GAIGHATA GOVT.

POLYTECHNIC
DEPARTMENT : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
SUBJECT-MANUFACTURING PROCESSEC-II, DME-II, 4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER-01
TOPIC- TURNING
KINEMATIC STRUCTURE OF CENTRE LATHE:

Lathe machine is a machine that holds the work piece on a chuck and tool on a tool post, the lathe machine rotates
work piece about an axis to perform various operations such as turning, facing, thread cutting, knurling, drilling and
more with tools that are applied to the work piece to create an object with symmetry about that axis.
Parts of Lathe Machine:
The lathe consists following parts.
1. Bed
It is the main body of the machine. All main components are bolted on it. It is usually made by cast iron due to its high compressive
strength and high lubrication quality. It is made by casting process and bolted on floor space.
2. Tool post
It is bolted on the carriage. It is used to hold the tool at correct position. Tool holder mounted on it.
3. Chuck
Chuck is used to hold the workspace. It is bolted on the spindle which rotates the chuck and work piece. It is four jaw and three jaw
according to the requirement of machine.
4. Head stock
Head stock is the main body parts which are placed at left side of bed. It is serve as holding device for the gear chain, spindle, driving
pulley etc. It is also made by cast iron.
5. Tail stock
Tail stock situated on bed. It is placed at right hand side of the bed. The main function of tail stock to support the job when required. It
is also used to perform drilling operation.
6. Lead screw
Lead screw is situated at the bottom side of bed which is used to move the carriage automatically during thread cutting.
7. Legs
Legs are used to carry all the loads of the machine. They are bolted on the floor which prevents vibration.
8. Carriage
It is situated between the head stock and tail stock. It is used to hold and move the tool post on the bed vertically and horizontally. It
slides on the guide ways. Carriage is made by cast iron.
9. Apron
It is situated on the carriage. It consist all controlling and moving mechanism of carriage.
10. Chips pan
Chips pan is placed lower side of bed. The main function of it to carries all chips removed by the work piece.
11. Guide ways
Guide ways take care of movement of tail stock and carriage on bed.
12. Speed controller
Speed controller switch is situated on head stock which controls the speed of spindle.
13. Spindle
It is the main part of lathe which holds and rotates the chuck.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE

Lathe removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the form of chips with the help of a tool which is traversed across the
work and can be fed deep in work. Lathe machine holds the work piece between two rigid and strong supports called Centers, or in a
chuck or Face plate while the latter revolves. The chuck or the face plate is mounted on the projected end of the machine spindle. The
cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post and is fed against the revolving work. While the work revolves about its own axis
the tool is made to move either parallel to or at an inclination with this axis to cut the desired material. In doing so it produces a
cylindrical surface, if it is fed parallel to the axis or will produced a Tapered surface if it is fed at an inclination.

APPLICATION OF CENTRE LATHE:

Types of Lathe Operation
The working of the lathe machine changes with every operation and cut desired. There are a lot of operations used for
using the lathe machine. Some of the common lathe operations are:
TAPER TURNING METHODS & ANGLE CALCULATION OF TAPER TURNING Taper tuning is performed, when
a specific taper is required on work-piece. This can be performed by following four methods:1.Combined feed
method 2.
Form tool method
3. Tail-stock set over method
4. Compound rest method
5. Taper turning attachment method .Let us see when and how these methods are used:

Tail-stock set over method:

Compound rest method:

Taper turning attachment method:

PROBLEMS ON TAPER TURNING:

Thread Terminology:
THREAD CUTTING MECHANISM :
Thread cutting on All Geared Lathe Machine is one of the most important operations performed in a lathe. The
process of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical surface by feeding the tool
longitudinally.

Thread Cutting On All Geared Lathe

1. The job is revolved between center or by a chuck. The longitudinal feed should beequal to the pitch of the
thread to be cut per revolution of the work piece.
2. The carriage should be moved longitudinally obtaining feed through the lead-screwof the lathe.
3. A definite ratio between the longitudinal feed and rotation of the headstock spindleshould be found out.
Suitable gears with required number of teeth should be mounted on thespindle and the lead screw.
4. A proper thread cutting tool is selected according to the shape of the thread. It ismounted on the tool post
with its cutting edge at the lathe axis and perpendicular to the axisof the work.
5. The position of the tumbler gears are adjusted according to the type of the thread
6. Suitable spindle speed is selected and it is obtained through back gears.
7. After the process of thread cutting is over, the thread is checked by suitablegauges.

CALCULATION OF CHANGE GEARS FOR THREAD CUTTING OPERATION:

USE OF IDLE GEARS:
Gear train Required direction of rotation of lead No.of Idle Gears to be employed
screw
Simple Same as Spindle Odd number( 1 or 3 etc)
Simple Opposite to that of the spindle Two or No
Compound Same as Spindle Two or No
Compound Opposite to that of the spindle Odd number( 1 or 3 etc)
CUTTING PARAMETERS & MACHINING TIME CALCULATION:
 GAIGHATA GOVT. POLYTECHNIC
DEPT:MECHANICAL ENGG.
SUBJECT-MP-II, DME-II, 4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER-02
TOPIC- SHAPING & PLANNING
KINEMATIC STRUCTUREOF SHAPING MACHINE
Shaping machine is a machine designed for giving desired shapes to the surfaces that may be horizontal, vertical and
flat. A shaping tool is used to cut in curves, different angles, and many other shapes. A disc is responsible for the tool
rotation which results in the forward and backward movement. The cutting tool is used to give the shape to the hard
surface of metal or wood by removing the excess material.

1. Base:
It is the main body of the machine. It consist all element of machine. It works as pillar for other parts. Base is
made by cast iron which can take all compressive loads.
2. Ram:
It is the main part of the shaper machine. It holds the tool and provides the reciprocating motion to it. It is made
by cast iron and move over ways on column. It is attached by the rocker arm which provide it motion in crank
driven machine and if the machine is hydraulic driven it is attached by hydraulic housing.
3. Tool head:
It is situated at the front of the ram. Its main function is to hold the cutting tool. The tool can be adjusted on it
by some of clamps.
4. Table:
It is the metal body attached over the frame. Its main function is to hold the work piece and vice over it. It has
two T slots which used to clamp vice and work piece over it.
5. Clapper box:
It carries the tool holder. The main function of clapper box is to provide clearance for tool in return stock. It
prevents the cutting edge dragging the work piece while return stock and prevent tool wear.
6. Column:
Column is attached to the base. It provides the housing for the crank slider mechanism. The slide ways are
attached upper section of column which provide path for ram motion.
7. Cross ways:
It consist vertical and horizontal table sideways which allow the motion of table. It is attach with some cross
movement mechanism.
8. Stroke adjuster:
It is attached below the table. It is used to control the stroke length which further controls the ram movement.
9. Table supports:
These are attached front side of the table and used to support the weight of table during working.
Working Principle: The job is rigidly fixed on the machine table. The single point cutting tool held properly in
the tool post is mounted on a reciprocating ram. The reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by a quick
return motion mechanism. As the ram reciprocates, the tool cuts the material during its forward stroke. During
return, there is no cutting action and this stroke is called the idle stroke. The forward and return strokes
constitute one operating cycle of the shaper.

How the shaping task is performed over the object

A Shaping machine’s task is based on the stroke mechanism. Forward stroke performs the action and backward
or return stroke brings back the tool to its original position for the next forward stroke. The working of a
shaping machine is expressed in below points.

1. First and foremost task is to place the work piece on the table.
2. After that cutting tool is placed in the tool holder mounted on the Ram
3. It is time to supply power by starting the motor for performing a reciprocating action.
4. In the reciprocating action cutting tool performs the task on work piece and removes the extra material from the
work piece to get the desired shape.
5. Here forward stroke performs the shaping action on the work piece by cutting the extra material and backward
stroke or return stroke does not perform cutting action, it is kind of restoring stroke for the next actionable
forward stroke.
APPLICATION OF SHAPING MACHINE
Shaping, Planning and Slotting:
Shaping, planning and Slotting can be defined as the process of removing metal from a surface in horizontal,
vertical and inclined position to produce a flat or plane surface, slots and grooves by means of a relative
reciprocating motion between the tool and work piece.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL OF SHAPER:

CUTTING PARAMETERS& MACHINING TIME CALCULATIONS
STRUCTURE OF PLANER MACHINE:
The main parts of the double Housing Planer machine is Bed and table, Housings, Cross rail, , Tool heads,
Driving and feed mechanism.

Cross rail: The cross rail is a horizontal member supported on the machined ways of the upright columns. Guide ways are
provided on vertical face of each column and that enables up and vertical movement of the cross rail. The vertical
movement of the cross rail allows to accommodate workpiece of different heights. Since the cross rail is supported at both
the ends, this type of planer machine is rigid in construction.

Tool heads: Generally two tool heads are mounted in the horizontal cross rail and one on each of the vertical housing.
Tool heads may be swiveled so that angular cuts can be made.

Driving and feed mechanism: The tool heads may be fed either by hand or by power in crosswise or vertical direction.
The motor drive is usually at one side of the planer near the centre and drive mechanism is located under the table.

APPLICATION OF PLANNER MACHINE

Below are some most common applications of planer machine.1)Cutting slots and grooves 2)Generating accurate flat
and curved surfaces 3)Cutting at an angle and machining dovetails
What is the difference between shaper and planer?In a planer, workpiece reciprocates over the stationary cutting tool.
Whereas in a shaper, the cutting tool reciprocates.
 GAIGHATA GOVT. POLYTECHNIC
DEPT:MECHANICAL ENGG.
SUBJECT-MP-II, DME-II,4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER-03
TOPIC-DRILLING

CLASSIFICATION OF DRILL MACHINE

The different types of drilling machines are:

 Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine.

 Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine.
 Upright drilling machine.
 Radial drilling machine.
 Gang drilling machine.
 Multiple spindle drilling machine.
 Deep holedrilling machine.

SPECIFICATIONS OF DRILLING MACHINE

PILLAR DRILLING MACHINE( BASIC PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS)

RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE.( BASIC PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS)

APPLICATIONS:
DRILLING
TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE:

 Axis: It is the longitudinal center-line of the drill.

 Diameter: Largest diameter measured across the top of the lands behind the point.
 Back Taper:
o The diameter reduces slightly toward the shank end of the drill, this is known as “back taper”.
o Back taper provides clearance between the drill and work-piece preventing friction and heat.
 Body: It is the part of the drill from its extreme point to the commencement of the neck.
 Neck : The portion with reduced diameter in between body and shank.
 Shank :It is the part of the drill by which it is held and driven. The shank may be straight or taper.
 Tang : The flattened end of the taper shank is known as tang.
 Point : It is the conical sharpened end of the drill.
 Flank : Surface of drill which extends behind the lip to flute.
 Flutes :The grooves in the body of the drill are known as flutes.
 Flute Length:
o The length of flute measured from the drill point to the end of the flute run out.
o Flute length determines the maximum depth of drilling.
 Margins: The cylindrical portion of the land that is not cut away to provide clearance.
 Helix Angle: Angle formed between a line drawn parallel to the axis of the drill and the edge of the land. (30° or
45°)
 Point angle : This is the angle included between the two lips projected upon a plane parallel to the drill axis and
parallel to the two cutting lips. (118°).
 Chisel Edge : it is the point where two cutting lips meets at extreme tip.
 Chisel Edge Angle :Angle between chisel edge and cutting lip measured plane normal to axis.
DEEP HOLE DRILLING:

A deep hole is defined by its depth-to-diameter ratio (D:d), and typically holes greater than 10:1 are considered deep
holes. Deep hole drilling into metal has a range of applications across several industries, with its origins tracing back to
the need for straighter, more accurate gun barrels, and expanding as other industries integrated deep hole drilling
processes to improve their own applications.

CUTTING PARAMETERS:

MACHINING TIME CALCULATION:

 GAIGHATA GOVT. POLYTECHNIC
DEPT:MECHANICAL ENGG.
SUBJECT-MP-II, DME-II,4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER-04
TOPIC- MILLING AND GEAR CUTTING

BASIC PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

COLUMN AND KNEE TYPE
 UNIVERSAL MILLINGMACHINE

COMMON PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE

1. Column
The column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gear box, the clutches, the shafts,the pumps, and the shifting mechanisms for
transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at a selected speed.
2. Knee
The knee mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an up or down motion along the Z axis.
3. Saddle
The saddle consists of two slideways,one on the top and one at the bottom locatedat 90º to each other, for providing motions in the X
or Y axes by mea
ns of lead screws.
4. Table
The table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X axis. On top of the table are some T-slots for the mounting of
workpiece or clamping fixtures.
5. Arbor
The arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread endof an arbor is of left hand helix.
6. Base
The base of the milling machine, along withthe column, are the major structural components. They hold, align, and support the rest of
the machine.
7. Spindle
The spindle holds the tool and provides the actual tool rotation.
8. Spindle Reverse Lever
The position of this lever determines the spindle direction. The three positions of thehandle are; In, Middle, and Out. The middle
position is the neutral position. Never move the spindle reverse lever when the spindle is turning.
9. Spindle Speed Selection Lever
The spindle speed selection lever is used tochange the spindle R.P.M. setting. This type of machine has a geared head so the spindle
speed can only be changed whenthe spindle is stopped.
10. Spindle Clutch Lever
The spindle clutch lever engages the spindle clutch to the motor. By manipulating thespindle clutch lever the operator can start and
stop the spindle.
11. Feed Rate Selection Lever
The feed rate selection lever is used to change the feed rate setting. The feed rate settings are expressed in inches per minute.
12. Motor Start and Stop Buttons-
The motor start and stop buttons control thepower to the main motor for the machine
TYPES OF OPERATIONS( UP MILLING, DOWN MILLING)
APPLICATIONS:
CUTTING PARAMETERS

CUTTING PARAMETERS & MACHINING TIME CALCULATION:

GEAR CUTTING ON MILLING MACHINE –DIVIDING HEAD AND INDEXING METHODS

Introduction to Gears
Gears are used in all types of machinery. They can be as small as 3mm diameter to 11m diameter. They are used to transmit
rotary motion from one shaft to another by means of toothed wheels, which are in direct mesh with each other. In contrast,
chain wheels transmit motion from one wheel to another by means of chain connection. They are called sprockets. Gears are
used for power transmission as in automobile gearbox and in control elements.

Spur gears:

Spur gears are the most commonly used gears, are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts. These impose load on
bearings. Its teeth are straight and parallel to the axis. These can be either internal type or external type. An external spur
gear of infinite radius, called as rack. Rack has straight-sided tooth (for involute tooth profile gears).

Helical gears:

In helical gears, the tooth profile in transverse plane gets gradually rotated along the helix angle as we move along the axis.
The hand of the helix determines whether it is a right handed helical gear or a left handed helical gear. Helical gears can be
external or internal type. However, internal helical gears are not very common in external helical gears, the hands of the
mating gears are of opposite hands, whereas for internal helical gear meshing with external gear, they are of the same hand.
The mating gear should always have the same helix angle.
Terms Used in Gears

The following terms, which will be mostly used in this chapter, should be clearly understood at this stage. These terms are
illustrated in fig.

1) Pitch circle : It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same motion as the actual gear.

2) Pitch circle diameter : It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually specified by the pitch circle
diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.

3) Pitch point : It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.

4) Pitch surface : It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have replaced at the pitch circle.

5) Pressure angle or angle of obliquity : It is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the point of contact
and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually denoted by The standard pressure angles are 14½o and 20o.

6) Addendum : It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.

7) Dedendum : It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.

8) Addendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with the pitch circle.

9) Dedendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called root circle.
Note : Root circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter X cos where  is the pressure angle.

10) Circular pitch: It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the
corresponding point on the next tooth. It is usually denoted by Pc , Mathematically.

Circular pitch, Pc = D/T

where D = Diameter of the pitch circle, and
T = Number of teeth on the wheel.

A little consideration will show that the two gears will mesh together correctly, if the two wheels have the same circular
pitch.

Note : If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the two meshing gears having the teeth T1 and T2 respectively, then for them to
mesh correctly.
Pc = D1/T1 = D2/T2 or D1/D2 = T1/T2

11) Diametralpitch : It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in millimeters. It is denoted by
PdMathematically,

Diametral pitch, Pd = T/D = /Pc

Where T = Number of teeth, and
D = Pitch circle diameter.

12) Module: It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the number of teeth. It is usually denoted by m.
Mathematically,

Module, m = D/T

Note : The recommended series of modules in Indian Standard are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, and 20. The
modules 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14 and 18 are of second choice.

13) Clearance: It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the tooth, in a meshing gear. A circle
passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance circle.

14) Total depth: It is the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum of a gear. It is equal to the sum of the
addendum and dedendum.

15) Working depth: It is the radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle. It is equal to the sum of the
addendum of the two meshing gear.

16) Tooth thickness: It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.

17) Tooth space: It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.

18) Backlash: It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured along the pitch circle.
Theoretically, the backlash should be zero, but in actual practice some backlash must be allowed to prevent jamming of the
teeth due to tooth errors and thermal expansion.

19) Face of tooth: It is the surface of the gear tooth above the pitch surface.
20) Flank of tooth: It the surface of the gear tooth below the pitch surface.

21) Top land: It is the surface of the top of the tooth.

22) Face width: It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.

23) Profile: It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.

24) Fillet radius: It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.

25) Path of contact: it is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the beginning to the end of engagement.

26) Length of the path of contact : It is the length of the common normal cut-off by the addendum circles of the wheel and
pinion.

27) Arc of contact: It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to the end of engagement of a given
pair of teeth. The arc of contact consists of two parts, …i.e.,
(a) Arc of approach : It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the engagement to the pitch point.
(b) Arc of recess : it is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end of the engagement of a pair of
teeth.
Note : The ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch is known as contact ratio i.e. number of pairs of teeth in
contact.
Gear manufacturing processes (cutting processes)
When gear teeth are cut on a gear blank, the manufacturing process consists of the following steps:

(a) Blank manufacture;

(b) Tooth cutting;
(c) Heat treatment;
(d) Tooth finish cutting

All the steps listed above may not be used in the manufacture depending on the requirement. For example, non-hardened
gears may not require heat treatment. If the accuracy required is not very high, special tooth finish cutting will not be
carried out. The sequence of steps is generally as enumerated above, but it may differ. For example, in automobile gear
manufacture the tooth finish cutting is carried out before heat treatment.

*Blank manufacturing, Heat treatment, tooth finish cut are out of syllabus

Milling Spur Gear on Milling Machine

The gear blank is mounted on a mandrel which is supported between the center of the dividing head and one more center at
the other end, as shown in fig. At a time one tooth space is cut by the milling cutter, and a dividing head is used to index the
job to the next required tooth space. The cutter is chosen according to the module (or DP) and number of teeth of the gear
to the cut. This cutter is mounted on the milling arbor. Before the gear can be cut, it is necessary to have the cutter centred
accurately relative to the gear holding mandrel. One way is to adjust the machine table vertically and horizontally until one
corner of the cutter just touches the mandrel on one side. Both the dials (of the table and the knee) are then set to zero.
The table is then adjusted for the cutter to just touch on the other side of the mandrel with vertical dial showing zero. The
reading of the horizontal feed screw is read. This reading divided by two gives the central position of the mandrel relative to
the cutter. When the table is set centrally in this manner it should be locked in that position. The table is then fed vertically
so that the blank just touches the cutter. The vertical dial is then set to zero. This is required to give the depth of cut on the
job.

With these settings the machine can be started and traversed along the axis of the job to cut the tooth over the whole width
of the gear. Depth is increased slowly until it reaches the full depth of the tooth. With the depth setting the backlash of the
gear can be controlled suitably. After one tooth space is cut, the blank is indexed through 1/z revolution by means of the
dividing head, and the process is repeated until all the teeth are cut.
 INDEXING

Meaning of Indexing:

Milling operations sometimes, require the rotation of job correct to fractions of minutes, for each groove, slot
etc., to be cut evenly on the job surface. The accuracy of spacing of teeth is very important particularly when
the work is of precision character e.g., gear teeth, shafts, cutter teeth etc.

The operation of rotating the job through a required angle between two successive cuts is termed as indexing.
This is accomplished with the help of a milling attachment known as dividing head, which is an accessory to the
milling machine. It helps to divide the job periphery into a number of equal divisions, i.e., square, hexagonal
octagonal, etc.

Dividing Head:
To rotate a job through required angle, one needs:
(i) A device to rotate the job and
(ii) A source which can ensure that the job has been rotated through the desired angle.
In dividing head, the first requirement is met by an index-crank and the second by the index plate. The index-
plate has a number of holes arranged concentrically, so that each circle has a number of holes equally spaced.
The crank has an arrangement in connection with the plunger-pin, which can slide through the slot and the
crank is pivoted at the centre of a disc. This crank can be rotated about the axis and the plunger can be fixed at
any desired hole.
The rotation of crank is transmitted through a gear to the job, so that the number of complete revolutions will
result in certain revolutions of the job. The ratio of crank and the shaft on which job is mounted is 40 : 1, i.e.,
when the index plate makes 40 revolutions, the job makes one revolution.
For quick-placing of plunger and in order to avoid the counting of holes, fixed arms (sectors) are provided
which can be set apart at any number of holes desired.

The following types of index-plates having the holes given against them are available. Brown and Sharp:
Plate 1 : 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20. Plate 2 : 21, 23, 27, 29, 31 and 33.Plate 3 : 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47 and 49.

Parkinson:
Plate 1 : 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43.
Plate 2 : 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62 and 66.
Common Methods of Indexing:
There are five methods of indexing.

These are listed below:

(1) Direct indexing, (2) Simple or plain indexing, (3) Compound indexing, (4) Differential indexing, (5)
Angular indexing.

1. Direct Indexing: In this

case, the dividing head has an index plate, fitted directly on the spindle. The intermediate use of worm and
worm-wheel is avoided. The index plate has 24 holes and the periphery of job can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8
and 12 equal parts directly. This type indexing is most commonly used for indexing fixture.

2. Simple or Plain Indexing: In this

case, different index plates with varying number of holes are used to increase the range of indexing. The index
is fixed in position by a pin called lockpin. The spindle is then rotated by rotating the handle which is keyed to
the worm-shaft as shown in Fig

The following relation is used for simple indexing: T = 40/N, where T gives the number of turns or parts of a
turn through which the index crank must be rotated to obtain the required number of divisions (N) on the job
periphery. Let us take an example of a gear blank on which 64 teeth are to be cut.

i.e., the worm is to be rotated by the handle through one complete rotation and two-third of the number of holes
of any circle.

3. Compound Indexing: The principle of operation of compound indexing is the same as that of simple
indexing, but the only difference is that compound indexing uses two different circles of one plate and hence
also sometimes referred to as hit and trial method.

The principle of compound indexing is to obtain the required division in two stages:
(i) By rotating the crank or handle in usual way keeping the index plate fixed.
(ii) By releasing the back pin and then rotating the index plate with the handle.

For example, if a 27 teeth gear is to be cut, then T = 40/27 i.e., the rotation required for one tooth spacing is
40/27 which may be written as 2/3 + 22/27 or 12/18 + 22/27.

So for each tooth, the worm will be rotated by 12 holes of 18 hole circle with the help of the crank and then the
index plate is rotated by 22 holes of the 27 hole circle.
4. Differential Indexing:
Available number of index plates with different hole circles, sometimes confine the range of plain indexing. In
such cases, differential indexing is found to be more suitable. Between the indexing plate and spindle of
dividing head, a certain set of the gears is incorporated extra. Dividing heads are provided with such standard
set of gears.

During the differential indexing, the index-plate is unlocked and connected to a train of gears which receive
their motion from the worm gear spindle. As the handle is turned, the index plate also turns, but at a different
rate and perhaps in the opposite direction. Differential indexing makes it possible to rotate the work by any
fraction of revolution with the usual index plates furnished with the equipment.

For making the necessary calculations and to find the change of gears to be placed between the spindle
and the worm shaft, use the following relation:

where N is the number of divisions to be indexed and n is a number slightly greater or less than N. The relation
given by equation (1) will give a gear ratio to be placed on spindle (Driver) and the work shaft (Driven). The
arrangement of gears can be in the form of simple wheel train or compound wheel train or compound wheel
train depending upon the suitability and requirements.
The difference of N and n causes the index plate to rotate itself in a proper direction relative to crank. If (n —
N) is positive, the index plate will rotate in the direction in which crank is rotated and if (n — N) is negative, it
will rotate in opposite direction to that of crank.
5. Angular Indexing: Instead
of rotating the job through certain division on its periphery, sometimes it may be needed to rotate the job
through certain angle. Angular indexing is used for this purpose. Since the crank and spindle ratio is 40 : 1 and
hence when the crank moves through one revolution, the spindle or the job moves through 1/40 of revolution,
i.e., the job will revolve through an angular movement of 9°.
If it is desired to index a job by 35 degree, then the index head movement required to perform the operation will
be = (35/9) = 3(8/9) = 3 + ((8 X 3) / (9 X 3)) = 3 + (24/27), i.e., the crank must be turned three complete
revolutions plus 24 holes in the 27-holes circle.
Helical of Spiral Milling in Indexing:
One of the important indexing operations to be performed on milling machine is the helical or spiral milling.
Generation of flutes on twist drills, milling of helical and spiral gears, milling of worms and cutter, etc. are
some of the examples of this class.
In the case of helical milling, the job is rotated and side by side it is moved linearly due to movement of table
under the rotating cutter fixed in one position. This is done by connecting the worm shaft to the milling table
feed screw with the help of a set of gears. Lead of the helix depends upon the rate at which the job is rotated
with respect to table movement.

While performing helical milling, the following points must be taken into consideration:
a. The table of the milling machine must be set at an angle (equal to the helix angle) to the normal position of
the table. This is done so that when the job advances and at the same time revolves also, the impression left by
the cutter in the job will be identical to the contour of the cutter. The direction in which the table is swiveled
determines the hand of spiral.
b. There must be a proper relation between the movement of job and table.
c. The job is to be fed to the cutter by the table movement.
Lead of helical milling machine is the distance through which the table moves when the spindle of dividing
head moves through one revolution without any change in velocity ratio between the dividing head spindle and
the table feed screw. Sometimes it is necessary to introduce change gears between the worm shaft and the table
feed screw, because when the table travels a distance equal to the lead of helix, the job must have completed
one revolution. This can be achieved by introducing change gears. The formula given below holds good for the
change gears.
GEAR HOBBING: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS. HOBBINGTECHNIQUES –
CLIMB AND CONVENTIONAL,
Form Milling of Helical Gear
The procedure is similar to form-milling of spur gear. In this case a universal milling machine is used. The module of cutter
chosen is equal to the normal module of helical gear to be cut. With the cutter mounted on the arbor of horizontal milling
machine, the table is set to the helix angle of the gear. To carry out the helical milling, the dividing head is connected to the
lead screw of the table. The gears are chosen so as to give the necessary lead on the gear. Lead of helical gear is given by:

L = d. cot
where L = Lead of the gear,
d = reference diameter of the gear, and
 = helix angle of the gear.

The gear is then cut similar to cutting a spur gear. If the helix angle of the gear is large, it may not be possible to set the
table of the universal milling machine to the required helix angle. In this case a vertical milling attachment is used and is set
in the horizontal position, setting the cutter at 90o from the normal position. The table is then set to the lead angle of the
helical gear.

Hobbing of spur and helical gears

Hobbing is a generating process of manufacturing gears in which the cutting action is continuous. The cutting tool is in the
form of a worm. The cutting tool is called hob. It has gashes along the axis to form a cutting edge, with the tooth surface
relieved behind the cutting edges so as to give the cutting relief angle. Some hobs have gashes which are not axial but
inclined to the axis so as to be at right angles to the helix. These gashes are called the flutes of the hob. Generally the hob
teeth have a straight-sides form (as shown in Fig. 3) in axial section.

Feed motions of hob cutter

Figures of feed motion of hob show the cutting of teeth on the work piece with the hob. There are three principal feed
motions with respect to the work piece [Figs. 5 (a), (b) and (c)]. Feed motion in the direction OR is the radial-feed motion. It
is called radial because it is in the radial direction of the work piece. Feed motions in the directions of OA and OT are called
axial-feed motion and tangential-feed motion, respectively. There can be feed motions which are combination of any two of
these primary feed motions.
Axial feed is the most commonly used feed, unless there is restriction for axial motion. The hob is fed to the full depth form
and then fed in axial direction to generate the full width of the gear.
Radial feed is used where there is restriction to axial motion, for example, in cutting distributor gear on cam shaft, where
there is obstruction on both sides of the gear due to the presence of the cam lobes. In this case the hob is fed in radial
direction. It can be seen from Fig. 5 (a) that the tooth depth is not constant along the axis. For this reason, the hob has to be
set centrally with respect to the gear being cut. In tangential feed, the hob moves at a direction tangential to the gear being
cut. This method of cutting is used for producing worm wheels.
When any two of these feeds are used together, we get a resultant feed which is dependent on the ratio of the two feeds.
The most commonly used combined feed is called diagonal hobbing in which tangential and axial feed are used
simultaneously. This is shown in fig. 6 normally in radial and axial feed, about 1½ to 3 tooth-pitches do the work, whereas in
diagonal hobbing more number of teeth are in operation. Accuracy of the gear produced b diagonal hobbing depends on the
accuracy of the hob over the number of teeth, and its pressed over number of teeth. As in radial and axial feed only a limited
number of teeth do the actual cutting, the wear of they hob will be concentrated only on these few teeth. In order to spread
this wear over all the teeth of the hob, many machines are fitted with automatic hob shift.
Feed Motions of Hob

Hobbing Machine Setting for Cutting Spur Gears

First of all, the spindle-bore taper as well as the taper of the arbor are cleaned. Then the arbor is fitted into the spindle and
locked against the taper by a drawbolt. The hob is then fitted on the arbor along with spacing collars, and the tailstock
bracket is brought in position to support the other end of the arbor. The nut is locked for locking the hob and spacing collars
together. The runout of the hob is checked on the proof-diameter. This should be within 0.005 (0.0002’).
The work is then mounted on the table. The method of supporting the work piece on the table varies from job to job.
However, this should ensure that the job runs true with the table-axis. In one off or batch production, this can be checked
for every piece and corrected.
However for mass production, the fixture and blank manufacture should ensure that this runout is repeatedly maintained
piece after piece.
Necessary change gears are mounted to select the proper speed ratio between the hob and the work piece. Hob head is then
set according to the helix angle of the hob as shown in Fig. 9.11. Speed of the hob is dependent on the material of the blank
(and the hob material).
Depending on the feed requirement, - radial, axial or diagonal – feed is selected. Feed rate is also dependent on the material
and whether the hob is being used for roughing or finishing.
Now the table is brought towards the hob so as to have the hob just touching the work piece. The dial on the lead screw for
the table drive is set to zero. The machine is started without engaging the feed so that the hob makes light tooth markings on
the outside diameter of the blank. These will indicate the number of teeth being cut. If these are equal to the required
number of teeth to be cut, selection of change gears is correct. Now the feed is engaged. The table is fed to the distance
equal to the depth of the tooth. After this setting and cutting the gear, the tooth thickness is measured. To thin the tooth
further, if required, the table may be further fed.
CUTTING HELICAL GEARS ON HOBBING MACHINE:
In cutting spur gears with single start hob, the speed (rpm) of the table is equal to that of the hob divided by the number of
teeth in the gear being cut. However when cutting helical gear this relationship cannot be maintained; but it is dependent on
the lead of the gear, the hands of the hob and the gear. As the hob feeds axially, the gear has to be advanced or retarded
depending on the hands of the hob and the gear so as to generate the helix form of the helical gear. This can be better
explained by Fig.7. We consider two examples, one cutting a spur, and the second cutting a helical gear with the same hob
and with lead L. The hob is fed axially in both the cases with feed rate f mm/rev. initially, for both the spur and helical
gears, the radial line PB from the center of the hob tooth is linear with the radial line OA from the center of the tooth space
generated in gear, and the points A and B are coincident. Suppose the hob has now traversed axially L/4 distance. For spur
gear, the radial line PB and OA are in one axial plane. However for helical gear, OA has to be advanced ¼ revolution with
respect to PB so as to generate the helix. Similarly, when the hob has traversed L/2 distance axially, the gear should be
advanced by ½ revolution and so on. So when the hob has traversed full lead length L, for the spur gear, the gear (and the
radial line PB) would have rotated by N revolutions; but for the helical gear, the gear would have rotated one extra
revolution, i.e., it would have done N + 1 revolutions. This compensation to the table speed is given in many machines by
differential gearing. Where differential arrangement is not provided, this has to be obtained by a certain relationship
between the feed rate and index change gears.

Hobbing Images

GEAR SHAPING - PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES

Gear shaping is a flexibleprocess to manufacture internal and even external gears. Especially, to
manufacture internal gears or external parts with interfering contours, when gear hobbing is not possible. For
these applications, gear shaping is the most chosen process.

Gear shaping belongs to the generatingprocess due to its continuousrotationalmovement during the
operation. The work piece and the toolform a pair of gears where the rotationspeed of these partners is
coupledby the number of teeth ratio. The gear profile is generated by the rollingaction on the same pressure
line. During the operation, a stroking motion of the tool is needed to ensure the cutting operation. This
oscillating cutting movement (cutting stroke and return stroke) is realized by the simultaneous radial feed of
the tool on the desired profile. During the return stroke, the tool is raised from the gear by a special raising
system to prevent any scraping on the tooth flanks and to avoid significant tool damage. To reach the
defined tooth height of the work piece, the Centre distance between the partners is adjustedcontinuously
until the required geometry is reached.
,
 GAIGHATA GOVT. POLYTECHNIC
DEPT:MECHANICAL ENGG.
SUBJECT-MP-II, DME-II, 4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER- 05
TOPIC-GRINDING

An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through rubbing which
leads to part of the workpiece being worn away by friction. While finishing a material often means polishing it
to gain a smooth, reflective surface, the process can also involve roughening as in satin, matte or beaded
finishes. In short, the ceramics which are used to cut, grind and polish other softer materials are known as
abrasivesThe most important physical properties of materials that qualify as abrasives are hardness, toughness
(or rigidity), grain shape and size, character of fracture (or cleavage), and purity (or uniformity).Abrasives may
be classified in two principal groups: 1) Natural abrasives, 2) Artificial abrasives

ABRASIVE

1)Natural abrasives:
Natural abrasives include diamond, corundum, sand stone, or solid quartz, and emery; they occur in natural
deposits and can be mined and processed for use with little alteration. Due to impurities and lack of uniformity
natural abrasives are used in small percentage in grinding wheels.

DIAMOND:
Diamond grit is best suited for grinding cemented carbides, glass, sapphire, stone, granite, marble,concrete,
oxide, non-oxide ceramic, fiber reinforced plastics, ferrite, graphite.

Natural diamond grit is characterized by its random shape, very sharp cutting edge and free cutting action and
is exclusively used in metallic, electroplated and brazed bond.

Monocrystalline diamond grits are known for their strength and designed for particularly demanding
application. These are also used in metallic, galvanic and brazed bond.

Polycrystalline diamond grits are more friable than monocrystalline one and found to be most suitable for
grinding of cemented carbide with low pressure.

CORUNDUM:Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminum oxide (Al. 2O. 3. ) typically containing traces of
iron, titanium, vanadium and chromium. It is a rock-forming mineral.It has better abrasive action than quartz.

SAND STONE OR SOLID QUARTZ:Quartzite isn't melted sandstone. It's sandstone that is fused together
so tightly that the sand grains lose their individual identities. The minerals crystallize together into a dense
fabric of quartz crystals. The deeper and hotter the stone gets, the more tightly it's fused.

EMERY:
Emery, or corundite, is a dark granular rock used to make abrasive powder. It largely consists of corundum,
mixed with other minerals such as the iron-bearing spinels, hercynite, and magnetite, and also rutile.
2)Artificial abrasives
The Artificial or Synthetic abrasive group includes a number of materials possessing very high hardness.
ALUMINIUM OXIDE:
Aluminium oxide may have variation in properties arising out of differences in chemical composition and structure
associated with the manufacturing process.
Pure Al2O3 grit with defect structure like voids leads to unusually sharp free cutting action with low strength and is
advantageous in fine tool grinding operation, and heat sensitive operations on hard, ferrous materials.
Regular or brown aluminium oxide (doped with TiO2) possesses lower hardness and higher toughness than the white Al2O3
and is recommended heavy duty grinding to semi finishing.
Al2O3 alloyed with chromium oxide (<3%) is pink in colour.
Monocrystalline Al2O3 grits make a balance between hardness and toughness and are efficient in medium pressure heat
sensitive operation on ferrous materials.
Microcrystalline Al2O3 grits of enhanced toughness are practically suitable for stock removal grinding.
Al2O3 alloyed with zirconia also makes extremely tough grit mostly suitably for high pressure, high material removal grinding
on ferrous material and are not recommended for precision grinding.
Microcrystalline sintered Al2O3 grit is the latest development particularly known for its toughness and self sharpening
characteristics.

SILICON CARBIDE(CARBORUNDUM) :Silicon carbide is harder than alumina but less tough. Silicon carbide is also
inferior to Al2O3 because of its chemical reactivity with iron and steel. Black carbide containing at least 95% SiC is less hard
but tougher than green SiC and is efficient for grinding soft nonferrous materials. Green silicon carbide contains at least
97% SiC. It is harder than black variety and is used for grinding cemented carbide.

GRINDING WHEEL COMPOSITION (GRIT,GRADE ,STRUCTURE&BOND)

A grinding wheel is a self-sharpening tool composed of discrete abrasive grains held together by a bonding agent with
composite structure of many clearance allowance for the cutting edges. The characteristics of a grinding wheel depends
upon the combined elements of abrasive, grit size, grade, structure and bond.
GRIT
Grain or Grit: The grit or grain size of an abrasive is denoted by a number representing the number of meshes per inch of the screen
through which the grains of crushed abrasive are passed for grading.The coarser grains are represented by low numbers and finer
grains by high numbers.
Grit size of grinding wheels
Coarse grain 8 10 12 14 16 20 24
Normal grain 30 36 46 54 60 70
Fine grain 80 90 100 120 150 180 220
Very fine grain 240 280 320 400 500 600 700 800 1000 1200 2500
Coarse grits are in use for soft, ductile, stringy materials for fast stock removal rough grinding, large contact area, highgrinding
pressure. Finer grits in use for obtaining smooth finish, hard& brittle materials, small contact area and form holding of small & narrow
corners.

GRADE(STRENGTH OF BONDING)
Grade is the relative holding power of the bond with which itholds abrasive grains within a wheel. It does not refer to the "hardness" of
abrasive grain. Strength is indicated softer gradesin low alphabet and harder grades in high alphabet.
Grade of grinding wheel
Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X Y Z
The grade of grinding wheel depends on the hardness of material being ground, the arc of contact, the wheel and work speed, and the
condition of the grinding machine.
Hard wheels are recommended for soft materials and soft wheels for hard materials.
STRUCTURE
Structure is the relative grain spacing in a wheel. Dense spacing is denotedby lownumbers and open spacing by high numbers. Wheel
structures aredepending upon the material to be ground, rate of stock removal,accuracy and surface finish required.
Structure table
Structure Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
GrainPercentage(%) 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34
Short designation Dense(D) Medium(M) Open(W)

Soft, tough and ductile materials and heavy cuts require an open structure where as hard and brittle materials and finishing cuts require
a dense structure.

BOND
A Bond is an adhesive substance that holds abrasive grains in the wheel. The type of bond which depends on
thewheel operating speed, the type of operation and the surface finishing required.K-PRIX grinding wheels are
made with five types of bonds; (V)Vitrified, (B)Resinoid,(MgO) Oxychloride magnesium, (E)Epoxy, (R)Rubber.
BOND MARK Manufacturing Character
method
Vitrified Ceramic V Make up of feldspar and claysselected for their Porosity and strength of wheels made
Bond fusibility and carefully processed. The pressed with this bond give high stock removal
blanks are driedin chambers with and their rigidity helps in the attainment
automaticallycontrolled temperature andthen of high precision grinding works. This
baked in kilns at atemperature about 1300°C bond is not affected by water, acid, oils
or ordinary temperature variations.
Resinoid Synthetic B The mixture consist of abrasive, synthetic resin This bond is excellent for cut-off wheels,
Resinbond and a plasticizer. The blanks are placed in kilns depressed center wheels, especially for
without previously dried. The bonding agent is ultra high speed work. Accuracy is not
hardened at temperature between 160°C and the first considering factor.
200°C.
MgO Oxy – O The abrasive grains are added into a mixture This bond is excellent for cool cutting
chloride of the magnesium oxide and magnesium even without a coolant and is very
Magnesium chloride which is formed and hardened at suitable for grinding springs, bearing
Bond ordinary temperature house by double disc grinders. Also, it is
widely used in dry grinding works.
Epoxy Epoxy E It is made up of the mixture of abrasives, The epoxy wheel is not affected by
Bond Epoxy binder and then hardened at a normal water and acid, and more elastic than
temperature. resinoid wheel. It is widely used in need
of high stock removal works
Rubber Rubber R It is made with natural orsynthetic rubber as a The rubber wheel which has a good
Bond binder andcured at a low temperature elasticity and strong hardness is used
under the wet grinding condition for
precision grinding works as the
regulating wheels for centerless grinding
works. The weakness of the rubber
wheels is certainly to be used with the
coolant because of a variation by
heating at a high revolution speed.
Specifying a Grinding wheel:
As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, the grinding wheel is specified in a definite sequence defined by IS:551-1989. e.g.
A Grinding wheel carries the marking : 250 X 25 X 32 W A 46 L 4 V 17.
Wheel diameter = 250 mm
Thickness of wheel = 25 mm
Bore diameter = 32 mm
W - Manufacturer’s symbol indicating exact nature of abrasive. It is OPTIONAL.
A - Type of Abrasive (Aluminium Oxide – A; Silicon Carbide - C)
46 - Grit size indicating grain size (Coarse – 4-16; Medium – 30-60; Fine – 70-180; Very fine – 220-1200)
L - Grade scale (Soft – A-H; Medium – I-P; Hard – Q-Z)
4 - Structure [Dense to Open] (0 -16 scale from Dense to Open structure) [OPTIONAL]
V - Nature of bond (B – Resinoid; BF – Resinoid reinforced; E – Shellac; Mg – Magnesia; R – rubber; RF – rubber fabric
reinforced; V – Vitrified)
17 - Manufacturer’s Symbol for type of bond (OPTIONAL).

Designation of a grinding wheel ( specification),

FACTORS AFFECTING WHEEL SELECTION
Considering to select a suitable specification of grinding wheel
1. The material to be ground and its hardness
·ABRASIVE : Aluminum oxide for steel and steel alloys. Silicon carbide for cast iron, non-ferrous and non-metallic.
·GRIT SIZE :Fine grit for brittle materials. Coarse grit for ductile materials.
·GRADE : Hard grade for soft materials.
Soft grade for hard materials.
2. The amount of stock to be removed and the finish required
·GRIT SIZE :Coarse grit for rapid stock removal as in rough grinding. Fine grit for high finishing.
·BOND :Vitrified for precision cutting. Resinoid and Rubber for high speed cutting.
3. Wet or dry
·GRADE :Wet grinding, as a rule, permits use of wheels at least one grade harder than that of dry grinding without
danger of burning the work.
4. The wheel speed
·BOND:
Standard vitrified wheels are not exceeding 2,000mpm, for higher speeds are up to 3,600mpm.
Standard organic bonded wheels(Resinoid, Rubber or Epoxy) are used ofmost applications over 2,000mpm up to
6,000mpm.
·NOTE : Do not exceed the safe operating speed shown on a wheel tag or blotter.
5. The contact area of grinding·
GRIT SIZE :Coarse grit for large contact area.Fine grit for small contact area.
GRADE:The smaller contact area, the harder wheel.

TYPES OF GRINDING OPERATIONS:

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel or grinder as the cutting tool. Grinding is a subset
of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process.
Grinding may be classified broadly into two groups.
1) Rough grinding
2) 2) Precision grinding
Rough grinding
Rough grinding machines are generally used to remove a large amount of material from the work piece. In this type of
grinding the surface finish is not good rough grinding are generally used to remove the sprue from the casting product,
to grind the projections, to surface the weldments and sharpening the hand tools.
Precision grinding
Grinding is a process that involves removing small thicknesses of materials using an abrasive material. Grinding is used
when more precise dimensions and surfaces are required than can be achieved by other machining processes.Precision
grinding ,in accordance with the surface to be ground, is classified as
a) External cylindrical grinding
b) Internal cylindrical grinding
c)Surface grinding
d) Form grinding
EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

INTEMAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

SURFACE GRINDING

FORM GRINDING

THREAD GRINDING( ONE TYPE OF FORM GRINDING)

CENTERLESSGRINDING :

Centerless grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive cutting to remove material from a
workpiece. Centerless grinding differs from centered grinding operations in that no spindle or fixture is used to
locate and secure the workpiece; the workpiece is secured between two rotary grinding wheels, and the speed of
their rotation relative to each other determines the rate at which material is removed from the workpiece.
Centerless grinding is typically used in preference to other grinding processes for operations where many parts
must be processed in a short time.

Working principle
In centerless grinding, the workpiece is held between two wheels, rotating in the same direction at different
speeds, and a workholding platform. One wheel, known as the grinding wheel (stationary wheel in the diagram),
is on a fixed axis and rotates such that the force applied to the workpiece is directed downward, against the
workholding platform. This wheel usually performs the grinding action by having a higher tangential speed than
the workpiece at the point of contact. The other wheel, known as the regulating wheel (moving wheel in the
diagram), is movable. This wheel is positioned to apply lateral pressure to the workpiece, and usually has either
a very rough or rubber-bonded abrasive to trap the workpiece.
The speed of the two wheels relative to each other provides the grinding action and determines the rate at which
material is removed from the workpiece. During operation the workpiece turns with the regulating wheel, with
the same linear velocity at the point of contact and (ideally) no slipping. The grinding wheel turns faster,
slipping past the surface of the workpiece at the point of contact and removing chips of material as it passes.

BENEFITS OF CENTRELESS GRINDING

 With line-wise help of the workpiece, it is possible to grind fine or fragile work pieces
 It is not needed to prepare the work piece for setting in the grinding machine
 Loading/Unloading of the work piece is easy and simple to automate.
 When practicing continues through-feed grinding there is no time damage for changing the work piece.
 Large work pieces can be managed with rather small machines.
 Very high grinding wheel rotation velocity can be achieved.
TYPES AND SHAPES OF WHEEL
Common Wheel Shapes:
1)Straight wheels are used for internal grinding, tool grinding, centreless grinding, cylindrical and offhand grinding,
snagging
2)Tapered wheel is used for snagging, thread and gear grinding.
3)Straight cup and Cylindrical wheels are used for surface grinding after installing them on vertical/horizontal spindles.
4)Saucer wheel is used for sharpening saws.
5)Dish wheel is used grinding the teeth of cutting tools like milling cutters as its thin edge can easily enter the small
spaces between adjacent teeth.
6) Flaring cup wheel is used for tooth or cutter grinders.

Types of grinding machines:

(1) Roughing and Non precision grinders –
(2)Precision grinders –
Cyllindrical grinders (centre type andcentreless grinders).

Centre type grinders:

This type of grinding involves holding the WP rigidly in between centre (in a chuck or in a suitable holding fixture). The
WP rotates about its axis which is parallel to the grinding wheel rotating about its axis. Feed is given to the WP or the
wheel towards its other. If the WP is long then it is traversed past the grinding wheel or the wheel past the WP. If the
WP is equal to or shorter than the wheel thickness then no transverse feed is given (known as plunge grinding).
Centreless grinders:
Here the WP instead of being mounted between centres, it is supported by a combination of grinding wheel (G),
regulating wheel(R) and a work rest blade (B). Grinding operation is done by grinding wheel, regulating wheel provides
required support to the WP while it is pushed away by cutting pressure and support at the bottom is provided by the
work rest. The regulating wheel carries rubber bond and helps in the rotation of WP due to friction.
Types of centreless grinding are: (1) Through feed (2) In feed (3) End feed grinding.

BALANCING OF WHEEL
If wheels become out of balance through wear and cannot be balanced by truing or dressing, they should be
removed from the machine and discarded. It should be tested for balance occasionally and re balanced if
required.
Out of balanced wheels produce poor work and undue stain on machine bearings.
Small wheels may be balanced by milling a short recess on the inside of the flanges and filling with lead.
Large wheels should be placed on balancing stand and balanced by moving weights around a recessed flange.
GLAZING AND LOADING
After use wheel becomes dull or “glazed”. Glazing of wheel is a condition in which the face or cutting edge takes a glass-
like appearance. That is, the cutting points of the abrasives have become dull and worn down to the bond. Further working
with this wheel increases glazing of wheel face and decreases the cutting capacity. Glazing takes place when a wheel is too
hard or revolves at too fast a speed. The remedy for glazing is to decrease the speed or to use a softer wheel.

The wheel may also become “loaded’. The cutting face of a loaded wheel has particles of the metal being ground adhering
to it, the openings preventing the wheel from cutting freely. Loading may be caused by grinding a soft material, or by using a
wheel of too hard a bond and running it too slowly. It may be cause of not using right cutting fluid. Remedy for the loading is
to increase the speed of wheel or to use a softer wheel.
 GAIGHATA GOVT. POLYTECHNIC
DEPT:MECHANICAL ENGG.
SUBJECT-MP-II, DME-II, 4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER- 06
TOPIC-SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES

SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES :

Superfinishing is a process in which a rotating workpiece is finished by a relatively soft stone with fine
abrasive oscillating parallel to the workpiecesurface. The stone typically oscillates at an amplitude of 1–4 mm
and a frequency of 10–50 Hz, and it contacts the workpiece at light pressure, typically 0.1–0.2 MPa.

NECESSITY OF SUPER FINISHING PROCESS:

Honing

Lapping
SuperfinishingSuperfinishing is used to refine the surface finish of a component to produce a very fine
surface with an exceptionally low roughness average (RA). A fine-grit abrasive stone or tape is rotated over the
component while the component is simultaneously spun in the opposite direction. This process removes the
amorphous surface layer left by the last grinding process and leaves a recognizable crosshatch pattern.
Superfinishing will increase the life of a part by decreasing wear and tear. It can also be performed to achieve a
tighter tolerance and better sealing capabilities. Superfinishing will allow for a predictable, repeatable surface
finish, as it removes any defects left over from the initial milling, turning, or grinding process. When parts are
processed through superfinishing, their RA reading on a profilometer will be less than two.

BURNISHING
Burnishing is a cold working process in which plastic deformation occurs by applying a pressure through a ball or roller
on metallic surfaces. It is a finishing and strengthening process.

POLISHING
 GAIGHATA GOVT. POLYTECHNIC
DEPT:MECHANICAL ENGG.
SUBJECT-MP-II, DME-II, 4TH SEMESTER, 2019-20
SUBJECT TEACHER: MR. CHANDRA SEKHAR DAS
CHAPTER-07
TOPIC- PLASTIC MOULDING

Plastic
Plastic is any synthetic or semisynthetic organic polymer. ... Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers are
the two types of plastic. The name "plastic" refers to the property of plasticity, the ability to deform without
breaking.

There are two main types of plastics and these are named Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Plastics.
Thermoplastics are made up of lines of molecules with few cross linkages. This allows them to soften when
heated and to be bent into a variety of shapes and forms.

THERMOPLASTIC
A thermoplastic is a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when heated and hard
when cooled. Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several times without any change in their
chemistry or mechanical properties. When thermoplastics are heated, they melt to a liquid.

Types of thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene (PS), which often
are used for packaging. Other groups of thermoplastics are acrylics, fluoropolymers, polyesters, polyimides
and nylons. All of these types can be melted down many times and re-shaped into different forms.

THERMOSETTING PLASTIC
A thermosetting plastic is a polymer that irreversibly becomes rigid when heated. Such a material is also
known as a thermoset or thermosetting polymer. Initially, the polymer is a liquid or soft solid.

The main thermosettingplastics are epoxy resin, melamine formaldehyde, polyester resin and urea
formaldehyde. Good electrical insulator, hard, brittle unless reinforced, resists chemicals well. Used for casting
and encapsulation, adhesives, bonding of other materials.THE ELEVEN MOST IMPORTANT TYPES OF PLASTIC
2. Polyethylene (PE):

. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):

4. Polypropylene(PP):
5. Polystyrene (PS):

6. Polylactic Acid (PLA):

7. Polycarbonate (PC):

8. Acrylic (PMMA):
9. Acetal (Polyoxymethylene, POM):

10. Nylon (PA):

11. ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene):

PLASTIC MOULDING

Plastic moulding is the process of shaping plastic using a rigid frame or mould. The technique allows for the
creation of objects of all shapes and sizes with huge design flexibility for both simple and highly complex
designs. A popular manufacturing option, plastic moulding techniques are responsible for many car parts,
containers, signs and other high volume items.
TRANSFER MOLDING (RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING)

INJECTION MOULDINGInjectionmoulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting

molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including
metals (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a
helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration
of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by
a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form
the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the
smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers
which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for
some simple injection moulds.

Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process; the material
used for the part, the desired shape and features of the part, the material of the mould, and the properties of the
moulding machine must all be taken into account. The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this
breadth of design considerations and possibilities.
BLOW MOULDING
ROTATIONAL MOULDING

Rotational Molding (BrEmoulding) involves a heated hollow mold which is filled with a charge or shot
weight of material. It is then slowly rotated (usually around two perpendicular axes), causing the softened
material to disperse and stick to the walls of the mold. In order to maintain even thickness throughout the part,
the mold continues to rotate at all times during the heating phase and to avoid sagging or deformation also
during the cooling phase. The process was applied to plastics in the 1950s but in the early years was little used
because it was a slow process restricted to a small number of plastics. Over time, improvements in process
control and developments with plastic powders have resulted in a significant increase in usage.

Rotocasting (also known as rotacasting), by comparison, uses self-curing resins in an unheated mould, but
shares slow rotational speeds in common with rotational molding. Spin casting should not be confused with
either, utilizing self-curing resins or white metal in a high-speed centrifugal casting machine.