LEARNING MODULE 2

(General Physiology and Toxicology)

Learning outcomes:

At the end of the unit, the students are expected to:

 Know insect physiology

 Explain insect growth development and reproduction
 Illustrate the metabolic system of insects
 Discuss insects coordination and integration

TERMINOLOGIES

Ecdysis/Molting – the process of shedding off of skin periodically to accommodate the growth and development.
Most insects molt at least three to four times.

Exuviae – the old skin (cuticle) left after undergoing molting.

Stadium – is the total period in between two molts.

Instar – is the appearance of insect after molting.

Classification- ordering of an organisms into hierarchy of categories

Nomenclature- naming of organisms (“Nomen”- name │”calare”-to call)

Identification- major application of classification

Keys- comprise a sequence of paired statements and questions that allow the user to eliminate alternative options
and eventually associate the unknown specimens with a name.

Taxonomy- involves the theoretical basis for classification and the study of classification schemes.

INSECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Insects undergo different life stages.

 Stages refer to the morphological state of insect in between two molts

Stages are:

 Egg
 Young/immature
 Intervening stage (pupa)
 Adult/Imago

Not all insects undergo pupal stage

Metamorphosis

The process of change in size, shape, and form. It varies depending on the order to which the insect belongs

 Ametabolous
 Hemimetabolous
 Paurometabolous
  Holometabolous

AMETABOLOUS

 No metamorphosis (egg-young-adult)
 Most primitive developmental pattern in insects
 Common to Orders Collembola, Protura, Diplura and Thysanura.

HEMIMETABOLOUS

 Incomplete metamorphosis (egg-naiad-adult)

 The young or naiad lives on aquatic environment.
 Naiads and adults are predatory.
 Common to orders Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera.

PAUROMETABOLOUS

 Gradual Metamorphosis (egg-nymph-adult)

 Also called simple/direct metamorphosis in which the immature
(nymph) resembles the parent except their size, wings and genital development.
 Common to orders Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Thysanoptera,
Psocoptera, Embioptera, Dermaptera, Blattodea and Isoptera.

HOLOMETABOLOUS

 Complete metamorphosis (egg – larva – pupa - adult)

 Differ in many aspects such as size, shape and overall appearance
 Larval stage – feeding stage
 Pupal stage is quiescent
 Adults may or may not feed
 Pupal stage is quiescent.
 Adults may or may not feed
 Common to orders Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, etc

STAGES OF INSECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

EGGS

 Eggs all insects reproduce eggs which is consist of the following:

 Yolk – provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
 Vitelline membrane – sheath which covers the yolk.
 Chorion – or shell which houses and provides protection to the egg.
 Micropyle – has one or more tiny openings through which the sperm enters to fertilize the egg.
 Operculum – a lid or cap where the young emerge.

LARVA

 The young that emerged after hatching from egg.

 Usually, the longest period in the insect development that is characterized as the feeding stage.
 The most damaging stage

Nymph – the active developing stage of Paurometabolous insect.

Naiad – the active developing stage, usually aquatic young of Hemimetabolous insects.
Pupa –the resting (inactive/quiescent) or reorganization stage of holometabolous insects.

Adult or Imago – the final instar/stage in the development of insect in which all of the external characteristics are
well defined.

VARIATIONS OF INSECT LARVA VARIATIONS OF INSECT PUPA

REPRODUCTION IN INSECTS

Insect reproduce in several ways:

 Bisexual reproduction–both males and females are involved. Eggs are fertilized by male sperm. Most insects
reproduced this way.
 Parthenogenesis – only females are required to reproduce the young. The eggs are developed without
fertilization. Common to aphids in tropical countries.
 Paedogenesis – a special type of reproduction wherein larva of some Hymenopterans is capable of producing
young.

NON-INSECT HEXAPODS

ORDER COLLEMBOLA

 “Coll” = glue│“embola” =wedge

 Collophore – absorbs moisture in the environment
 Tiny (below 6mm), wingless
 Furcula – jumping organ
  Ametabola

ORDER DIPLURA

 “diplo” – two│“ura” – tail

 Tail like cerci at the tip of the abdomen
 Predatory
 Eversible vesicles in the abdomen (H20 balance)
 Able to regenerate lost body parts
 Ametabola

ORDER PROTURA

 “proto” = first│“ura” = tail

 No cerci, antenna and compound eyes
 Minute, usually found in damp habitats
 Ametabola

TRUE INSECTS (APTERYGOTES)

ORDER ARCHAEOGNATHA

 “archaeo” = ancient│“gntha” = jaw

 Monocondylic – mandibles connect with head capsule
 Eversible vesicles (H20 balance)
 Ametabola

ORDER THYSANURA

 “thysano” = fringe│“ura” = tails

 Long, fringed filament on the abdomen
 Long-lived insects 3-6 years (60 instars)
 Ametabola

TRUE INSECTS (PTERYGOTES-PALEOPTERA)

ORDER EPHEMEROPTERA

 “ephemera” = short-lived│“ptera” = wings

 Adults are short-lived (1 – 2 days)
 Naiads live in fresh and unpolluted waters “ecological indicators”
 Herbivores, some predacious
 Hemimetabola

TRUE INSECTS (PTERYGOTES-PALEOPTERA)

ORDER ODONATA

 “odonto” = jaw
 Strong teeth found on the mandibles of most adults
 Predatory – beneficial
 Naiads are aquatic
 Slender body, eyes occupy most of the head
 Membranous wings - nodus and stigma
 Hemimetabola
ORDER ODONATA (cont..)

 SUBORDER ANISOPTERA (Dragonflies)

 Has dissimilar wings, wings extended horizontally when at rest
 SUBORDER ZYGOPTERA (Damselflies)
 Has identical wings, wings folded vertically when at rest

TRUE INSECTS (PTERYGOTES-NEOPTERA-EXOPTERYGOTES)

ORDER BLATTODEA

 “blatta” = cockroach
 Dorso-laterally flattened bodies
 Pronotum – shield like
 30 species are cosmopolitan to man
 Females secrete “ootheca” – gluing substance
 Paurometabola

ORDER DERMAPTERA

 “derma” – skin│“ptera” – wings

 Thickened forewings that covers the hindwings
 Elongated body, slightly dorso-ventrally flattened
 Forcep-like cerci
 Predators – corn borers
 Paurometabola

ORDER EMBIOPTERA

 “embio” – lively│“ptera” – wings

 Fluttery movement of wings
 Small, with depressed and elongated bodies
 Forelegs enlarged (silk-producing glands)
 Paurometabola

ORDER GRYLLOBLATTODEA

 “gryllo” – cricket│“blatta” – cockroach

 Resembles like a cockroach and a cricket
 Usually found in temperate regions
 Paurometabola

ORDER HEMIPTERA

 “hemi” – half│“ptera” –wings

 Forewings – basally leathery (hemelytra) and apically membranous
 Mouthparts – piercing-sucking (impt. Vectors of plant disease)
 Some are predatory
 Paurometabola

ORDER HEMIPTERA

 Suborder Heteroptera
 Forewings differ basally and apically
  Example: cotton stainer, bed bugs, black bugs
 Suborder Homoptera
 forewings are the same
 Aphid species secrete honeydew thru cornicles
 Example,: aphids, leafhoppers

ORDER ISOPTERA

 “iso” – equal│“ptera” – wings

 Wings - similar in size, shape and venation
 Specialist feeders of cellulose (impt. pest in agriculture and forestry)
 Exhibits “True social behavior”
 Paurometabola

ORDER MANTODEA

 Large size insects adapted to predation (grasping forelegs)

 Small triangular head with large eye; has mandibulate mouthparts
 Natural enemies to agricultural pest
 Paurometabola

ORDER MANTOPHASMATODEA

 Name is a combination of the characters between Mantis and a stick insect

 Latest insect order – 2002
 Apterous – wingless
 Mandibulate mouthparts
 Very rare – Southwestern Arica
 Paurometabola

ORDER ORTHOPTERA

 “ortho” – straight│“ptera” – wings

 Parallel structure of the forewing (tegmina)
 Many have well-developed cerci or ovipositor
 Legs modified for jumping or digging
 Dominant insect in terrestrial habitats
 Paurometabola

ORDER PHASMATODEA

 “phasm” – phantom
 Cryptic appearance and behavior of the insects
 Leaf –like or stick-like
 Mimicking ability
 May grow up to 30 cm (12 in) long
 Paurometabola

ORDER PHTHIRAPTERA

 “phthir” – lice│“aptera” – wingless

 Wingless, obligate ectoparasites of mammals and birds
 Feeds on blood
 “nit” – egg stage
  Well-developed claws
 Paurometabola

ORDER PLECOPTERA

 “pleco” – fold
 Pleated hindwing which fold behind the forewings.
 Sensitive to pollution – indicators of water purity
 Naiad are aquatic, lives behind the stones in fast and aerated H20
 Adults are short-lived and feeds on algae and lichens
 Hemimetabola

ORDER PSOCOPTERA

 “psokos” – gnaw
 Insects that gnaw
 Feeds on book bindings, wallpaper paste,
fabric sizing & other starchy products
 Paurometabola

ORDER THYSANOPTERA

 “thysanos” – fringe
 Insects with fringe wings (fore and hind)
 Minute and elongated
 Has rasping sucking mouthparts
 Destructive to many crops
 Paurometabola

ORDER COLEOPTERA

 “coleo” = sheath
 Thickened, highly sclerotized forewings (Elytra)
and membranous hindwings
 Rank 1 – number of species
 Often has mandibulate mouthparts
 Holometabola

ORDER DIPTERA

 “di” = two
 Has only a pair of functional wings
 Haltere – reduced, knob like wings for balancing
 Mouthparts can be sponging (houseflies)
and cutting sponging
 Ranks 4
 Holometabola

ORDER HYMENOPTERA

 “hymen” = membrane
 Has membranous wings joined by a structure called hamuli
 Mostly beneficial insects
 Also exhibits social behavior
  Ovipositor – sawing, piercing and stinging
 Holometabola

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA

 “lepido” = scale
 Scaly wings
 Larva – chewing
 Adult – siphoning
(proboscis – fused galeae)
 Holometabola

ORDER MECOPTERA

 “meco” = long
 Scorpionflies – males have terminal segment
 Usually predatory, head modified into a beak
 Larvae resembles caterpillars and grubs
 Holometabola

ORDER MEGALOPTERA

 “meco” = large
 Adults have strong mandibles
 Wings fold flat
 Adults looks like adult lacewings
 Holometabola

ORDER NEUROPTERA

 “neuro” = nerves
 4 membranous wings has extensive
cross veins (nerve wings)
 Have chewing mouthparts
 Predatory, serve as biocon agents
 Paurometabola

ORDER RAPHIDIOPTERA

 Adults and larvae are terrestrial predators

 Adults mantid-like with an elongated prothorax
and the head is mobile which strikes (snake-like) its prey
 Predominantly inhabit woodlands, where adults
are seen on foliage, flowers, tree trunks or similar places

ORDER SIPHONAPTERA

 “siphon” = tube
 Mouthparts adapted for piercing and
sucking blood of mammals and birds
 Bodies compressed laterall
 Hindlegs enlarged for jumping
 Holometabola
ORDER STREPSIPTERA

 Twisted-wing parasites
 “strepsi” – turned or twisted
 Endoparasites of other insect
 Only males winged: forewing – reduced
club shaped; hindwing – fan shaped
 Holometabola

ORDER TRICHOPTERA

 “trichos” = hair
 Long, silky hairs covers the body
 Adults are relatively short lived
 Holometabola

INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF INSECTS

DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM/ALIMENTARY CANAL

 long tube-like structure that runs from the mouth to the anus
 centrally located within the body cavity, or hemocoel

FOREGUT/ STOMODEUM

 The anterior-most region which includes the Buccal cavity, the esophagus, and the crop.
  Begins the breakdown of food particles and transport them to the next region, the midgut (or mesenteron).
 The midgut is the major area of digestion and absorption.
 The hindgut/ proctodeum) consists of the ileum, colon, rectum, and (often) rectal pads. The hindgut
functions in water and solute reabsorption and waste excretion.
 Gastric caecae mark the end of the foregut and beginning of the midgut.
 The purpose of these structures is to increase surface area for greater nutrient absorption.
 The constriction at the gastric caecae also marks the spot of the cardiac valve.
 Malpighian tubules are creamy to yellow in color and work in conjunction with the ileum to provide the
primary site for osmoregulation and excretion.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 The system is open”, meaning that insects lack a complex network of veins and arteries to help transport
blood throughout the body. Instead, insect blood (hemolymph) flows relatively “freely” throughout the
hemocoel
 Only dorsal vessel is present in the insect circulatory system.
 Posteriorly (In the abdominal region), the dorsal vessel acts as the heart, pumping hemolymph forward into
the anterior region (in the head and thorax), where it acts as the aorta and dumps the hemolymph into the
head.
 It flows posteriorly and is returned to the heart via ostia,

NERVOUS SYSTEM

 To view the ventral nerve cord, examine the ventral region of the roach’s body cavity for something that
resembles a railroad track running from the head posteriorly to the abdominal region.
 The “railroad track” is made up of two nerve cords (connectives) that run longitudinally with a series of
nodelike ganglia.
 The anterior most region of the ventral nerve cord is called the subesophageal ganglion.
 dorsal to that structure is the insect “brain” (or supraesophageal ganglion
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Although typically produced in very small quantities, hormones may cause profound changes in their target
cells. Their effect may be stimulatory or inhibitory.

CATEGORIES OF HORMONE-PRODUCING CELLS IN AN INSECT'S BODY

 Endocrine glands -- secretory structures adapted exclusively for producing hormones and releasing them
into the circulatory system.
 Neurochemal organs -store their secretory product in a special chamber until stimulated to release it by a
signal from the nervous system (or another hormone).
 Neurosecretory cells - respond to stimulation by producing and secreting specific chemical messengers. They
serve as a link between the nervous system and the endocrine system
 Internal organs – includes the ovaries and testes, the fat body, and parts of the digestive system.
 These structures form an endocrine system that helps maintain homeostasis, coordinate behavior, and
regulate grIn insects, the largest and most obvious endocrine glands are found in the prothorax, just behind
the head.
 These prothoracic glands manufacture ecdysteroids, that stimulate synthesis of chitin and protein in
epidermal cells and trigger a cascade of physiological events that culminates in molting.
 These prothoracic glands manufacture ecdysteroids, that stimulate synthesis of chitin and protein in
epidermal cells and trigger a cascade of physiological events that culminates in molting.
 Prothoracic glands produce and release ecdysteroids only after they have been stimulated by
prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH).
 The corpora allata, lie just behind the corpora cardiaca.
 They manufacture juvenile hormone (JH), that inhibits development of adult characteristics during the
immature stages and promotes sexual maturity during the adult stage.
 Neurosecretory cells in the brain regulate activity of the corpora allata - stimulating them to produce JH
during larval or nymphal instars, inhibiting them during the transition to adulthood, and reactivating them
once the adult is ready for reproduction.
 The neurosecretory cells produce and secrete brain hormone that appears to be the same as PTTH
 Ovaries and testes produce gonadal hormones that coordinate courtship and mating behaviors.
 Ventral ganglia produce eclosion hormone that helps an insect shed its old exoskeleton and another
bursicon that causes hardening and tanning of the new one.
 There are still other hormones that control the level of sugar dissolved in the blood, adjust salt and water
balance, and regulate protein metabolism.
 Moulting hormone stimulate a series of physiological events, apolysis, that lead to synthesis of a new
exoskeleton

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Closely related species are often isolated from one another via small variations in the morphology of
reproductive organs that prohibit interspecies mating.
 However, a generalized system can be constructed that closely represents all sexually reproducing insects
 LEARNING ACTIVITY

PART 1

1. INSECT REARING
Collect at least 2 insect samples each based on the mentioned insect orders above. Preserve the samples by
pinning the insects in a foam using a push pin. Label the samples with the following information:
 Common Name
 Scientific Name
 Insect Order
 Type of Metamorphosis (to be written in a clean small sheet of paper)
(Ametabolous, Hemimetabolous, Paurometabolous, Holometabolous)
 Date of Collection
 Area of Collection
Prepare a narrative report upon the completion of the activity.

2. INSECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Choose 1 insect in any of the insect orders mentioned above. Document its life cycle until it becomes an
adult. Write all your observations in your notebook as the insect develops. Document the activity from its
day 1 until the chosen insect becomes an adult. Gather the following information:
 Common Name
 Scientific Name
 Insect Order
 Type of Metamorphosis
 Area of Collection
 Date of Collection
 Date of Maturity
 Total no. of days of Development
Prepare a narrative report upon the completion of the activity.

NOTE: In the conduct of this activity, please always bear in mind that your safety must always be at the top
most priority. Wear PPE while you are rearing outside. As much as possible collect samples right at your
backyard and don’t go too far that is dangerous for you. If you are not in the condition to conduct the
activity (ex. you are pregnant, sick or disabled at the moment), please have someone to help you conduct
the activity. Follow the government’s minimum health protocols when you are outside your home
conducting the activity. To ensure the reliability of your outputs, we have to be evidence based on making it,
in relation with that, please support your activity with a time-lapse video and photos of you while you are
conducting the activity. Please edit the videos that you will be submitting. You are required to submit 2
videos to support your activity. The pictures should be inserted on your respective narrative reports. Submit
your outputs NOT later than June 24, 2021.

PART 2

1. What are the economic importance of insects? (300 words)

2. What are the environmental importance of insects? (300 words)
3. What make insects special among living creatures on earth? (300 words)
4. Why insects are the most abundant creatures on earth? (300 words)

PREPARED BY:
LARINO K. NAMIT, RPA