Lecture 2

Signals and systems

Prof. Tadeusz Stepinski

Lecture 2.1

• Time domain description

• Linear time invariant systems
• Convolution
• Impulse and step response

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

System

A system is an object with one or more input signals and one

or more outputs

CT system DT system

ì x1 ( t ) y1 ( t ) ü ì x1[ k ] y1[ k ] ü
ï ï ï ï
Input ïï x2 ( t ) CT y2 ( t ) ï
ï Output Input ï x2 [ k ] y2 [ k ]ï Output
ý DT
Signals íï ! ý
ï
î xm ( t )
ï
… System
… ! ï
ï
yn ( t ) ï
þ
Signals Signals í
ï !
ï … System
… ! ï Signals
ï
y n [ k ]þ
î xm [ k ]

Input x(t) CT y(t) Output x[k] DT

y[k]
Signal System Signal System

Notation:
CT system x(t) → y(t)
DT system x[k] → y[k]

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2
Important system features

• Systems with "memory" = dynamic systems

– The output signal y(t0) depends on the input signal x(t) at different times from t0
– Linear dynamic systems can be described by linear differential equations
EX
y (t ) = x (t ) + ax (t - 1) + bx (t - 2)

• Causal systems:
The output depends only on the former and current input signals, ie

Question:
Is this system causal?:

y (t ) = x (t ) + ax (t + 1) + bx (t - 1)

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 Lecture 2

Ex: Mechanical system

A lightly damped single degree of freedom (SDOF) system

d2x dx
m 2 + B + kx(t) = F
dt dt
after Fourier transform

(−ω 2 m + jω B + k)X(ω ) = F(ω )

X(ω ) 1
H (ω ) = =
F(ω ) (−ω 2 m + jω B + k)

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Important system features

• Linearity Linear mechanical system

– Additivity
– Homogeneity (or scaling)

These two properties together are

equivalent to the superposition.

• Linear systems
– Resistor
– Mass+spring
– y(t) = 3x(t)
• Nonlinear systems
– a diode
– y(t) = sin(x(t))
– y(t) = x^2(t)
– y(t) = 3x(t) + 5

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 Lecture 2

Time invariance

• A system is time-invariant if a time-shift in the input

produces the same time-shift in its output, i.e.

x (t + D t ) Þ y (t + D t )

QUESTIONS:

– IS y(t) = x(t) + sin(wt) time invariant?

– IS “time reversal” y(t) = x(-t) time invariant?

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 Lecture 2

Stability

• BIBO stability (Bounded-Input/Bounded-Output) means that

A system is stable if an arbitrary limited input signal produces a limited

output.

| x (t ) |£ B1 , ( B1 < ¥ ) generates
| y (t ) |£ B2 , ( B2 < ¥ )

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Dirac delta function

• Let’s define the delta function

ì1 / e 0< t <e /2
d e (t ) = í
î 0 elseware

• If e goes to 0 we get Dirac delta function d(t)

¥
lim d e (t ) = d (t )
e ®0
ò d (t )dt = 1
-¥

• Stifting property
¥ ¥ ¥

ò f (t )d (t )dt = ò f (0)d (t )dt = f (0) ò d (t )dt = f (0)

-¥ -¥ -¥

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 Lecture 2

Impulse response of a LTCI-system

1. We measure the system output for the signal x(t) = d(t) and call it
impulse response
d( t ) Þ h( t )
2. We use superposition to determine the output to any signal x(t) and
we get
¥
x( t ) Þ y( t ) = ò x( t )h( t - t )dt
-¥

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 Lecture 2

Convolution

• Convolution integral in continuous time

¥
y ( t ) = x (t ) * h ( t ) = ò x(t ) × h(t - t )dt
-¥

• Convolution sum in discrete time

¥
y[ n] = x[ k ] * h[ k ] = å x[k ] × h[n - k ]
k = -¥

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 Lecture 2

Convolution

Impulse response convolved with input defines a LTI system

y (t ) = x(t ) * h(t )
¥ ¥
x(t ) = ò x(t )d (t - t )dt
-¥
= ò x(t ) × h(t - t )dt
OBJECT -¥

h(t)

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 Lecture 2

Ex 1: Convolution in CT

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 Lecture 2

Ex 1: Convolution in CT

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 Lecture 2

Convolution experiment

Ch 2 conv_demo3
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 Lecture 2

Convolution - important features

Associativity

f1 (t ) *{ f 2 (t ) * f 3 (t )} = { f1 (t ) * f 2 (t )}* f 3 (t )

Commutativity
f1 (t ) * f 2 (t ) = f 2 (t ) * f1 (t )

Time shift
if y (t ) = x(t ) * h(t )

then y (t - T ) = x(t - T ) * h(t ) = x(t ) * h(t - T )

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 Lecture 2

What impulse response has a stable system?

• Let input be limited as |x (t)| <B1

• Calculate the output signal as the convolution of the input signal x(t)
and impulse response h(t) and determine its absolute value.

• Result:
The system is stable if its impulse response is absolutely
intergratable:
¥

ò | h(t ) | dt = G < ¥
-¥

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 Lecture 2

What impulse response has a causal system?

• Impulse response for a causal system exists for t>0, i.e.

h (t ) = 0 för t < 0
¥
y(t ) = ò x(t ) × h(t - t )dt
0

EX: Is system with impulse response h(t ) = e -t u (t )

h(t ) = 0 för t < 0
Causal ?
¥ ¥ ¥
-t ¥
ò h(t ) dt = ò e u (t ) dt = ò e dt = - e
-t -t
=1
0
Stable? -¥ -¥ 0

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 Lecture 2

Step response

• A response to a unit step is the system characteristics useful

in many contexts. It is given by:

ds (t )
i.e., h(t ) = = s¢
dt

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 Lecture 2

Summary

In signal OBJECT Out signal

x(t) h(t) y(t)

For the LTI system output signal can be determined by the system
impulse response convolved with the input signal

¥
y (t ) = h(t ) * x (t ) = ò h(t )x (t - t ) dt Time-continuous model
-¥

¥
y (n) = h(n) * x (n) = å h ( k )x ( n - k )
k = -¥
Time-discrete model

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Signals and systems

Prof. Tadeusz Stepinski

Lecture 2.2

• Fourier series
• Fourier transform
• Frequency response
• Differential equations

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Other base functions than Dirac?

A complex-valued exponential est seems to be a very good candidate

• Assume x (t ) = å a k e s k t Þ ak , sk Î C
k

¥
then y (t ) = å H ( s k ) a k e s k t where H ( sk ) = ò h(t ) e - skt dt
k -¥

In signal OBJECT Out signal

ak e sk t h(t)
H ( sk ) ak e sk t

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 Lecture 2

Transform background in continuous time

• Idea 1: Representation of input and output signals for LTI

systems in the same base function
– Simplified analysis!

• Idea 2: Represent the signals in the frequency domain, i.e. with

frequency rather than time as independent variable.
– More powerful analysis!

Both ideas realized by Fourier analysis!

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 Lecture 2

Fourier series
• Fourier series - the sum of harmonic signals
¥
x(t ) = å ak e ( jkw0t ) a k ÎC
-¥

• Real periodic signals can be expressed as a sum of

scaled real sine waves
e jθ + e− jθ
e− jθ = cos (θ ) − j sin (θ ) cos (θ ) =
• Moivre and Euler formulas ⇒
2
jθ
e = cos (θ ) + j sin (θ ) e jθ − e− jθ
sin (θ ) = j
2

A0 ¥
x(t ) = + å Ak cos( kw0t ) + Bk sin( kw0t ) Ak , Bk Î R
2 k =1

T /2 T /2
2 2
T -Tò/ 2 T -Tò/ 2
Ak = x(t ) cos(kw0t )dt k = 0,1,2,! Bk = x(t ) sin(kw0t )dt k = 1,2,3,!

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 Lecture 2

Example

Find the decomposition in Fourier series of the periodical signal h(t) such as on the
interval [0,T] : T
∞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ 1 2 ⎛ 2π ⎞
()
h t = ∑ cn exp ⎜ jn
⎝ T
t⎟
⎠
cn =
T
()
∫ h t exp ⎜⎝ - jn T t ⎟⎠ dt
n=−∞ T
-
2

Approximation of the signal for different values of n

Gibbs phenomenon =
Side effect at the discontinuities

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 Lecture 2

Example (cnt)
Gibbs phenomenon :

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 Lecture 2

Fourier series

• All periodic signals can be expressed as a sum of harmonic

signals

• This representation is called the Fourier series

• Fourier series show that the real periodic signals can be expressed
as a sum of scaled real sine functions

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 Lecture 2

Fourier transform experiment

Ch 4 efs_demo1
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Transform background in continuous time

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

March 21 1768 - May 16 1830
Born Auxerre, France. Died Paris, France.

Fourier studied the mathematical theory of heat

conduction. He established the partial differential
equation governing heat diffusion and solved it
by using infinite series of trigonometric
functions.

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Fourier transform

• Fourier series can only be used for periodic signals

• It can be assumed that aperiodic signals have a period that
tends to infinity which gives the infinitesimal (continuous)
frequencies

• Then we get an integral representation instead of a series

This is called the Fourier transform

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Periodic and aperiodic signals

Part (a) Part (b)

5 40
30
a) x(t ) = 5 sin(2pt ) cos(pt - 8)
5sin(2p t)cos(p t - 8)

5exp(-0.2t)sin(2p t)
20
10

b) x(t ) = e0.2t sin( 2pt )

0 0
-10
-20
-30
-5 -40
-5 0 5 -10 -5 0 5 10
time (t) time (t)

Part (c): Real Component Part (c): Imaginary Component

1 1
5exp[(j*4p-0.5)t]u(t)

5exp[(j4p-0.5)t]u(t)

0.5 0.5

0 0
c) x(t ) = e( j 4p -0.5)t u(t )
-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
-5 0 5 10 15 -5 0 5 10 15
time (t) time (t)

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 Lecture 2

Continuous Time Fourier Transform (CTFT)

• CTFT’s definition

1
¥ CTFT synthesis equation
ò
j wt
x( t ) = X ( w )e dw
2 p -¥

¥ CTFT analysis equation

ò
- j wt
X(w) = x( t )e dt
-¥

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 Lecture 2

CTFT Examples

Complex sine
jω t
x(t) = e 0
X(ω ) = 2πδ (ω − ω 0 )

X (w) = 2pd(w - w0 )

2p
|X(w)|
< X(w) = 0
w
0 w0

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 Lecture 2

CTFT Examples

Real sine and cosine

x(t ) = cos(w0t ) X (w) = p[d(w - w0 ) + d(w + w0 )]

1 p p
< X(w) = 0
t
0 w
-w0 0 w0

x(t ) = sin (w0t )

X (w) = jp[d(w + w0 ) - d(w - w0 )]
1 p p
p/2 X (w)
t
0 w
-w0 0 w0
-p/2
< X (w)

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 Lecture 2

Frequency f and angular frequency w

Complex sine
jω t
x(t) = e 0 x(t) = e 0
jf t

X(ω ) = 2πδ (ω − ω 0 ) X( f ) = δ ( f − f0 )

Fourier transform of real sine and cosine functions

FT FT j
sin(w0t ) Û jp [d (w + w0 ) - d (w - w0 )] sin( 2pf 0t ) Û [d ( f + f 0 ) - d ( f - f 0 )]
2
FT FT 1
cos(w0t ) Û p [d (w + w0 ) + d (w - w0 )] cos(2pf 0t ) Û [d ( f + f 0 ) + d ( f - f 0 )]
2

Can be proven using scaling property

w FT
substitute f = ® A Û 2pAd (w )
2p
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 Lecture 2

CTFT Examples

1 x(t ) = rect tt () X (w) = t sinc(wt

2p
)
|X(w)|
< X(w) p

t w
- 2t 0 t
2 - 2tp 0 2p
t

t x(t ) = (Wp ) sinc(Wtp ) 1 ( )

X (w) = rect 2wW

|X(w)| < X(w) = 0

t w
- Wp 0 p -W 0 W
W

1 x(t ) = D tt() X (w) = t sinc 2 ( wt

2p
)
|X(w)|
< X(w) = 0
t w
-t 0 t
- 2tp 0 2p
t

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

CTFT Examples

¥
å d(w - 2Tkp )
|X(w)|
¥ X (w) = 2Tp
x(t ) = å d(t - kT ) 2p
k =-¥
k =-¥
T
< X(w) = 0
t w
-T 0 T - 4p
T
- 2p
T
0 2p
T
4p
T

2 2
s 2p X (w) = s 2p e -s w /2
1 -t 2 / 2 s 2
x(t ) = e
|X(w)|
< X(w) = 0
t w
0 0

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 Lecture 2

Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse

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 Lecture 2

Duality property

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 Lecture 2

Duality property

2p
X(w) =2pd(w) 1 ()
f (t ) = rect tt
t F (w) = tsinc wt
2p
( )
1 x(t) = 1
|X(w)|
< X(w) = 0
w t w
t t
0 - 2t 0 - 2tp 0 2p
0 2 t

1 1 X(w) = 1 t g (t ) = (Wp ) sinc(Wtp ) 1 G(w) = rect (2wW )

x(t) = d(t) |X(w)|

< X(w) = 0
w t w
t 0
0 -W W
0 0 - Wp p
W

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 Lecture 2

Fourier transform experiment

Ch 4 ft_demo2
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 Lecture 2

CTFT Properties

• Time shifting
g ( t ) = x( t -t 0 ) Û e - jwt0 X (w)

• Frequency shifting
h( t ) = e jw0t x( t ) Û X (w - w0 )

• Time differentiation
dx
Û jwX (w)
dt
• Time integration

X (w)
t
dx
ò dt Û + pX (0 )d(w)
-¥
jw

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Frequency response for LTI-systems

• The output of an LTI system given by the input convolved with the
system impulse response

y(t) = h(t) * x(t)

• Since convolution in time domain corresponds to multiplication in

frequency domain we get

Y(jw) = H(jw)X(jw)

• H(jw) is called the system's frequency response

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 Lecture 2

Significance of the frequency response

• If we use a complex-valued sine as an input

then we get the transformed signal

which in time domain is

Complex number

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 Lecture 2

Significance of the frequency response

• Since H(jw0) is a complex constant then the output will be

a sine with the same frequency as the input signal but
with modified amplitude and phase

An LTI system therefore affects each frequency component of

the input signal in two ways only:
• Amplitude scaling
• Phase shift

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 Lecture 2

Significance of the frequency response

• Note that the output signal amplitude spectrum is

or in log-form

and its phase spectrum

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 Lecture 2

Bode plot

• Bodeplott = plot of both the amplitude

and Phase spectrum

• Typically log-scale on the frequency

axis, and dB-scale for amplitude
spectrum

Bode plot of a cinema loudspeaker

Despite his name, Hendrik Wade Bode was a genuine mid-western American, having been born in 1905 in
Madison, Wisconsin, gone to school in Urbana, Illinois and graduated from the Ohio State University in
1926. He then entered the Bell Telephone Laboratories as a mathematician. Bode eventually became Vice
President of the Bell Laboratories, and when he retired in 1967 he was immediately awarded a chair in
Systems Engineering at Harvard University.

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Bode plot - example

First order system

dh
A + ch(t ) = kx (t )
dt

k /c k
H ( jw ) = =
1 + jw ( A / c) 1 + jwT

A
T=
C

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Mechanical system

A lightly damped single degree of freedom (SDOF) system

d 2x dx
m 2 + c + kx (t ) = F
dt dt

Fourier transform
d
x(t) ⇔ jω ⋅ X( jω )
dt
(-w 2 m + jwc + k ) X (w ) = F (w )

Compliance
X (w ) 1
H (w ) = =
F (w ) (-w 2 m + jwc + k )

48
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 Lecture 2

Bode plot - example

Second order LP filter 20

10
0

Magnitude [dB]
1
H ( jw ) = -10

w2 w 1 -20
- 2+j +1 -30
wn wn Q -40
-50
-60
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
w /w n
A lightly damped SDOF system
0

-0.2
1
H ( jw ) = -0.4
Phase/p

w 2
w
- + 2 j V +1 -0.6
wn2
wn -0.8

-1
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
w /w n

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 Lecture 2

Bode plots first and second order systems

First order system Second order system

28/03
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 Lecture 2
Frequency Response Function (FRF)

For mechanical systems:

• x(t) – displacement
• F(t) – force

X ( jw )
H ( jw ) =
F ( jw )

51
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 Lecture 2

Measuring FRF

X ( jw )
H ( jw ) =
F ( jw )

X ( jw ) = H ( jw ) F ( jw )

arg{X ( jw)} = arg{H ( jw)}+ arg{F ( jw)}

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Linear differential equations

• Most LTI-system can be defined by linear differential equations:

• Derivative
d
x(t) ⇔ jω ⋅ X( jω )
dt
• Transfer function of such a system is

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Example

• General linear first order system

will the following have frequency response

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Signals and systems

Prof. Tadeusz Stepinski

Lecture 2.3.

• Sampling of time-continuous signals

• Aliasing issues

55
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Sampling theorem

• Can we sample a signal without any information being lost?

• Yes, if the sampling rate is at least twice the signal bandwidth

• Otherwise high frequencies are interpreted as low frequencies
(aliasing distortion occurs)

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 Lecture 2

Sampling theorem

• If the original signal does not meet the criterion, it has to be first filtered
using a low pass filtered (anti-aliasing filter)

• Sampling theorem is often called the

Nyquist criterion
and half of the sampling rate for
the Nyquist frequency

Harry Nyquist was born in Nilsby, Sweden in 1889. In 1907 he entered the United States to commence undergraduate
study at the University of North Dakota. After graduating he moved on to Yale where he was awarded a Ph.D. in Physics
in 1917. He then entered the Bell telephone Laboratories where he remained until he retired in 1954. Between 1920 and
1940 he published a series of papers on research in telecommunications which are arguably the most outstanding set of
scientific contributions since Newton (apart from Einstein!).

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Signal sampling

• Digital signal processing starts with A/D conversion of time continuous signal
• Nyquist principle:
– the signal must be sampled at a rate which is at least double the highest significant
frequency component of the signal

fs > 2B

• Sampling rate lower than Nyquist results in aliasing effects

Analog signal spectrum

Frequency

B fs
Signal bandwidth Nyquist sampling rate

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Sampling in time- and frequency domain

Analog signal

Sampling fs

Periodic spectrum
Sampled signal

Truncation

Sampled and
truncated signal

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 Lecture 2

Spectrum of a sampled signal

Spectrum of a sampled signal is periodic

Correct sampling rate Too low sampling rate - aliasing

60
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Signal sampling experiment

Ch 6 smp_demo1
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Signal sampling experiment

Ch 6 smp_demo2
Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Fourier transform of a sine and cosine signals

Analog signals and their spectra

sin( 2pf 0t ) = e
2
[ -e ]
j j 2pf 0t - j 2pf 0t FT j
Û X ( f ) = [d ( f + f 0 ) - d ( f - f 0 )]
2

cos(2pf 0t ) = e
2
[ +e ]
1 j 2pf 0t - j 2pf 0t FT 1
Û X ( f ) = [d ( f + f 0 ) + d ( f - f 0 )]
2

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Aliasing of a sine and cosine signal

DFT of sampled signals

Analog spectra
CFT DFT

fs > 2f2

-f2 -f1 f1 f2 -f2 -f1 f1 f2 fN fs-f2 fs-f1 fs

DFT
Aliasing fs < 2f2

fN
f1 fs-f2 f2 fs-f1 fs

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2
Ex: Aliasing

Assume that the signal below is first sampled with sampling rate 1000Hz and then with a twice
lower sampling rate 500Hz. Calculate the sampled signal’s spectra in both cases.
FT 1
cos(2pf 0t ) Û [d ( f + f 0 ) + d ( f - f 0 )]
2
x(t) = cos(2π 100t) + cos(2π 300t)

f1=100Hz; f2=300Hz ; f1=100Hz; f2=300Hz ;

fs = 1000Hz > 2f2 fs = 500Hz < 2f2

fs=1000 Hz fs=500 Hz
Fs = 1000Hz Fs = 500Hz
0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5
DFT Amplitude

DFT Amplitude
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frequency in Hz Frequency in Hz

f1=100Hz;
fs- f2=200Hz ;
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 Lecture 2

Ex: Aliasing cont

Assume that the signal below is first sampled with sampling rate 1000Hz and then
with a twice lower sampling rate 500Hz. Calculate the sampled signal’s spectra in
both cases.
x(t) = cos(2π 100t) + cos(2π 400t)

f1=100Hz; f2=400Hz ; f1=100Hz; f2=400Hz ;

fs = 1000Hz > 2f2 fs = 500Hz < 2f2

fs=1000 Hz fs=500 Hz
Fs = 1000Hz Fs = 500Hz
0.7 1

0.9
0.6
0.8
0.5 0.7
DFT Amplitude

DFT Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4

0.2 0.3

0.2
0.1
0.1

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frequency in Hz Frequency in Hz

f1=100Hz;
fs- f2=100Hz ;
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 Lecture 2

Ex: Aliasing cont

Assume that the signal below is first sampled with sampling rate 1000Hz and then with a twice
lower sampling rate 500Hz. Calculate the sampled signal’s spectra in both cases.
FT j
sin( 2pf 0t ) Û [d ( f + f 0 ) - d ( f - f 0 )]
2
x(t) = sin(2π 100t) + sin(2π 300t)
f1=100Hz; f2=400Hz ; f1=100Hz; f2=400Hz ;
fs = 1000Hz > 2f2 fs = 500Hz < 2f2

fs=1000FsHz
= 1000Hz Fs = 500Hz
fs=500 Hz
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45

0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
DFT Amplitude

DFT Amplitude
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frequency in Hz Frequency in Hz

f1=100Hz;
fs- f2=200Hz ;
Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Ex: Aliasing, cnt

Assume that the signal below is first sampled with sampling rate 1000Hz and then
with a twice lower sampling rate 500Hz. Calculate the sampled signal’s spectra in
both cases.

x(t) = sin(2π 100t) + sin(2π 400t)

f1=100Hz; f2=400Hz ; f1=100Hz; f2=400Hz ;

fs = 1000Hz > 2f2 fs = 500Hz < 2f2

fs=1000 Hz -13
fs=500 Hz
Fs = 1000Hz x 10 Fs = 500Hz
0.7
1.5

0.6

0.5
1
DFT Amplitude

DFT Amplitude
0.4

0.3

0.5
0.2

0.1

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Frequency in Hz Frequency in Hz

f1=100Hz;
What happened, why the values are so small?
fs- f2=100Hz ;
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 Lecture 2

Summary

Input signal OBJEKT Output signal

X(w) H(w) Y(w)

Y (w ) = H (w ) X (w ) Time-continuous model

Y (k ) = H (k ) X (k ) Time-discrete model

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Reconstruction of signal from its sampled version

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Reconstruction of signal from its sampled version

First-order hold interpolation

71
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Reconstruction of signal from its sampled version

First-order hold interpolation

72
Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Reconstruction of signal from its sampled version

Ideal reconstruction

73
Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Reconstruction of signal from its sampled version

Ideal reconstruction

74
Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Reconstruction of signal from its sampled version

Ideal reconstruction

75
Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Matlab Homework

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Matlab Homework

Mars 2020
 Lecture 2

Matlab Homework

C:

Note that:

Mars 2020