Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics

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Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (ULNP) publishes authoritative texts
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Hafez A. Radi
•

John O. Rasmussen

Principles of Physics
For Scientists and Engineers

123
Hafez A. Radi
October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA)
6th of October City
Egypt

John O. Rasmussen
University of California at Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley Lab
Berkeley, CA
USA

Solutions to the exercises are accessible to qualified instructors at springer.com on this book’s product
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access.

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-642-23025-7 ISBN 978-3-642-23026-4 (eBook)
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Preface

This book on Principles of Physics is intended to serve fundamental college

courses in scientific curricula.
Physics is one of the most important tools to aid undergraduates, graduates, and
researchers in their technical fields of study. Without it many phenomena cannot
be described, studied, or understood. The topics covered here will help students
interpret such phenomena, ultimately allowing them to advance in the applied
aspects of their fields.
The goal of this text is to present many key concepts in a clear and concise, yet
interesting way, making use of practical examples and attractively colored illustrations
whenever appropriate to satisfy the needs of today’s science and engineering students.
Some of the examples, proofs, and subsections in this textbook have been identified
as optional and are preceded with an asterisk *. For less intensive courses these optional
portions may be omitted without significantly impacting the objectives of the chapter.
Additional material may also be omitted depending on the course’s requirements.
The first author taught the material of this book in many universities in the
Middle East for almost four decades. Depending on the university, he leveraged
different international textbooks, resources, and references. These used different
approaches, but were mainly written in an expansive manner delivering a plethora
of topics while targeting students who wanted to dive deeply into the subject
matter. In this textbook, however, the authors introduce a large subset of these
topics but in a more simplified manner, with the intent of delivering these topics
and their key facts to students all over the world and in particular to students in the
Middle East and neighboring regions where English may not be the native lan-
guage. The second author went over the entire text with the background of study
and/or teaching at Caltech, UC Berkeley, and Yale.
Instructors teaching from this textbook will be able to gain online access from
the publisher to the solutions manual, which provides step-by-step solutions to all
exercises contained in the book. The solutions manual also contains many tips,
colored illustrations, and explanations on how the solutions were derived.

v
vi Preface

Acknowledgments from Prof. Hafez A. Radi

I owe special thanks to my wife and two sons Tarek and Rami for their ongoing
support and encouragement. I also owe special thanks to my colleague and friend
Prof. Rasmussen for his invaluable contributions to this book, and for everything
that I learned from him over the years while carrying out scientific research at
Lawrence Berkeley Lab. Additionally, I would like to express my gratitude to
Prof. Ali Helmy Moussa, Prof. of Physics at Ain Shams University in Egypt, for
his assistance, support, and guidance over the years. I also thank all my fellow
professors and colleagues who provided me with valuable feedback pertaining to
many aspects of this book, especially Dr. Sana’a Ismail, from Dar El Tarbiah
School, IGCSE section and Dr. Hesham Othman from the Faculty of Engineering
at Cairo University. I would also like to thank Professor Mike Guidry, Professor of
Physics and Astronomy at the University of Tennessee Knoxville, for his valuable
recommendations. I am also grateful to the CD Odessa LLC for their Concept-
Draw software suite which was used to create almost all the figures in this book.
I finally extend my thanks and appreciation to Professor Nawal El-Degwi,
Professor Khayri Abdel-Hamid, Professor Said Ashour, and the staff members and
teaching assistants at the faculty of Engineering at MSA University, Egypt, for all
their support and input.

Hafez A. Radi
[email protected]

Acknowledgments from Prof. John O. Rasmussen

I would like to thank Prof. Radi for the opportunity to join him as coauthor. I am
grateful to the many teachers, students, and colleagues from whom I learned
various aspects of the fascinating world of the physical sciences, notably the late
Drs. Linus Pauling, Isadore Perlman, Stanley Thompson, Glenn Seaborg, Earl
Hyde, Hilding Slätis, Aage Bohr, Gaja Alaga, and Hans-Järg Mang. There are
many others, still living, too numerous to list here. I would also like to extend my
special thanks to my wife for her support and encouragement.

John O. Rasmussen
[email protected]
Contents

Part I Fundamental Basics

1 Dimensions and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 The International System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Standards of Length, Time, and Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Vectors and Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Properties of Vectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Vector Components and Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Multiplying Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Part II Mechanics

3 Motion in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.1 Position and Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Average Velocity and Average Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5 Constant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6 Free Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4 Motion in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . .................... 71

4.1 Position, Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... 71
4.2 Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . .................... 79

vii
viii Contents

4.3 Uniform Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4.4 Tangential and Radial Acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5 Non-uniform Circular Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5 Force and Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.1 The Cause of Acceleration and Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 Some Particular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Applications to Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6 Work, Energy, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6.1 Work Done by a Constant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2 Work Done by a Variable Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.3 Work-Energy Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.5 Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.6 Work Done by Non-conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.7 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.8 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

7 Linear Momentum, Collisions, and Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . 181

7.1 Linear Momentum and Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.3 Conservation of Momentum and Energy in Collisions . . . . . . 187
7.3.1 Elastic Collisions in One and Two Dimensions . . . . 187
7.3.2 Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.4 Center of Mass (CM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.5 Dynamics of the Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.6 Systems of Variable Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.6.1 Systems of Increasing Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.6.2 Systems of Decreasing Mass; Rocket Propulsion . . . 205
7.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

8 Rotational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

8.1 Radian Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.2 Rotational Kinematics; Angular Quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8.3 Constant Angular Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.4 Angular Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.5 Relating Angular and Linear Quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.6 Rotational Dynamics; Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.7 Newton’s Second Law for Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.8 Kinetic Energy, Work, and Power in Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Contents ix

8.9 Rolling Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

8.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

9 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

9.1 Angular Momentum of Rotating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.1.1 Angular Momentum of a Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.1.2 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles . . . . . . 271
9.1.3 Angular Momentum of a Rotating Rigid Body . . . . . 271
9.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
9.3 The Spinning Top and Gyroscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

10 Mechanical Properties of Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

10.1 Density and Relative Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
10.2 Elastic Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10.2.1 Young’s Modulus: Elasticity in Length . . . . . . . . . . 307
10.2.2 Shear Modulus: Elasticity of Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
10.2.3 Bulk Modulus: Volume Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.3 Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
10.4 Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
10.5 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Part III Introductory Thermodynamics

11 Thermal Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

11.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
11.2.1 Linear Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
11.2.2 Volume Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
11.3 The Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
11.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

12 Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . ........ 379

12.1 Heat and Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 379
12.1.1 Units of Heat, The Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
12.1.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
12.1.3 Latent Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
12.2 Heat and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
12.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
12.4 Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . 396
12.5 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
x Contents

13 Kinetic Theory of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

13.1 Microscopic Model of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
13.2 Molar Specific Heat Capacity of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . 434
13.2.1 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume . . . . . . . . 435
13.2.2 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure . . . . . . . . 436
13.3 Distribution of Molecular Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
13.4 Non-ideal Gases and Phases of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
13.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

Part IV Sound and Light Waves

14 Oscillations and Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

14.1 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
14.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration of SHM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
14.1.2 The Force Law for SHM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
14.1.3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator. . . . . . . . 459

14.2 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
14.3 Sinusoidal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
14.3.1 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
14.3.2 Wavelength and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
14.3.3 Harmonic Waves: Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . 466
14.4 The Speed of Waves on Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
14.5 Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Strings . . . . . . . . . 472
14.6 The Linear Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
14.7 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
14.7.1 Reflection at a Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
14.7.2 Standing Waves and Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
14.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

15 Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

15.1 Speed of Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
15.2 Periodic Sound Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
15.3 Energy, Power, and Intensity of Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . 505
15.4 The Decibel Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
15.5 Hearing Response to Intensity and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . 514
15.6 The Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
15.7 Supersonic Speeds and Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
15.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

16 Superposition of Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

16.1 Superposition and Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
16.2 Spatial Interference of Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
16.3 Standing Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
16.4 Standing Sound Waves in Air Columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Contents xi

16.5 Temporal Interference of Sound Waves: Beats . . . . . . . . . . . 549

16.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

17 Light Waves and Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561

17.1 Light Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
17.2 Reflection and Refraction of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
17.3 Total Internal Reflection and Optical Fibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
17.4 Chromatic Dispersion and Prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
17.5 Formation of Images by Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
17.5.1 Plane Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
17.5.2 Spherical Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
17.6 Formation of Images by Refraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
17.6.1 Spherical Refracting Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
17.6.2 Flat Refracting Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
17.6.3 Thin Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
17.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

18 Interference, Diffraction and Polarization of Light . . . . . . . . . . . 603

18.1 Interference of Light Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
18.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
18.3 Thin Films—Change of Phase Due to Reflection . . . . . . . . . 611
18.4 Diffraction of Light Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
18.5 Diffraction Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
18.6 Polarization of Light Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
18.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

Part V Electricity

19 Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

19.1 Electric Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
19.2 Charging Conductors and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
19.3 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
19.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

20 Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

20.1 The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
20.2 The Electric Field of a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
20.3 The Electric Field of an Electric Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
20.4 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . 670
20.4.1 The Electric Field Due to a Charged Rod . . . . . . . . 672
20.4.2 The Electric Field of a Uniformly Charged Arc . . . . 679
20.4.3 The Electric Field of a Uniformly Charged Ring . . . 681
20.4.4 The Electric Field of a Uniformly Charged Disk . . . 682
20.5 Electric Field Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
xii Contents

20.6 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field . . . . 686

20.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

21 Gauss’s Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701

21.1 Electric Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
21.2 Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
21.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
21.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
21.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720

22 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731

22.1 Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
22.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
22.3 Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field. . . . . . . . . . . . 735
22.4 Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
22.5 Electric Potential Due to a Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
22.6 Electric Dipole in an External Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
22.7 Electric Potential Due to a Charged Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
22.8 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Arc . . . . . . . 752
22.9 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring. . . . . . . 753
22.10 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk . . . . . . . 754
22.11 Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Sphere . . . . . 756
22.12 Electric Potential Due to a Charged Conductor . . . . . . . . . . 757
22.13 Potential Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
22.14 The Electrostatic Precipitator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
22.15 The Van de Graaff Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
22.16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763

23 Capacitors and Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

23.1 Capacitor and Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
23.2 Calculating Capacitance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
23.3 Capacitors with Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
23.4 Capacitors in Parallel and Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
23.5 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
23.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797

24 Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

24.1 Electric Current and Electric Current Density. . . . . . . . . . . . 809
24.2 Ohm’s Law and Electric Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
24.3 Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
24.4 Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
24.5 Resistors in Series and Parallel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
24.6 Kirchhoff’s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Contents xiii

24.7 The RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838

24.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844

Part VI Magnetism

25 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 859

25.1 Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 859
25.2 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field . . 863
25.3 Charged Particles in an Electric and Magnetic Fields ..... . 865
25.3.1 Velocity Selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 866
25.3.2 The Mass Spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 866
25.3.3 The Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 867
25.4 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor. . . ..... . 869
25.5 Torque on a Current Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 874
25.5.1 Electric Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 876
25.5.2 Galvanometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 877
25.6 Non-Uniform Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 878
25.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 879

26 Sources of Magnetic Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889

26.1 The Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
26.2 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Currents. . . . . . . 895
26.3 Ampere’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
26.4 Displacement Current and the Ampere-Maxwell Law . . . . . . 901
26.5 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
26.6 The Origin of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
26.7 Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
26.8 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
26.9 Ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
26.10 Some Applications of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
26.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

27 Faraday’s Law, Alternating Current, and Maxwell’s Equations . . 933

27.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
27.2 Motional emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
27.3 Electric Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
27.4 Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
27.5 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
27.6 Induced Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
27.7 Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
27.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950

28 Inductance, Oscillating Circuits, and AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

28.1 Self-Inductance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
xiv Contents

28.2 Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964

28.3 Energy Stored in an Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
28.4 The L–R Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
28.5 The Oscillating L–C Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
28.6 The L–R–C Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
28.7 Circuits with an ac Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
28.8 L–R–C Series in an ac Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
28.9 Resonance in L–R–C Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
28.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988

Appendix A Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999

Appendix B Basic Rules and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003

Appendix C The Periodic Table of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

Answers to All Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
Fundamental Physical Constants
Quantity Symbol Approximate value
Speed of light in vacuum c 3:00  108 m/s
Avogadro’s number NA 6:02  1023 mol1 ¼ 6:02  1026 kmol1
Gas constant R 8:314 J/mol K ¼ 8 314J/kmol  K
Boltzmann’s constant k 1:38  1023 J/K
Gravitational constant G 6:67  1011 N  m2 =kg2
Planck’s constant h 6:63  1034 J  s
Permittivity of free space 0 8:85  1012 C2 =N  m2
Permeability of free space l0 ¼ 1=ðc2 0 Þ 4p  107 T  m/A
Atomic mass unit 1u 1:6605  1027 kg ¼ 931:49 MeV/c2
Electron charge -e 1:60  1019 C
Electron rest mass me 9:11  1031 kg ¼ 0:000549 u
¼ 0:511 MeV/c2

Proton rest mass mp 1:6726  1027 kg ¼ 1:00728 u

¼ 938:27 MeV/c2

Neutron rest mass mn 1:6749  1027 kg ¼ 1:008665 u

¼ 939:57 MeV/c2

xv
Other useful constants
Acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface (av.) g ¼ 9:8 m/s2
Absolute zero (0 K) 273:15  C
Joule equivalent (1 kcal) 4; 186 J

Speed of sound in air (20 C) 343 m/s
Density of air (dry) 1:29 kg/m3
Standard atmosphere 1:01  105 Pa
Electric breakdown strength 3  106 V/m
Earth: Mass 5:98  1024 kg
Radius (av.) 6:38  103 km
Moon: Mass 7:35  1022 kg
Radius (av.) 1:74  103 km
Sun: Mass 1:99  1030 kg
Radius (av.) 6:96  105 km
Earth–Moon distance (av.) 3:84  105 km
Earth–Sun distance (av.) 1:5  108 km

The greek alphabet

Alpha A a Nu M m
Beta B b Xi N n
Gamma C c Omicron O o
Delta D d Pi P p
Epsilon E e Rho Q q
Zeta F f Sigma R r
Eta H g Tau S s
Theta H h Upsilon T t
Iota I i Phi U /
Kappa J j Chi V v
Lambda K k Psi W w
Mu L l Omega X x

xvi
Some SI base units and derived units
Quantity Unit name Unit symbol In terms of base units

{
Mass kilogram kg Base
Length meter m
SI
Time second s
Electric current ampere A units
Force newton N kgm=s2
Energy and work joule J kgm2 =s2
Power watt W kgm2 =s3
Pressure pascal Pa kg=ðms2 Þ
Frequency hertz Hz s-1
Electric charge coulomb C As
Electric potential volt V kgm2 =ðAs3 Þ
Electric resistance ohm X kgm2 =ðA2 s3 Þ
Capacitance farad F A2 s4 =ðkgm2 Þ
Magnetic field tesla T kg=ðAs2 Þ
Magnetic flux weber Wb kgm2 =ðAs2 Þ
Inductance henry H kgm2 =ðs2 A2 Þ

xvii
 SI multipliers
yotta Y 1024
zeta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deka da 101
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro l 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18
zepto z 10-21
yocto y 10-24

xviii