Pane of Sound and Vibration Ch. 5: Fundamental | of Acoustics Dr. Y. S. Choy, Tracy FG 639 Email: [email protected] « Indicative References e Bies, D. A. and Hansen, C. H., Engineering Noise Control. Theory and Practice. E & Fn Spon, 1996. e Leo L. Beranek and Istvan L. Ver, Noise and Vibration Control Engineering : Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ¢ Bell, L. H., Industrial Noise Control. Fundamentals and Applications. Marcel Dekker Inc., 1982. e Keywords for library search Acoustics, noise control, vibration control, acoustic design.Fundamentals of Sound ~ Fluid compressibility, wave equation, sound pressure level and sound power, addition of sounds of different frequencies, octave bands and one-third octave bands, conservation of acoustic energy flux at the absence of a mean flow. Vibration of Continuous Systems - Vibration of string, rod, beams and plates; energy transmission through structures, natural modes, free and forced vibrations. Sources of Sound - Radiation of sound by pistons (ID, 2D), impedance, radiation efficiency, monopole and dipole, critical frequency, sound radiation by 2D structures Sound Propagation - Single wavelling wave and propemies of standing wave, reflection of sound at pipe junctions and at interface of two media. Sound and Vibration Measurement - Measuring systems, microphones, sound level meters, background noise, measurement of sound intensity, reverberation time and absorption Physical Nature of Sound What is SOUND? What is NOISE? Physically, sound may be described as a propagating disturbance through air and is perceived by our ears as a pressure variations superimposed upon the air pressure at the listener. The sound pressure is therefore the incremental variations about the ambient atmospheric pressure and is responsible for our a’ Acoustic Pressure These pressure variations can be produced by some sources of vibration, either from a solid object or from the vigorous motions of liquids or gases. Sound can be voice and speech. Sound is also music, a significant form of expression and communication. But sometimes sound is undesirable and unwanted. In this situation we call it noise.Physical Characteristics of Sound + Particle velocity: rate at which displacement takes place or displacement per ‘unit time. + Sound pressure: excess pressure from atmosphere. Unit: force per unit area; Nim? or microbar (ib}=0.1 N/m? + Frequency (/): the rate at which the piston causing the sound wave moved back and forth or number of times per second it traces out one complete cycle of a sine wave. Unit : Hz or cps (cycle per second). + Period (7) : time required for one complete cycle TL meseone —t *Sound pressure level SPL=20!09,, =Characteristics of sound waves * Frequency (f) and period (T ): Under a wide range of conditions, the dynamic pressure fluctuation of a sound wave take a sinusoidal form of variations. The resultant sound pressure fluctuations at any point can be mathematically deseribed as Pp - pressure amplidue (Pa) x. = distance along the pipe(mn) 7 ‘k = wavenumer or propagation constant («/c) P(O)= py Sin(@t—kx) —¢ - speed of sound (mis) Instantaneous Pressure (Pa) : Po c=fAa ~” Distancar Time 7 Sound wave and decibels Speed of Sound=c = fa = /yP,/p, = /yRT + Speed of sound in common fluids and solids [ees c(mis) Liquid emis) Solid (rs) Air (15°0) 340 Seawater | 1490 ‘Aluminum | 5104 Steam (100°C) | 405 Alcohol 1241 Steel 5000, Hydrogen (25°C)| 1270 Mercury 1407, Rubber 31-69 =f; cavT + Itdepends on temperature and physical Decibel: sound is better properties of the medium in which its traveling. eee en ene’: broadly proportional to Proe?, the logarithmic scale of logy9(Pine2) is lOgia } P..=20uPa ‘bel’, 1/10 of which is Fret called a deci-bel (dB). Prime: toot-mean-square level of sound pressure, * Pree: threshold of young man's hearing at 1 kHz 7“Sound intensity ati = ‘weighed SOL ects: (ot heaig bres] ‘Bae: - | ‘Serious hearing {90000000000 000 tab a8 i Typical Noise damage AL vets one pao Messing damage jo 0n000000000 138, lengpo\zarnostrcy Level ae THRESHOLD OF Pal — Hearing damage 000 ras later sho exnasire (Gm atanca) ‘Serious hearin 100 0000900004 damage naeard ha Hearing hazard 40000000 000 100 Fock muse conoart close to sage Jo plana ok -f (200) Some net tis naetil at me eaing ‘om00m0000 $0 gy. Nyaa Heat onace {00000 000 Honey ek, 7h hoe (ersean, somo heath eects 10000099 70 u,6okmn ‘Severe annoyance GBR (10 maistancay neyance 1000000 60 Noval canton (tmasince seen coon RR) Sincmcaare (Vmasiane) Socal environment com 0 aig Siotesonmee 4000 30 gore 100 ‘ss et badcon © by one Uncomfonbiy (tren) 0 nacho sur - au imoneuements HEARING THRESHOLD ~ Physical Characteristics of Sound > Amplitude Analysis Weakest sound we can hear ~ 2 x 10°5 Pa (Atmospheric Pressure Loudest sound we can hear ~ 200 Pa 1.013x10° Pa CC aaa a eles [ei lile() A compressed scale, logarithmic scale, is adopted for sound 2 Prms Sound Pressure L, =10log,5 2 | (@B) Level P : ref *Pyqt fOot- mean-square diel i te level of sound pressure, Prep = reference sound pressure = 2 x 10° Pa. “P.4¢ threshold of young mat’s hearing at 1 kHz iments ———> [0: 140 4BAddition and Subtraction of Decibels Assuming two sound waves of pressure a and 6, the time-average of the total c is a+ by a@ +b +Qab Addition r (iz) Total Sound Pressure level Pag ‘Subtractio : SPL, 5=10log (21) [ 10}og,5(10%%"" —10%") Prot For random noise, the gobal levels the algebraic sum of the acoustic energies. However, itis incorrect to add their levels! The logarithm of a sum isnot equal to the sum of the logarithms (that would give the logarthm ofthe product). When ‘superimposing two random sounds (the noise of jackhammers in the example), there is no interference, but an energy sum: at each pointin space, the resutant acoustic eneray isthe arithmetic sum of the ecurces individual acoustic energies. For other related sound source, the acoustic pressure field due to two or more sources is the algebraic sum of the waveforms ofeach source Te sum of ure ones wh the are equecy corn gives seo narference, The espe sound may have a larger amplitude (constructive interference) or a smaller one (destructive interference), depending upon thb time delay between the waveform. Example ‘Two sound sources radiate sound waves of different frequencies, If their sound pressure levels at some point are 85 and 80dB respectively, find the total sound pressure level due to the two sources together. What happens if the two sources radiate sound waves of the same frequency? p'= p,cosa@t + p, cos(@,t + 8) p® = p> cos at +2p,p, cos c0s(@,1 + 8) + p? cos*(a,t +0) p” = p? cos? af + p,p,[ cos ((w, + @,)¢ +8) +cos((«, ~ @,)t-8) |+ p? cos*(@,1 +8) Pp” = p> cos” at + pyp,[cos((a +) + 8) + c0s((@ ~ @)-8)] + p? cos*(a,l +8) +The two terms within the square brackets average to zero if the two sounds are of different frequencies and then 7 ios 2 eee Pe =s(Pi + Pr) > NB" =4[5(Pi + PD) * 2 Prms SPL = tne (2e) ) =o 2x10" $1100 ( Post } +( 2) }-to.na (0 19%") 2x10% 2x10But if two sounds are of the same frequency =I aries P= (pi + pi) + Pprc0s8 > yp" =z (ei + PD+ Pip.cos8 7 2 2 5 (Pi + Pi) Pip, C088 i d (Pi + Bi) + PP, 0088) sr 0b (se Pons =) = 10108, Sei9F | I= Hloee (@xi0 The calculation 85 = 110g (SU fs — p, =0.503N/m? 80= 10106 (2 By — p, =0.283Nim? ‘The combined SPL of different frequencies ta Be Iv By (2 ral =86.2dB 2x10% 2x10 ‘The combined SPL of the same frequencies If phase difference is zero 10108%4( = 88.908 Combining dB > For random noise, consider the acoustic pressure radiated from two sources A and B, 2 Lpa = 10logio| 24 Prep 2 and L,, = 10log,,| — Prep The total sound pressure level is Di, Ps ae Lp = Wlogyo| =A += |=10log,.| 10'° +10” ref Pref 14Combing dB > In general, for N random sounds, the total sound pressure level is 2 2 z Zz 2 Pref — Pref Pref Pref ref brain? What are the total sound levels of the following combination of sound sources, in dB? 90 80 > 90.4 dB 90 86 > 91.5 dB A Change of 90 100 > 100.4 ap 2-48 Just Perceptible 90 90 > 93 dB 15 Example Example: You want to measure the noise radiated by a machine. But the measurement is contaminated by a strange background noise, which may come from other machines in the same room. You can proceed as follows: *Measure the background noise (Lp) *Start the machine of interest to measure the total level (machine + background) (Lp;) *Calculate according to the aforementioned equations. ‘Measured sound pressure level in dB Background | Totallevel LpT | Difference in| _ Sound level radiated by the machine noise LpB level: LTB LpT-Lpp a @ z Ss ¥ x 210 X The background noise is negligible <3 = £1; Too much background noise to get a proper estimation of LpT.Human perception Human perception of ASPL Ga wa | 1dB: barely noticeable : er (objectively, double energy) 19.000 000 | 3dB:noticeable Le By, 9dB: twice as loud (2 sones) « 15dB: large difference 120cB is not 20% louder than 100dB, but 100 times higher in energy! Acousticians’ job (of noise reduction) is a difficult one! Perception of Sound [RSI] toscette [= reset o 1? 3 @ 6 67 8 8 © Level ternce o8 The relative hearing response to different pressure level. >We have already defined sound as any pressure variation that can be detected by the human ear. The number of pressure variations per second is ‘called the frequency of sound, and is measured in Hertz (Hz). >Although an increase of 6 dB represents a doubling of the sound pressure, an increase of about 8 — 10 dB is required before the sound subjectively appears to be significantly louder. Similarly, the smallest perceptible change is about 1 dB.Semicrcutr creat Ossietes Neste of edeurn ae > Frequency range : 20 - 20kHz. > Principle frequency in speech : 250 - 4kHz. > Threshold of discomfort : 120dB. > Threshold of Pain : 140dB. > Hearing Loss Presbyopia - hearing loss due to aging. Temporary Threshold Shift : TTS - Short time effect after noise exposure. Recovery is possible and complete. Permanent Threshold Shift : PTS - recovery is not complete and result in permanent hearing loss. Acoustic trauma - sudden aural damage resulting from short time intense exposure or even from one single exposure. 19 cohen vation be + Inorder to gain a ‘feel’ forthe [98 Description | Pims(Pa) | Vg (km/h) magnitude 7 pressure 0 Threshold =| 2.0e-5 | 0.021 encountered in acoustics, the rms sound pressure maybe |20_| Whisper ibs O0ee, treated as dynamic pressure | 30 Quiet office |6.3e4 | 0.12 caused by stopping a wind of a/ 45 | Conversation |3.6e-3 | 0.27 certain speed V4: 65 | Street 360-2 | 087 80 [Machinery [2.021 |2.0 100 _ | Truck 2 65 120 | Jet@s00m | 20 24 130 [Earpain | 63 37 Po = 1.225kg | m* 450 | Eardamage | 632 116 20 aoe = PoSound Power Sound power level W Definition: Rate of the energy output of a sound source (Watts) Measurement: Sound power level SWL in dB = plas + Ww eccH| ‘Energy goIng SWL=10l0,| =~ —ougn Wy ‘surface |W = sound power in watts; W,,,=reference power =10*waris (fan feekieain! Sound Intensity, | Definition: sound power passing through a unit area \ Jn area dS (Watt per unit area, W/m?) 7 L =10}e¢ | in dB rel. Iygp =107? Wim? I\\ ref d By definition, the power is a measure of the eneray output of a sound source. Whatever the environment, the acoustic power remains constant. This is nct the case with the acoustic pressure which greatly depends on the surrounding environment. The amount of acoustic energy passing through a surface element, dS, decreases as the distance trom the source increases. However, ifthe 21 energy Is integrated over the whole surface it remains constant EXAMPLE: An acoustic source radiates sound uniformly in air with a power of 1 watt. Calculate the sound power level and calculate the sound intensity level at a distance of 2m from the source. SWL= 100g, 10105, a SIL =10log, 2) = 02.980 22Sound pressure or Sound Power 7??? * Sound Pressure depends on — Sound source — Position of the receiver — Environment (dimension of the room, absorption, interference with other sources..) — Better use to quantify human response to sound. - Easy to measure * Sound Power depends on — Sound source — Not sensitive to noise source outside the measuring surface - More appropriate to use for noise source identification. — Its measurement is more sophisticated, requiring special equipment 23 Frequency Analysis Time domain: No well-defined pattern. Statistical evaluation Frequency domain: Continuous spectrum + Noises are not usually pure tones or periodic but have sound energy spread over all audio frequencies. +> A typical waveform of broad band noise, shown here has no pattern to it and the spectrum is said to be continuous, + To represent such sound existing at all frequencies it is measured in frequency bands using filters; that is the sum of all the sound energy between a lower and upper frequency is measured, say between 50 Hz and 100 Hz, The difference between the 24 upper and lower frequencies is the bandwidth in HzFrequency Band Analysis > Take a look at noise signal (IV) Amplitude 2 3 2 5 < g 3 2 g a = Frequency 25 Frequency Analysis in octave, 1/3 octave + Defined by ISO for easy analysis + Band: lower f ------(centre f) -------- upper f + Each band is denoted by a band width (Af) and a centre frequency f, + Octave: f (upper) = 2f (lower) Octave band spectrum WL A music keyboard has clear octaves Octives :f € [howshran Jofnicn ow = 2" Centre :f, = Foy 2”? # (Fiow + Frign)! 2 fe[f./v2f,v2] When the frequency is high, such doubling of frequency is too rough for analysis, hence the one-third octave band soctave:f ef, [evs zrw) Han High 7 3 eeees be = 2" =1.26Frequency Band Analysis > ISO > One-third octave filter defined as, = 1/3, Sapper = 2" fiers So = Srawer Super Bandwidth = Lee iow _2°=1 Sh Spectra MOT Vi act Main tet ssi Sn wars | Feely 27 Subjective levels, loudness + Human ears are nonlinear, more sensitive to sounds within 3-6 kHz, very insensitive to low frequencies. + However, low frequency sound travels very far and carry more energy —- e.g. truck noise + Loudness is a subjective measure of sound, taken statistically from psychoacoustic tests (Bell Labs 1920s, 30s) + Low frequencies are not heard as loudly as high frequencies + 1 kHzis used as the benchmark frequency, and the dB level at 1kHz is given the loudness unit of ‘phon’ + When asked about ‘how many times as loud’, respondents give 94B@1kHz, or 9 phons increase for the doubling of loudness. The relative scale is defined as 'sones’. TH » Phon=30log10(sone)+40 + 49 phon = 2 times as loud as 40 phon + 54 phon = 3 times as loud as 40 phon + 58 phon = 4 times as loud as 40 phon Frequency 2)Example: 100dB@125Hz= 16.1=83.9dBA RN —_ | | Equal loudness in phons pbit20 / Intensity in decibels iho Yaree | CREEL) =" 40,000 ~~~ 4000 : Frequency (Hz) Subjective levels, loudness To take such subjective feelings into account, a weighting function is created using the reverse of equal-loudness curves: 40 phons for Aweigh iting, and 100 phons for C-weighting, while B-weighting is less popular and almost extinct nowadays. The C-curve is rather flat since our ear becomes less sensitive to level rudiedace when the general sound level is igh. 10 10 «1000S tO 700k ‘Awsighting (iu), Yollow ¢ fas) ans Dweigning 30Weighting Networks The most common weightings are: A= approximation of 40-phon line (de- emphasizes low frequencies) B — approximation of 70-phon line ae C- approximation of 100-phon line mi {almost fiat) a D — developed for aircraft flyover noise Py {penalizes high frequencies) a3 The most common frequency weighting i in current use is A-weighting, providing results in dB(A), which conforms: a approximately to the response of the 8 human ear. B- and C-weighting curve is 14 used particularly when evaluating very u loud or very low-frequency sounds. Correction factors of A-, C-, D-weighting for various frequenci 3 Frequency Band Analysis The octave band sound pressure levels of a construction machinerv Center Frequency (H2) 63 125-750 50010002000» 4000 «8000 Ly at dm (QB) a 8 10110096 90 a 8 What are the overall A and C weighted noise levels? A weighting corrections cas) 26.2 | ter | a2 | -32 | oo | one | eof -1a A weighted equivolent (48) ee | va.9 | oa | ons | oe | oa |es | r.0 01dB(A) 0.8 © weighted equivalent (4B) 90.2 2 of ofo 4.8 | 101 | 100 | 96 105 dB(A) 32Decites 68) FREQueNcy Example: A sound level meter gives the following measurement results in dB for each octave band. What will be the corresponding level in dB(A)? Band (Hz) 83 125 250. 500 1000, 90 38 2 2 92 262 161 86 32 0 638. ns 384 783. 92 Acoustical parameters: 1. Equivalent sound pressure level L,, When the noise is not station but does not change too drastically with time, it is convenient to add up all acoustic energy (using quadratic pressure term P?) over a period of time of interest and give an average quadratic pressure level for that period of time. Such an average level is called the “equivalent” sound pressure level Phase —Farcaiar > Pinna SPL = 2008;6(Ponsa! Prag) oar Far Phar ap PSP. ay SP = 2010859 (Pray al Pay) bar-sar —Foweiied ? Pom,29 Oo oO Pharcinr-avr Fear Pangavo SPL = 2010855 (Pray! Pag) lee LS pire Pay = JS Pha joey = 100g) = 10% ome fj Pash = 1010 wy w #20log,, + y10"%" Fl Equal time interval for all sound 34Average over time, Leq# mean (SPL) Example: 3 measurements SPL;= 70, 80, 75 dBA 1 L,, = 10 logy 5(10"° +108 +10") =76.74dBA When noise varies rather drastically, the level of annoyance to humans is not determined by L,g, but by a level closer to the highes' than L,,, such assessment involves complex psychological response. 35 2. Single Event Noise Exposure Level SEL Defined similarly to L,, but T= 1s. Use for pulse or sound of high intermittency. 3. Daily Noise Dose D Daily noise dose for an individual person is determined from the noise level and duration of exposure to a noisy environment. It is calculated using the formula : T =8x 1024-9) T= total time of exposure permitted at that level. C,= total actual time of exposure at a specified noise level SPL,Example: the sound pressure measured in a factory in the working period is shown as follows: Working hour 9:00am-10:00am 10:00am-11:00am 11:00am-12:00pm 1:00pm-2:00pm 2:00pm-4:00pm 5:00pm-6:00pm D=NG/1, SPL 92dB 94dB 960B 95dB 97dB 98dB 93dB 1 T =8x 19-2 Bx10-0-182-80) 5,05 8x10°-109490) 3.185, 8x10°°-1195-90) 2.01 8x100-195-80) 2.53 Bx100-1097-80) 4.6 8x10-0-1098-90) 4.97 8x100-1193-20) 4.04 1 1 4 + 1.27 4.01 >1 Not acceptable 37 4. Preferred Speech Interference Level PSIL It is a measurement of steady background noise, to determine its effect on speech communication in the work environment PSIL = (SPLisyq + SPL go) + SPLyo99)/3 SPL;= octave band level at central frequency f Distance tm sae to isarsoncara?5. Percentage Level Exceeded Ly Statistical parameters. Defined as the noise level exceeded for N% of the measurement time. E.g. If L,) equals 60dB over a period of 60 minutes, then over 10% of the measurement ae (6 minutes), the sound pressure level exceeds 60dB. Commonly used N : 1, 5, 10, 50, 90, 99. In Hong Kong, Ly = background noise level and L,9 = high noise level. Loe Leo : represents fluctuation range of sound pressure level. Leo is the medium level # Lg. 6s iy hp Example 61dB 62dB 70dB 69dB 68dB 67dB 66dB 71dB 72dB 73dB COS — ISK © EDS61.5 >69.5 >68.5 >67.5 >66.5 >65.5 >70.5 >71.5 >72.5 *What is Lea, Lio, Lso and Loo? Iq = 1 og | 10° £108 +108 +108 410 =o +10 +10! +10! +10" | _ 69 yap 40Sound level meter: is the basic instrument in noise measurement. It consists of (a) a microphone, (b) processing unit with weighting network, and (c) display unit. Latest meters incorporate digital technology and the output can be very sophisticated, e.g. full spectrum with various indices. eH i. 83 Essentials for making a successful measurement: (a) Calibrate the microphone[94dB(1Pa)@1kHz or 1244B@250Hz]. (b) understand the influence of microphone pressure on the sound field (sound reflection, directional response). ® fepaaa Microphone \W/ a €, Be ‘Sn esse 7 AV _Ad Powers VA ~~ IV d Example: for 944B = 1Pa ql S astecgn For typical measurement the diaphragm moves. Ws microphone: AV xd _50mV x 20m = diameter 12.5mm Ad — thickness of diaphragm Sym — distance between diaphragm apt Nv and backplate 20 ym — polarisation voltage 200V sensitivity SomV/Pa Diameter of Pressure (level re | Diaphragm's diaphragm 20uPa) movement 425mm 1Pa (94dB) Snm (5 x 10m) 12.6mm_ 0,02Pa (60dB) 1A (10m) 42600km (thickness | 0.02Pa (60dB) 0.4m (10"'m) of diaphragm km) 02Pa (20dB) | 0.001m (10°m) 42Directivity Microphone response is normally directional 3 types of directional designs: + free field (pointing to known source), + pressure (flush mounting in duct for grazing incidence or for moving source), and «random incidence (reverberating room) microphones. Fendenn Inder Xv aa AN 43 7Pe Sensitivity ome This is the ratio of microphone output voltage to the input sound pressure amplitude in units of mV/Pa. The super satay chal bese hg ae pole anal spate goer, ger mereporcs fvohisrsrattioe Paes Microphone A has a sensitivity of 50mViPa, and that of microphone B is 12.5 mV/Pa. Compare these two. ‘sensitivities on a decibel scale, both relative to each other, and to a reference sensitivity of 1 V/Pa. Two different sensitivities, S, and S, may be compared on a decibel scale by treating them as any other signal, ‘such as pressure, acceleration, voltage etc., using the following formula to calculate N, the number of N=20log(S¥ S,) = 20 log (50/12.5) = 12 ‘Thus microphone A is 12dB more sensitive than B, that is if both microphones were subjected to exactly the ‘same sound pressure then the electrical signal from A would be 12d8 higher than from B. ‘The sensitivity of microphone A, relative to 1 V/Pa (i.e. relative to 1000 mV/Pa) is: Nog outonnys ae ‘The sensitivity of microphone A is therefore -26dB re 1 V/Pa. A similar calculation for microphone B gives -38dB. Thus the sensitivity microphone A is 26¢B below the reference value, and microphone B is further 12dB lower, i.e. 38dB bel: Sensitivity in dB (<0): Flat response, +3dB Microphone sizes. ¥% inch most popular (standard)Permanent outdoor monitoring includes anti- bird spike, wind screen, dehumidifier, internal calibration source shuts?