MACHINE DESIGN-LECTURE

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Simple, Combined and Variable Stresses

Strength – the ability of a material to withstand load without failure.

Stress – force or load per unit area, lb/ in 2, kg / m2 , kN / m2

Ultimate Stress ( SU ) – stress that would cause failure.

Yield Stress ( SY ) – maximum stress without causing deformation ( within elastic

limit)

Allowable Stress ( or safe stress ) = Ultimate Stress____________

Factor of Safety ( FS ) or Design Factor

Design Stress ( SO ) – stress used in the determining the size of a member ( allowable
stress or less )

= SU or SY
FS FS

Working Stress ( SW ) = stress actually occurring under operating conditions.

Endurance Limit or Fatigue Limit ( Se , Sn ) = maximum stress that will not cause failure
when the force is reversed indefinitely.

Residual Stress – internal, inherent, trapped, locked – up body stress that exists within
a material as a result of things other than external loading such as
cold working, heating or cooling, etching, repeated stressing and
electroplating.

Definition of Terms:

Strength of Materials – deals with the relations between external forces applied to
elastic bodies and the resulting deformations and stresses.

Stress – is force per unit area and is usually expressed in pounds – per square inch. If
the stress tends to stretch or lengthen the material, it is called tensile stress; if the
compress or shorten the material, a compressive stress; and if to tear the material, a
shearing stress.

Unit Strain – is the amount by which a dimension of a body changes when the body is
subjected to load, divided by the original value of the dimension.

Proportional Limit – is the point on a stress – strain curve at which it begins to deviate
from the straight – line relationship between stress and strain.

Elastic Limit – is the maximum stress to which a test specimen may be subjected and
still return to its original length upon release of the load.

Yield Point – is the point on the stress – strain curve at which there is a sudden increase
in strain without corresponding increase in stress.
Yield Strength – is the maximum stress that can be applied without permanent
deformation of the test specimen. This is the value of the stress at the elastic limit for
materials for which there is an elastic limit. Yield strength is usually 0.1 to 0.2 percent of
the original dimension.

Ultimate Strength – ( also called tensile strength ) is the maximum stress value obtained
on a stress – strain curve.

Modulus of Elasticity, E – ( also called Young ‘ s Modulus ) is the ratio of unit stress to
unit strain within the proportional limit of a material in tension or compression.

Modulus of Elasticity in Shear, G – is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain within
proportional limit of a material in shear.

Poisson’ s ratio – is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain for a given material
subjected to uniform longitudinal stresses within the proportional limit.

Simple and Direct Stresses:

1. Tensile Stress

F F
St =
A

2. Compressive Stress

F
Sc =
A

3. Shearing Stress

F
F F
Ss =
A
4. Bearing Stress
F

D F
SB =
A

5. Torsional Stress

TC 16 T
SS = or S S = for circular shaft 
J  D3
Where: T = torque
J = polar moment of inertia
C = distance of farthest fiber from neutral axis.
C = r or D/2 for circular shaft
6. Bending (Flexural) Stress

F
C
h
NA

MC
Sf =
I
Where: M = moment
C = distance of farthest fiber from neutral axis.
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis
bh3
I= for rectangula r section
12

7. Strain, Elongation ( or shortening )

 L

F
Y
Strain (unit elongation ) =
L
F
Stress =
A
E = Modulus of Elasticity
(Youngs Modulus)
stress F A
E= =
strain Y L
FL L
Y= =S
AE E

Where:
Y = elongation or shortening
L = length
F = force applied
A = cross-sectional area
S = stress
E = Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus)
= 30,000,000 psi for steel (206,786 Mpa)

8. Thermal Elongation; Stress

Y = kL t 2 - t1 
Y
S = E = kE t 2 - t1 
L
Where:
Y = elongation due to temperature change, m
k = coefficient of thermal expansion, m/m-°C
t1 = initial temperature, °C
t2 = final temperature, °C
S = stress

Combined and Induced Stresses

1. Combined Axial and Flexural Stresses

 Fb

F
F

F MC
S= 
A I

2. Maximum shear induced by external tension and shearing loads

Induced Stresses are those tensile, compressive and shear stresses induced
within a body by application of external forces and/or torques onto the body.

1 2 2
S s max = S t + 4S s
2
MC T
St = and S s = C
I J

3. Maximum normal Stress induced by external tension and shearing loads

S 1 2 2
S t max = t + S t + 4S s
2 2

Relation between shearing and tensile stress based on theories of failure:

S t max = S ty
S ty
S s max =
2
Where: Sty = yield stress in tension

Variable Stress

1 Sm S a
= +
N S y Sn
Where:
N = factor of safety
Sy = yield point
Sn = endurance limit
Sm = mean stress
S + Smin
Sm = max
2
Sa = variable component stress
S - Smin
S a = max
2
Smax = maximum stress
Smin = minimum stress

Shear, Moment and Deflection of Beams:

 P

PL3
Y=
3EI
R =P
V = -P
M = - PL

a b

L
Pa 3L - a 
2
Y=
6EI

W (N/m)

L
4
wL
Y=
8EI
R = W = wL
V = - wL
wL2
M=-
2

W (N/m)

L
3
WL
Y=
15EI
R = W = wL
V = - wL
WL
M=
3
 M

L
2
ML
Y=
2EI

L/2 L/2

PL3
Y=
48EI
P
R1 = R 2 =
2
P PI
V= and M =
2 4

a b

Deflection at x:
3
P (L2 - b 2 ) 2
Y= b
9 3EIL
L2 - b 2
x=
3

w (N/m)

5wL4
Y=
348EI
wL
R1 = R 2 =
2
wL wL2
V= and M =
2 8
 P

L/2 L/2

A B
3
PL
Y=
192EI
P
R A = RB =
2
P
V=
2
PI
M =  at the center span
8

L
w (N/m)

A B
4
wL
Y=
384EI
wL
R1 = R 2 =
2
wL
V= (at ends)
2
wL2
MA = Mb = 
12

w (N/m)

A B

x R1
R2
Deflection at x:
5wL4
Y=
926EI
x = 0.57 L
3wL 5wL
R1 = and R 2 =
8 8
2
wL 9wL2
MA =  and Mb =
8 128

Legend:
 P = concentrated load
R = reactions, N
w = uniform load, N/m
W = total uniform load, N
L = length of beam, m
x = distance from support sat any section, m
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
(30,000,000 psi for steel)
I = moment of inertia, m4
V = maximum vertical shear, N
M = maximum bending moment, N-m
y = maximum deflection, m

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Brittleness – tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation.

Ductility – that property that permits permanent deformation before fracture in tension.

Elasticity – ability of a material to be deformed and to return to its original shape.

Hardness – resistance to indentation.

Machinability – relative ease with which a material can be cut.

Malleability – susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling and hammering.

Plasticity – ability of a material to be deformed considerably without rupture.

Stiffness – ability to resist deformation.

Toughness – ability to withstand shock load without breaking.

Heat Treatment Practices

Annealing – heating above the transformation range, usually 1300 to 1350 ° F, and
cooling slowly to soften the metal and increase ease in machining.

Hardening – heating above transformation temperature and quenching usually in oil, for
the purpose of increasing the hardness.

Normalizing – heating to some 100 ° F above the transformation range with subsequent
cooling to below the range in still air at room temperature to produce uniform structure
of the metal.

Stress Relieving – heating to a subcritical temperature, about 1100 to 1300 ° F and

holding at that temperature for a suitable time for the purpose of reducing internal
residual stresses.

Tempering – reheating to a temperature below the transformation range followed by any

desired rate of cooling to attain the desired properties of the metal.

Case Hardening – process of hardening the surface or case of a metal to provide a hard,
wear resistant surface while retaining toughness in the core

Metal Forming Processes

Rolling – process of forming metal parts by the use of dies after the metal is heated to
its plastic range.

Forging – the process of forming metal parts by the use of powerful pressure from a
hammer or press to obtain the desired shape, after the metal has been heated to its
plastic range.

AISI and SAE Designation of Steel

AISI Y XXXX SAE XXXX

Y is a letter, used in AISI only, to indicate the method of manufacturing; first number ( or
first two numbers ) represents class of steel; second number indicates the approximate
percentage of the principal alloying element; last two numbers indicate 100 times the
approximate percentage of carbon present in the metal.

Steel

Plain Carbon 10XX

Free Cutting 11XX
Manganese 13XX
Boron 14XX
Nickel 2XXX
Nickel – Chromium 3XXX
Heat and Corrosion resistant 303XX
Molybdenum 4XXX
Molybdenum – Chromium 41XX
Molybdenum – Chromium – nickel 43XX
Molybdenum – nickel 46XX
Molybdenum – Chromium – nickel 47XX
Molybdenum – nickel 48XX
Chromium 5XXX
Heat and Corrosion 514XX
Resistant 515XX
Chromium – Vanadium 6XXX
Nickel – Chromium – molybdenum 8XXX
Silicon – manganese 92XX
Nickel – chromium – molybdenum 9XXX
( except 92XX )

Commonly Used Metal

Metal Description Uses

Wrought Iron Iron formed by hammering Rivets, welded steam

and rolling operations. and water pipes.

Cast iron Iron formed by casting Cylinder blocks, brake

drums, gears, machine
tool ways.

Malleable iron Heat treated cast iron which is Gears

strong, ductile and easily
machined
Nodular Cast Cast iron added with magnesium Casings, Crankshafts,
Iron and cerium to become stronger hubs, rolls, forming die
and more ductile.

Cast Steel Steel formed by casting Gears, crankshafts,

cylinder barrels
Wrought Steel Steel formed by hammering Bars, tubes
rolling or drawing

Stainless Steel Steel obtained by addition of Steam turbine blades

Chromium valves

Brass Alloy of copper and zinc Propeller shafts, piston

rods, screws, etc.

Bronze Alloy of copper, tin and Clutch, disks, pump rods,

phosphorus shafts, valve stems, etc.

Tabulated Properties of Materials

Tables of different materials show the following important properties ultimate strength,
yield stress, endurance limit, BHN, modulus of elasticity, elongation, density.

Definitions:

Age Hardening – is a change in a metal by which its structure recovers from an unstable
or metastable condition that has been produced by quenching or cold working.

Alloy – is a substance with metallic properties, composed of two or more elements of

which at least one is a metal.

Alloying Elements – in steel are usually considered to be the metallic elements added
for the purpose of modifying the properties.

Anisotropy – is the characteristics of exhibiting different properties when tested in

different directions ( as tensile strength “ with the grain “ or “ across the grain “ ).

Brittleness – is the tendency to fracture without appreciable deformation.

Charpy Test – is one in which a specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is
broken by the impact of a falling pendulum.

Cold Shortness – is brittleness of metals at ordinary or low temperature.

Cold Working – is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a temperature below

the recrystallization temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening.

Damping Capacity – is the ability of a material to absorb or damp vibrations, which is a

process of absorbing kinetic energy of vibration owing to hysteresis.
Decarburization – is a loss of carbon from the surface of steel occurring during hot
rolling, forging and heat treating, when the surrounding medium reacts with the carbon
( as oxygen and carbon combining )

Ductility – is that property that permits permanent deformation before in tension.

Elasticity – is the ability of a material to be deformed and to return to the original shape.

Embrittlement – involves the loss of ductility because of a physical or chemical change

of the material.

Free Carbon – is the part of the carbon content of steel or iron that is in the form of
graphite or temper carbon.

Hard Drawn – is a temper produced in a wire, rod or tube by cold drawing.

Homogeneous materials – ( have homogeneity ) have the same structure at all points.

Isotropic – materials have the same properties in all directions.

Izod Test – is a test which a specimen, supported at one end as a cantilever beam, is
broken by the impact of a falling pendulum.

Killed Steel – is steel that has been deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent, such as
silicon or aluminum, in order to eliminate a reaction between the carbon and oxygen
during solidification.

Machinability – is a somewhat indefinite property that refers to the relative ease with
which a material can be cut.

Malleability – is a materials susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling or hammering.

Mechanical properties – are those that have to do with stress and strain.

Percentage elongation – is the extension in the vicinity of the fracture of a tensile

specimen, expressed as a percentage of the original gage length.

Percentage reduction area – is the smallest area at the point of rupture of a tensile
specimen divided by the original area.

Physical Properties – exclude mechanical properties, and are other physical properties
such as density, conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion.

Plasticity – is the ability of a metal to be deformed considerably without rupture.

Poisson‘s ratio – is the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain when the
elements is loaded with longitudinal tensile force.

Precipitation heat treatment – brings about the precipitation of a constituents from a

supersaturated solid solution by holding the body at an elevated temperature, also
called artificial aging.

Proof stress – is that stress which causes a specified permanent deformation of a

material, usually 0.01 % or less.

Red shortness – associated with creep, is the decreasing stress at a constant strain,
important to metals in high temperature.

Residual Stress – are those not due to applied loads or temperature gradients.

Rimmed steel – is incompletely deoxidize steel.

Solution heat treatment – is the process of holding an alloy at a suitably high
temperature long enough to permit one or more constituents to pass into solid solution
and then cooling fast enough to hold the constituent as a supersaturated solution.

Stiffness – is the ability to resist deformation.

Strain hardening – is increasing the hardness and strength by plastic deformation at

temperature lower than the recrystallization range.

Temper – is a condition produced in a non – ferrous metal by mechanical or thermal

treatment.

Toughness – is the capacity of a material to withstand a shock load without breaking.

Transverse strength – refers to the results of a transverse bend test, the specimen
being mounted as a simple beam; also called rupture modulus.

Work hardening – is the same as strain hardening.

Wrought steel – is a steel that has been hammered, rolled or drawn in the process of
manufacture; it may be plain carbon or alloy steel.

Classification of Alloy Steel:

1. Low – alloy structural steels – were developed for structural uses where light weight
is important.
2. Low – carbon alloy steels – ( 0.10 – 0.25 % C ) used chiefly for carburizing.
3. Medium – carbon alloy steels - ( 0.25 – 0.50 % C ) usually quenched and tampered
to hardness between 250 and 400 Brinell.
4. High – carbon alloy steel – ( 0.50 – 0.70 % C or more ) ordinarily heat treated to
hardness between 375 and 500 Brinell, for use as springs, wear resisting parts.
5. High – alloy steel – such as stainless steels.

Functions of Alloying Elements ( chemical symbol in parenthesis )

Aluminum ( A ) – is an efficient deoxidizer, an alloy in nitriding steels ( nitralloys ) , and it

promotes fine grain size.

Boron ( B ) – in very small amounts ( 0.01 % or less ) is an economical hardenability

agent in low or medium carbon deoxidized steels.

Chromium ( Cr ) – improves hardenability economically, resistance to corrosion ( with

other alloys ), strength at high temperatures, and wearing properties ( high carbon )

Cobalt ( Co ) – improves red hardness.

Colombium ( Cb ) – is often used to stabilize stainless steel.

Copper ( Cu ) – improves steels resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

Lead ( Pb ) – improves machinability, but affects different alloys differently.

Manganese ( Mn ) – improves strength and increases hardenability, moderately,

counteract brittleness from sulfur.
Molybdenum ( Mo ) – increases hardenability markedly and economically, tends to
counteract temper brittleness, improving creep strength and red hardness; it improves
wear by forming abrasion – resistant particles.

Nickel ( Ni ) – strengthens unquenched and annealed steels, toughens steel ( especially

at low temperatures ) , and simplifies heat treatment by lessening distortion. It is the
most element for reducing the brittleness of steel at very low temperature.

Phosphorus ( P ) – increases hardenability, strengthens low carbon steels, improves

machinability of free cutting steels, and improves resistance to corrosion.

Selenium ( Se ) – improves machinability of stainless steel; also added to leaded

resulfurized carbon steels for the same purpose.

Silicon ( Si ) – strengthens low alloy steels and improves resistance to high temperature
oxidation; it is a good general purpose deoxidizer and promotes the grain.

Tantalum ( Ta ) - is a stabilizer.

Titanium ( Ti ) – is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing austenic stainless steels; it
increases the hardness and strength low carbon steel and improve creep strength.

Tungsten ( W ) – increases hardenability markedly in small amounts and improves

hardness and strength at high temperature.

Vanadium ( V ) – promotes fine grain structure, improves the ratio of endurance

strength to ultimate strength of medium carbon steels, increases hardenability strongly
when dissolved, and results in retention of strength and hardness at high temperature; it
is the most effective element in retarding softening during tempering.

Uses of Alloy Steel:

AISI 2330 : bolt, studs, tubing subjected to torsional stresses.

AISI 2340 : quenched and tempered shafting, connecting rods, very
highly stressed bolts, forging.
AISI 2350 : high capacity gears, shafts, heavy duty machine parts.
AISI 3130 : shafts, bolts, steering knuckles.
AISI 3140 : aircraft and truck engine crankshafts, oil well tool joints, spline
shafts, axels earth moving equipment,
AISI 3240 : shafts, highly stressed pins and keys, gears.
AISI 3300 series : for heavy parts requiring deep penetration of the heat treatment
and high fatigue strength per unit weight.
AISI 4063 : leaf and coil spring.
AISI 4130, 4140 : automotive connecting rods and axles, aircraft parts and tubing.
AISI 4340 : crankshafts, axles, gears, landing gear parts; perhaps the best
general purpose AISI steel.
AISI 4640 : gears, splined shafts, hand tools, miscellaneous heavy duty
machine parts.
AISI 8630 : connecting rods, bolts, shapes, air hardens after welding.
AISI 8640,8470 : gears, propeller shafts, knuckles, shapes.

THIN-WALL PRESSURE VESSELS

Definition: A thin-wall pressure vessel is one in which the ratio of the wall thickness to
the inside diameter is less than 0.07.

Thin-wall Cylinder:
 PDi
St =
2t
Where: P = internal pressure
D = inside diameter
t = wall thickness
St = tangential (tensile stress)
When there is a seam or joint, the joint efficiency E must be considered:

PDi
St =
2tE
Where : E = joint efficiency

Thin-Wall Sphere:

PDi
St =
4t
Considering the joint efficiency E:
PDi
St =
4tE

Thick-Wall Cylinders

Definition: A thick-wall cylinder is one in which the ratio of the wall thickness to the
inside diameter is more than 0.07.

Lame’s Equation (Vallance p.451) for internal pressure:

D  S t + Pi 
t=  - 1
2  S t - Pi 
Where:
t = wall thickness
D = inside diameter
St = tangential or tensile stress
Pi = internal pressure
When subjected to internal and external pressure:
Maximum tangential stress at the inside:
 2

2
P r + r - 2P r
S ti = i o 2i 2 o o
2

ro - ri
Maximum tangential stress at the outside:
2 2 2
2Pr - P (r + ri )
S to = i i 2 o o2
ro - ri
Where: Pi = internal pressure
Po = external pressure
ri = inside radius
ro = outside radius

SHAFTS
Definitions:

Shaft – a rotating member transmitting power.

Axle – a stationary member carrying rotating wheels, pulleys, etc.

Spindle – a short shaft or axle on machines.

Machine shaft – a shaft which is an integral part of the machine

Transmission shaft – shaft which is used to transmit power between the source and the
machine absorbing the power

Lineshaft or mainshaft – transmission shaft driven by the prime mover

Countershaft, jackshaft, headshaft, shortshaft – transmission shaft intermediate

between the lineshaft and the driven machine

Commercial Sizes of Shafts, Inches (Faires: p. 269; Vallance: p 181)

1 9 5 11 3 13 7 15 3 7 11 15 3
, , , , , , , , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 2, 2 ,
2 16 8 16 4 16 8 16 16 16 16 16 16
7 15 7 15 7 15 7 15 1
2 , 2 , 3, 3 , 3 , 4, 4 , 4 , 5, 5 , 5 , 6, 6 , 7
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 2

Materials for Transmission Shafts: cold-rolled, hot rolled, forged carbon steel.

Relation of Power, Torque and Speed

P = 2Tn and T = F x r
Where: P = power transmitted (kw)
T = torque or torsional moment (kN-m)
N = speed (rev/sec)
r = radius (m)

Stresses in Shafts, Subject to Torsion Only

Tc TL
Ss = and  = radians
J JG
16T
Ss = (for solid cicular shaft)
D3
16T
Ss = (for hollow cicular shaft)
4
 D o - Di4

Where: Ss = torsional shear stress

T = torque or torsional moment
c = distance from neutral axis to the outermost fiber
= radius (for solid circular shaft)
J = polar moment of inertia
 
J =  D 4 for solid circular shaft
 32 

  4
 4
J =   Do - Di for hollow circular shaft
 32 
D = diameter of shaft
 L = length of shaft
Θ = angular deformation in length L, radians
G = modulus of rigidity in shear
= 11,500,000 psi to 12,000,000 psi for steel
` Do = outside diameter
Di = inside diameter

Stresses in Solid Circular Shaft Subjected to Torsion and Bending

16
Smax = 3
M2 + T 2
D
Smax =
16
D3
M + M2 + T 2 
Where: Ss max = maximum shear stress
St max = maximum tensile or compressive stress
M = bending moment
T = torsional moment

Strength of Shaft with Assumed Allowable Stresses

(PSME CODE p. 18)
For Main Power Transmitting Shafts (assumed stress = 4000 psi):
D3N 80P
P= or D = 3
80 N
For Lineshafts Carrying Pulleys (assumed stress = 6000 psi):
D3N 53.5P
P= or D = 3
53.5 N
For Small, Short Shafts (assumed Stress = 8500 psi):
D3N 38P
P= or D = 3
38 N
Where: P = Power transmitted in HP
D = Diameter of shaft in inches
N = speed in rpm

Empirical Formula from Machinery’s Handbook:

Diameter of Shaft:
1. for allowable twist not exceeding 0.08 deg per ft length
HP
D = 0.29 4 T or D = 4.6 4
N
Where: D = shaft diameter, inches
T = torque, in-lb
HP = horsepower
N = speed rpm
In S.I. Units (allowable twist 0.26 deg per meter length)
P
D = 2.26 4 T or D = 125.7 4
N
Where: D = shaft diameter, mm
T = torque, N-mm
P = power, kw
N = speed, rpm
2. for allowable twist not exceeding 1 deg per 20D length
HP
D = 0.1 3 T or D = 4.0 3
N
 Where: D = shaft diameter, inches
T = torque, in-lb
HP = horsepower
N = speed, rpm
3. for short, solid shaft subjected only to heavy transverse shear
1.7V
D=
Ss
Where: V = maximum transverse shearing loads, lbs
Ss = maximum torsional shearing stress, lb/in2

Linear Deflection of Shafting

For steel lineshafting, it is considered good practice to limit the linear deflection to a
maximum of 0.010 inch per foot of length.

Maximum Distance:
1. For shafting subject to no bending action except its own weight
L = 8.95 3 D 2
2. For shafting subjected to bending action of pulleys, etc.
L = 5.2 3 D 2
Where: L = maximum distance between bearings, ft
D = diameter of shafts, inches

Note:
1. Pulleys should be placed as close to the bearings as possible.
2. In general, shafting up to three inches in diameter is almost always made from
cold rolled steel.

KEYS

Definitions:

Key – a machine employed at the interface of a pair of mating male and female circular
cross – sectional members to prevent relative angular motion between these mating
members.

Keyway – a groove in the shaft and mating member to which the key fits.

Splines – permanent keys made integral with the shaft and fitting into keyways
broached into the mating hub.

Types of Keys:

1. Square key – has a square cross – section with half of its depth sunk in the shaft and
half in the hub.

2. Flat key – has a rectangular cross – section with the smaller dimension placed in the
radial direction with half sunk in the shaft and half in the hub and is used where the
weakening of the shaft by the keyway is serious.

3. Round key – has a circular cross – section.

4. Barth key – is a square key with bottom two corners beveled.

5. Woodruff key – consists of one – half of a circular disk fitting into a rectangular
keyway in the female member and a semi – circular keyway in the male member.

6. Gib – head taper key – is a flat key with a special gib – head to facilitate east driving
and removal of the key

7. Saddle key – is a flat key used without a keyway in the shaft.

8. Kennedy keys – are tapered square keys with the diagonal dimension in a
circumferential direction.

9. Feather key – is one which has a tight fit one member and a loose sliding fit in the
other mating member thus allowing the hub to move along the shaft but prevents
rotation on the shaft.

Square Key
Flat Key
Round Key
Kennedy Key

Stresses in Keys

h F
w
r

P = 2Tn
T T
F= =
r D
2
Where: P = power transmitted
T = Torque
r = radius
D = diameter
N = speed

Crushing (Compressive) Stress:

F
Sc =
h
L 
2

Shearing Stress:
F
Ss =
wL

Generally, when the key and shaft are of the same material:
 D
W= and L = 1.2D
4
Where: w = width of key
h = thickness of key
L = length of key

COUPLINGS

Definition:

Coupling – a mechanical device which is used to connect lengths of shafting

permanently.

Types of Couplings:

1. Rigid Couplings – couplings that do not allow angular, axial or rotational flexibility and
used with collinear shafts.
A. Flange Coupling – type of rigid coupling which consists of two halves of
flanges connected to each other by bolts.
B. Sleeve or Collar Coupling – rigid coupling which is a cylindrical collar pressed
over the ends of two collinear shafts.

2. Flexible Couplings – couplings which allow angularity to take care of misalignment of

the shafts.

Oldham coupling, chain coupling, flexible disk coupling, flexible gear type
coupling, hydraulic coupling, universal joints, are examples of flexible couplings.

Stresses in Flange Coupling

P = 2Tn

F = total transmitted load on bolts

Torque
F=
D
2
F
Fb = force per bolt =
no. of bolts
Fb
S s = shear stress in bolts =
  2
 d
4
Fb
S c = compressiv e stress on flange =
td

Flange Coupling:
 D Ds

d
t

Where: D = diameter of the bolt circle

Ds = diameter of the shaft
t = thickness of the flange
d = diameter of the bolt

FLYWHEELS

Definition:

Flywheel – a rotating energy reservoir which absorbs energy from a power source
during a portion of the operating cycle and delivers that stored energy as useful work
during the other portion of the cycle.

Machines in which flywheels are used : punch presses and shears, internal combustion
engines, compressors, reciprocating pumps and steam engines.

Design Calculations:

1
Kinetic Energy = mV 2
2
KE =
W 2
2g

V1 - V2
2

Where: KE = kinetic energy released by flywheel
W = weight of flywheel
V1 = maximum (operating) speed
V1 =  DN1
V2 = minimum speed
V2 =  DN2
D = mean diameter of flywheel
b = width of flywheel rim
t = thickness of flywheel rim
W = Wf + Wah
Where: Wr = weight of flywheel rim
Wr =  Dbt
Wah = weight of arms and hub
ρ = density of flywheel material
= 7200 kg/m3 for iron

Kinetic Energy of flywheel in terms of Moment of Inertia:

KE = 1 l 2
2
 KE =
mk 2 2
2

1 - 2 2 
Where: I = moment of inertia = mk2
m = mass of flywheel
k = r = radius of gyration
ω1 = maximum angular velocity, rad/sec
ω2 = minimum angular velocity, rad/sec

Coefficient of Fluctuation of Flywheel:

V1 - V2
Cf =
V
V + V2
V= 1
2
Where: Cf = coefficient of fluctuation
V1 = maximum speed
V2 = minimum speed

Energy required to punch a metal:

E = 1 Ft = 1 S su x A x t
2 2
Where: E = energy required to punch a metal
F = force required to punch a hole
= Ssu A
Ssu = ultimate shearing stress
A = shear area
= πdt for circular hole
t = thickness of metal plate
d = diameter of hole
Pressure of Force required to punch a hole (from Machineries Handbook):

Pressure or Force = d x t x 80 in tons

Where: Pressure = force required to punch a hole, in tons

d = diameter of hole, in inches
t = thickness of hole, in inches
FLYWHEEL:

BOLTS AND SCREWS

Definitions:

Bolts and Screws – are threaded fasteners which are used to hold together machine
members which require easy dismantling.

Bolts are provided with nuts and Screws are without nuts.

Commonly used types of bolts and screws:

Machine bolt, stud bolt, eye bolt, U – bolt, stove bolt, cap screw, set screw

Types of Threads:

1. UNC ( Unified National Course ) – for general use, except where other types are
recommended.

2. UNF ( Unified National Fine ) – frequently used in automotive, compressor, pumps

and aircraft work where a fine adjustment is required.

3. UNEF ( Unified National Extra Fine ) – used in aeronautical equipment and where
very fine adjustment is required.

Forms of Threads:

p
p
p/2
60°

V thread Acme thread

Buttress thread

Definition of Terms:

Pitch, P , is the axial distance between adjacent threads.

1
P= , inch
No. of threads per inch

Lead, L is the axial distance a thread advances in one revolution.

Major diameter, Do’ is the outside diameter of the threads and is the nominal diameter.

Minor diameter or root diameter, D1’ is the smallest diameter of the threads.

Pitch diameter, Dm’ is the mean diameter of the major and minor diameters.

Stress area is the area of an imaginary circle whose diameter is the mean of the pitch
and the minor diameters.
 2
  D + Di 
Stress Area =  m 
4 2 

Tabulated data on threads:

Tables of data on threads show the nominal size, threads per inch, minor
diameter and stress area.

Table in Valliance: Table 6-1, p.130

Table in Faires : Table AT 14, p.588

Formulas from Vallence and Faires:

VALLANCE FAIRES
Tensile Stress in Bolts S w = C(A r )0.418 Sy
A s  2
1
Sd =
Fa = C(A r )1.418 6
1
Where: Sy A s 2

Sw = permissible working F=
6
stress Where:
Fa = applied load Sd = design tensile stress
Ar = stress area Fe = tensile load
C = 5,000 for carbon steel As = stress area
= 15,000 for alloy steel Sy = yield stress
Depth of Tap 1.5 D in cast iron 1.5 D in cast iron
1.25 D in steel D in steel and wrought iron
D = nominal diameter D = nominal diameter
Initial Tension and Torque T = 0.2 Fa D T = CDFi
Where: Where:
T = torque C = 0.2 for as received
Fa = initial tension = 0.15 for lubricated
D = nominal diameter D = nominal diameter
Fi = initial tension

Working Strength of Bolt (From Machineries Handbook)

W = St (0.55d2 – 0.25d) in lbs

Where: W = working strength, in lbs

St = allowable working stress, psi
d = nominal diameter, in

Screws

Screw – is an externally threaded fastener capable of being inserted into holes in

assembled parts, of mating with a preformed internal thread of forming its own thread
and of being tightened or released by torquing a nut.

Commonly used screws:

Square head set screws, wood screws and tapping screws

Power or torque transmitted by a single set-screw:

DNd2.3
P= or T = 1250 Dd2.3
50
 Where: P = horsepower transmitted, hp
T = torque, in-lbs
D = shaft diameter, in
N = speed, rpm
d = set-screw diameter, in

Power Screws

Power screws are used to move weights and machine parts and uses square, acme or
buttress threads.
Pitch, P = the distance between adjacent threads, inches.

1
P=
No. of threads per inch

Lead, L = the distance the screw advances in one turn

= P (for single threaded screw)
= 2P (for double threaded screw)

Linear velocity = (rotational speed)(lead) or (V = N x Lead)

x = lead angle
Dm = mean diameter of threads

Lead
tan x =
 Dm

Torque applied to turn the screw:

WD m tan x + f 
T= for square thread
21 - f tan x 
WD m cos  tan x + f 
T= for acme thread
2cos  - f tan x 
Where: W = load
Θ = 14.5° for acme (15° for trapezoidal)
f = coefficient of friction
f = tan β (β frictional angle)

Torque required to overcome collar friction:

f W (ro - ri )
Tc = c
2
Where: fc = coefficient of friction of collar
ro = outside radius of collar
ri = inside radius of collar

Total torque required to operate the screw, TT = T + Tc

Power = 2πTTN

Torque required to lower the load:

WD m tan x - f 
TL =
21 + f tan x 
Efficiency of Power Screw:
 Useful Work
Efficiency =
Work Output
tan x 1 - f tan x 
Efficiency = for square thread
 fcDc 
tan x + f +  1 - f tan x 
 Dm 
tan x cos  - f sin x 
=
f D 
tan x cos  + f cos x +  c c cos  - f sin x 
 Dm 
(for Acme Thread, where θ = 14.5°)
D + Di
where : Dc = o
2

SPRINGS

Uses of Springs:

1. to absorb energy or shock loads as in automobile shock absorbers.

2. to maintain contact between machine members, as in valves and clutches
3. to act as source of energy, as in clocks.
4. to serve as measuring device, as in spring scales.

Types of Springs:

Helical compression, tension and torsion, conical, spiral, disk ( Belleville ), leaf
spring.

Materials on Springs;

Oil – tempered spring wire, music wire, hard –drawn spring wire, carbon steel,
chrome – vanadium steel, chrome – silicon steel, stainless steel.

Tabulated data on Springs:

Tables of springs give the following data: wire size, ultimate stress, yield stress,
modulus of elasticity and rigidity.

Tables in Valliance: Table 13-1, p.316; Table 13-2, p.317

Tables in Faires: Table AT 17, p.590

Actual No. of Coils Solid Length Free Length

(A) n (n + 1)d np + d
(B) n nd np
(C) n+2 (n + 3)d np + 3d
(D) n+2 (n + 2)d np + 2d
Where: n = effective no. of coils
p = pitch
d = diameter of the wire

Stress and Deflection of Coil Springs

8FDm
Ss = K
 d3
 4C - 1 0.615
K= +
4C - 4 C
(K = spring factor)
D
C = m (spring index)
d
8FC 3n
y=
Gd
4C - 1
Wahl factor =
4C - 4
Where: Ss = torsional shear stress in the wire
F = axial load
Dm = spring mean diameter
D + Di
= o
2
Do = outside diameter of spring
Di = inside diameter of spring
d = wire diameter
y = deflection
n = effective or active no. of coils
G = modulus of elasticity

Spring rate or Spring scale

F
Spring Rate = usually lb/in 
y
F -F
= 2 1
y 2 - y1

Impact load on spring (Free fall)

y
W h + y  = F 
2
Where: F = maximum force on spring
y = deflection of spring

Bodies with Velocity:

WV 2 y
= F 
2g 2

BELTS:

Types of transmission belts:

1. Flat belt – used with flat pulleys and allows long distance between shafts.

2. V – belt – used with sheaves or groove pulleys and provides stronger grip at short
distance between shafts.

3. Toothed belt – paired with toothed pulleys and used as timing belt where speed ratio
must be maintained.
Materials for transmission belt:

Oak – tanned leather is the standard material for flat belts.

Chrome – leather is used where very pliable material is desired.

Rubber belt is used when exposed to moisture, acids and alkalies.

Fabric and canvas belts are used for light power transmission.

Pulleys:

Flat belt pulleys are usually made of cast iron, fabricated steel, paper fiber, or the
various kinds of wood. Pulleys face widths are nominally the same as the widths of the
belts they are to carry, the pulley face shouls be approximately one inch more than the
belt width for belts 12 inches wide, 2 inches more for belts from 12 to 24 inches wide,
and 3 inches more for belts over 24 inches in width. Small angle of wrap may be
increased by the use of idler pulleys on one or both sides of the belt. Most pulleys have
six arms. For diameters less than 15 to 20 inches, they may be four arms, and pulleys 5
feet or larger in diameter often have eight arms.

Cast iron pulleys – cast iron pulleys formed from one solid casting may or may not have
a split or divided hub.

Solid – Cast iron pulleys – the split pulley that is formed of two separate sections boiled
together both at the hub and on the opposite sides of the rim, can be placed between
other pulleys on a shaft without removing either pulleys or the shafts. It is good practice
to make pulleys having face width of 10 inches or over, either of the clamp hub or split
form, because shrinkage strains are either greatly reduced or practically eliminated. If
this face width of a cast – iron pulley is greater than from 20-24 inches, there should be
two sets of arms to provide better support for the rim.

Wood Pulleys – wood pulleys are not only much lighter than cast – iron pulleys but hey
are superior as transmitters of power; in fact it is claimed that they will transmit from 35
to 50 % more power for the same belt tension. Wood pulleys should not be used where
they are exposed to excessive moisture.

Steel Pulleys – pulleys formed of sheet metal combine lightness with strength and they
are free from the initial stresses. The weight is ordinarily from 45 to 55 % less than the
weight of a cast – iron pulley of equal power – transmission capacity. A series of test
showed data that the percentage of slip was 2.35 to 2.70 percent less for steel pulleys
than for cast – iron pulleys. Steel pulleys are ordinarily of the split type.

Safe Speeds for Pulleys:

The maximum safe rim speeds for solid cast – iron pulleys as a general rule is
about 5000 fpm. If the pulley is split or formed of separate sections that are boiled
together at the rim, the maximum speed should be limited to about 55 to 60 percent of
the maximum speed for solid pulleys. For steel pulleys may be run at about 6000 fpm.
The maximum speed recommended for wood pulleys may be 5000 fpm for some
pulleys and 10,000 fpm for others of different construction. A pulley having a cast – iron
hub and arms, with a wood rim, has been operated under test at a rim speed of
29,000fpm.
Length and Arc of Contact of Flat Belts:

Open Belt:

D1 D2

L = 2C + 1.57 D 2 + D1  +
D2
- D1 
2

4C
R - r D - D1
 =   2sin -1 =  2 rad
C C
+ sign for larger pulley
- sign for smaller pulley
where: L = length of belt
D1 = diameter of smaller pulley
D2 = diameter of larger pulley
R = radius of larger pulley
r = radius of smaller pulley
θ = arc of contact, radians
C = center distance

Crossed Belt:

D1 D2

L = 2C + 1.57 D 2 + D1  +
D2 + D1 
2

4C
R+r
 =   2sin -1 rad
C

Speed ratio; Relation of speed and diameter

N1
Speed ratio =
N2
D1N1 = D2N2
Where: N1 = speed of smaller pulley (usually the driver)
N2 = speed of larger pulley (usually the driven)
D1 = diameter of smaller pulley
D2 = diameter of larger pulley
 ROLLER CHAINS

Construction of Roller Chain:

P = pitch of chain
= distance between centers if adjacent rollers

Designation of Chain Sizes:

Chain no. 25 35 40 50 60 80 100

Pitch, in ¼ 3/8 ½ 5/8 ¾ 1 1¼

Chain no. 120 140 160 200

Pitch, in 1½ 1¾ 2 2½

Tabulated Data on Roller Chains:

Tables of roller chains gave the following data: Chain No.’, no. of teeth of small
sprocket, speed, horsepower rating per strand, type of lubrication.

Table in PSME Code: Table 3.11 pp. 25-28.

Table in Valliance : Table 17-2 pp.406-408

Center Distance Between Sprockets:

P
C= 2L - T - t + 2L - T - t 2 - 0.810 T - t 2 
8  

where: C = center distance, mm

P = pitch of chain, mm
L = length of chain, in pitches
T = no. of teeth of large sprocket
t = no. of teeth of small sprocket

General Rule:

The center distance between sprockets, as a general rule should not be less than 1 ½
times the diameter of the larger sprocket and not less than 30 times the pitch nor more
than about 50 times the pitch. A center distance equivalent to 80 pitches may be
considered an approved maximum.

Length of Chain:

T + t T - t 
2
L = 2C + +
2 40 C
 where: L = length of chain, in pitches
C = center distance in pitches ( may contain decimal )
T = no. of teeth of large sprocket
t = no. of teeth of small sprocket

Sprocket Materials:

For large sprockets, cast iron is commonly used, especially in drives with large
speed ratios. For severe service, cast steel or steel plate is preferred. The smaller
sprockets of a drive is usually made of steel. Stainless steel or bronze may be used for
corrosion resistance and Formica, nylon or other suitable plastic materials for special
applications.

Lubrication of Chains:

Types of Lubrication:

Type I - manual lubrication at least once every 8 hours of operation.

Type II - drip lubrication
Type III - bath or disc lubrication
Type IV - oil stream lubrication

Recommended SAE viscosities for various operating temperatures:

Temperature Viscosity

20-40 °F SAE 20
40-100 °F SAE 30
100-120 °F SAE 40
120-140 °F SAE 50

Design Procedure in determining the number of strands:

Given: Size of chain, speed, no. of teeth on small sprocket, power transmitted.

1. Find the service factor from Table 3.5 ( or Table 17.7, Faires, p.460) , then
compute the design power.
2. Find the horsepower rating per strand from Table 3.11
3. Divide the design horsepower by the horsepower rating per strand to get the
strands.

WIRE ROPES

Uses of Wire Ropes:

Elevators, hoists, cranes, drilling, conveyors, tramways, haulage, devices, suspension

cables, guy wires

Materials for Wire Ropes:

Plow steel ( PS ), Mild Plow Steel ( MPS ), Improved Plow Steel (IPS), wrought iron,
cast steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, copper, bronze
Construction of Wire Rope:

The individual wires are first twisted into strands, and then the strands are twisted
around a hemp or steel center to form the rope. Often the central element is an
independent wire rope curve ( WRC ) .

In a Regular Lay Rope, the wires and strands are twisted in opposite directions while in
a Lang Lay rope, the wires and strands are twisted in the same direction.

Designation of Wire Rope:

First number is the number of strands, second number is the number of wires per strand.

Nominal diameter of the rope ( Dr ) is the diameter of the circle that just encloses the
rope.

Example:

6 x 7 IPS, 1” Diameter

- is a wire rope with 6 strands

7 wires per strand, made of
improved plow steel material
having nominal diameter of
1 inch.

Various Rope Sizes and their applications:

6X7- haulage, tramways, guy wires

6 X 19 - general purpose rope, hoists, cranes, drilling, elevators
6 X 37 - high speed elevators, cranes, hoists
6 X 19 - extra flexible hoisting rope applications

Design Calculations:

Ft = tensile force due to the load (including acceleration forces )

Fb = equivalent bending load due to the curvature of the sheave or drum
= SbAm

ED w
Sb = = equivalent bending stress
Ds

where: Am = cross – section area of metal

Dw = wire diameter
Ds = sheave or drum diameter
E =modulus of elasticity = 30 x 10 6 psi for steel

Fu = breaking strength of rope.

Fu - Fb
N=
Ft

Recommended factors of safety for wire ropes, based on ultimate strength

Service Factor of Safety

 Elevators 8-12
Mine hoists 2.5-5
Cranes, motor driven 4-6
Cranes, hand powered 3-5
Derricks 3-5

GEARS

Gears – are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging
teeth.

SPUR GEARS

Spur Gears have toothed elements that are straight and parallel to the shaft axis and
they are used to transmit the motion and power without slippage between parallel shafts.

Gear Terms and Definitions:

1. Addendum – height of tooth above pitch circle or the distance between the pitch circle
and the top of the tooth.

2. Addendum Circle ( or Outside circle ) – the circle that bounds the outer ends of the
teeth.

3. Arc of Action – arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth travels from the first point
of contact with the mating tooth to the point where the contact ceases.

4. Arc of Approach – arc of the circle through which a tooth travels from the point of
contact with the mating tooth to the pitch point.

5. Arc of recess – arc of the pitch circle through which a tooth travels from its contact
with the mating tooth at the pitch point to the point where the contact ceases.

6. Axial Plane – in a pair of gears it is the plane that contains the two axes, in a single
gear, it may be any plane containing the axis and the given point.

7. Backlash – the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of
the engaging tooth on the pitch circles.

8. Base Circle – the circle from which an involute tooth is generated or developed.

9. Base helix angle – the angle at the base cylinder if an involute gear that the tooth
makes with the gear axis.

10. Base Pitch – in an involute gear it is the pitch on the base circle or along the line of
action.

11. Normal Base Pitch – is the base pitch in the normal plane.

12. Axial Base Pitch – is the base pitch in the axial plane.

13. Center distance – the distance between the parallel axes of spur gears and parallel
helical gears, or between the crossed axes of helical gears and worm gears. Also it is
the distance between the centers of the pitch curves.
14. Center Plane – in a worm gear this is the plane perpendicular to the gear axis and
contains the common perpendicular of the gear and the worm axes.

15. Chordal Addendum – the height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending
the circular thickness arc.

16. Chordal Thickness – length of the chord subtended by the circular thickness arc
( dimension obtained when a gear tooth caliper is used to measure the thickness at the
pitch circle.)

17. Circular Pitch – length of the arc of the pitch circle between the centers or other
corresponding points of adjacent teeth.

18. Normal Circular Pitch – is the circular pitch in the normal plane.

19. Circular Thickness – the length of the arc between the two sides of a gear tooth, on
the pitch circles unless otherwise specified.

20. Normal Circular Thickness – is the circular thickness in the normal plane.

21. Clearance – the amount by which the dedendum exceeds the addendum of the
mating tooth. It is also the radial distance between the top and the bottoms of the
mating tooth.
- the dedendum minus the mating addendum.

22. Central Diameter – the smalles diameter on a gear tooth with which the mating gear
makes contact.

23. Contact Ratio – the ratio of the arc action to the circular pitch. It is sometimes
thought of as the average number of teeth in contact. For involute gears, the contact
ratio is obtain most directly as the ratio of the length of action to the base pitch.

24. Cycloid – the curved formed by the path of a point a circle as it rolls along a straight
line. When the circle rolls along the outer side of another circle, the curve is called
Epicycloid; when it rolls along the inner side of another circle it is called Hypocycloid.

25. Dedendum – the depth of tooth space below the pitch circle or the radial dimension
between the pitch circle and the bottoms of the tooth space.

26. Diametral Pitch – the ratio of the number of teeth to the number of millimeters of
pitch diameter.

27. Normal Diametral Pitch – is the diametral pitch as calculated in the normal plane
and is equal to the diametral pitch divided by the cosine of helix angle.

28. Effective Face Width – that portion of the face width that actually comes into contat
with mating teeth, as occasionally one member of a pair of gears may have a greater
face width than the other.

29. Efficiency – the actual torque ratio of a gear set divided by its gear ratio.

30. External gear – a gear with teeth on the outer cylindrical surface.

31. Face of Tooth – that surface of the tooth which is between the pitch circle to the top
of the tooth.

32. Face Width – the length of the teeth in axial plane.

33. Fillet Curve – the concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the
tooth space. The approximate radius of this curve is called the fillet radius.

34. Flank of Tooth – that surface which is between the pitch circle and the bottom land.
The flank includes the fillet.

35. Helical Overlap – the effective face width of a helical gear divided by the gear and
axial pitch; also called the Face Overlap.

36. Helix Angle – the angle that a helical gear tooth makes the gear axis.

37. Highest Point of Single Tooth Contact – the largest diameter on a spur gear at which
a single tooth is in contact with the mating gear.

38. Internal Diameter – the diameter of a circle coinciding with the tops of the teeth on
an internal gear.

39. Internal Gear – a gear with teeth on the inner – cylindrical surface.

40. Involute – the curved formed by the path of a point on a straight line called the
generatrix, as it rolls along a convex base curve. This curve is generally used as the
profile of gear teeth.

41. Land – the top land is the top surface of the tooth, and Bottom land is the surface of
the gear between the fillets of adjacent teeth.

42. Lead – the distance of a helical gear or worm would thread along its axis one
revolution of it were free to move axially.

43. Length of Action – the distance on an involute line of action through which the point
of contact moves during the action of the tooth profile.

44. Line of Action – the path of contact in involute gears. It is the straight line passing
through the pitch point and the tangent to the base circles.

45. Lowest Point or Single Tooth Contact – the smallest diameter on a spur gear at
which a single tooth of one gear is in contact with its mating gear.

46. Module – the ratio of pitch diameter in millimeter to the number of teeth. English
module is the ratio of the pitch diameter in inches to the number of teeth.

47. Normal Plane – a plane normal to the tooth surface at a point of contact, and
perpendicular to the pitch plane.

48. Outside Diameter – the diameter outside the circle.

49. Pitch – the distance between similar, equally spaced tooth surfaces, in a given
direction and along a given curve or line.

50. Pitch circle – a circle the radius of which is equal to the distance from the gear axis
to the pitch point.

51. Pitch Diameter – the diameter of the pitch circle.

52. Pitch Plane – in a pair of gears it is the plane perpendicular to the axial plane and
tangent to the pitch surfaces.
53. Pitch Point – this is the point of tangency of two pitch circles and is on the line of
center.

54. Pitch Surface – the surface of the rolling cylinder that the gear may be considered to
replace.

55. Plane Rotation – any plane perpendicular to a gear axis.

56. Pressure Angle – the angle between the tooth profile and a radical line at its pitch
point. In involute teeth, the angle between the line of action and the line tangent to the
pitch circle.

57. Principal Reference Planes – these are a pitch plane, axial plane, and transverse
plane, all intersecting at a point and mutually perpendicular.

58. Ratio of Gearing – ratio of he numbers of teeth on mating gears.

59. Roll Angle – the angle subtended at the center of a base circle from the origin of an
involute to the point of tangency of the generatrix from any ppoint on the same involute.

60. Root Circle – a circle coinciding with or tangent to the bottoms of the tooth spaces

61. Root Diameter – diameter of the root circle.

62. Tangent Plane – a plane tangent to the tooth surfaces at a point or line of contact of
material is removed near the tip of the gear tooth.

63. Tip Relief – an arbitrary modification of a tooth surfaces at appoint or line of contact
of material is removed near tip of the gear tooth.

64. Tooth Thickness – the width of tooth measured along the pitch circle.

65. Tooth Space ( Space Width ) – the space between the teeth measured along the
pitch circle.

66. Total face Width – the actual width dimension of a gear blank.

67. Transverse Plane – a plane perpendicular to the axial plane and to the pitch plane.

68. Trochoid – the curve formed by the path of a point on the extension of a circle as it
rolls along the curve or line. It is also the curve formed by the path of a point on a
perpendicular to a straight line as the straight line rolls along the convex side of a base
curve.

69. True Involute Form Diameter – the smallest diameter on the tooth at which the
involute exits. Usually this is the point of tangency of the involute tooth profile and the
fillet curve. This usually referred to as TIP diameter.

70. Undercut – a condition in generated gear teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies
inside a line drawn tangent to the working profile at its lowest point.

71. Whole Depth – the total depth of a tooth space, equal to addendum plus dedendum,
also equal to working depth plus clearance.

72. Working Depth – the depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum of their
addendums.
Basic Equations Involving Mating Gears:

Pinion – is the smaller of the two mating gears.

T1N1 = T2N2

D1N1 = D2N2

D1 + D 2
C=
2

N1
Speed Ratio =
N2

T2
Gear Ratio =
T1
where: T1 = no. of teeth of the driver ( pinion )
D1 = diameter of the driver ( pinion )
N1 = speed of driver ( pinion )
T2 = no. of teeth of the driven gear,
D2 = diameter of the driven gear
N2 = speed of driven
C = center distance

HELICAL GEARS

Definition:

Helical gears have teeth which are cut in the form of a helix, about an axis of rotation.
They are used to connect parallel and non – parallel shafts can ran at faster speeds, are
quieter and can sustain greater tangential load than spur gears.

Herringbone gears consists of two helical gears in opposite hands, to balance the axial
thrust and are used to connect parallel shafts.

Hellical Gear Nomenclature:

Pn = P___ where :ψ = helix angle

Cos ψ P = diametral pitch
Pn = normal diametral pitch
tan Φn = tan Φ tan ψ Φ = pressure angle
Φn = normal pressure angle
Fa = Ft tan ψ Ft = transmitted or tangential load
Fa = axial load or end thrust
Nv = N___ N = actual no. of teeth
Cos3 ψ Nv = virtual no. of teeth
= no. of teeth measured in the
normal direction
f = face width
Strength of Helical Gears:
S fY 78
F= w
P 78 + V
 Where: Y should be based upon the virtual number of teeth.

Dynamic Loads on Helical Gears:

Fd = Ft +
 
0.05 V C f cos 2  + Ft cos 
2
0.5 V + C f cos  + Ft
Where: V = pitch line velocity = π DN

CLUTCH

Definition:

Clutch is a machine member which is used to connect shafts so that the driven shaft will
rotate with the driving shaft, and to disconnect them at will.

Types Of Gears:

1. Jaw Clutches – jaws or teeth in the two element interlock.

2. Friction clutches – the driving force is transmitted by friction; the major types are:
plate or disc clutch, cone clutch, band clutch, block clutch and expanding ring
clutch.
3. Hydraulic clutches – the torque is transmitted by the moving fluid.
4. Electromagnetic clutches – the torque is transmitted by means of a magnetic field.

Power and Torque Calculations:

Power = = 2 π TN

Torque, T = nfFarf

where: T = torque transmitted

n = number of pairs of mating friction surfaces
= 1 for single disc clutch
f = coefficient friction
Fa = axial force
rf = mean friction radius
2  ro - ri 
3 3
=  2 2  for uniform pressure disc clutch
3  ro - ri 
(new unworn clutch)
ro + ri
= for uniform wear clutch
2
(worn clutch)
Cone clutches
F fr
T= a f
sin 
Power = 2πTN

BEARINGS

Definition:
Bearing – a machine member which supports, guide or control the motion of another.

Lubricant – any substance that will form a film between the two surfaces of a bearing.

Babbitt – a tin or lead base alloy which is used as bearing material.

Two Types of Bearing Elements:

1. Sliding element ( sliding bearing ) – type of bearing where essentially sliding

friction exists.
2. Rolling Element
a. Ball Bearing – type of rolling – element bearing which uses spherical balls
as rolling elements.
b. Roller Bearing – type of rolling - element bearing which uses cylindrical
rollers as rolling elements.

Classification of bearings according to load applications:

1. Radial Bearing ( journal bearing ) – supports radial load

2. Thrust Bearing – carries a load collinear to the axis.
3. Guide Bearing – primarily guides the motion of a machine member without
specific regard to the direction of load application.

Viscosity – resistance to flow or the property which resists shearing of the lubricant.
Absolute Viscosity –viscosity which is determined by direct measurement of shear
resistance
Kinematic Viscosity – absolute viscosity divided by the specific gravity.

Units of Viscosity:

lb - sec dyne - sec

1 reyn = 1 1 poise = 1
in2 cm 2

RIVETED JOINTS

Uses of Riveted Joints:

To produce permanent joint in tanks, pressure vessels, bridges and building structures

Materials for Rivets:

Wrought iron, soft steel, copper, aluminum

Sizes of Rivets:

Before driving, the rivets have diameter approximately 1/16 in, smaller than the rivet
holes. After driving, the rivet diameter is the same as that of the river holes.

Strength of Riveted Joint:

In analyzing a riveted joint, usually the free body diagram of a repeating group is drawn
and investigated for the following forces.

1. Force that will cause shearing of rivets.

2. Force that will cause tearing ( tension ) of plate between rivets.
 3. Force that will cause crushing ( compression, bearing ) of plate.
4. Force that will cause shearing of plate in front of rivets.

The smallest force is the force that will produce that allowable stress in the joint.

Load that will produce the

Efficiency of Riveted Joint = allowable stress in the joint
Load that will produce the allowable
Tension stress in the unpunched plate

Pitch = center distance of rivet holes.

WELDED JOINTS

Definitions:

Welding – process of joining metal by heating the metal to a state of fusion permitting it
to flow together into a solid joint.

Gas Welding – type of welding which utilizes the heat of the flame which is produced by
the combustion of a gas. The most commonly used are acetylene, hydrogen and natural
gas in combination with oxygen. Acetylene welding is widely used in welding thin plates
and in welding gas, steam and hydraulic pipelines.

Electric Arc Welding - type of welding in which heat is supplied by a continuous arc
drawn between two electrodes, the work forms one electrode and the welding rod forms
the other. Shielded arc welding uses coated welding rods to prevent oxidation of the
metal.

Thermit Welding – type of fusion welding in which the weld metal is essentially cast
steel fused into the parts welded. This process is principally used in repairing heavy
machine parts and in building up defective castings.

Atomic – Hydrogen and Helium Arc Welding – type of welding in which a jet of hydrogen
or helium is forced through the arc drawn between low tungsten electrodes to prevent
oxidation of the metal.

Electric Resistance Welding – type of welding, requiring both heat and pressure, in
which the parts to be welded are brought into contact and a heavy current at low voltage
is passed through the junction which causes the metal to fuse. Examples of electric
resistance welding are spot welding, butt and flash welding, seam projection and upset
welding.

MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE

Machine Tools and Machining Operations

Lathe – a machine tool in which the work revolves on a horizontal axis and acted upon
by a cutting tool.

Machining Operations that are performed in a lathe:

1. Straight turning – the cutting tool is made to move along the horizontal axis to
produce cylindrical shape metal parts.
 2. Facing or Squaring – the cut is at right angle with the axis of rotation to produce
flat surfaces.
3. Tapering – the cutting tool is made to move at an angle with the axis of rotation
4. Drilling and Boring – using a drill bit to produce or enlarge a hole.
5. Threading – the horizontal feed is made automatic and set to produce the size of
thread desired.

Shaper – a machine tool in which the cutter moves in a reciprocating motion to produce
flat or partly curved surfaces on metal pieces which are held securely in a vise.

Planer – a machine tool which is used to produce flat surfaces on pieces which are too
large or too heavy to be worked in a shaper. The work is securely fastened to the table
which moves in reciprocating motion while the tool head moves in either direction
including down feed. Other operations performed in a planer are slotting and broaching.

Drill or Drill Press – a machine tool which is used mainly to produce holes in metal parts
by the use of a rotating drill bit which acts on a securely held place.

Grinding Machine or Grinder – a machine tool which uses rotating abrasive wheels to
smoothen metal parts and to sharpen or shape tools. Other operations performed in a
grinder are polishing, buffing and honing.

Boring Machine – a machine tool purposely designed for finishing holes. Vertical boring
machine is used to finish vertical holes using a tool that moves up and down. In a
horizontal boring machine, the tool revolves in a horizontal axis and used for finishing
holes in the horizontal direction.

Other machining operations performed in a boring machine are reaming and honing.

Milling Machine – a machine tool which is use to produce a variety of surfaces by using
a circular type cutter with multiple teeth.

A. Universal Milling Machine has a table which can be swiveled at any angle.
B. Plan Milling Machine does not have the swivel table construction.
C. Vertical Spindle Milling Machine in which the axis of rotation of the spindle is
vertical, is used for end milling and face milling operations.

The machining operations which are performed in a milling machine with the use
of suitable milling cutters, are gear cutting, sprocket cutting, slotting, grooving and
facing.

Band Saw ( for metal ) – a machine tool which is used to cut metal parts by the use of
an endless band with saw teeth moving around two pulleys.

Power Hacksaw – a machine tool which is used to cut metal parts of light, medium and
large sections using a reciprocate hacksaw blade.

Hydraulic Press – a machine tool which consists of a ram which is being actuated by the
pressure of a hydraulic fluid, which is used in various operations such as bending,
drawing, forced fitting, or disassembling of parts.

Mechanical Press – a machine tool which is driven by an electric motor or mechanical

power source and is used in sheet metal work like punching, shearing, bending, drawing
and other sheet metal forming operations

Turret Lathe – a type of lathe which consists of multiple station tool holders or turrets
allowing the production of multiple cuts.