine = Sum of the energies stored
by individual machine,

W = W1 + W2 +  + Wn (19.23)

Se H e = S1H1 + S2 H 2 +  + Sn H n (19.24)

Se = S1 + S2 +  + Sn (19.25)

If the base MVA is equal to the combined MVA rating of the individual
machine, that is, Sb = Sr, Equation 19.24 becomes

S  S  S 
H e = H1  1  + H 2  2  +  + H n  n 
 Sb   Sb   Sb 

Thus the equivalent inertia constant is the sum of the individual con-
stant, when this is referred to the total rating of the machine.
If the machine is identical,

S1 = S2 =  = Sn = S (say )

H1 = H 2 = = H n = H (say )

472   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Sb = Se = nS

nHS
He = =H
nS

Thus the equivalent H constant of several identical machine operating

in parallel is the same as that of any one of the machine.

19.13 EQUIVALENT M CONSTANT OF TWO MACHINES

Two synchronous machine connected by a reactance can be replaced by
one equivalent machine connected by the reactance to an infinite bus bar.
Let suffix 1 and suffix 2 be used for the two machines.
For one machine connected to infinite bus bar,

d 2δ (19.26)
M = Ps − Pe
dt 2

d 2 δ1 (19.27)
M1 = Ps1 − Pe1
dt 2

d 2δ 2 (19.28)
M2 = Ps 2 − Pe2
dt 2

Let δ be the relative angle between the rotors of the two machine,

δ = δ1 − δ 2 (19.29)

d 2 δ d 2 δ1 d 2 δ 2 1 1
= − = (Ps1 − Pe1 ) − (P − Pe2 )
dt 2
dt 2
dt 2 M1 M2 s2

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by M1M2/(M1+M2)

M1M2 d 2δ M2 M1
⋅ 2 = (Ps1 − Pe1 ) − (P − P )
M1 + M2 dt M1 + M2 M1 + M2 s 2 e2
(19.30)
M2 Ps1 − M1Ps 2 M2 Pe1 − M1Pe2
= −
M1 + M2 M1 + M2

 Power System Stability    ◾    473

Equation 19.30 can be represented as

d 2δ (19.31)
M′ = Ps′ − Pe′
dt 2

M1M2
M′ = (19.32)
M1 + M2

M2 Ps1 − M1Ps 2
Ps′ = (19.33)
M1 + M2

M2 Pe1 − M1Pe2
Pe′ = (19.34)
M1 + M2

It is seen that Equation 19.31 is similar to Equation 19.26. Thus two

interconnected machine can be represented as a single source. The quanti-
ties M′, Ps′, and Pe ′ represent the equivalent values of the inertia constant,
the input at the shaft and the electromagnetic output respective. The load
angle δ of the equivalent machine is given by Equation 19.29.

19.13.1  Multi-Machine Systems

The swing equation of a machine is given by

d 2δ
M = Ps − Pe
dt 2

In a system with n machine, the rotor of each machine will respond in

accordance with Equation 19.26 as

d 2 δ1
M1 = Ps1 − Pe1
dt 2

d 2δ 2
M2 = Ps 2 − Pe2
dt 2

d 2δ n
Mn = Psn − Pen
dt 2
474   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

It is seen that there is a separate swing equation for each machine.

Consequently, it is the relative displacement between power angles of the
machine that is essential in determining the system stability. In a multi-
machine system, a single machine is usually chosen as a reference and
the rotor swing (changes in power angles) of the remaining machines are
determined relative to the reference machine. Stability is maintained if
the machine rotors return to a value operating state relative to each other.

19.14  EQUAL-AREA CRITERION OF STABILITY

Equal area criterion may be used to assess the transient stability of a two-
machine system or one machine connected to an infinite bus without
actually solving the swing equation. Consider a loss free synchronous gen-
erator supplying an infinite bus through a purely reactive transmission
line of reactance X1 as shown in Figure 19.2. We know

Pe = Pe max sinδ (19.35)

The power–angle curve is shown in Figure 19.6. Suppose that initially

the mechanical input (shaft power) is Ps0 at load angle δ0. It is represented
by point a on the power–angle curve. Let the mechanical input power
suddenly increase to Ps1. With the sudden increase of shaft power, there
is momentarily more shaft input than electrical output. The increase in
Pe
m
Pmax c
A2
b Mechanical power
Ps1
Input line
A1

Ps0 a

0 δ0 δ1 π δ2 π δ
2

FIGURE 19.6  Power–angle curve.

 Power System Stability    ◾    475

power (Ps1 − Ps0) accelerates the rotor so that it is advanced with respect to

the initial position with the result that load angle is increased. Let this new
load angle be δ1 corresponding to Ps1. Since the rotor is in acceleration and
running slightly above synchronous speed, the load angle goes on increas-
ing overshooting point b. When the load angle is more than δ1, the rotor
retards since the power transferred to the bus bar is greater than input
power Ps1. The rotor decelerates until it reaches some maximum point c,
where it is again running at synchronous speed. The rotor swings start in
the reverse direction. The load angle goes on decreasing until it is equal
to δ0 where again the rotor is running at synchronous speed. The cycle is
repeated. The rotor will oscillate for sometime about b, before finally com-
ing to rest at b.
Here, we have made an important assumption that the first swing or
oscillation of the rotor does not make the system unstable. In practice, the
system is more likely to be stable during subsequent swings, particularly if
it is stable for the subsequent steady-state condition. This assumption may
be justified by the fact that the losses of the system progressively damp the
amplitude of the swing.
Consider the swing equation

d 2δ Pa (19.36)
=
dt 2 M

Multiplying both the sides by 2(dδ/dt):

dδ  d 2 δ  P dδ
2 =2 a ⋅
dt  dt 2  M dt

2
d  dδ  P dδ (19.37)
  =2 a ⋅
dt  d t  M dt

The time rate of change of load angle dδ/dt is the speed of the machine
with respect to the synchronously revolving reference frame. For the sta-
bility, this speed must become zero at sometime after disturbance. That is,
dδ/dt = 0.
Since the condition (dδ/dt) = 0 implies synchronous running, Equation
19.37 is integrated between the limits of swinging of δ, that is, from
476   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

δ = δ0 where (dδ/dt) = 0 to δ = δ2 where again (dδ/dt) = 0. On integration,

Equation 19.37 gives

2 δ2
 dδ  2
 dt  = M Pa dδ ∫
δ0

For stability,

dδ
=0
dt

δ2

∴
∫P a =0 (19.38)
δ0

δ2 δ2

∫ P dδ + ∫ P dδ = 0
a a

δ0 δ1

δ2 δ2

∫ P dδ = − ∫ P dδ
a a (19.39)
δ0 δ1

A1 = − A2 (19.40)

where

δ1

A1 =
∫ P dδ = Positive or accelerating area
δ0
a

= The amount of work done on the rotor to

move it from point a to point b in increasing the kin
netic energy of
the rotor

 Power System Stability    ◾    477

δ2

A2 =
∫ P dδ = Negative or decelerating area.
δ1
a

=The amount of work done on the rotor to

move it from point b to point c when the rotor returrns its energy
to the circuit

Since the positive or accelerating area A1 is equal to the negative or

decelerating area A2, it is called the equal-area criterion of stability. Thus,
for stability area A1 is equal to area A2.
The equal area criterion of stability provides the following information:

1. It is an easy means of finding the maximum angle of swing.

2. An estimate of whether synchronism will be maintained.
3. The maximum amount of disturbance that can be allowed without
losing synchronism.

The equal area criterion is applicable only to a two-machine system

or one machine connected to infinite bus. It is not applicable to multi-
machine system.

19.14.1  Application to Sudden Increase in Mechanical Power Input

The equal-area criterion is used to determine the maximum additional
power Ps can be applied for stability to be maintained. With a sudden
change in power input, the stability is maintained only if area A2 is at
least equal to A1 can be located above Ps. If area A2 is less than area A1, the
accelerating momentum can never be overcome. For the system to remain
stable, it is possible to find angle δ2 such that A2 = A1. As Ps1 is increased a
limiting condition is finally reached when A1 equals the area above the Ps1
line as shown in Figure 19.7. The limit of stability occurs when δmax is at
the intersection of line Ps and the power–angle curve for 90° < δ < 180°, as
shown in Figure 19.7.
Under this condition δ2 acquires the maximum value δmax such that

δ 2 = δ max = 180° − δ1
478   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Pe

Pmax m

A2
b c Mechanical power
Ps1
Input line
A1

Ps0
a

f e d h
0 δ0 δ1 π δ π δ
2
2

FIGURE 19.7  Limiting case of transient stability with mechanical input sud-
denly increased.

Any further increase in Ps1 means that the area available for A2 is less
than the area A1, so that excess kinetic energy causes δ to increase beyond
point c and the retarding power changes over to accelerating power with
the system consequently become unstable.
It may also be noted from Figure 19.7 that the system will remain stable
even though the rotor may oscillate beyond δ = 90° so long as equal area
criterion is met. The condition δ = 90° is meant for use in steady-state sta-
bility only, and does not apply to the transient stability.
Applying the equal-area criterion to Figure 19.7, we have

Area A1 = Area A2

Area agb = Area bmc

Area A1 = Area agb

= Area of the rectangle gbef − Area abef under the sine curve
δ1

∫
=Ps1 (δ1 − δ 0 ) − Pm sin δ dδ
δ0

=Ps1 (δ1 − δ 0 ) + Pm (cos δ1 − cos δ 0 )

 Power System Stability    ◾    479

Area A2 = Area bmc

= Area bmche under the sine curve − Area of rectangle bche
δ2

∫
= Pm sin δ dδ − Ps1 (δ 2 − δ1 )
δ1

= Pm (cos δ1 − cos δ 2 ) − Ps1 (δ 2 − δ1 )

By equal area criterion,

Area A1 = Area A2
Ps1 (δ1 − δ 0 ) + Pm (cos δ1 − cos δ 0 ) = Pm (cos δ1 − cos δ 2 ) − Ps1 (δ 2 − δ1 )

or

Ps1 (δ 2 − δ 0 ) = Pm (cos δ 0 − cos δ 2 )

Also,

δ 2 = δ max

and

Ps1 = Pm sinδ max

At point c of the sine curve.

Substitution of these values in the above equation gives

(δ max − δ 0 )sin δ max + cos δ max = cos δ 0

The above nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved by trial and error
method for δmax. Once δmax is obtained, the maximum permissible power
or the transient stability limit is found from

Ps1 = Pm sinδ1

480   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

where

δ1 = π − δ max

19.14.2  One of the Parallel Lines Suddenly Switched Off

Consider a system (Figure 19.8) consisting of a synchronous generator
feeding an infinite bus through a double-circuit line. The two circuits are
operating in parallel. If one of the circuits is switched off suddenly, the
system may become unstable in spite of the fact that the load could be sup-
plied over by the other circuit under steady-state conditions.
We shall use the equal-area criterion to study the transient stability of
the system when one of the lines is switched off. When both the lines are
operating in parallel; the power transfer is given by

EV
Pe1 = sinδ
XA

where XA is the transfer reactance when both the lines are operating in
parallel.

X1 X2
X A = X d′ + X1||X2 = X d′ +
X1 + X2

EV
Pe1 = sin δ
X d′ + ( X1 X2 /( X1 + X2 ))

CB1 X1 CB2

Line 1

E δ Xd′ Infinite
bus
Generator V 0°

X2

Line 2
CB3 CB4

FIGURE 19.8  A synchronous generator feeding an infinite bus through a

­double-circuit line.
 Power System Stability    ◾    481

or

Pe1 = Pmax 1 sin δ (19.41)

where

EV
Pmax 1 =
X d′ + ( X1 X2 /( X1 + X2 ))

The power–angle curve given by Equation 19.41 is shown in Figure 19.9

as curve A.
Let the mechanical power input to the generator be Ps corresponding to
a point a on the power–angle curve A of the two lines in parallel. At point
a, load angle is δ0 and the input power Ps at the shaft is equal to the output
power Pe of the generator.
When power Ps is being transferred at an angle δ0, suppose that the line
1 is suddenly switched off by opening the CB1 and CB2. The power transfer
is given by

EV
Pe2 = sinδ
XB

where XB is the transfer reactance when only line 2 is in operation.

X B = X d′ + X2

Pe

Pmax1 A
Pe1 (Both the lines in operation)

Pmax2 B
d Pe2 (Line 1 switched off )
a c A2 Mechanical
Ps
A1 Input line

b
P1

0 δ0 δ1 δ2 π δm π δ
2

FIGURE 19.9  Power–angle curves. Curve A for two lines in parallel and curve
B for line 2.
482   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

EV
Pe2 = sin δ
X d′ + X2

Pe2 = Pmax 2 sinδ (19.42)

where

EV
Pmax 2 =
X d′ + X2

The power–angle curve given by Equation 19.42 is shown as curve B in

Figure 19.9. Immediately on switching off line 1, the load angle δ0 cannot
change instantaneously due to rotor inertia. Since the load angle is still
δ0, the output power has reduced to P1. The operating shifts to point b on
the new operating curve B. This sudden change in generator output is not
immediately detected by the governor of the prime mover. Thus the shaft
power Ps is not changed. Now, the power input to the generator from the
shaft is Ps and power output of the generator in the line 2 is P1. The power
output P1 is less than the power input Ps. The difference (Ps − P1) acceler-
ates the rotor. With a slight increase in speed, the load angle δ0 increases.
The operating points move along the curve B from b to c. At point c, δ = δ1
and the accelerating power is zero, but the rotor is running slightly above
synchronous speed. It will, therefore, continue to advance up to δ2, due to
rotor inertia. However, in the region between δ1 and δ2, the electrical out-
put Pe is more than the shaft input Ps, with the result the rotor slows down.
At point d, the rotor relative speed (wrt the synchronous speed) becomes
zero. When δ = δ2, the area A1 is equal to the area A2, and the rotor starts
swinging back toward δ1. The rotor will oscillate about c and the oscil-
lations go on diminishing due to damping. The operating point finally
comes at c, where the input power is equal to the output power again, that
is, Pe2 = Pmax 2 sin δ1 as shown in Figure 19.9.
If the initial input power Ps is increased (so that the input line Ps is
shifted upwards), a limit is reached beyond which the retarding area A2
cannot be equal to the accelerating area A1. If A2 < A1, the rotor will over-
shoot past δm and the machine will lose synchronism. Thus, the maximum
value that δ2 can attain without loss of stability is δm and is given by

δ 2 = δ m = (π − δ1 ) elec.radians
 Power System Stability    ◾    483

Pmax1

Pmax2
A2
Ps A1

0 δ0 δ1 π δm π δ
2

FIGURE 19.10  Transient stability limit for the system in Figure 19.8.

This is shown in Figure 19.10. The value of corresponding Ps to this

condition is called the transient stability limit.

19.15 SYSTEM FAULT AND SUBSEQUENT

CIRCUIT ISOLATION
Consider a synchronous generator supplying power to an infinite bus
through a double-circuit line as shown in Figure 19.11. Suppose that some
type of fault (say line-to-ground fault) occurs in the middle of line 2. Let
us further assume that the fault is not sustained but it is cleared after
sometime by opening of the CBs at both the ends of the faulted line. The
fault produces a transient change which may render the system unstable.
However, if the CBs clear the fault in time, it is possible to maintain sta-
bility. The maximum value of time allowed for protective gear to oper-
ate without loss of stability is called the critical clearing time. The torque
angle corresponding to this time is called critical clearing angle.

CB1 CB2

Line 1

E δ Infinite
bus
Generator V 0°

Line 2

CB3 CB4

FIGURE 19.11  Line-to-ground fault in the middle of line 2.

484   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The conditions of operation are shown by three power angles—curves

A, B, and C. Curve A is called the prefault curve. It represents the prefault
condition when both the lines are in healthy condition. Curve B is called
the fault-duration curve. It represents the condition of the system during
fault when one healthy line and one faulted line are in the circuit. Curve
C is called the post-fault curve. This curve represents the condition of the
system after the faulted line has been switched out and only one healthy
line is in the circuit. The three power–angle curves are drawn from the
following equations.
For prefault condition,

EV
Pe1 = sinδ = Pmax 1 sin δ
XA

For the condition during fault,

EV
Pe2 = sinδ = Pmax 2 sin δ
XB

For the post-fault condition,

EV
Pe3 = sinδ = Pmax 3 sin δ
XC

where XA is the transfer reactance prior to fault, XB is the transfer reac-

tance during fault, and XC is the transfer reactance for the post-fault
condition.
The three power–angle curves are shown in Figure 19.12. The input line
is given by Pe = Ps. Before the occurrence of the fault, the system was operat-
ing at a point a on the prefault curve A. The initial load angle δ0 is obtained
by intersection of the input line Pe = Ps and the prefault curve A. When
the fault occurs, the transfer reactance is changed and the power output is
reduced. The operating point shifts from point a to point b corresponding
to load angle δ0 on the fault-duration curve B. At this point, the input Ps is
greater than the electrical output, with the result that the rotor accelerates
and the operating point moves to point c. At point c, the CB3 and CB4 at
the two ends of the faulted line 2 open and the fault is cleared. Thus, only
 Power System Stability    ◾    485

Pe

Pre-fault curve A
Pmax1

Post fault curve C

Pmax3
e f
a A2 Input line
Ps
Pmax2 d g h
A1 Fault-duration
c
curve B
b

0 δ0 δ1 π δ2 π δ
2

FIGURE 19.12  Power–angle curves when fault occurs on one line.

one healthy line remains in the circuit. The transfer reactance changes
to a new value due to the opening of the CBs. The operating point moves
to point e on the post-fault curve C. The load angle δ goes on increasing
due to the inertia of the rotor. Now, the output power is greater than the
input power, and the rotor starts retarding till the point f is reached. At
the point f, the angle δ is δ2 and the speed of the rotor with respect to
the synchronous speed becomes zero. The extent of overshoot, that is, the
value of δ2 can be determined by equating the area s defg and abcd. If
the area included between the curve C and the line Pe = Ps, bounded by
δ = δ1 is less than area abcd, the machine will lose synchronism after the
operation of the CBs. The system will be stable if the retardation area A2
(area defg) is equal to the acceleration area A1 (area abcd). It is to be noted
that the acceleration area A1 depends upon the clearing angle δ1. When δ1
increases, area A1 also allowable value of δ for stability. Such a condition
is shown in Figure 19.13a, where δ1 = δc. The angle δc is called the critical
clearing angle. For the system to be stable, the clearing angle should be less
than the critical angle. If the actual clearing angle is greater than the criti-
cal clearing angle, the system becomes unstable. Thus, more rapidly the
fault is cleared, the smaller will the accelerating area be, and the greater
the chance of stable operation being restored.
For simplicity, let us take Pmax1 = Pm1, Pmax2 = Pm2, and Pmax3 = Pm3.
486   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Pe Pe
(a) (b)

Pmax1 A g Pre-fault curve A

h

Pmax3 C f Post fault

e h e curve C
a q A2 A2
Ps Ps a k
Fault-
Pmax2
A1 A1 d duration
c B
c curve B

b b

g n k m
0 δ0 δq δ1 = δc δ2 = δm π δ 0 δ0 δc δr δ2 δm π δ

FIGURE 19.13  (a) Determination of critical clearing angle. (b) Equal area crite-
rion for system fault, circuit isolation, and reclosing.

For transient stability limit, area abcd = area defh.

Area abcd = Area adkg − Area bckg

δc

∫
= Ps (δ c − δ 0 ) − Pm2 sin δ dδ
δ0

=PS (δ C − δ 0 ) −[− Pm 2cos δ]δδC0 = PS (δ C − δ 0 ) + Pm 2cos δ C − Pm 2cos δ 0

Area defh = Area kdefhm − Area dhmk

δm

=
∫P
δC
m3 sin δ dδ − Ps (δ m − δ C )

= [− Pm 3 cos δ]δδCm − PS (δ m − δ C ) = Pm 3 cos δ c − Pm 3 cos δ m − PS

(δ m − δ C )

Equating the two areas, we get

P (δ − δ ) + Pm 2 cos δ C − Pm 2 cos δ 0 = Pm 3 cos δ c − Pm 3 cos δ m − Ps (δ m − δ C )

s C 0
(19.43)

Also, Ps = Pml sin δ0 at point a on curve A.

Ps = Pm3 sin δq at point q on curve C

 P 
δ m = π − δ q = π − sin −1  s  radians
 Pm 3 
 Power System Stability    ◾    487

From Equation 19.43,

PS (δ m − δ 0 ) − Pm 2 cos δ 0 + Pm 3 cos δ m
cos δ c = (19.44)
Pm 3 − Pm 2

This Equation 19.44 can be used to determine critical clearing angle.

The angles in this equation are in radians. If the angles are in degrees, then
the Equation 19.44 becomes

(π /180)PS (δ m − δ 0 ) − Pm 2 cos δ 0 + Pm 3 cos δ m

cos δ c = (19.45)
Pm 3 − Pm 2

19.15.1  System Fault, Circuit Isolation, and Reclosing

Most of the faults on the system are of transient nature. Automatic quick
reclosing CBs are used with transmission lines. When a fault occurs, the
fault line is disconnected. After an interval, the CBs of faulted line are
reclosed automatically. The input is Ps and the initial angle is δ0 when a
fault occurs, the operation shifts to be point b on the fault duration curve
B as shown in Figure 19.13b. When the load angle is δc, the faulted line
is isolated and the operation shifts to the post-fault curve C. When the
load angle is δr, the CBs reclose and the operation shifts to the prefault
curve A.
For stable operation, the accelerating area A1 (=area abcd) should be
equal to the decelerating area A2 (=area defghk). The maximum angle to
which the rotor angle swings is δ2. It is less than δm (i.e., the maximum
permissible rotor swing if stability is to be maintained.

19.16  METHODS OF IMPROVING STABILITY

Figure 19.13 shows that when the maximum power limit various power–
angle curves is raised, the accelerating area decreases n decelerating area
increases for a given clearing angle. Consequently δ0 is decreased and δm is
increased. This means that by increasing Pmax, the rotor can swing through
a larger angle from its original position before it reaches a critical clear-
ing angle. Thus, raising the value of Pmax, the rotor can swing through a
larger angle from its original position before it reaches a critical clearing
angle. Thus raising the value of Pmax increases the critical clearing time
and improves stability.
488   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The steady-state power limit is given by

EV
Pmax =
X

It can be seen from this expression that Pmax can be increased by increas-
ing either V or E, or both and reducing the transfer reactance. The follow-
ing methods are available for reducing the transfer reactance:

Use of double-circuit lines. The impedance of a double-circuit line is

1.
less than that of a single-circuit line. A double-circuit line doubles
the transmission capability. An additional advantage is that the con-
tinuity of supply is maintained over one line with reduce capacity
when the other line is out of service for maintenance or repair. But
the provision of additional line can hardly be justified by stability
consideration alone.
Use of bundled conductors. Bundling of conductors reduces to a con-
2.
siderable extent the line reactance and so increases the power limit
of the line.
Series compensation of the lines. The inductive reactance of a line can
3.
be reduced by connecting static capacitors in series with the line.

It is to be noted that any measure to increase the steady-state limit Pmax

will improve the transient stability limit. The use of generators of high
inertia and low reactance improves the transient stability, but generators
with these characteristics are costly. In practice, only those methods are
used which are economical.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 19.1
A round rotor generator with internal voltage E1 = 2 pu, X = 1.1 pu is
connected to a round rotor synchronous motor with internal voltage
E1 = 1.3 pu, X = 1.2 pu. The reactance of the line connecting generator
to the motor is 0.5 pu when the generator supplies 0.5 pu power (Figure
19.14), what will be the rotor angle difference between the machines?

Solution
Let δ1 and δ2 be the load angle of the generator and motor, respectively.
 Power System Stability    ◾    489

XL = 0.5 pu

FIGURE 19.14  A round rotor generator connected with a round rotor synchro-
nous motor.

EV EE
Active power transferred, Pe = sin δ = 1 2 sin(δ1 − δ 2 )
X X

or

2 × 1. 3
0.5 = sin(δ1 − δ 2 )
(1.1 + 0.5 + 1.2)

or

(δ1 − δ 2 ) = 32.58°

∴Rotor angle difference between the machines is 32.58°.

EXAMPLE 19.2
A generator with constant 1 pu terminal voltage supplies power
through a step up transformer of 0.12 pu reactance and a double cir-
cuit line to an infinite bus bar as shown in Figure 19.15. Neglecting
resistance and susceptances of system, SSSPL (steady state stability
power limit) of the system is 6.25 pu. If one of the double circuit is
tripped then what will be the resulting SSSPL in pu?

Solution
Reactance of the transformer (X1) = 0.12pu

2 3

X
1

FIGURE 19.15  A double circuit line to an infinite bus bar.

490   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Reactances of the double circuit line X2 and X3 are

∴ X2 = X3 = X ′

Steady-state stability limit of the system, SSSPL = Pe max = (EV/X)

or
1×1
6.25 =
X1 + ( X ′ || X ′)

or
1×1
6.25 =
0.12 + ( X ′ || X ′)

or
1
6.25 =
0.12 + ( X ′ /2)

or
X′ = 0.08pu

If one of the double circuit is tripped,
EV 1×1 1
∴ Pe = = = = 5pu
X 0.12 + X ′ 0.12 + 0.08

EXAMPLE 19.3
The power angle characteristics of a machine-infinite bus system are
Pe=2 sin δpu. It is operating at δ=30°. Determine the synchronizing
power coefficient at the operating point.

Solution
Synchronizing power coefficient,
dPe d
= (2 sin δ)
dδ dδ
= 2 cos δ
= 2 cos 30°
= 3 pu
 Power System Stability    ◾    491

EXAMPLE 19.4
A synchronous generator is connected to an 11-kV infinite bus
through a transmission line. The reactances of generator and trans-
mission line are 1.2 and 0.8 Ω, respectively. The terminal voltage of
synchronous generator is 15 kV. If the generator delivers 70 MW
power to infinite bus, then what will be the load angle?

Solution
Active electrical power transmitted

EV
Pe = sinδ
X

or

11 × 15
70 = sin δ
2

or

140
sinδ =
165

or

δ = 58.04°

EXAMPLE 19.5
A 500-MW, 21-kV, three-phase, two-pole synchronous generator
having a rated power factor=0.9 has moment of inertia 27.5 × 103
Nm. Determine inertia constant H.

Solution:

2πN
Angular velocity , ω =
60
2π × ((120 × 50)/2)
=
60
= 314.15 rad/s
492   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

1 1
∴ Kinetic energy = Iω 2 = × (27.5 × 103 ) × (314.15)2 = 1357 MJ
2 2

Let machine rating in MVA is S

Kinetic energy
∴ Inertia constant, H =
S
1357
=
(P / cos φ)
1357
=
(500/0.9)
= 2.44 MJ/MVA

EXAMPLE 19.6
A 50-Hz, four-pole, turbo alternator 20 MVA, 13.2 kV has an inertia
constant of H as 9 kW s/kVA. If the shaft input less the rotational
losses is 26,800 HP of metric and electrical power developed 16,000
kW. Then determine kinetic energy stored by rotor and accelerating
torque.

Solution
Inertia constant, H = 9 kW s/kVA = 9 MJ/MVA
Kinetic energy stored by rotor = S × H = 20 × 9 = 180 MJ
Accelerating torque, Ta

Mechanical power input, Ps = 26,800 HP

= 26,800 × 0.736
= 19,698 kW

And electrical power developed, Pe = 16,000 kW.

Accelerating power , Pa = Ps − Pe = (19,698 − 16,000) kW

= 3698 kW

Let accelerating torque is Ta.

Now, accelerating power, Pa = (2πNTa)/60.
 Power System Stability    ◾    493

or
2π × ((120 × 50)/ 4)
3698 = × Ta
60
Ta = 23.541 Nm

EXAMPLE 19.7
Inertia constant of a 100-MVA, 50-Hz, four-pole generator is 10 MJ/
MVA. If mechanical input is suddenly raised to 75 MW from 50
MW, then determine rotor acceleration.

Solution

Initial mechanical input , Ps1 = 50 MW = Pe1 = Initial electrical output

Initial accelerating power, Pa1 = Ps1 − Pe1 = 0

Now, final mechanical power, Ps2 = 75 MW
But Pe2 =Pe1 =50 MW
Final accelerating power, Pa2 = Ps2 − Pe2 = 25 MW

d 2δ Pa 25 MW 25
Rotor acceleration, α = = = =
dt 2 M SH / nf (100 × 10)/(180 × 50)
= 225 elec. degree/s2

EXAMPLE 19.8
A synchronous motor of negligible resistance is receiving 25% of
power that is capable of receiving from infinite bus. If the motor load
is suddenly doubled, determine angle at which the system is stable,
after making an oscillation between the two possible swings.

Solution
Initially,

Mechanical power input = Electrical power output

or

Ps1 = Pe1

Now, initial accelerating power, Pa1=Ps1 − Pe1=0. Therefore,

494   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Ps1 = Pe1 = 0.25Pm

Now,

Ps 2 = 2, Ps1 = Pe2

or

2Ps1 = Pe2

or

2 × (0.25Pm ) = Pm sin δ 2

or

δ 2 = 30°

EXAMPLE 19.9
A synchronous generator having inertia constant 6 MJ/MVA is
delivering power of 1pu to an infinite bus through a purely reactive
network. Suddenly a fault occurs and reduces the output power to 0.
The maximum power that could be delivered is 2.5pu. Determine

1. Critical clearing angle

2. Critical clearing time

Solution
Let Ps = Pe1 = 1pu.

Pe2 = 0, Pm1 = 2.5pu = Pm 3

PS (δ max − δ 0 ) + Pm 3 cos δ max − Pm 2 cos δ 0

cos δ C =
Pm 3 − Pm 2

 P (δ − δ ) + Pm 3 cos δ max − Pm 2 cos δ 0 

Critical clearing angle, δ C = cos −1  S max 0 
 Pm 3 − Pm 2 
 Power System Stability    ◾    495

Now,

 P 
δ 0 = sin −1  s  = 23.57° = 0.411 rad
 Pm1 

and

 P 
δ max = 180° − sin −1  s  = 156.43° = 2.73 rad
 Pm 3 

 1 × (2.73 − 0.411) + 2.5 cos(156.43°) 

∴ δ C = cos −1  
 2. 5 
= 89.27° = 1.56 rad

1/2
 2 M (δ c − δ 0 ) 
Critical clearing time, t c =  
 PS 

Now,

GH 1 × 6
M= = = 0.0382
πf π × 50

1/2
 2 × 0.0382(1.56 − 0.411) 
∴ tc =  
 1 
= 0.296 s

EXERCISES

1. Define the terms

a. Steady-state stability
b. Transient stability
c. Steady-state limit
d. Transient limit
496   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2. Distinguish between steady-state and transient stability of a power

system and discuss the factors on which it depend.
3. Explain briefly the equal-area criterion and how it may be used to
study in stability of a two-machine system. List the factors determin-
ing the stability limit and indicate how it may be improved.
4. Explain the equal-area criterion for the stability of an alternator sup-
plying infinite bus bar via an inductive interconnector.
5. What is meant by swing curve and how is it determined? What
information is supplied by it?
6. Explain the equal-area criterion as applied to the power–angle dia-
gram for assessing the transient stability of a transmission line act-
ing as an interconnector between two constant voltage networks.
 Chapter 20

Load Flows

20.1 INTRODUCTION
The flow of active and reactive power is called power flow or load flow.
Load flow (or power flow) analysis of the determination of current, volt-
age, active power, and reactive volt-amperes at various points in a power
system operating under normal steady-state or static conditions. Load
flow studies are made to plan the best operation and control of the exist-
ing system as well as to plan the future expansion to keep space with the
load growth. Such studies help in ascertaining the effects of new loads,
new generating stations, new lines, and new interconnections before they
are installed. The prior information serves to minimize the system loses
and to provide a check on the system stability.
The mathematical formulation of load flow problem results in a set of
algebraic nonlinear equations. A lot of calculation work is involved in the
solution of this equation. Hand computations are very tedious and time
consuming. Earlier load flow studies were made by AC network analyz-
ers (analog computers). Digital computers, because of greater flexibility,
economy accuracy, and quicker operation, have practically replaced net-
work analyzers for the solution of load flow problems.

20.2 BUS CLASSIFICATION
Load flow studies are performed to calculate the magnitude and phase
angles of voltages and buses, and also the active power and reactive volt-
amperes flow for the given terminal or bus condition.
The following variables associated with each bus or node are

1. Magnitude of the voltage, |Vi|

497
498   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

2. Phase angle of the voltage, δi

3. Active power, Pi
4. Reactive power, Qi

Three types of buses or nodes are identified in a power system network

for load flow studies. In each bus, two variables are known (specified) and
two are to be determined. The bus classification depends upon the speci-
fied variables. The buses are classified as follows:

Load bus or P-Q bus. A load bus is a bus where active power Pi and
1.
reactive power Qi are specified. Magnitude and phase angle of the
bus voltages are to be found.
Generator bus or voltage-controlled bus or PV bus. A generator bus is
2.
a bus where the magnitude of bus voltage |Vi| and the corresponding
generated power Pi are known. Reactive power Qi and power angle δ
are to be obtained.
Stack bus or swing bus or reference bus. A stack bus is a generator bus
3.
where the magnitude and phase angle of bus voltage are specified.
Real (Pi) and reactive (Qi) power are to be obtained. This bus is first
to respond to a changing load condition.

Table 20.1 summarizes the above discussion.

20.3 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

Consider a small power system network (Figure 20.1) consisting of two
generating stations, three transmission lines, one load, and a static capaci-
tor connected to load bus. We shall assume that the network is symmetri-
cal and operating under balanced condition.
Applying Kirchhoff’s law:

I1 = y12 (V1 − V2 ) + y31 (V1 − V3 ) = ( y12 + y31 )V1 − y12V2 − y31V3

TABLE 20.1  Bus Types for Power Flow Analysis

Bus Type Specification Variables Unknown Variables
Reference bus |Vi| , δi Pi, Qi
Generator bus Pi, |Vi| Qi, δi
Load bus Pi, Qi |Vi|, δi
 Load Flows    ◾    499

I2 V2 Z12 V1 I1
2 1

Transmission
lines

Z23 Z31

V3 3
I3

Y30

FIGURE 20.1  Power system network for power flow.

I 2 = y12 (V2 − V1 ) + y23 (V2 − V3 ) = − y12V1 + ( y12 + y31 )V2 − y23V3

− I 3 = y31 (V3 − V1 ) + y23 (V3 − V2 ) + y30V3 = − y31V1 − y23V2 + ( y31 + y23 + y30 )V
V3

where y12 = 1/z12, y23 = 1/z23, y31 = 1/z31.

In matrix form,

 I1   y12 + y31 − y12 − y31  V1 

    
 I 2  =  − y12 y12 + y23 − y23  V2 
 I 3   − y31 − y23 y31 + y23 + y30  V3 
   (20.1)

It is to be noted that all injected current are positive and extracted

­current are negative.
The above equation can be written as

 I1  Y11 Y12 Y13  V1 

     (20.2)
 I 2  = Y21 Y22 Y23  V2 
 I 3  Y31 Y32 Y33  V3 
    
500   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Y11 = y12 + y31 , Y22 = y12 + y23 , Y33 = y31 + y23 + y30
Y12 = Y21 = − y12 , Y23 = Y32 = − y23 , Y13 = Y31 = − y31

Here, Yii (i = 1, 2, 3, 4,…) is called driving point admittance or self-

admittance of node i. It is the algebraic sum of all the admittances termi-
nated at the node.
Yik is the off diagonal term in the matrix, where i, k = 1,2,3,… is called
transfer admittance or mutual admittance. It is the admittance connected
between nodes i and k and is equal to the negative sum of all admittance
connected directly between these nodes.
Also Yik = Yki.
For a network with N nodes, obviously,

[ I ] = [Ybus ][V ] (20.3)

where [Ybus] is called bus admittance matrix, [V] and [I] are N element
voltage matrix and current matrix, respectively, where

Y11 Y12 … Y1N 

Y Y … Y 
[Ybus ]= 
21 22 2N 
(20.4)
     
 
Y31 Y32 … Y3 N 

Obviously at any node K,

IK = ∑Y V
Kn n (20.5)
n =1

Advantages:

1. Data preparation is simple.

2. Its formation and modification are easy.
3. Since the bus admittance matrix is a sparse matrix (i.e., most of
its elements are zero), the computer memory requirements are less.
 Load Flows    ◾    501

For a large power system, more than 90% of its off-diagonal ele-
ments are zero. This is due to the fact that in power system net-
works, each node (bus) is connected to not more than three nodes
in general and an element Ypq exists only if a transmission line links
nodes p and q.

20.4 DEVELOPMENT OF STATIC LOAD FLOW EQUATION

From the nodal current equation, the total current entering the ith bus of
an n bus system is given by

Ii = Yi1V1 + Yi 2V2 +  + YinVn = ∑Y V ik k

k =1

The complex power (Si) injected into the ith is given by

*
 n 
Si = Pi + jQi = V I = Vi  YikVk 
*
i i
 k =1 
∑ (20.6)

where

Vi = |Vi |∠δ i , Vk = |Vk |∠δ k

From Equation 20.6,

Si* = Vi* Ii

Pi − jQi = Vi *
∑Y V
k =1
ik k

= ∑|Y ||V ||V |∠(δ

ik i k k − δ i + φik )
k =1

[Yik = |Yik |∠φik = |Yik |cos φik + j|Yik |sin φik ]

502   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Separating equation into real and imaginary parts, we have

Pi = ∑|Y V V |cos|φ
ik i k ik + δ k − δi |
k =1

or

∑|Y ||V |cos|φ

Pi = |Vi | ik k ik + δ k − δ i |, i = 1, 2,…, n (20.7)
k =1

Qi = ∑|Y V V |sin|φ
ik i k ik + δ k − δi |
k =1

or

Qi = |Vi | ∑|Y ||V |sin|φ

ik k ik + δ k − δ i |, i = 1, 2,…, n (20.8)
k =1

Equations 20.7 and 20.8 are called static load flow equations (SLFE).
Equation 20.7 gives n real power flow equations. Similarly, Equation 20.8
gives n reactive power flow equation. Thus, Equations 20.7 and 20.8 repre-
sent 2n power flow equations. At each bus, we have four variables Pi, Qi, Vi,
and δi resulting in total of 4n variables. In order to find a solution, it is nec-
essary to specify two variables at each bus. Thus, the number of unknown
variables is reduced to 2n. The solution of these remaining 2n variables is
done by numerical methods because Equations 20.7 and 20.8 are nonlinear.
No exact analytical solution of nonlinear equation is possible. These
equations may be solved by iterative techniques that employ successive
approximations eventually converging upon a solution. Before the advent
of digital computers, these trial and error techniques were tedious and
time consuming. However, today these methods find widespread appli-
cations for solving load flow problems. The iteration procedure involves
an initial assumed value for each of the unknown independent variable.
These numerical values are substituted in the original equation to obtain a
new set of corrected values of these independent variables. The second set
 Load Flows    ◾    503

is used to find the third corrected set. The process is repeated. Each calcu-
lation of a new set of variables is called iteration. The iteration is continued
until the unknown values converge within required limits.

20.5 GAUSS–SEIDEL ITERATIVE TECHNIQUE

This is of the simplest iterative methods and has been in use since
early days of digital computer methods of analysis. It has the following
advantages:

1. It is very simple.
2. Computing costs are less.
3. Sometimes it is used to find the initial solution for the other iterative
procedures.

To illustrate the Gauss–Seidel (GS) method, let us show the following

example. Say

f ( x ) = x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0

GS iteration is to be applied here. As

x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0

1 2 2
∴x = x +
3 3

Step 1. Let the initial guess be such that

x ( 0 ) = 1. 5

1 2
∴ x (1) = × (1.5)2 + = 1.4167
3 3

Step 2. In the next step,

1 12 2
x (r + 1) = (x ) +
3 3
504   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Here,

x (r +1) = 1.3356

Step 3.

1 r +1 2 2 1 2
x (r +1)+1 = (x ) + = (1.3356)2 + = 1.261
3 3 3 3

The iterative process is ended when |x r +1| − |x r | < ε, where ε is the

tolerance.

20.6 GS METHOD OF SOLUTION OF LOAD

FLOW EQUATION USING YBUS
From the nodal current equations, the total current entering the kth bus of
an n-bus system is given by

I k = Yk1V1 + Yk 2V2 +  + YknVn = ∑Y V ki i (20.9)

i =1

The complex power injected into the kth bus is

Sk = Pk + jQk = Vk I k* (20.10)

The complex conjugate of Equation 20.10 gives

Sk* = Pk − jQk = Vk* I k (20.11)

1
Ik = (P − jQk ) (20.12)
Vk* k

Elimination of Ik from Equations 20.9 and 20.12 gives

1
Yk1V1 + Yk 2V2 +  + YkkVk +  + YknVn = (P − jQk ) (20.13)
Vk* k
 Load Flows    ◾    505

 
1  Pk − jQk 
n

Vk = 
Ykk  Vk*
− ∑i =1
YkiVi 

(20.14)
 
 i ≠k 

Equation 20.14 is the heart of iterative algorithm.

At bus 2,

1  P2 − jQ2 
V2 = − Y21V1 − Y23V3 −  − Y2nVn  (20.15)
Y22  V2* 

At bus 3,

1  P3 − jQ3 
V3 = − Y31V1 − Y32V2 − Y34V4  − Y3nVn  (20.16)
Y33  V3* 

For kth bus, the voltage at the (r + 1)th iteration is given by

 k −1 n 
1  Pk − jQk
V k
(r +1)
=
( )
Ykk  V (r ) *
− ∑ YkiVi (r +1)
− ∑ YkiVi(r ) 

(20.17)
 k i =1 i = k +1


In the above equation, the quantities Pk, Qk, Ykk, and Yki are known and
do not vary during the iteration cycle.

20.7 NEWTON–RAPHSON METHOD FOR

LOAD FLOW SOLUTION
Let us consider two functions with two variables x1 and x2 such that

f1 (x1 , x2 ) = c1 (20.18)

f 2 (x1 , x2 ) = c2 (20.19)

where c1 and c2 being constants.

506   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Let x1(0) and x2(0) be the initial estimates for solutions of Equations 20.18
and 20.19. Let ∆x1(0) and ∆x2(0) be the values by which the initial estimates
differ the exact solution. Thus,

( )(
f1  x1(0) + ∆x1(0) , x2(0) + ∆x2(0)  = c1

) (20.20)

( )(
f 2  x1(0) + ∆x1(0) , x2(0) + ∆x2(0)  = c2

) (20.21)

Expanding the left-hand side of each of these equations in the form of a

Taylor’s series, we obtain

δf1 δf1
( )
f1 x1(0) , x2(0) + ∆x1( )
0
δx1
+ ∆x2(0)
δx 2
= c1 (20.22)
x1( 0 ) x2( 0 )

δf 2 δf 2
( )
f 2 x1(0) , x2(0) + ∆x1(0)
δx1 (0)
+ ∆x2(0)
δx 2 (0)
= c2 (20.23)
x1 x2

or

 δf1 δf1 
 c1 − f1 ( x1(0) , x2(0) )   δx1 δx 2   ∆x1(0) 
 =   (0)  (20.24)
c2 − f 2 ( x1 , x2 )   δff 2 δf 2   ∆x2 
(0) (0)

 δx1 δx2  x( 0 ), x( 0 )
1 2

or

 ∆c1(0)   ∆x1(0) 
 (0)  = j(0)  (0)  (20.25)
 ∆c2   ∆x2 

where

 ∆c1(0)   c1 − f1 ( x1(0) , x2(0) ) 

 (0)  =  
 ∆c2  c2 − f 2 ( x1 , x2 ) 
(0) (0)

 Load Flows    ◾    507

 δf1 δf1 
 δx δx 2 
j(0) =  1 
 δf 2 δf 2 
 δx1 δx2 

Matrix j(0) is called “Jacobian” and ∆c1(0) and ∆c2(0) are the differences.
Solution of Equation 20.25 gives ∆x1(0) and ∆x2(0) .
In the next step, a better estimate of the solution is made when

x1(1) = x1(0) + ∆x1(0)

x2(1) = x2(0) + ∆x2(0)

The whole process is then repeated, and the iterations continued until
Δx1 and Δx2 become very much smaller than predetermined value.
In the two-bus power system model,

EV (20.26)
P = f1 (δ,V ) = sin δ
X

EV V2 (20.27)
Q = f 2 (δ,V ) = cos δ −
X X

Thus, Equation 20.25 becomes

 δf1 δf1 
 ∆P (0)   δδ δV   ∆δ 
(0)

 (0)  =    (20.28)
 ∆Q   δf 2 δf 2   ∆V (0) 
 δδ δV 

−1
 δf1 δf1 
 ∆δ   ∆P   δδ
(0) (0)
δV 
 (0)  =  (0)   (20.29)
 ∆V   ∆Q   δf 2 δf 2 
 δδ δV 

Thus, Δδ(0) and ΔV(0) can be obtained from this equation.

508   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

The values determined for Δδ(0) and ΔV(0) are then added to the previous
estimates of V and δ to obtain new estimate of V and δ to start next itera-
tion. That is,

x (r +1) = x r − [ j(x r )]−1 f ( x r )

To apply the Newton–Raphson (NR) method in a power flow problem,

let, in the kth bus,

Vk = |Vk |∠δ k

Vn = |Vn |∠δ n

Ykn = |Ykn |∠∠φkn

The complex power expression is given by

Pk − jQk = ∑|Y kn ||Vn ||Vk |∠(φik + δ n − δ k )

n =1

where

Pk = ∑|Y kn ||Vn ||Vk |cos(φik + δ n − δ k )

n =1

and

Qk = ∑|Y kn ||Vn ||Vk |sin(φik + δ n − δ k )

n =1

If P and Q are specified for every bus except the swing bus, it
c­ orresponds to specifying C1 and C2. Let us first estimate V and δ for
each bus except the slack or swing bus, for which they are known. Then
 Load Flows    ◾    509

we substitute these estimated values (which correspond to the estimated

values for x1 and x2) in the power flow equation of Pk and Qk above to
calculate Ps and Qs that correspond f1 ( x1(0), x2(0) ) and f 2 ( x1(0), x2(0) ).
In the next step, we compute,

∆Pk(0) = Pks − Pkc(0)

∆Qk(0) = Qks − Qkc(0)

where the subscripts s and c are the specified and calculated val-
ues, respectively. These correspond to the values of ∆c1(0) and ∆c2(0) in
Equation 20.25.
Thus, NR method in a three-bus power system model gives, similar to
Equations 20.25 and 20.29.

 
 
 
   δP2 δP2 δP2 δP2   
 (0)   δδ 2 δδ 3 δV2 δV3   (0) 
 ∆P2    ∆δ 2 
 ∆P3(0)  =  δP3 δP3 δP3 δP3   (0) 
 ∆δ 3
 (0)   δδ 2 δδ 3 δV2 δV3   
 ∆Q2   δQ δQ2 δQ2 δQ2   ∆V2 
(0 )

 ∆Q (0)   2   (0 ) 
 3   δδ 2 δδ 3 δV2 δV3   ∆V3 
 δQ3 δQ3 δQ3 δQ3 
 δδ δδ 3 δV2 δV3 
 2

By inverting the Jacobian, as done in Equation 20.25, the values of ∆δ (k0)

and ∆Vk(0) can be calculated. The values can be utilized by adding Δδk and
ΔVk to the previous estimates of V and δ to obtain new estimate in the
iteration of next step. Iterations are continued till the values in either col-
umn matrix are as small as desired.

20.8 COMPARISON OF LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS METHODS

The choice of a particular method of load flow analysis depends upon the
size of the system, rate of convergence, simplicity, computer memory, etc.
510   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

20.8.1 Advantages of GS Method
1. It can be easily programmed.
2. The solution technique is simple.
3. Computer memory requirements are smaller.
4. It takes less computational time per iteration.

20.8.2 Limitations of GS Method
1. The rate of convergence is slow and therefore, larger numbers of itera-
tions are required. The GS method would take hundreds of iterations to
converge, if a system with several hundred buses were to be analyzed.
2. The number of iterations increases directly with the number of buses
in the system.
3. This method is sensitive to the choice of reference bus.

The GS method is used only for the system having small number of
buses.

20.8.3 Advantages of NR Method
1. NR method possesses quadratic convergence characteristics. Therefore,
the convergence is very fast.
2. The number of iterations are independent of the size of the system.
Solution to a high accuracy is obtained nearly always in two to three
iterations for both small and large systems.
3. The NR method convergence is not sensitive to the choice of the slack
bus.
4. Overall there is a saving in computation time, since fewer numbers
of iterations are required for convergence.

20.8.4 Limitations of NR Method
1. The solution technique is difficult.
2. It takes longer time as the elements of the Jacobian are to be com-
puted for each iteration.
3. The computer memory requirement is large.
 Load Flows    ◾    511

The NR method is more complicated than the GS method; however, it

has advantages that far outweigh its shortcomings of complexity. It is the
most reliable and powerful technique for solving load flow problems.
Although a large number of load flow methods are available in lit-
erature, it has been observed that only the NR and fast-decoupled
load-flow  methods are most popular. The fast decoupled load flow is
definitely superior to the NR method from the point of view of speed
and storage.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 20.1
Network shown in Figure 20.2 has impedances in per unit (pu) as
indicated. Determine the diagonal element Y22 of the Ybus matrix
of the network.

Solution
From the Figure 20.2, we get admittances connected to bus 2 is

1 1 1
Y22 = + +
j0.1 j0.1 − j20
= − j10 − j10 + j0.05
= − j19.95pu

EXAMPLE 20.2
A three-bus network is shown in Figure 20.3, indicating pu imped-
ances of each element. Find Ybus matrix of the network.

1 2 3
j0.1 j0.1

–j20 –j20 –j10

FIGURE 20.2  A three-bus power system network.

512   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

1 2 3
j0.2 j0.08

j0.1 j0.1

FIGURE 20.3  A three-bus network.

Solution

1 1
Y11 = Admittance connected to the bus 1 = +
j 0. 1 j 0. 2

1 1
Y22 = Admittance connected to the bus 2 = +
j0.2 − j0.08

1 1
Y33 = Admittance connected to the bus 3 = +
− j0.08 j0.1

Y12 = Y21 = Negative of the sum of all the admittances connected

directly between bus 1 and bus 2 = −Y12 = −(1/j0.2) = j5.
Y23 = Y32 = Negative of the sum of all the admittances connected
directly between bus 2 and bus 3 = −(1/−j0.08) = −j12.5.
Y13 = Y31 = Negative of the sum of all the admittances connected
directly between bus 1 and bus 3 = 0.

 1 1  
 j0.1 + j0.2  j5 0 
 
  1 1  
Ybus = j5  j0.2 + − j0.08  − j12.5 
 
  1 1 
 0 − j12.55  − j0.08 + j0.1 
 
 − j15 j5 0 
 
=  j5 j 7. 5 − j12.55
 0 − j12.5 j2.5 

 Load Flows    ◾    513

Example 20.3
Find the values of and for the following equations by NR method up
to second iteration x12 − x2 − 4 = 0, 2 x1 − x2 − 2 = 0.

Solution
Let the initial guess be such that

x1(0) = 1 and x2(0) = −1

Then

f1 (x1(0) , x2(0) ) = 1 + 4 − 1 = 1

f 2 (x1(0) , x2(0) ) = 2 + 1 − 2 = 1

Also

δf1 δf 2
= 2 x1 = 2, =2
δx1 δx1

δf1 δf 2
= −4, = −1
δx 2 δx 2

However,

δf1 δf
f1 (x1(0) , x2(0) ) + ∆x1(0) + ∆x2(0) 1 = 0
δx1 δx 2

δf 2 δf
f 2 (x1(0) , x2(0) ) + ∆x1(0) + ∆x2(0) 2 = 0
δx1 δx 2

Substitution yields,

1 + 2∆x1 − 4 ∆x2 = 0
1 + 2∆x1 − ∆x2 = 0

Solution of these two equations yields

x1(1) = x1(0) + ∆x1 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5

x2(1) = x2(0) + ∆x2 = −1 + 0 = −1.0

514   ◾    Elements of Power Systems

Proceeding in the same manner, the second iteration yields

x1(2) = 0.5357, x2(2) = −0.9286

EXERCISES

1. Develop the equations for real and reactive bus powers. Show that a
diagonal element of a Ybus is equal to the sum of admittances directly
connected to that bus and an off-diagonal element is equal to the
negative of the sum of admittances directly connected between the
buses.
2. What are the advantages of Ybus over Zbus?
3. Compare the performance of Gauss–Siedel and Newton–Raphson
methods for load flow solution. Explain the method of formation of
Ybus.
4. What is the significance of load flow analysis in a power system? Give
the classification of various types of buses in a power system for load
flow studies. Justify the classification.
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516   ◾    Bibliography

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 Elements of
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Elements of Power Systems

“… a very good contribution that covers many aspects of power systems
and components. … I strongly believe that this book will be interesting for
students and professionals in electrical power engineering.”
—Dr. Dipl.-Ing. M. Popov, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft),
Netherlands
Power Systems
“… provides an important resource for engineers, instructors, applied
researchers, and students in the field of power engineering. … This
well-written book offers broad coverage of important issues, operating
concepts, and control techniques commonly addressed in most textbooks
regarding power systems.”
—Dr. Chao-Tsung Ma, Department of Electrical Engineering, College of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, National United University,
Miaoli City, Taiwan

Elements of Power Systems prepares students for engineering degrees,

diplomas, associate member of the Institution of Engineers (AMIE) examinations,
or corresponding examinations in electrical power systems. Complete with
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• Provides a solid understanding of the theoretical aspects

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analysis techniques
• Covers load characteristics, tariffs, power system stability,
and more
Elements of Power Systems is designed as an undergraduate-level textbook,
but the book also makes a handy reference for practicing power engineers.

K26369
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