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Fundamentals of Core Analysis

Fundamentals of Core Analysis

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Fundamentals of Core Analysis

Fundamentals of Core Analysis

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NW Arselan
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Reservoir Geology Services Biostratigraphy Core Fracture Studies Organic Geochemistry Regional/Basin Speculative Studies Scanning Electron Microscopy X-Ray Diffraction 3 Sedimentological Core Description « Thin-Section Preparation & Petrography + Wellsite Geological Services + Acoustic Velocity * Capillary Pressure * Electrical Properties » Formation Damage Assessment & Control Improved Oil/Gas Recovery Interfacial Tension Mercury Injection Pore Volume Compressibility Relative Permeability Rock Mechanics Routine Reservoir Rock Services * Glient-Site Core Analysis Services + Conventional (Piug-Type) Analysis « Core Property Profile (fine-scale, high-density measurements) « Core-Log Integretion & Wireline Log Calibration Digital Core Imaging/Analysis + Sidewall Analysis * Sponge Core Analysis + Wellsite Core Handling/Stabilization &Preservation; ~ Chromatography Services * Crude Oil Rheology + Field Sampling Services * High-Pressure, High- ‘Temperature PVT/Phase Behavior Analysis » Miscible & Non-Miscible Gas Injection Studios + Oil/Gas Compositional Analysis + PVT Analysis * Reservoir Fluid Analysis + Standard PVT/Phase Behavior Analysis + Wax/Asphaltene Depositional Studies (organic scale) Petroleum Testi ing Services : says : alysis 2 Fuel Survey Services = Hydrocarbon Fingerprinting > Lube Oil Analysis * Natural Gas Analysis 2 ‘Octane/Cetane Number Determination eT Gilfield Petrochemical Testing Petroleum/Fuels Testing Refinery Services Reformulated Fuel Analysis Sulfur Speciation RTT Click on a title to locate the office/contact nearest you Asia-Pacific. Canaila Europe Aittea eMilidte East United Stats ofAmerica Seuth America Feu. pal AMERICAN STRATIGRAPHIC COMPANY CANADIAN STRATIGRAPHIC SERVICE LTD. DENVER, COLORADO CALGARY, ALBERTA 6280 E. 33th Ave. 2612 3ar¢ SuNW 20207 rau 2a7 ‘Tol.(a0a)309-2746 TeLlaosiane-1112 Tatex 45-622 Telex 0038 22816 Printed in USA. ES COLUMN 10 DESCRIPTION USED FOR INFORMATION THAT CANNOT BE PRESENTED IN COLUMNS 1 THROUGH 9, E.G. COLOR, SPECIFIC FOSSIL IDENTIFICATION, OBSERVATIONS ON BEDDING, INDURATION, HARDNESS, STRUCTURE, ETC. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS ARE ABBREVIATED. (see abby Hon list) " DIAGENESIS To the right of written descriptic TYPE P PRESSURE DEFORMATION M > METASOMATISM SECONDARY CEMENTATION D DOLOMITIZATION A ANHYDRITE R RECRYSTALLIZATION S SILICA F -FRACTURING K KAOLIN L LEACHING © CALCITE and OTHERS i DEGREE | 1 10% 5 50x 9 90% | 2 20% 6 60x © 100% : 3 30% 7 70x 7 Uninterpretable : 4 40x 8 80x COLUMN 11 DRILL STEM & WIRELINE TEST RESULTS Eons recovery Le OIL RECOVERY = (Wo WATER RECOVERY i GAS, OIL & WATER RECOVERY COLUMN 12 DRILL STEM & WIRELINE TEST INTERVALS i DRILL STEM TEST INTERVAL Taba ole oeanis seat Seatered Te Taamanttes Wr Very poor spies eh Sah Test Tentauleg wl Varta Se Seoleodonts fee entre wet Varn s Sina (1/162 mm) Tham we Vos ot (ul) Sy Sandy be Tree mee Secondary tm Thin / ven Si Sediment fo) Seore te Prougtout “ Wat St Seante Son Ca) Gia) te sion wn te Ssnstona Tee we Weak Sinchyades tip Tip Vite Weathered Steaming ot Franloent wert Water ESS} om me Tat wey Waxy ra « on wo OM Siinge ty bur a > ‘Sirated tt Taffacous nde Crosebeddad Sicersided ‘Stronstopor ibs Crosebedding Signe Stomataite Unconsoiintes 3 Eryn) Solution Stacie Sedent —Unidentfinte, slam Eroselainatg Sino Syl (e) ” Serer sin Sivlcina yt Yao Sitstone Sterose . vey sity Sugery we Vartie 0 Zale Smooth Surtace veal Varcelores = Zone Solitary Snio — Suinsona ws Yasir ENGINEERING ABBREVIATIONS OF stralteopen ow cm seat mus ext sew Srcat wter ° SHEP battomaefow presure GAP feoairtiow m Bottom hale presre or seed nti putt oe Sottom haleshetim pressure GOR fetool ratio ey Pocods per aunt ined Sottom hole emperature cr fount Bares of of sts Sono sree we racovered Barrel of ol er doy oy srty at rotary tn Serra a per hour brackish Ho bear ot SAB sromgalebiow rls of water Seem Sight gn cut mud i of wer pr doy a8 Inti a Blow Socw ight gaseut water rls of wate pet hour i Initial prodection Fa putin sie St in pesure cieulate (8) (00) xo ally bushing 50 ow of choke S0uG thew oll and us Sompleted (ond toe SOuW show ofeland water Sr So Socm ——‘ignto et mua sing SocH ——Sigmall et water ces thoveand cbt tetof ws Se aueezed ay development Milcrc ——ilgnesbietewotge 330 Sight stow of Bk Sty ena amandones fico edeat al Sw Bi water deer new hed et water abd oF ant one oltand eas 10. ie usw Sedat water stu ost oc oun ty cm Shes mud ry sstineted om eke mut vop valve open op Se FTAD faint blow oro Sid total depth ™ wisest FAS {airs bow ors it suis fae near ow % flowed (od noo Slaw aries Wem ter ut mud re fouringpesure ones Sa a pluged buen wie wea ntl put Simo ahd wall weed over bo Ps groves : rea Euccm — faeand oi cut mua ca luge bak MECHANICAL LOG ABBREVIATIONS eHeS bore holecompensatedsonic ES sucte rs Ga caliper tes frauen elect: wo & Compensated neutron Fo. formaton dent og " a Sea induction to. ee sind bp 5 fool. 1eoustog oh. Sal induction itetog ca pprmaay Sue [neal neutron poroty tog bet Sia iteralog te ite = Spontaneous potential ob density ts iterate Es Prost og eee eee COLUMN 1 FORMATION TOPS ;S5- I, FOOTNOTES ie FAULTS VA 4 COLUMN 2 POROSITY TYPES X INTERCRYSTALLINE, INTERGRANULAR, 0 ORGANIC-bridged, In: INTERFRAGMENTAL @ INTEROOLITIC, INTERPELLETOID F FRACTURE V VUGGY-volds greater than 1/16mm © EARTHY-low permeability, crystals less than 1/16 mm P PINPOINT-volds less than 1/16mm QD FENESTRAL-volds from gas bubbles, 4 mowpic shrinkage cracks & birdseye texture COLUMN 3 OIL SHOWS STAIN PRESENT NO STAIN PRESENT © Even staining, fluoresces In solvent © Olt zone(trom p data) © Spotted js fluoresces in solvent 4 Gas zonelfrom production data) D Dead, asphaltic, bitumen, ete. © Questionable, no fluorescence In solvent a ‘uy et um Fame “etna sennicinan, ea ame oe ces peace tae 5. cy Ce esl a Eh. SB eS fl a Ga os I fi Toa AT | oie [Sorat gies eas] TEXTURES Ey ie rata, aa aie mie REED oes enc fe COLUMN 6 CRYSTAL, GRAIN or FRAGMENT SIZE FIVE DIVISIONS (teft to right) WENTWORTH SCALE Division 1 004mm —.0625mm Silt Division 2 .0625mm—.125mm Very fine Division 3 125mm —.250mm Fine Division 4 .250mm —.500mm Medium Divis COLUMN 7 ROUNDING A ANGULAR R ROUNDED 2S 500mm —1.000mm Cc. i 4 SUBANCULAR + SUBROUNDED COLUMN 8 SORTING Wo oWELL tor? M MEDIUM 30r4 P POOR = Sor more sizegrades COLUMN 9 FRAMEWORK FRAMEWORK IS A RATIO BETWEEN PARTICLE OR CLASTIC MATERIAL OVER 1/16mm AND PRIMARY VOID FILLER OR MATERIAL 1/i6mm AND LESS, 0 otesx 5 Sox © 100% 2 10x 6 60x 25 QUESTIONABLE INTERPRETATION 2 20% 7 70% 7 —- UNINTERPRETABLE 3 30% & 80x ! 4 40x 9 90% COLUMN 10 DESCRIPTION USED FOR INFORMATION THAT CANNOT BE PRESENTED IN COLUMNS 1 THROUGH 9, E.G. COLOR, SPECIFIC FOSSIL IDENTIFICATION, OBSERVATIONS ON BEDDING, INDURATION, HARDNESS, STRUCTURE, ETC. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS ARE ABBREVIATED. (see abbreviation list) DIAGENESIS To the right of written description TYPE P PRESSURE DEFORMATION M METASOMATISM SECONDARY CEMENTATION D DOLOMITIZATION A. ANHYDRITE R RECRYSTALLIZATION Ss sILIca F FRACTURING K KAOLIN L LEACHING © CALCITE and OTHERS DEGREE | 4 40x S508 ° | 2 20% 6 60x © : 3 30% 7 70x ? : 4 40% 8 80x COLUMN 11 DRILL STEM & WIRELINE TEST RESULTS GAS RECOVERY OIL RECOVERY WATER RECOVERY >| fe4 abot GAS, OIL & WATER RECOVERY ” COLUMN 12 DRILL STEM & WIRELINE TEST INTERVALS [] oriue stem Test inTeRvaL asi 16° Silica Tetrahedral Sheet 4(0H) = 4~ Ginbsite Brucite Reference: Boo” 6- 6(0H), 6- John E. Moore, GAP? 12+ lg {fer) 12- | | ThePet Eng. 6- (Feb.-Mar. 1960) Montmorillonite Mite i L Layer One One stal Crystal hw incor v x4 c- Axis 1eHl20 & Mg, Na, Ca a b - Axis—>_ bh - Axis—> 4a Chiorite l-f Kaolinite reac | ae : bweec, |” dn Shublecdagl-2A yer Wi Unit | L One Layer Crystal c-Axis c-Axis Loud Ars ceg- b-Axis—> b= Axis—> Schematic of Clay Crystal Structures © —) [= SiTr Shock 1 AL faut * le ceuge crhiled titer “patil 1.0 abop tom . Clays _ 1, Kaolinite‘! (metus) Ee) low CE. = stable. so ial forte foe) 2. Montmorittonite 97 ¢prectunts tm ora unit Cayer Gate tl Cone tees ~— her O cbnpher Af CEL, 7 sublne 10-30%) = Aeney cal Yppetr tone = throne 20 3, Uite 2-/ shneme = bun 686. —K chetbedhe, Cling = Sth cane werscen poclirs ( Law! limit” 2h plelojag ) tnt BE ew aaa. (Sette hrf ho) 4, Chlorite 2-2 (sheet ) eal [Zr sdhy Ont tnlin, Fe 0 AO teknit tay Yel bythe pipe Kae ety Jmnbe ~ high jardin 6 =D bag Firs - bun CEL, Other Minerals @byrila: hgh fy OStpe re) — haste amebncti0 9 her connective (@2 Sates = bagh grass: Montibe i O Soteit hig they cevkrra — bee grea: donot (tm Herero Panypeite asain G More ~ henb enek Spe S Ley ebertifiudl Sieiat— ohne 2 CG, Reb cepactlinee reckon ge briffriesF @" ‘Bu Volume Representation Pore Veunnt. + Grain Volwrne + Buble Wane. ‘ran Volume Represetation Pore Volume Representation @ lan POROSITY. Definition Porosity is defined as the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of a material. In hydrocarbon reservoirs, the pore volume is available for the accumulation and storage of oi1, gas, and water. Porosity is normally expressed as a percentage of bulk volume. i Pore Volume Porosity = Bore Totume * 100 Bulk Volume ~ Grain Volume , 199 Porosity = Bulk Volume a Pore Volume Porosity = pore Volume + Grain VoTume * 10 Total Porosity Total porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of all the pores to the bulk volume of a material, regardless of whether or not all of the pores are interconnected. Effective Porosity Effective porosity is defined as the ratio of the interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume of a material. Water of Hydration The water of hydration or crystallization of the in-situ minerals of a reservoir rock is defined to be a portion of the grain volume, It is not a portion of the pore volume. GNM @ ar Cubic Pack Orthortombic Pack oe ain ste (ne rain Size (pete wt PA) =F Spode fed) snl Geom Sap bitribntin Toragonal Sptenoial Pack ‘etrathombic Pack he ain Sie OueChain Sie ry RELATIONSHIP OF POROSITY AND OTHER TEXTURAL FEATURES Porosity in sands and sandstone varies primarily with grain size distribution and grain shapes, packing arrangement, cementation, and/or clay content. The porosity of productive sands and sandstones is gener- ally between 10 percent and 40 percent. Porosity in carbonate rocks is much more variable in magnitude than it is in sands and sandstones. In some reef-type formations it is very high, in a few cases exceeding 50 percent. With a few exceptions, the fractures encountered in carbonate rocks contribute little to the poros- ity. The porosity of carbonate rocks is generally lower than it is in sands and sandstones. It is commonly correlatable with the degree of dolomitization. Supplementary Notes te fsck, oe mb Wine fe hans shied io 7 Deval Koa permicelulily « = Rate of Flow, cc/sec. = Pressure Differential, Atmospheres = Area, cm? = Fluid Viscosity, Centipoise = Length, cm = Permeability, Darcies =KAPA Q EE L | = 2. [> Laminar Flow = | T_| >lO = Effect of Turbulent Flow on Measured Permeability @' 2 PERMEABILITY Definition and Theory Permeability is a measure of the abi ity of a porous material to transmit fluid. The unit of measurement is the darcy, named after a French scien- tist that investigated flow of water through filter beds in the year 1856. One darcy is defined as that permeability that will permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second through a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimeter when the pressure gradient is one atmosphere per centimeter. In practical units, one darcy permeability will yield a flow of approximately one barrel /day of one centipoise oi] through one foot of formation thickness in a well bore when the pressure differential is one psi. The millidarcy, which is one thousandth (1/1000) of a darcy, is used in core analysis. Formation permeabilities vary from a fraction to more than 10,000 millidarcies. Darcy's Law is used to determine permeability, which is a constant when the following conditions exist: 21, Laminar flow Ne 5 a 2; No reaction between fluid and rock amass es, «3. One phase present at 100 percent pore space saturation (On | Reef Limestone ( | Oolitic Limestone | r r L Vi Intercrystalline Limestone and Dolomite 0 5 10 15 2 «(25 30 35 i Friable Sand 1 Porosity: Percent Permeability and Porosity Trends For Various Rock Types @« rN Permeability and Porosity Relationships Environmental and depositional factors influencing porosity also influence permeability, and often there is a relationship between the two. The relationship varies with formation and rock type, and’ reflects the variety of pore geometry present. Typically, increased permeability is accompanied by increased porosity. Constant permeability accompanied by increased porosity indicates the presence of more numerous but smaller pores. Post depositional processes in sands including compaction and cementation result in a shift to the left of the permeability-porosity trend line. Dolomitization of limestones tends to shift the permeability- porosity trend lines to the right. Supplementary Notes Koy Helle. w etebmade cnet. Coarse Grained Rock - 10.2 a KS sack (Slichter)— Fine ot” \ Grained aut Rock it § (1-o) (Kozeny) Fractured eer an (Impermeable | Matrix) 2244 210° eWiis Hops Wash Influence of Grain Size, Pore Size and Fracture Size on Permeability @ 6 dL Textural Relationships Permeability is a function of the size, shape, and di the pore channels in the rock. These relationships were investigated for clean sands by Slichter in 1889 and by Kozeny in 1927, and related to grain sizes and packing arrangement. Clean, coarse grain sand and oolitic limestone both have large pores and high permeability. Fine grain sand and intercrystalline limestone have small pores and low permeability. ‘A combination of low matrix permeability with fracture permeability can exist -- and yield prolific reservoirs. Supplementary Notes tpl Lge Gpatogra lao Reservoir Fracture Directional Permeability @* oN Koy Aetor- Directional Permeability Permeability is often a directional quantity. Deposition of sand occurs with alignment of the long axis of the grains parallelto the current. The greatest cross-sectional area of the grains lies in a horizontal plane. Permeability is highest parallel to the long axis of the grains. Kmay Vertical permeability (perpendicular to bedding planes) may be further reduced by shale laminations in sands or stylolites in carbonates. Kerk Fractures or joint trends existing in carbonates and hard, low porosity sands, result in widely varying directional permeability. This anisotropy is important in understanding reservoir behavior. Que fan Hits niliedl Suwa oO Lok aoe hese. 6 Like Sealges Spatially oriented cores coupled with (1) detailed core descrip~ tions listing strike and dip of major and minor fractures, and (2) directional permeability measurements, assist in defining fracture trends and permeability variation. _Liguid Flow Klinkenberg Effect @* of Gas Permeability vs Liquid Permeability Gas flow differs from liquid flow, and gas permeability differs from liquid permeability. Liquid permeability of a rock is a constant and is independent of pressure differential imposed under conditions of laminar flow, no_rock-fluid reaction, and 100 percent saturation by the flowing fluid. This is not true of gases. Gas molecules flow at a uniform rate through smal] pores. Liquid molecules do not. Liquid molecules in the center of the pores move at higher velocity than the nearly stationary molecules next to the pore walls. This difference in molecular movement results in a dependence of gas permeability on the mean pressure of the gas existing at the time of measurement. The gas flow characteristic is termed "gas slippage" or "Klinkenberg Effect", after the man that observed it. At low mean gas pressure, gas permeability exceeds liquid permea- bility. At high mean gas pressure, gas permeability equals liquid permeability. Gas is used in conventional core analysis for laboratory determina- tion of permeability. Gas permeability corrected for "Klinkenberg Effect" is termed equivalent liquid permeability. Supplementary Notes ce ew NO w) Reciprocal Mean Pressure: (Atm.)"* Coe Function Of Gas Composition And Mean Pressure ga Exes Reciprocal Mean Pressure: (Atm.)~* Function Of Permeability and Mean Pressure Gas Slippage Klinkenberg Correction @z aN Gas_Klinkenberg (Slippage) Correction Klinkenberg's studies revealed that gas permeability is a function of the gas composition, as well as the mean pressure in the core. The equivalent liquid permeability, however, is independent of these variables. The "Klinkenberg correction" to reduce gas permeability to an equivalent liquid value varies with permeability. Low permeability formations require large corrections. Typical values follow: Air Klinkenberg Permeability, md. Permeability, md. amit) SIN) Ratio of KI/Ka 218 a2 66 eG L 68 68 10. 7.8 Te 2S bik. (00. 88. 88 Majik * een 1000. 960. 195 S Leet It is important to know if a "Klinkenberg correction" has been made to reported core analysis values. Permeabilities of plug size samples are often corrected. No correction is normally applied to whole core permeability values. @2 Wo K vtduation pin 1000) ‘ 3 Clean Sand 5a —=— = Moderate Clay Ss 3 60) By] oy 20000 40000 60000 ‘0000 = 100000 io 10 100 1000 eaher etve> Water Salinity: Parts Per Million Air Permeability: Millidarcies Variation in Water Permeability With Salinity Variation In Water Permeaility and Clay Content With Salinity and Air Permeability 100; ee, s & Flow Direction Reversed Clay Swelling ani/or Particle Movement 2 s 3 5 é . Brine Injected: Pore Volumes Permeability Reduction Due To Clay Swelling and/or Particle Movement a) @* Rock-Fluid Reaction and Effect on Permeability Reaction between reservoir rock and fluids introduced can increase or decrease permeability. Anhydrate dissolution increases permeability. Clay swelling or deflocculation when contacted by water reduces permea- bility. The fresher the water -- the more the swelling. Factors important in clay-water reaction include the following: 1. Kind of clay 2. Amount of clay 3. Distribution of clay Lemenar ASfruetirl /m fergeed i : 773 bxtecl 4. Water composition (presence of Caand Ng fons) K— slxtlaey peer i We — oke ata lty 5. Order in which fluids contact the rock - = 6. Presence of residual hydrocarbons or organic compounds Te Water ph crietiny Llane? PM coheed be rmnitan © fort in Lao pe. Permeability reduction is inversely proportional to permeability. The lower the permeability, the greater the reduction due to clay reaction. Particle movement rather than clay swelling may be the mechanism causing reduction in permeability. @* Relative Permeability The concept of relative permeability provides an extension of Darcy's Law to the presence and movement of more than a single fluid within the pore space. aka Specific Permeability Ks ce K Kw This refers to permeability with one fluid present at 100 percent saturation. Air and water permeability are examples. Units are darcies or _millidarcies, Effective Permeability When a second or third phase is introduced, the resulting permea- bility to each phase is called “effective permeability". Units are darcies or millidarcies. Effective permeability is the conductivity of each phase at a specific saturation. The fluids interfere with each other, and individ- ual effective permeability of each phase as well as their sum, is lower than specific permeability. Relative Permeability Relative Permeability = etiece ve Penmeab 1 : (%, The term is dimensionless, and is reported as afraction or percent- age. The shapes of the relative permeability curves are a function of the fluid distribution within the porous medium. Fluid distribution in turn is dependent on the saturation history and on the wetting character- @* istic of the rock. Relative permeability characteristics are important in the displacement of hydrocarbons by water, and in the displacement of oil and water by gas. These displacements occur during primary and secondary recovery operations, as well as during coring and core recovery. Relative permeability is presented in graphical form as a function of saturation. The data are often referred to as drainage ar imbibition curves. Imbibition Relative Permeability. A displacement where the wetting phase saturation is increas ‘ing. An example is water (wetting phase) flood of a water wet rock, or coring with a water base mud. Drainage Relative Permeability A displacement where the nonwetting phase saturation is increasing. An example is gas (nonwetting phase) expulsion of oi7 during primary depletion, or gas expulsion of fluids during core recovery. Water displacement of oi] differs from gas displacement of of]. Water normally wets the rock and gas does not. This wetting difference results in different relative permeability curves for the two displacements. @” Sm Ky 0 So" SY Igo a> mx <2 Prior to Filtrate Flush or Water Flood Ke Esra ch \ weibit on a x During Filtrate Flush or Water Flood ees Oil Sw 270% & Water After Filtrate Flush or Water Flood Reservoir Saturations in Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement by Water © oo Water Displacement of Oil Prior to water encroachment into an oil productive sand, interstitial water exists as a thin film around each sand grain, with oi] filling the remaining pore space. The presence of water has little effect on the flow of oil, and oi] relative permeability approaches 100 percent. Water relative permeability is zero. Water invasion results in water flow through both large and smal] pores as water saturation increases. Imbibition relative permeability characteristics influence the displacement. 0i1 saturation decreases with a corresponding decrease in oil relative permeability. Water relative permeability increases as water saturation increases. Oi1 remaining after flood-out exists as trapped globules, and is referred to as residual oi]. This residual is immobile, and relative permeability to oi] is zero. Relative permeability to water reaches a maximum value, but is less than the specific permeability because the residual oil is in the center of the pores and impedes water flow. Pore geometry influences the quantity of residual oi] and the shape of the relative permeability curves. No set of general relative permea- bility curves is applicable for all formations. Supplementary Notes @# = Ss Relative Permeability: Percent nD S 00 — Water-Wet Drainage —- (Decreasing Sw) Water-Wet imbibition == (Increasing Sw) t Oil-Wet Drainage «+ (Increasing Sw) i phase flou Water Saturation: : Percent Pore Space Typical Oil And Water Relative Permeability Curves The exe me pene pee anatwreth «| @s Water Relative Permeability, Accumulation of hydrocarbons is represented by drainage relative permeability curves as the water (wetting phase) saturation decreases from 100 percent to irreducible. Water relative permeability reduces likewise from 100 percent to zero while oil relative permeability ‘increases. Subsequent introduction of water during coring or waterflooding results in a different set of relative permeability curves -- these are the imbibition curves. The water (wetting phase) curve is essentially the same in strongly water wet rock for both drainage and imbibition. The oi] (nonwetting) phase relative permeability is less during imbibi- tion than during drainage. The imbibition curves indicate the loss of well productivity expected when water saturation is increased in the vicinity of the wellbore during coring, completion or workover. Removal of the water by production restores productivity if clays haven't been hydrated. Oi] wet rocks have lower oi] relative permeability and higher water relative permeability at any given water saturation when com- pared to water wet systems. wil Water mGas Relative Permeability: Percent {0°90 406080100 * Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space Gas Saturation: 5% of Pore Space Specific Permeability (Ks): 250 md. Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko):183 md. Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg):0.0 md. Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) = 183/250 = 0.73 Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) =0.0/250 = 0.0 Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement by Gas @5 % Gas Saturation @2 Gas Displacement of 0i1 and Ga: Relative Permeability Gas is a nonwetting phase, and it initially follows the path of least resistance through the largest pores. Gas permeability is zero until a "critical" or "equilibrium" saturation is reached. Gas saturation less than the critical value is not mobile, but it ‘impedes the flow of of1 and reduces oi] relative permeability. Successively smaller pore channels are invaded by gas and joined to form other continuous channels. The preference of gas for larger pores causes a more rapid decrease of ofl relative permeability than when water displaces oi] from a water wet system. Relative permeability to gas increases more rapidly than water relative permeability in a water wet system. Large quantities of oi] remain in the pore space as residual saturation at the economic limit of production. Supplementary Notes @s wil @ Water wGas 40 y 3 oy 76080 T00 Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space Gas Saturation: 20% of Pore Space ‘Specific Permeability (Ks): 250 md. Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko): 52 md Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg): 10 md. Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) = 52/250 = 0.21 Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) = 10/250 = 0.04 Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement by Gas ©20% Gas Saturation @* wil mWater mGas 100) 80 60} 40 20) Relative Permeability:Percent 0 20 40 60 80 100 Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space Gas Saturation: 45% of Pore Space Specific Permeability (Ks): 250 md. Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko): 6.2 md. Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg): 70 md, Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) ~ 6.2/250 ~ 0.025 Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) ~ 70/250 — 0.28 Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement by Gas @AS % Gas Saturation. ,, i @s Sand with Clay Kair (1, derci) 80 “ K air (Klinkenberg) 14 : K water 50 Koil with irreducible water | | "a : K water with residual oil 0 Typical Specific and Effective Permeability Data oO Supplementary Notes Surrtae tomaion 2 Dyrto| or “Capillary Rise a Wetting Liquid G< 90 D> uettna, O>90° 2 on teatme4 S T Won-Wetting 6% Wetting Static Wetting Diagram or Liquid - Liquid System VW Capillary Depression _Non-Wetting Liquid wy) @* ~~ FLUID SATURATIONS Surface Kinetics Surface free energy exists on all interfaces between states of matter and between immiscible liquids. This energy is the result of electrical forces. These forces cause molecular attraction between molecules of the same substance (cohesion) and between molecules of unlike substances (adhesion). Surface tension (or interfacial tensian) results from molecular forces that cause the surface of a liquid to assume the smallest possible size, and to act like a membrane under tension. Surface tension may be measured by observing the force required to pull a thin wire through the surface. A contact angle is formed when two immiscible fluids contact a solid surface. Wetting Phase This phase spreads over the solid surface, and preferentially wets the solid. The contact angle approaches zero. © < 90° Nonwetting Phase This phase has little or no affinity for the solid. The contact angle exceeds 90 degrees. The rise or depression of liquids in fine bore tubes is a result of sur- face tension and wetting preference, and is called capillarity. @s At Equilibrium: — Force Up = om Force Down Force Up = 2itr- “TCos6, tinal A Force Down=TTr?-h- (D (0y-0,)- (eee Capillary Pressure=Force/Unit Area P= Force Up/ T1r?= Force Down/TTr?. vi Py= ZT T bos@ _ 27 b0s6 YD lug Tr t Cast jam and P, = Bev Oe h- (Dy-D,)- g YS cmole fort ys ‘ R __2T CosO reek “SDD yD) Capillary Pressure Equations @" oN Capillary Pressure Theory. Capillary pressure exists whenever two immiscible phases are present in a fine bore tube, and is defined as the pressure drop across curved liquid interface. Capillary pressure in a tube can be calculated if the fluid interfacial tension, rock-fluid contact angle, and the tube radius are known. Capillary pressure can also be expressed as a hydrostatic head. It is equal to the product of the height of the liquid rise, the density difference of the two liquids, and the gravitational constant. The height at which a wetting liquid will stand above a free level is directly proportional to capillary pressure. It is therefore propor- tional to interfacial tension and cosine of the contact angle, and ‘inversely related to the tube radius and fluid density difference. Supplementary Notes Idealized Water Film Surrounding Sand Grains Interstitial Water Distribution For Carbonate & Sandstone Ox ot Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks Water is retained by capillary forces as hydrocarbons accumulate in productive reservoirs. The water is referred to as connate or inter- stitial. In water wet rocks, it coats the rock surfaces and occupies the smallest pores. Hydrocarbons occupy the center of the larger pores. The magnitude of the water saturation retained is proportional to the capillary pressure -- which is controlled by the rock-fluid system. | emast caestast * Fluid Property Water wet coarse grain sand, and oolitic and vuggy carbonates with large pores, have low capillary pressure and low interstitial water content. Silty, fine grain sands have high capillary pressure and high water content. @ Liyaoenctr Fat ppeRaSgiseeP Staion Xeon Height Above Water Level as. Water ‘Saturation: Perce Height Above Water Level Water Saturation: course Gamed rock vee — Percent Pore Space _Pore Size and | Distribution on (Textural) Effect 6 < 90° = @> 90° Water Wet Neutral Oil-Wet fit = ® ® _Rock Wettability Effect (Contact Angle) @* vet asco CONDITIONS: i Water Wet an Moderate Interfacial Tension j ag Drainage Capillary Pressure ~Moderate vee ‘Water Density Difference oil uate -flar : pretty Free water level Pe 20 ype? e pownent eee” Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space Reservoir water saturation decreases with increased height above the hydrocarbon-water contact. A "minimum" or "irreducible" water satura- tion is reached if sufficient closure and hydrocarbon column exists. The formation containing irreducible water produces only hydrocarbons. The zone of varying water saturation is called the “transition zone". Formations located within this zone will produce water and hydrocarbons. Pore size and distribution (textural effect) influence the magnitude of the irreducible water saturation and height of the transition zone. The smaller the pores, the lower the permeability, and the higher the water saturation. Rock wettability influences the capillary pressure and hence the water retentive properties of a formation. il wet rocks have a reduced or negligible transition zone, and may contain lower irreducible saturations. @* Interfacial Tension Effect Height Above Water Level : ae = = . es le SS Water Saturation: m4 Drainage Percent Pore Space Imbibition Saturation History Effect \ : \ \ Small Density Difference Ney (Water-Heavy Oil) \ \ < (Water-Gas) Fluid Density Difference Effect Water saturation: Percent Pore Space Shuler @* Height Above Water Level Low fluid interfacial tension reduces the transition zone, while high interfacial tension extends it. Saturation history influences the capillary pressure-water saturation relationship, and hence the transition zone. Drainage Saturation Results from drainage of the wetting phase (water) from the rock as hydrocarbons accumulate. Inbibition Saturation Results from increase in the wetting phase (water) and expulsion of hydrocarbons. A lower water saturation exists at any height within the transition zone. A large density difference between water and hydrocarbons (water-gas) suppresses the transition zone. A small density difference (water- heavy oi1) increases the transition zone. @« eh N ‘Po, _(TC0sQ), Pe, " (TCos6), > Pe,= Pe, (TCos6), a e080), (T Cos6), Poa Por (TCos6), (PP) (Ow-Pn) Where: H = Height in Feet Above Free Water Level Corresponding to Zero Capillary Pressure Pc,= Capillary Pressure at Initial Reservoir Conditions, PSI Pc, = Capillary Pressure in Laboratory, PSI (I Cos@),= Interfacial Tension x Cosine of Contact Angle (Initial Reservoir Conditions) (T Cos@),= Interfacial Tension x Cosine of Contact Angle (Laboratory) Oy = Water Gradient in PSI/Ft. at Initial Reservoir Conditions , = Hydrocarbon Gradient in PSI/Ft. at Initial Reservoir Conditions T = Interfacial Tension, Dynes/Cm. Conversion of Capillary Pressure to Equivalent Height @# Capillary Pressure to Define Initial Reservoir Fluid Distribution The magnitude of water saturation at any height in a reservoir is a function of: Pore geometry 4, Saturation history Rock wettability 5. Difference in fluid Interfacial tension densities These variables also control capillary pressure; therefore, a relation- ship exists between water saturation, height, and capillary pressure. Laboratory derived capillary pressure curves on samples of reservoir rock can be used to relate reservoir water saturation to height above the free water level. When converting capillary pressure to equivalent height, differences in interfacial tension and contact angle between the laboratory and reser- voir systems must be accounted for. Water and oi1 gradients used in the conversion correspond to reservoir values at initial reservoir temperature and pressure. The laboratory capillary pressure curve for a sample of known permea- bility, porosity or rock type can be used to calculate water saturation versus height for oil-water, gas-oi1, or gas-water reservoir conditions-- as long as appropriate laboratory and reservoir interfacial tension and contact angles are used. @* Capillary Pressure: PSIA (Air-Mercury) Capillary Pressure: PSIA (Air-Mercury) 3 z pease 7 2 120 = ns 2 2 0 & 2 0 0 4 6 60 100 Wetting Phase Saturation: Percent Pore Space San Andres Dolomite - 00 2 Heo the lS Aaghin fore = 2 180 § = lo = id 0 20 40 60 80 100 ‘Wetting Phase Saturation: Percent Pore Space Pennsylvanian Dolomite. Capillary Pressure Curves @s ae Ua athe of om epg Pc fein eae nha pressure tests are made with a variety of Ty that differ from reservoir fluids. Mercury can be injected into evacu ated cores to yield capillary pressure-wetting phase saturation relationships. In carbonates, capillary pressure curves often trend with porosity. Lower irreducible water saturation accompanies higher porosity. Permeability is sometimes a better correlating parameter than porosity. A combination of permeability and porosity is sometimes required to correlate capillary pressure information. Differences in the capillary pressure-wetting phase saturation relation- ships of the two dolomites reflect varying pore geometry. Four percent porosity in the Pennsylvanian dolomite is net pay -- it is not in the San Andres example shown unless large closure exists. Irreducible water is the same for both formations at 20 percent porosity; however, the transition zones vary. Capillary Pressure: PSIG (Air-Water) oe = Height Above Free Water Level: Feet oa 8 = Bear Quills ah, wort to vod 40 32) —— 3650] { 105m] * 1.5 md 8.4% 26.71% 22.8% 24 Permeability and Porosity 16 8 4 100 20 40 Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space 60. Capillary Pressure Curves Miocene Sand @® C = Capillary pressure-water saturation curves for sandstone formations typically correlate better with permeability than with porosity. The high water saturation in the low permeability rock reflects high retentive forces in the small pore spaces. Large pore spaces characterize the high permeability sample, and water retentive forces are low. A negligible transition zone would be expected in a formation of this type as long as the oil-water density difference was moderate. No generalized capillary pressure-saturation relationship exists for all formations. The variety of pore geometry requires measurement of these relationships within, and for each formation. Supplementary Notes \ NN IS N b tad 2ateutur brvtk fopl @® Watecutt Syste, Prior to Filtrate Flush sats After Filtrate Flush and Gas Expansion During Trip to Surface Saturations in Characteristic Sand During Coring and Recovery @* Effect of Coring Fluids and Core Recovery on Fluid Saturations Coring fluids alter initial reservoir saturations. The alteration depends on the type of filtrate that flushes the core. Additional saturation changes occur as gas is liberated and expands during core recovery. CORING FLUID BFFECTS ON RESERVOIR FLUID SATURATIONS Eifel on Core Saturations coring Fis Fite = fee jater Base spr, a Water Increased Decreased_ Sg cat bo a Bareie os men Ce aS Bee Resurges” — Bees Gas (Hydrocarbon) as Glyaroearbon) o Replaced ncertain Decreneed Tif sample ig at reducible (aumobll) water satura ‘o coring, Otherwise, filtrate wil diaplace water and reduce its ‘ausraton tia Wanston Sone, Precautions co remove al ertznesus water Rom sjotem shouldbe tes. «uid oplacemeat somtimes causes gas cand to exhibit ol saturations a the surface Indicative of ol rather than ga productive «effete ll emulsion macs contain water. Loss of whole md to hie permeability formations wil inreate water saturations, rac pees itor wine may be several ned mila. strlanproper mad control may cause to beol rater than va SIIBRIDeeiete satutigns may mncrens, detreae or remain anchanged depending on heat generated during coring, hole con- iio, and the agent ited witha Supplementary Notes @s Coring Fluids for Specific Objectives A choice exists in selection of coring fluids. The fluid selected must be compatible with the coring objective. When cores are taken pri marily to furnish data on reservoir water saturation or for special tests, the coring fluid selection is of prime importance. (CORING FLUIDS SUITABLE FOR OBTAINING OBJECTIVES Onjetoes Suitable Corng Fluids Porosity, Pemsebility, Litholony ‘Water Bese Mud sand Droduetivty Beate fom Gay ‘esiouat Surface Fluid Satarations SiEmusion Porosity, Permeability and Litiotogy Any Fluid Inertial Water it Base ‘averted Oil Emukion ot suitable fr high permeability) ® Gigcroar go pNoneldaed (NO) Crude Oit Unalered Wettabiit Fresh and Sale Water (no other ative : apNonotldied (NO) Crude Ol Gar diyarocaeon) If Formation Wettability is Known, ‘The Following Fluids are Recommended for Cori for Special Tests Water Wet oi Wet Intermediate ‘Water-Oil Relative Permeability Water N-O.Grade Ol N-O Crude Oil oS Oi Bate Gas (hydrocarbon) N&O Crude O1t Gae-Oil Relative Permenbility Water Base NQGue Od NO Grge O Nbcrdeon OP nae: ‘Weater-Oil Capillary Pressure Water Base N.OCrude Ol N-O Crude OL Gs Oil Base Gas (hydrocarbon) N26 crude O11 Gas-Water Capillary Pressure Biter Bane . ” NO Crude O1t Gas-Oil Canillary Pressure Any Fluid : ” Mercury Injection Capillary Presswe Any Fluid . ” “Test data not applicable. “Appelt of et dat uncown, Supplementary Notes @# Factors Influencing Surface Core Saturations A variety of factors influence surface saturations. Some are beyond the control of the engineer or geologist. 71. Core Permeability “f0. Core Shatyness ~ frog oe = * bend Cte. /2 Coring Fluid VAL, O87 Shrinkage = formate vahawe Jas V3. Coring Rate faster wring Mss 2, Vertical Permeability tent sn 4, Reservoir Fluid 43. Degree of Filtrate Flushing AE Yiscostty fennes of 9 ba flag 14. Formation Pressure 5, Relative Permeability La 1 Filtrate Loss Core Diameter 7 if ct (Porkns@ col’: 6. Chemicals in DriTling Flutd sorts L Porosity Development wl OF eee AL, Core Handling aut 8. Drilling Fluid Pressure a at Sand Face Lae pwrne 7 VIB. Core Preservation ane Pooky (9. Initial Reservoir Saturations The core analyst measures altered saturations, and from these values ‘interprets probable production from the reservoir. Despite differences in the above factors, experience with most forma tions results in a set of specific surface saturations indicative of ofl, gas, or water production. ScArwtegtiaws Pegnce tahan. or jupplementary Notes geist «50% > OW Ur 3 SSE > Gar emdenrsle. @2 ae in a Badly Flushed Badly Flushed Water Base Mud Unflushed Oil Base Mud w OTe eee OIL GASWATER OIL GAS WATER OIL GAS WATERS ls Me 40% 48% 30% apis 0: 0% 70% 70% 0% = ~ a = = > 3 [: Ep 70% 0% 30% — 70% O% 30% — 70% 0% 30% Gil tal Typical Fluid Contents From Reservoir To Surface * (OIL PRODUCTIVE FORMATION) Y @» Badly Flushed Badly Flushed Water Base Mud Unflushed Oil Base Mud OIL GAS WATER OIL GASWATER OIL GAS WATER pi% 49% 50% 2% 68% 30% 40% 30% 30% 2 3 S = 5 % uv cee ete tt | Condense || od Expand Expulse > 0% 30% 70% 0% 70% 30% in core barrel — Invade reservoir 0% 70% 30% 0% 70% 30% 0% 70% 30% Typical Fluid Contents From Reservoir To Surface (GAS PRODUCTIVE FORMATION) @» Badly Flushed Water Base Mud Oil Base Mud ia ey OIL GAS WATER OIL GAS WATER at> 0% 10% 90% 35% 10% 55% surface A . Expand Expulse | [essessearercaea a in> 0% 0% 100% 40% 0% 60% core barrel in reservoir > 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 100% Typical Fluid Contents From Reservoir To Surface (WATER PRODUCTIVE FORMATION) @= ou bys & cast Sf Badly Flushed Badly Flushed a Water Base Mud Water Base Mud ——_—_—= OIL GAS WATER OIL GAS WATER atp12% 40% 48% 22% 10% 68% surface > . a a in>30% 0% 70% 25% 5% 70% core 4 iS 4> barrel | in uu reservoir)30% 0% 70% 55% 15% 30% Typical Fluid Contents From Reservoir To Surface e (DEPLETED OIL RESERVOIR) @ ervoir Value 00 | Core Analysis Value From Oil-Base Core oo oS wore re Analysis Water Base Core 2 So = Ss Y | Mobile Reservoir Water Height Above Free Water Level: Feet S 0 ° 0 20 40 60 80 100 Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space Relationship Of Core Analysis Water Saturations To True Reservoir Values @ 5 | SAMPLING CORE SAMPLING AND PRESERVATION CORE HANDLING AT THE WELLSITE For Whole Core Analysis Core should be gently ¥ oved fi barrel to avoid unnecessary breakage, wiped with a damp cloth, and laid out in order. Total core Tength should be recorded and each foot marked. Lost core’ is logged at the bottom of the cored interval. A foot-by-foot brief lithologic description should be made by the wellsite geologist. This description can be made in the laboratory under improved conditions when all core is picked up. Special studies involving core wettability may require core layout in shallow trays containing a suitable fluid to assure minimum exposure to ‘the atmosphere, followed by wellsite preservation. For Conventional "Plug" Analysis Core removal is similar to that for whole core analysis. Precautions to secure long cores are not necessary. For Sidewall Analysis Percussion sidewall cores are placed in small jars and sealed inmedi- ately after removal from the coring device. When samples are to be mailed, addition of nonabsorptive materials such as foil or saran pre- vent sample movement and damage. If long transit times are expected, jars should be dipped in wax or strippable plastic to prevent core dehydration. @:1 ode end measure, combustidle ) gps ua fm sudewelA yee ~ Rubber Sleeve Core Improved core data results from measurements on sidewall samples sealed and not opened for smelling, tasting or examination prior to core analy- sis. Double shooting of cores is recommended when the wellsite geologist ‘has need to examine the samples, and interpretations of well productivity are required from the core data. Sidewall cores recovered by sawing a continuous, triangular-shaped core from uncased holes is carefully wiped with a damp cloth when necessary, ‘and then measured. Some coring companies furnish stiff plastic triangu- lar cases three feet long for core transport to the laboratory. A lithologic description is made at the wellsite. For Rubber Sleeve Cores The sleeves are marked as to top and bottom depths and then sealed with caps furnished by the_coring company. Tape should then be wrapped around the sleeve-cap joint. The sleeves are sometimes transported frozen and full Tength in wooden boxes. Often they are cut into 3-4 foot lengths, capped, and then shipped in wooden boxes. The boxes should also be identified as to top, bottom, and depth. Care must be exercised to prevent sleeve bending, etc. For Pressure Core Barrel * Core handling is managed by the coring company. The samples remain in ‘the inner barrel for transport to the laboratory. The barrel is frozen, and sometimes cut into 3-foot lengths (which must be maintained in a frozen state) for ease of transport. © Whole Core Analysis Conventional Core Analysis @* CORE SAMPLING For Whole Core Analysi Al] core from a section to be analyzed is transported to the laboratory and placed in depth order on a layout table. Core gamma and photo are completed. Core lithology is considered in selecting samples with maxi~ mum length of 2 feet. All core is analyzed, and no sample shaping occurs prior to retorting. Samples for special core analysis are selected by visual examination to cover rock type and basic rock properties and are not retorted. For Full Diameter Analysis. ( fo Lstoogevenn. formation) The same procedure as for whole core applies through core gamma and photo. Samples 6 inches or longer are then prepared in the form of right cylinders from each foot of core. Irregular shaped core ends are clipped with a diamond saw and used for saturation determination. The saw blade lubricant should correspond to the filtrate of the coring fluid. For Conventional "Plug" Analysis Samples 4 inches in Tength are selected from every foot of productive zone. Clays and shales are not sampled. Heterogeneous formations require more than one sample per foot. Sufficient samples should be taken to define net pay, transition zones, level contacts and forma- tion boundaries. © Sampling may be done statistically at the midpoint of each foot, or Judgment applied in securing "representative" samples from each foot. The approach used is a matter of philosophy, and varies with different companies. Lithology may also dictate the best sampling approach for specific formations. For Sidewall Core Analysis A sufficiently high density of samples should be taken to adequately describe the interval to be evaluated. Zones conventionally cored can be sidewall sampled once each foot to establish sidewall-conventional core data relationships. These relationships can then be used to furnish improved data in wells where only sidewall cores are taken. For Rubber Sleeve Core Analysis ey The cores arrive in the laboratory within the rubber sleeve, and a core ganma log can be made to assist in selection of sampling points. The cores are normally reduced to 1 or 2-foot lengths, and if not in a frozen state, they are frozen. They may then be slabbed, or have a window cut in the sleeve, Plugs are drilled with liquid nitrogen using selection principles outlined for conventional "plug" analysis. For Cores Recovered in a Pressure Core Barrel Samples arrive in the laboratory frozen within the metal barrel. The barrel must be cut into manageable lengths of 2-3 feet. A technique used successfully to remove the core is to support the barrel in a © ( vise, and then apply heat rapidly with a torch. A thin, thawed area ‘on the core surface results allowing the rock to slip from the barrel. The removed core is sprayed with liquid nitrogen or packed in dry ice. The core is then sampled using whole core or plug techniques as desired. ‘Supplementary Notes Core Preservation CORE PRESERVATION Commonly Used Preservation Techniques submerging under deaerated vater. (ast pectmnsndcl ) Submerging under nonoxidized crude oi] or refined oi] treated to remove polar compounds. up-% beth Plastic bags (recommended for short-term storage, 2-3 days only). vi core 5 lel #4 ‘Saran and aluminum foil coated with aca See aoe Let het) (Dow Beard) No 5. Canning (cans rust and leak with time, and core may dry and deteriorate). . Freezing or chilling with dry ice (core is in C0, atmosphere 2 as ice sublimes). Atecger Surn affer awhile, /L. No preservation except insulation to prevent breakage. dove 8. Rubber sleeve cores may be preserved by capping and taping sleeve ends. Preservation Techniques for Specific Objectives Objective Not Suitable Suitable Reconmended* Porosity, Permeability, Residual Saturations and Interpretation as to oil, gas or water productive 1,2,7 34,5568 3 Porosity, Permeability and Lithology 1-8 7 Irreducible Water 1,7 2,345.68 2,4,8 Unaltered Physical Properties Short-term Storage 1,7 2,3,4,5,6,8 2-4 Long-term Storage —-1,3,5,6,7 2,4,8 4 Unaltered Rock Wettability 3,5,6,7 1.2.48 4 ‘*Recommendation based on ease of accomplishment. Any technique an listed as suitable will suffice under certain conditions. @ Supplementary Notes | MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENTS OF BASIC ROCK PROPERTIES Cleaning ¢deymy Core { ge") << CO, Extractor Extended Range Porosimeter Cleaning aylendeial plo Centrifugal Extractor Humidity Oven irakle miso 0 anv Vacuum Retort Sample Preparation @: VARIABLES MEASURED Two of the three variables, bulk volume, pore volume, and grain volume, must be measured to determine:porosity. All three may be determined to get @ cross-check. ‘SAMPLE PREPARATION Samples or plugs to be used for porosity and/or permeability tests must be thoroughly extracted of oi? and brine and then properly dried, except for the case of the Summation of Fluids porosity procedure which requires fresh core samples. ; co, Bur-onsriy end Gas-driven solvent extractors, centrifugal extractors, and Soxhlet and Dean-Stark refluxing solvent. extractors are commonly used to remove both of] and brine. The solvent used is determined by the nature of the extraction problen. It is most commonly toluene. Vacuum retorts are sometimes used for extraction of whole core samples. Drying the sample after extraction is very important and when hydratable minerals are present in the sample that break down at low temperatures, the drying procedure is critical in that the interstitial water must be removed with no mineral alteration. Aiuntdity-controtled ovens are used when drying clay-bearing samples to maintain the proper state of hydra~ tion. Supplementary Notes Water oi bas 47 AG Boyles Law Porosimeter : ‘Pore Volumve Determination pent = BY: x00 _ Summation of Fis ee duet ve Gas hit Yate Sih lass + coe sania ‘Sample In Place, ‘Stopcock Open Washburn Bunting Porosimeter Kobe Porosimeter P,Ve = (lee -Mq) is Yq Mate" Be Pal, *Fa reasee D = By-GV ev eon ae 7 ar hea © yee Gran Volume Determination Cpe + Boyle's Law Porosimeter Resaturation Porosity tua tomnnorly eed on 4 ALS ta, © POROSITY MEASUREMENT Bulk Volume Determination Bulk volume is determined by displacement of a liquid, or by calipering ‘a shaped sample and computation by the appropriate geometric formula. ee |p Sumation of Fluids ay wat The method involves the independent determination of gas, oi] and pore A nh ye ig) water volumes of a fresh core sample. The pore volune is determined by aes summing the three independent: volumes. 5 Gas Transfer L Boyle's Law involves the compression of a gas into the pores or the expansion of gas from the pores of a prepared sample. Either pore volume or grain volume may be determined depending upon the instrumentation and procedures used. The Washburn-Bunting Method involves the vacuum extraction and collection of the gas (usually air) contained in the pores of ‘a prepared sample. It measures pore volume. Meh excd eanmercids 7 Liquid Resaturation The pores of a prepared sample are filled with a liquid of known density. The weight increase of the sample divided by the fluid density is a mea~ sure of the pore volume. LT tetent . py, ft Grain Density Total porosity is determined by this method. The sample is reduced to grain size after the dry weight and bulk volume are determined. Grain volume is determined and subtracted from the bulk volume to yield the ‘total pore volume. COMPARISON OF POROSITY DETERMINATION METHODS Method ‘Advantages Limi tations Summation of Fluids Accurate for most rock types encountered. Rapid - particularly when fluid saturations are also to be determined. Well suited for routine laboratory work. Allows porosity and satu- rations to be determined on the same sample. Utilizes relatively large sample, even for con- ventional type analyses. Elapsed time in the Tabo- ratory is shortest of all methods. O41 and water content determinations subject to calibration and corrections. Water calibration diffi- cult when hydratable minerals are present. Conventional plug sam- ples cannot be used for further tests. Boyle's Law Accurate. Fairly rapid for majority ‘of samples encountered. Samples can be used for further testing. Slow for low permeabi1ity samples. Preparation of sample for test is important. Drying technique is crit- ical when hydratable minerals are present. Measurement of bulk vol ume is critical in the grain volune determination type test. Adsorption of gas on the rock surfaces tends to give an errone- ously high porosity value, Comparison of Porosity Determination Methods (continued) Method Advantages Limitations Washburn- Bunting Low equipment cost. Equipment must be kept very clean; extremely careful techniques must be used in order to obtain acceptably accurate results. Sample cannot be used for further testing. Preparation and drying of sample are critical, as in the Boyle's Law method. Resaturation Accurate. Determination of porosity convenient while pre- paring samples for other tests. Samples can be used for further testing. Slow and fairly difficult. Wetting the rock surfaces with either brine or hydrocarbon saturants is difficult. Incomplete resaturation causes erroneously low porosity values. Preparation and drying of sample are criti- cal, as in the Boyle's Law’method. Grain Density Accurate. Measures total porosity. Slow and fairly difficult, requiring very careful Jaboratory techniques. Preparation and drying of sample are critical, as in the Boyle's Law method. Hydrostatic Load Cell _[—S a) 8 | Rate thon = pe) . 5, 1 a [st lovicracde) 3s i | B4 Pee 2 ial Prsty _Desrnion APY7PUZPS] Noe c (yest) EB: paz Walon 351 - ce 10600 p> * 00 ano e000 60000000 8,090 psi Se -" a ‘Net Overburcen Pressure: PSI 2 Swope Porosity Reduction With Overburden Pressure @s % MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY UNDER CONFINING PRESSURE Well-cemented, elastic rocks do not undergo much change in volume upon release from their in-situ environment and porosity is determined with- out confining pressure. AUnconsolidated and poorly consdlidated rock often increase in size when released from their natural confining stresses. Porosity should be measured on samples of this type under a confining pressure approxi- mately equivalent to the in-situ stresses. ACCURACY OF METHODS The porosity determination methods described are all accurate within a 40.5 porosity percent when the limits imposed on each method are properly observed. EFFECT OF NET OVERBURDEN PRESSURE ON POROSITY Assumed Pressures Porosity Pore Volume = Assumed = —— —__* ____ Sgopree Depth ‘Reservoir Ouerburden Ne ‘Surface Reeroir PVIEVIPSH Fea PSC ‘PSI PSIG Per Cont Per Cont 2x10 5.000 2,500 ‘5,000 2500 a 1992 10 985 5 498 20,000 10,000 20,000 10,000 2 1988 10 9a 3 $90 10 x 10% 5,000 2,500 5,000 2.500 Bd 1960 io ‘Ont 3 485 20,000 10,000 20,000 10,000 2 1387 10 9.09 5 452 40 l {Sandstone + 77 Aimestne [TY al 7 O- a a) e1 2 y o| 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Plug Porosity: Percent Cuttings vs Plug Porosity Percer ‘Sidewall Porosity: Percent 0 4 8 12 6 20 2% 28 32 36 40 Conventional Cre Porosity: Percent Sidewall vs Conventional Porosity Porosity Comparisons © 10 COMPARISON OF POROSITY Whole Core Versus Conventional Samples Whole core porosities tend to be slightly lower than conventional po- rosities in certain formations. The whole core measurement includes ‘the tighter, fractured rock, which is sometimes excluded in conventional plug analysis when there is good porosity development. There is also a tendency to sample the better appearing pay when plug analysis is made. Exceptions to this generality occur when large solution cavities exist, and when the whole core is badly invaded with mud solids. Cuttings versus Conventional Size Samples Development of an “Extended Range Porosimeter" allows measurenent of grain volume and bulk volume on cuttings. Accuracy approaches that of core analysis. Porosity can be determined within *1.0 porosity percent when total bulk volume of the cuttings sample approaches 0.4 cubic centimeters. The technique is valid for both limestone and sandstone when drilling results in suitable cuttings not ground to a powder. Supplementary Notes Sidewall Versus Conventional Samples Porosity data agree within one or two porosity percent in medium to high porosity samples. Low porosity, highly cemented sandstone and limestone, tend to shatter during core recovery and yield values greater than true porosity. Development of sidewall-conventional porosity cor- relations in specific formations within a reservoir are important to maximize benefits of sidewall data. ‘Typical Diamond Core-Sidewall Porosity Data Comparison Approximate _Sidewall Conventional Formation State _Depth, Ft. Porosity, % Porosity, % Pleistocene calif. 1,000 31 35* Pliocene-Miocene Calif. 1,500 35 34a" Miocene Calif. 12,000 21.2 19.8 Miocene La. 8,600 28.4 27.3 Frio La. 7,300 28.3 27.7 Cockfield la. 7,080 28.7 29.5 ‘Mounted in metal sheath with hydrostatic loading of 500 psi. Typical Rubber Sleeve Core-Sidewall Data Comparison Approximate Sidewall Rubber Sleeve Formation State Depth, Ft. Porosity, & Porosity, %_ Miocene Louisiana 10,500 32.0 34.0 Miocene Louisiana 10; 580 32.5 32.4 Oligocene Louisiana -- 32.0 32:3 Permeamaar Perneanedee Permeability Measurements @s P, P, Upstream Pressure Downstream Pressure aie Pressure Regulator Calibrated Orifice Sample folder Permeameter = <~ Gat Metal Plug Schematic Flow Diagram AeA Screen Low Air |; ebw S Fre Meter ee + wat Air a Dise 7 . eal High . Pressure Low Air To Pressure Flow Meter a= > Rubber Tubing’ 7 Hassler-Type Core Holders @1 PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS Sidewall_and Conventional To determine specific permeability, a fluid of known viscosity (usually air) is caused to flow through a prepared sample of measured dimen- sions. The pressure differential and flow rates are measured, and the permeability is calculated from the Darcy equation: su Po2) C > He) K = Permeability, piLJidarcies 000. ( Kair Qa = Flow rate, cc/Set; at atmospheric pressure u = Viscosity of air, cp L = Length of sample in centimeters A= Cross section area, cmé j = Upstream pressure, atmospheres (y»,/et) Outlet pressure, atmospheres = Atmospheric pressure, atmospheres s f Permeability values are reported as permeability to air, Ka, or they are corrected for the Klinkenberg effect and reported as equivalent liquid permeabilities, k,- Whole Core whole core permeability determinations are similar to the conventional tests, differing in the sampie-holding techniques and in the geometry of the sample. When horizontal (transverse) permeability is measured on a full-diameter sample, a geometric factor, G, is substituted for the shape factor, L/A, in the Darcy equation. Radial flow patterns are sometimes used for measuring permeability on full-diameter samples. Klinkenberg corrections are not made in whole core determinations; only permeability to air is reported. Ox 200) Geometrical Factor: G oo Teo Angle Covered By Screens 200 Theoretical Curve Relating The Geometric Factor and The Angular Segment Of The Core Covered By The Screens Empirical Permeability i. 0 100 ~—~1000 Measured Permeability 10000 Typical Scattering of Points For Empirical vs Measured Permeahility oO Horizontal Permeability Horizontal permeability is routinely measured on all sizes of cores. In whole core analysis, two horizontal permeability values are reported, one in the direction of maximum flow, labeled Knax» and the other at 90° to the direction of maximum flow, labeled Kgg. Vertical Permeability Measurements of permeability in the vertical orientation are made upon request. Whenever the vertical permeability characteristics are not well documented, some measurements should be made. Empirical Percussion Sidewall Permeability Whenever an insufficient amount of sidewall sample is available for a complete analysis, it is considered desirable to use the available mate- rial for the porosity and saturation determinations, and to obtain a permeability value from a correlation of permeability with porosity (measured) and other textural characteristics available from a careful visual inspection of the sample. Supplementary Notes fa Cemented lated Unconsolid: Permeability: Fraction Of Original % 2000 «©4000 «= 6000» 8000 = 10000 Net Overburden Pressure: PSI Permeability Reduction With Overburden Pressure @ MEASUREMENT OF PERMEABILITY UNDER CONFINING PRESSURES Well Cemented, Elastic Rock Well consolidated rock has a high modulus of rigidity and is not reduced in volume greatly under confining pressures. Permeability measurements are normally made on samples of this type with only an adequate confin- ‘ing pressure to prevent bypass of the flowing fluid around the sample. Unconsolidated or Poorly Consolidated Rock Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated rock undergoes much greater reduc- tion of permeability under confining pressure. Reductions as great as a factor of_four are observed. Effect by Rock Type For a given rock type, well cemented or unconsolidated, a greater per- centage of reduction in permeability will be effected in lower perme- ability rock than in higher permeability rock. Accuracy ‘The accuracy of routine specific permeability measurements is approxi- mately +5% of the value. Supplementary Notes 100 Percussion Sidewall Core Permeability: Millidarcies GULF ot FORMATIONS 00 Samples Sidewall K>Conventional K Sidewall K L = Length of element or model Le = Effective length of capillary A = Cross section area of model, length” > a = Effective cross section area of capillary or conductor, length’ @: 2 i ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES The electrical conductivity of any material is an index of its ability to conduct an electric current. It is independent of the dimensions of the element of the material, and it is the electrical analog of permeability. The reciprocal of conductivity is resistivity. Resis- tivity and the electrical resistance are related as follows: al aah eRek a. B epeA Rer L In a capillary tube model the equations are: ro=fwek . L ~ £ ( ero Ae Mas A, Bu, he Ro= ro f= a ae q In a porous media model the equations become: Le ro = Rw « EE ee be ey A ofr Ro = ro Cc Where: rv = Resistance of element of any material of dimension A and L, ohm R = Resistivity of any element, ohm-length Rw = Resistivity of brine, ohm-length ro = Resistance of brine saturated capillary or porous media =p °° eee ohn Ro = Resistivity of brine saturated capillary or porous media fodel oh lencth a (On ‘Temperature 450-7 00 Egquivalent NaCl in PPM 1.645 x ppm Cl= ppm NaCl Resistivity Of Saline Solutions © 14 Variables That Influence Resistivity of Natural Porous Nedia “Salinity of water /Y Temperature vPorosity Pore geometry h fad Formation stress R “Composition of rock Electrical Conductivity in Porous Media The conduction of an electric current in porous rock is due primarily to the movement of dissolved ions in the brine that fills the pores of the rock. The conductivity varies directly with ion concentration. Similarly, conductivity varies directly with temperature. This is due to the increased activity of the ions in solution as temperature ‘increases. Supplementary Notes Ro Ry Formation Factor (F): § thet om on Formation” 10} -§ Factor and Porosity | Ford = 15% Formation Factor Varies ‘from 25 to 95. Fork = 45 «Varies From 10% to 21% ‘voor O01 or 1.0 Porosity ():Fraction Formation Factor vs Porosity For Range of Measured Cementation Factor ‘o.00T O01 Porosity (

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