Contents

6.1 Introduction to Robot Technology ................................................................................................... 6.2

6.2 Robot Physical Configurations ......................................................................................................... 6.2
6.3 Robot Components ........................................................................................................................... 6.5
6.4 Robot Characteristics ....................................................................................................................... 6.7
6.5 Basic Robot Motions ......................................................................................................................... 6.8
6.6 Actuators ......................................................................................................................................... 6.12
6.7 End Effectors ................................................................................................................................... 6.13
6.8 Grippers............................................................................................................................................ 6.14
6.9 Transducers ..................................................................................................................................... 6.15
6.10 Robot Applications .......................................................................................................................... 6.18
6.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots ................................................................................... 6.20
6.12 Robotic Power Sources .................................................................................................................. 6.20
6.13 Robotic Sensors .............................................................................................................................. 6.22
6.14 Programming of the Robot ............................................................................................................. 6.24
6.15 Robot Programming Languages .................................................................................................... 6.25
6.16 Robot Safety .................................................................................................................................... 6.26
6.17 Robot Kinematics and Dynamics ................................................................................................... 6.28
6.1 Introduction to Robot Technology
A robot is an automatically controlled material handling unit that is widely used in the manufacturing
industry. It is generally used for high-volume production and better quality.
Implementation of robot technology with the integration of automatic systems can contribute to
increasing of productivity of the company and enhances the profitability of the company.
The word 'robot' first appeared in 1921 in the Czech playwright Karel Capek's play 'Rossum's Universal
Robots. The word is linked to Czech words Robota (meaning work) and Robotnik (meaning-slave).
Computer Aided Manufactures International of USA describes the meaning of robot as a device that
performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human beings or operates with what appears to human
intelligence.
Another definition from Robot Institute of America is a programmable multi-function manipulator
designed to move and manipulate material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of specified tasks.
ISO defines a robot as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulative machine
with several reprogrammable axes, which are either fixed in a place or mobile for use in industrial
automation applications.
There are several successful examples of robot applications such as:
 Robots perform more than 98% of the spot welding on Ford's Taurus and Sable cars in the U.S.A.
 A robot drills 660 holes in the vertical tail fins of an F-16 fighter in 3 hours at General Dynamics
compared to 24 man-hours when the job was done manually.
 Robots insert disk drives into personal computers and snap keys onto electronic typewriter
keyboards.

The development of the industrial robot represents a logical evolution of automated equipment, combining
certain features of fixed automation and human labor. Robots can be thought of as specialized machine
tools with a degree of flexibility that distinguishes them from fixed-purpose automation.
With the addition of sensory devices, robots are gaining the ability to adapt to their work environment and
modify their actions based on work-condition variations. Industrial robots are becoming "smarter"
mechanical workers and are now widely accepted as valuable productivity-improvement tools.
Industrial robots are properly thought of as machines or mechanical arms. It is inappropriate to think of
them as mechanical people.
A robot is essentially a mechanical arm that is bolted to the floor, a machine, the ceiling, or, in some cases,
the wall, fitted with its mechanical hand, and taught to do repetitive tasks in a controlled, ordered
environment.
Robots fill the gap between the specialized and limited capabilities normally associated with fixed
automation and the extreme flexibility of human labor.

6.2 Robot Physical Configurations

Commercially available industrial robots have one of the following configurations:
1 Cartesian coordinate configuration
2 Polar coordinate configuration
3 Cylindrical-coordinate configuration
4 Jointed arm configuration
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 5 SCARA Robot

6.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates

Fig.6.1 - Typical Motions of a Cartesian or Rectilinear Robot

Positioning may be done by linear motion along three principal axes: left and right, in and out, and up and
down. These axes are known respectively, as the cartesian axes X, Y, and Z.
Fig.6.1 shows a typical manipulator arm for a Cartesian coordinates robot. The work area or work envelope
serviced by the Cartesian-coordinates robot’s arm is a big box-shaped area.
Programming motion for Cartesian-coordinates robot consists of specifying to the controller the X, Y, and
Z values of the desired point to be reached. The robot then moves along each axis to the desired point.
This is one of the simplest types of robots.

6.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates

Fig.6.2 - Typical Motions of a Cylindrical Robot

In this type of robot, there is a rotary motion at the base followed by the two linear motions. The axes for
the cylindrical coordinates are θ, the base rotational axis; R (reach) the in-and-out axis; and Z, the up-and-
down axis.

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The work area is the space between two concentric cylinders of the same height. The inner cylinder
represents the reach of the arm with the arm fully retracted, and the outer cylinder represents the reach of
the arm with the arm fully extended.

6.2.3 Spherical or Polar Coordinates

Fig.6.3 - Typical Motions of a Spherical Robot

This type of robot uses mostly rotational axes. The axes for the spherical coordinates are θ, the rotational
axis; R, the reach axis; and β, the bend-up-and-down axis.
The work area serviced by a polar-coordinates robot is the space between two concentric hemispheres.
The reach of the arm defines the inner hemisphere when it is fully retracted along the R axis. The reach of
the arm defines the outer hemisphere when it is fully straightened along the R axis.

6.2.4 Jointed Arm Configuration

Fig.6.4 - Typical Motions of a Cylindrical Robot

The jointed arm configuration is similar in appearance to the human arm. The arm consists of several
straight members connected by joints that are analogous to the human shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The
robot arm is mounted to a base that can be rotated to provide the robot with the capacity to work within a
quasi-spherical space.

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6.2.5 SCARA Robot

Fig.6.5 - SCARA Robot

Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) is a type of robot that is commonly used for assembly
applications.
The arm picks up a piece-part vertically from a horizontal table and moves it in a horizontal plane to a point
just above another place on the table. Then it lowers the part to the table at the proper point to accomplish
the assembly, perhaps including a rotation operation to insert the part into the assembly.

6.3 Robot Components

A robot, as a system, consists of the following elements, which are integrated to form a whole:
Manipulator, or Rover: This is the main body of the robot and consists of the links, joints, and other
structural elements of the robot. Without other elements, the manipulator alone is not a robot.

Fig.6.6 Robot Components

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End effector: This is the part that is connected to the last joint (hand) of a manipulator, which generally
handles objects, makes a connection to other machines, or performs the required tasks. Robot
manufacturers generally do not design or sell end effectors.
 In most cases, all they supply is a simple gripper. Generally, the hand of a robot has provisions for
connecting specialty end effectors that are specifically designed for a purpose. This is the job of a
company’s engineers or outside consultants to design and install the end effector on the robot and
to make it work for the given situation.
 A welding torch, a paint spray gun, a glue-laying device, and a parts handler are but a few of the
possibilities. In most cases, the action of the end effector is either controlled by the robot’s
controller, or the controller communicates with the end effector’s controlling device (such as a
PLC).

Actuators: Actuators are the “muscles” of the manipulators. Common types of actuators are servomotors,
stepper motors, pneumatic cylinders, and hydraulic cylinders. Actuators are controlled by the controller.
Sensors: Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the robot or to communicate
with the outside environment.
 As in humans, the robot controller needs to know where each link of the robot is to know the robot’s
configuration. Even in absolute darkness, you still know where your arms and legs are! This is
because feedback sensors in your central nervous system embedded in your muscle tendons send
information to your brain.
 The brain uses this information to determine the length of your muscles, and thus, the state of your
arms, legs, etc. The same is true for robots; sensors integrated into the robot send information
about each joint or link to the controller, which determines the configuration of the robot.
 Robots are often equipped with external sensory devices such as a vision system, touch, and tactile
sensors, speech synthesizers, etc., which enable the robot to communicate with the outside world.

Controller: The controller is rather similar to your cerebellum, and although it does not have the power of
your brain, it still controls your motions.
 The controller receives its data from the computer, controls the motions of the actuators, and
coordinates the motions with the sensory feedback information.
 Suppose that for the robot to pick up apart from a bin, its first joint must be at 36°. If the joint is not
already at this magnitude, the controller will send a signal to the actuator (a current to an electric
motor, air to a pneumatic cylinder, or a signal to a hydraulic servo valve), causing it to move. It will
then measure the change in the joint angle through the feedback sensor attached to the joint (a
potentiometer, an encoder, etc.). When the joint reaches the desired value, the signal is stopped.
 In more sophisticated robots, the velocity and the force exerted by the robot are also controlled by
the controller.

Processor: The processor is the brain of the robot.

 It calculates the motions of the robot’s joints, determines how much and how fast each joint must
move to achieve the desired location and speeds, and oversees the coordinated actions of the
controller and the sensors.
 The processor is generally a computer, which works like all other computers, but is dedicated to a
single purpose. It requires an operating system, programs, peripheral equipment such as monitors,
and has many of the same limitations and capabilities of a PC processor.

Software: There are perhaps three groups of software that are used in a robot.

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  One is the operating system, which operates the computer.
 The second is the robotic software, which calculates the necessary motions of each joint based
on the kinematic equations of the robot. This information is sent to the controller. This software
may be at many different levels, from machine language to sophisticated languages used by
modern robots.
 The third group is the collection of routines and application programs that are developed to use
the peripheral devices of the robots, such as vision routines, or to perform specific tasks.

It is important to note that in many systems, the controller and the processor are placed in the same unit.
Although these two units are in the same box, and even if they are integrated into the same circuit, they
have two separate functions.

6.4 Robot Characteristics

The following definitions are used to characterize robot specifications:
Payload: Payload is the weight a robot can carry and remain within its other specifications.
 For example, a robot’s maximum load capacity may be much larger than its specified payload, but
at the maximum level, it may become less accurate, may not follow its intended path accurately,
or may have excessive deflections. The payload of robots compared with their weight is usually
very small.
 For example, the Fanuc Robotics LR Mate™ robot has a mechanical weight of 86 lbs and a payload
of 6.6 lbs, and the M-16i™ robot has a mechanical weight of 694 lbs and a payload of 36 lbs.

Reach: Reach is the maximum distance a robot can reach within its work envelope.
 Many points within the work envelope of the robot may be reached with any desired orientation
(called dexterous).
 However, for other points, close to the limit of the robot’s reach capability, orientation cannot be
specified as desired (called nondexterous point). Reach is a function of the robot’s joint lengths
and its configuration.

Precision (validity): Precision is defined as how accurately a specified point can be reached. This is a
function of the resolution of the actuators, as well as its feedback devices. Most industrial robots can have
a precision of 0.001 inches or better.
Repeatability (variability): Repeatability is how accurately the same position can be reached if the motion
is repeated many times.
 Suppose that a robot is driven to the same point 100 times. Since many factors may affect the
accuracy of the position, the robot may not reach the same point every time but will be within a
certain radius from the desired point. The radius of a circle that is formed by this repeated motion
is called repeatability.
 Repeatability is much more important than precision. If a robot is not precise, it will generally show
a consistent error, which can be predicted and thus corrected through programming. As an
example, suppose that a robot is consistently off 0.06 inches to the right. In that case, all desired
points can be specified at 0.06 inches to the left, and thus the error can be eliminated. However, if
the error is random, it cannot be predicted and thus cannot be eliminated.
 Repeatability defines the extent of this random error. Repeatability is usually specified for a certain
number of runs. More tests yield larger (bad for manufacturers) and more realistic (good for the
users) results. Manufacturers must specify repeatability in conjunction with the number of tests,
the applied payload during the tests, and the orientation of the arm.
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  For example, the repeatability of an arm in a vertical direction will be different from when the arm
is tested in a horizontal configuration. Most industrial robots have repeatability in the 0.001-inch
range.

6.5 Basic Robot Motions

Whatever the configuration, the purpose of the robot is to perform a useful task. To accomplish the task,
an end effector, or hand, is attached to the end of the robot’s arm.
It is this end effector which adapts the general-purpose robot to a particular task. To do the task, the robot
arm must be capable of moving the end effector through a sequence of motions and/or positions.

6.5.1 Six Degrees of Freedom

There are six basic motions, or degrees of freedom, which provide the robot with the capability to move
the end effector through the required sequence of motions. There are six degrees of freedom are intended
to emulate the versatility of movement possessed by the human arm. Not all robots are equipped with the
ability to move in all six degrees.

Fig.6.7 - Typical six degrees of freedom in robot motion

The six basic motions consist of three-arm body motions and three wrist motions, as illustrated in Fig.6.7
polar type robot. These motions are described below.
1 Vertical transverse: Up-and-down motions of the arm, caused by pivoting the entire arm about a
horizontal axis or moving the arm along a vertical slide
2 Radial transverse: Extension and retraction of the arm (in-and-out movement)
3 Rotational transverse: Rotation about the vertical axis (right or left swivel of the robot arm)
4 Wrist swivel: Rotation of the wrist
5 Wrist bend: Up-or-down movement of the wrist, which also involves a rotational movement
6 Wrist yaw: Right-or-left swivel of the wrist

Additional axes of motion are possible, for example, by putting the robot on a track or slide. The slide
would be mounted on the floor or in an overhead track system, thus providing a conventional six-axis robot
with the seventh degree of freedom. The gripper device is not normally considered to be an additional axis
of motion.
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6.5.2 Motion Systems
Similar to NC machine tool systems, the motion systems of industrial robots can be classified as either
point-to-point (PTP) or contouring (also called continuous path).
In point-to-point, the robot’s movement is controlled from one point location in space to another. Each
point is programmed into the robot’s control memory and then played back during the work cycle. No
particular attention is given to the path followed by the robot in its move from one point to the next. Point-
to-point robots would be quite capable of performing certain kinds of productive operations, such as
machine loading and unloading, pick-and-place activities, and spot welding.

Fig.6.8 - Point-to-point (PTP) path system

Contouring robots can follow a closely spaced locus of a point which describes a smooth compound
curve. The memory and control requirements are greater for contouring robots than for PPT because the
complete path taken by the robot must be remembered rather than merely the endpoints of the motion
sequence. However, in certain industrial operations, continuous control of the work cycle path is essential
to the use of robots in the operation. Examples of these operations are paint spraying, continuous welding
processes, and grasping objects moving along a conveyor.

Fig.6.9 - Contouring path system

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6.5.3 Other Technical Features
There are numerous other technical features of an industrial robot that determine its efficiency and
effectiveness at performing a given task.
The following are some of the most important among these technical features:
Work volume:
The term “work volume” refers to space within which the robot can operate. To be technically precise, the
work volume is the spatial region within which the end of the robot’s wrist can be manipulated. Robot
manufacturers have adopted the policy of defining the work volume in terms of the wrist end, with no hand
or tool attached.
The work volume of an industrial robot is determined by its physical configuration, size, and limits of its
arm and joint manipulations.

Fig.6.10 – Work Volume

The work volume of a Cartesian coordinate robot will be rectangular. The work volume of a cylindrical
coordinate robot will be cylindrical. A polar coordinate configuration will generate a working volume which
is a partial sphere. The work volume of a jointed arm robot will be somewhat irregular, the outer reaches
generally resembling a partial sphere.
Robot manufacturers usually show a diagram of the particular model’s work volume in their marketing
literature, providing a top view and side view with dimensions of the robot’s motion envelope.
The precision of movement:
The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist is a critical consideration in most
applications. In robotics, the precision of movement is a complex issue, and we will describe it as
consisting of three attributes: Spatial resolution, Accuracy, and Repeatability.
These attributes are generally interpreted in terms of the wrist end with no end effector attached and with
the arm fully extended.
 Spatial resolution: The term “spatial resolution” refers to the smallest increment of motion at the
wrist end that can be controlled by the robot. This is determined largely by the robot’s control
resolution, which depends on its position control system and/or its feedback measurement
system. In addition, mechanical inaccuracies in the robot’s joints would tend to degrade its ability
to position its arm.
The spatial resolution is the sum of the control resolution plus these mechanical inaccuracies. The
factors determining control resolution are the range of movement of the arm and the bit storage
capacity in the control memory for that movement.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

6.10 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
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 The arm movement must be divided into its basic motions or degrees of freedom, and the
resolution of the degree of freedom is figured separately. Then the total control resolution is the
vector sum of each component.
 Accuracy: The accuracy of the robot refers to its capability to position its wrist end (or a tool
attached to the wrist) at a given target point within its work volume. Accuracy is closely related to
spatial resolution since the robot’s ability to reach a particular point in space depends on its ability
to divide its joint movement into small increments.
According to this relation, the accuracy of the robot would be one-half the distance between two
adjacent resolution points. The robot’s accuracy is also affected by mechanical inaccuracies, such
as the deflection of its components, gear inaccuracies, and so forth.
 Repeatability: This refers to the robot’s ability to position its wrist end (or tool) back to a point in
space. Repeatability is different from accuracy.
The robot will initially be programmed to move the wrist end to the target point T. Because it is
limited by its accuracy, the robot was only capable of achieving point A. The distance between
points A and T is the accuracy. Later, the robot is instructed to return to this previously programmed
point A. However, because it is limited by its repeatability, it is only capable of moving to point R.
The distance between points R and A is a measure of the robot’s repeatability.
As the robot is instructed to return to the same position in subsequent work cycles, it will not
always return to point R, but instead will form a cluster of positions about point A. Repeatability
errors form a random variable. In general, repeatability will be better (less) than accuracy.
Mechanical inaccuracies in the robot’s arm and wrist components are principal sources of
repeatability errors.

Speed of movement:
The speed with which the robot can manipulate the end effector ranges up to a maximum of about 1.6
m/s. almost all robots have an adjustment to set the speed to the desired level for the task performed.
This speed should be determined by such factors as the weight of the object being moved, the distance
moved, and the precision with which the object must be positioned during the work cycle.
Heavy-object cannot be moved as fast as light objects because of inertia problems. Also, objects must be
moved more slowly when high positional accuracy is required.
Weight-carrying capacity:
The weight-carrying capacity of commercially available robots covers a wide range. At the upper end of
the range, there are robots capable of lifting over 1000 lb. The Versatran FC model has a maximum load-
carrying capacity rated at 2000 lb. At the lower end of the range, the ultimate PUMA Model 260 has a load
capacity of only 2.6 lb. What complicates the issue for the low-weight-capacity robots is that the rated
capacity includes the weight of the end effector. For example, if the gripper for the PUMA 260 weighs 1 lb,
the net capacity of the robot is only 1.6 lb.
Type of drive system:
There are three basic drive systems used in commercially available robots: Hydraulic, Electric motor, and
Pneumatic.
Hydraulic drive systems are usually associated with large robots, and this drive system adds to the floor
space required by the robot. Advantages which this type of system gives to the robot are mechanical
simplicity, high strength, and high speed.
Robots driven by electric motors (dc stepping motors or servo motors) do not possess the physical
strength or speed of hydraulic units, but their accuracy and repeatability are generally better. Less floor
space is required due to the absence of the hydraulic power unit.
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Pneumatically driven robots are typically smaller and technologically less sophisticated than the other
two types. Pick-and-place tasks and other simple, high-cycle-rate operations are examples of the kinds of
applications usually reserved for these robots.

6.6 Actuators
Actuators are the muscles of robots. If you imagine that the links and the joints are the skeletons of the
robot, the actuators act as muscles, which move or rotate the links to change the configuration of robots.
The actuator must have enough power to accelerate and decelerate the links and to carry the loads, yet be
light, economical, accurate, responsive, reliable, and easy to maintain.
There are many types of actuators available, and, undoubtedly, there will be more varieties available in the
future. The following types are noteworthy:
 Electric motors
o Servomotors
o Stepper motors
o Direct-drive electric motors
 Hydraulic actuators
 Pneumatic actuators
 Shape memory metal actuators
 Magnetostrictive actuators

Fig.6.11 - Actuators

Electric motors — especially servomotors — are the most commonly used robotic actuators.
Hydraulic systems were very popular for large robots in the past and are still around in many places, but
are not used in new robots as often anymore.
Pneumatic cylinders are used in robots that have 1/2 degree of freedom, on-off type joints, as well as for
insertion purposes.
Direct drive electric motors, the shape memory metal type-actuators, and others like them are mostly in
the research and development stage and may become more useful shortly.
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6.7 End Effectors
In the terminology of robotics, an end effector can be defined as a device that is attached to the robot's
wrist to perform a specific task. The task might be work part handling, spot welding, spray painting, or any
of a great variety of other functions.
The possibilities are limited only by the imagination and ingenuity of the applications engineers who design
robot systems. Economic considerations might also impose a few limitations. The end effector is the
special-purpose tooling that enables the robot to perform a particular job.

Fig.6.12 - End effectors

It is usually custom engineered for that job, either by the company that owns the robot or by the company
that sold the robot. Most robot manufacturers have engineering groups that design and fabricate end
effectors or provide advice to their customers on end-effector design.
For purposes of organization, we will divide the various types of end effectors into two categories: grippers
and tools. The following two sections discuss these two categories.

6.7.1 Tools as End Effectors

In many applications, the robot is required to manipulate a tool rather than a work part. In a limited number
of these applications, the end effector is a gripper that is designed to grasp and handle the tool.
The reason for using a gripper in these applications is that there may be more than one tool to be used by
the robot in the work cycle. The use of a gripper permits the tools to be exchanged during the cycle, and
thus facilitates this multitool handling function.
In most of the robot applications in which a tool is manipulated, the tool is attached directly to the robot
wrist. In these cases, the tool is the end effector. Some examples of tools used as end effectors in robot
applications include:
 Spot-welding tools
 Arc-welding torch
 Spray-painting nozzle
 Rotating spindles for operations such as drilling, routing, wire brushing, and grinding
 Heating torches
 Water jet cutting tool

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6.8 Grippers
Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and hold objects. The objects generally work parts that are to be
moved by the robot. These part-handling applications include machine loading and unloading, picking
parts from a conveyor, and arranging parts onto a pallet.
In addition to work parts, other objects handled by robot grippers include cartons, bottles, raw materials,
and tools. We tend to think of grippers as mechanical grasping devices, but there are alternative ways of
holding objects involving the use of magnets, suction cups, or other means.

6.8.1 Mechanical Grippers

A mechanical gripper is an end effector that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a mechanism to grasp
an object. The fingers, sometimes called jaws, are the appendages of the gripper that make contact with
the object.
The fingers are either attached to the mechanism or are an integral part of the mechanism. If the fingers
are of the attachable type, then they can be detached and replaced. The use of replaceable fingers allows
for wear and interchangeability.

Fig.6.13 - Sample gripper designs: (a) pivot action grippe; (b) slide action gripper;(c) double gripper-pivot
action mechanism; (d) vacuum-operated hand

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6.8.2 Vacuum cups
Vacuum cups, also called suction cups, can be used as gripper devices for handling certain types of
objects. The usual requirements on the objects to be handled are that they are flat, smooth, and clean,
conditions necessary to form a satisfactory vacuum between the object and the suction cup.
The suction cups of the robot gripper are typically made of an elastic material such as rubber or soft
plastic. An exception would be when the object to be handled is composed of a soft material. In this case,
the suction cup would be made of a hard substance.

6.8.3 Magnetic Grippers

Magnetic grippers can be a very feasible means of handling ferrous materials. The stainless steel plate
would not be an appropriate application for a magnetic gripper because 18-8 stainless steel is not
attracted by a magnet. Other steels, however, including certain types of stainless steel, would be suitable
candidates for this means of handling, especially when the materials are handled in sheet or plate form.
In general, magnetic grippers offer the following advantages in robotic handling applications:
 Pickup times are very fast.
 Variations in part size can be tolerated. The gripper does not have to be designed for one particular
work part.
 They can handle metal parts with holes (not possible with vacuum grippers).
 They require only one surface for gripping.

Disadvantages with magnetic grippers include the residual magnetism remaining in the workpiece which
may cause a problem in subsequent handling, and the possible side slippage and other errors which limit
the precision of this means of handling.

6.8.4 Adhesive Gripper

Gripper designs in which an adhesive substance performs the grasping action can be used to handle
fabrics and other lightweight materials. The requirements on the items to be handled are that they must
be gripped on one side only and that other forms of grasping such as a vacuum or magnet are not
appropriate.
One of the potential limitations of an adhesive gripper is that the adhesive substance loses its tackiness
on repeated Usage. Consequently, its reliability as a gripping device is diminished with each successive
operation cycle.
To overcome this limitation, the adhesive material is loaded in the form of a continuous ribbon into a
feeding mechanism that is attached to the robot wrist. The feeding mechanism operates like a typewriter
ribbon mechanism.

6.9 Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variable (e.g., force, pressure, temperature,
velocity, flow rate, etc.) into another form. A common conversion is to electrical voltage, and the reason
for making the conversion is that the converted signal is more convenient to use and evaluate.
A sensor is a transducer that is used to measure a physical variable of interest. Some of the common
sensors and transducers include strain gauges (used to measure force and pressure), thermocouples
(temperatures), speedometers (velocity), and Pitot tubes (flow rates).

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Any sensor or transducer requires calibration to be useful as a measuring device. Calibration is the
procedure by which the relationship between the measured variable and the converted output signal is
established.
Transducers and sensors can be classified into two basic types depending on the form of the converted
signal. The two types are:
1 Analog transducers
2 Digital transducers

Analog transducers provide a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage or current. This signal
can then be interpreted as the value of the physical variable that is being measured.

Fig.6.14 – A Pressure Transducer

Digital transducers produce a digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel status bits or a
series of pulses that can be counted. In either form, the digital signal represents the value of the measured
variable.

Fig.6.15 – A Shaft Encoder – Digital Transducer

Digital transducers are becoming more popular because of the ease with which they can be read as
separate measuring instruments. In addition, they offer the advantage in automation and process control
that they are generally more compatible with the digital computer than analog-based sensors.
Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering
6.16 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
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6.9.1 Intelligent Robots
Intelligent robots constitute a growing class of industrial robot that possesses the capability not only to
playback a programmed motion cycle but to also interact with its environment in a way that seems
intelligent. Invariably, the controller unit consists of a digital computer or similar device (e.g.,
programmable controller).
Intelligent robots can alter their programmed cycle in response to conditions that occur in the workplace.
They can make logical decisions based on sensor data received from the operation. The robots in this
class can communicate during the work cycle with humans or computer-based systems.
Intelligent robots are usually programmed using an English-like and symbolic language, not unlike a
computer programming language.
Indeed, the kinds of applications that are performed by intelligent robots rely on the use of a high-level
language to accomplish the complex and sophisticated activities that can be accomplished by these
robots. Typical applications for intelligent robots are assembly tasks and arc-welding operations.

6.9.2 Work Cell Control

Industrial robots usually work with other things: processing equipment, work parts, conveyors, tools, and
perhaps, human operators. A means must be provided for coordinating all of the activities which are going
on within the robot workstation.
Some of the activities occur sequentially, while others take place simultaneously. To make certain that the
various activities are coordinated and occur in the proper sequence, a device called the work cell controller
is used (another name for this is the workstation controller). The work cell controller usually resides within
the robot and has overall responsibility for regulating the activities of the work cell components.

6.9.3 Interlocks
An interlock is the feature of work cell control that prevents the work cycle sequence from continuing until
a certain condition or set of conditions has been satisfied. In a robotic work cell, there are two types:
outgoing and incoming.
The outgoing interlock is a signal sent from the workstation controller to some external machine or device
that will cause it to operate or not operate. For example, this would be used to prevent a machine from
initiating its process until it was commanded to proceed by the work cell controller.
An incoming interlock is a signal from some external machine or device to the work controller which
determines whether or not the programmed work cycle sequence will proceed. For example, this would be
used to prevent the work cycle program from continuing until the machine signaled that it had completed
its processing of the workpiece.
The use of interlocks provides an important benefit in the control of the work' cycle because it prevents
actions from happening when they shouldn't, and it causes actions to occur when they should. Interlocks
are needed to help coordinate the activities of the various independent components in the work cell and
to help avert damage of one component by another.
In the planning of interlocks in the robotic work cell, the application engineer must consider both the
normal sequence of activities that will occur during the work cycle and the potential malfunctions that
might occur.
Then these normal activities are linked together through limit switches, pressure switches, photoelectric
devices, and other system components. Malfunctions that can be anticipated are prevented using similar
devices.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.17
Unit-6 Robot Technology
6.10 Robot Applications
Robots are best suited to work in environments where humans cannot perform the tasks. Robots have
already been used in many industries and for many purposes. They can often perform better than humans
and at lower costs.
For example, a welding robot can probably weld better than a human welder, because the robot can move
more uniformly and more consistently. In addition, robots do not need protective goggles, protective
clothing, ventilation, and many other necessities that their human counterparts do. As a result, robots can
be more productive and better suited for the job.
A robot exploring the ocean bottom would require far less attention than a human diver. Also, the robot
can stay underwater for long periods and can go to very large depths and still survive the pressure; it also
does not require oxygen.

Fig.6.16 - Robot Applications

The following is a list of some applications where robots are useful. The list is not complete by any stretch
of the imagination. There are many other uses as well, and other applications find their way into the
industry and the society all the time:
 Machine loading, where robots supply parts to or remove parts from other machines. In this type
of work, the robot may not even perform any operation on the part but is only a means of handling
parts within a set of operations.
 Pick and place operations, where the robot picks up parts and places them elsewhere. This may
include palletizing, placing cartridges, a simple assembly where two parts are put together (such
as placing tablets into a bottle), placing parts in an oven, and removing the treated part from the
oven.
 Welding, where the robot, along with proper setups and a welding end effector, is used to weld
parts together. This is one of the most common applications of robots in the auto industry. Due to
the robots' consistent movements, the welds are very uniform and accurate. Welding robots are
usually large and powerful.
 Painting is another very common application of robots, especially in the automobile industry. Since
maintaining a ventilated, but clean, room suitable for humans is difficult, and compared with those
performed by humans, robotic operations are more consistent, painting robots are very well suited
for their job.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

6.18 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
Unit-6 Robot Technology
 Inspection of parts, circuit boards, and other similar products is also a very common application
for robots. In general, some other device is integrated into the system for inspection. This may be
a vision system, an X-ray device, an ultrasonic detector, or other similar devices.
o In one application, a robot equipped with an ultrasound crack detector was given the
computer-aided design (CAD) data about the shape of an airplane fuselage and wings and
was used to follow the airplane's body contours and check each joint, weld, or rivet.
o In a similar application, a robot was used to search for and find the location of each rivet,
detect and mark the rivets with fatigue cracks, drill them out, and move on. The technicians
would insert and install new rivets. Robots have also been extensively used for circuit board
and chip inspection.
 Sampling with robots is used in many industries, including in agriculture. Sampling can be similar
to pick and place and inspection, except that it is performed only on a certain number of products.
 Assembly operations are among the most difficult for the robot to do. Usually, assembling
components into a product involves many operations. For example, the parts must be located and
identified, carried in a particular order with many obstacles around the setup, fitted together, and
then assembled. Many of the fitting and assembling tasks are complicated as well and may require
pushing, turning, bending, wiggling, pressings, and snapping the tabs to connect the parts.
 Manufacturing by robots may include many different operations, such as material removal, drilling,
deburring, laying glue, cutting, etc. It also includes the insertion of parts, such as electronic
components into circuit boards, installation of boards into electronic devices such as VCRs, and
other similar operations.
 Surveillance by robots has been tried but was not too successful. However, the use of vision
systems for surveillance has been very extensive, both in security industry and in traffic control.
For example, in one part of the highway system in Southern California, one lane of traffic has been
leased out to private industry, which maintains the road and provides services but also charges
users. Surveillance cameras are used to detect the license plates of the cars that use the road,
which is subsequently charged a toll for road use.
 Medical applications are also becoming increasingly common. For example, the Robodoc was
designed to assist a surgeon in total-joint replacement operations. Since many of the functions
that are performed during this procedure, such as cutting off the head of the bone, drilling a hole
in the bone's body, reaming the hole for precise dimension, and installation of the manufactured
implant joint, can be performed by a robot with better precision than by a human, the mechanical
parts of the operation are assigned to the robot. Similarly, many other robots have been used to
assist surgeons during microsurgery, including operations on heart valves in Paris.
 Assisting disabled individuals has also been tried with interesting results. There is much that can
be done to help the disabled in their daily lives. In one study, a small table-top robot was
programmed to communicate with a disabled person and to perform simple tasks such as placing
a food plate into the microwave oven, removing the plate from the oven, and placing the plate in
front of the disabled person to eat. Many other tasks were also programmed for the robot to
perform.
 Hazardous environments are well suited for robotics use. Because of their inherent danger in these
environments, humans must be well protected against the dangers. However, robots can access,
traverse, maintain, and explore these areas without the same level of concern. Servicing a
radioactive environment, for instance, can be done much easier with a robot than with a human.
 Underwater, space, and remote locations can also be serviced or explored by robots. Although no
human has yet been sent to Mars, there have been several rovers that have already landed and
explored it.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.19
Unit-6 Robot Technology
6.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
 Robotics and automation can, in many situations, increase productivity, safety, efficiency,
quality, and consistency of products.
 Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need for life support, comfort, or
safety concerns.
 Robots need no environmental comfort, such as lighting, air conditioning, ventilation, and noise
protection.
 Robots work continuously without experiencing fatigue or boredom, do not get mad, do not
have hangovers, and need no medical insurance or vacation.
 Robots have repeatable precision at all times unless something happens to them or unless
they wear out.
 Robots can be much more accurate than humans. Typical linear accuracies are a few
thousands of an inch. New wafer-handling robots have microinch accuracies.
 Robots and their accessories and sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
 Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously. Humans can only process one
active stimulus.
 Robots replace human workers creating economic problems, such as lost salaries, and social
problems, such as dissatisfaction and resentment among workers.
 Robots cannot respond in emergencies unless the situation is predicted and the response is
included in the system. Safety measures are needed to ensure that they do not injure operators
and machines working with them. This includes:
o Inappropriate or wrong responses
o A lack of decision-making power
o A loss of power
o Damage to the robot and other devices
o Human injuries
 Robots, although superior in certain senses have limited capabilities in
o Degrees of freedom
o Dexterity
o Sensors
o Vision systems
o Real-time response
 Robots are costly, due to
o The initial cost of equipment
o Installation costs
o Need for peripherals
o Need for training
o Need for programming

6.12 Robotic Power Sources

A recent survey indicated that, in terms of total robots made, electric drives account for about one-half of
the robot drives used; pneumatic drives, about one-third of the total; and hydraulic drives, about one-sixth
of the total.
Some authorities believe that these ratios will hold rather steady; others profess a solid trend toward
electric drives. Electric servo units lately have been advanced in power and durability.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

6.20 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
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 Fig.6.17 - Robotic Power Sources

6.12.1 Electric Power Source

All robot systems use electricity as the primary source of energy. Electricity turns the pumps that provide
hydraulic and pneumatic pressure. It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic components
and peripheral devices.
In all-electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the controller, are electrically powered. Most electric
robots use servomotors for axes motion, but a few open-loop robot systems utilize stepper motors.
The majority of robots presently are equipped with DC servomotors, but eventually will be changed to AC
servo motors because of their higher reliability, compactness, and high performance.
Most new model robots appear to be with an AC servomotor and an encoder, which simplifies wiring,
reduces maintenance and increases performance. Therefore, AC servomotors are gaining confidence and
importance in the robot industry. Electric motors provide the greatest variety of choices for powering
manipulators, especially in the low- and moderate-load ranges, and for low-speed high-load operations.
Because electric robots do not require a hydraulic power unit, they conserve floor space and decrease
factory noise. Direct drive models provide a very quick response.
No energy conversion is required because the electric power is applied directly to the drive actuators on
the axes. In an electric manipulator, the motors generally provide rotational motion and, therefore, must
use rack-and-pinion gears or ball-screw drives to change to linear movements, for direct drives are
connected to the joints through some kind of mechanical couplings, such as a lead screw, pulley block,
spur gears, or harmonic drive.
The disadvantages of electric drives are that the payload capability is limited to three hundred pounds or
less, and the operation in explosive environments poses problems.

6.12.2 Pneumatic Power Source

Pneumatic drives are generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low load-carrying capacity.
When used with non-servo controllers, they usually require mechanical stops to ensure accurate
positioning. Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for powering simple stop-to-stop motions.
The most often used configurations are a linear single or a double-acting piston actuator. Rotary actuators
also are used. In converting linear actuation to rotary motion, a drive pulley connected to the actuator by
a cable may be used, thus avoiding the non-linearities of joint motion inherent in linkwork conversion of
linear to rotary motion.
Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.21
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An advantage of the pneumatic actuator is its inherently lightweight, particularly when operating pressures
are moderate. This advantage, coupled with readily available compressed air supplies, makes pneumatics
a good choice for moderate to low load applications that do not require great precision.
Because of the lightweight, pneumatics are often used to power end effectors even when other power
sources are used for the manipulator’s joints.
The principal disadvantages of pneumatic actuators include their inherent low efficiencies, especially at
reduced loads; their low stiffness (even at the high end of practical operating pressure); and problems of
controlling them with high accuracy.

6.12.3 Hydraulic Power Source

Hydraulic drives are either linear piston actuators or rotary vane configurations. If the vane type is used as
a direct drive, the range of joint rotation is limited to less than 360 degrees because of the internal stops
on double-acting vane actuators.
Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a given actuator. The high power-to-weight ratio
makes the hydraulic actuator an attractive choice for moving moderate to high loads at reasonable speeds
and moderate noise Revels.
Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of using energy to achieve a better performance,
but they are more expensive and generally less accurate.
A major disadvantage of hydraulic systems is their requirement for an energy storage system, including
pumps and accumulators. Hydraulic systems also are susceptible to leakage, which may reduce efficiency
or require frequent cleaning and maintenance.
The working fluid must always be kept clean and filter-free of particles. Fluid must be kept at a constant
warm temperature (100°F-110°F). Also, air entrapment and cavitation effects can sometimes cause
difficulties. One of the chief concerns with hydraulic power is the environmental issue. The oil that is
contaminated is costly to remove, and any leakage is considered an environmental contamination
problem.

6.12.4 Electromechanical Power Source

Electromechanical power sources are used in about 20 percent of the robots available today. Typical
forms are servomotors, stepping motors, pulse motors, linear solenoids and rotational solenoids, and a
variety of synchronous and timing belt drives.
The primary use of AC servomotors in robot joint movements is for fast, accurate positioning, high stall
torque, small frame size, and lightweight. Pneumatically driven robots, because of the compressibility of
air, normally are found in light-service, limited-sequence, and pick-and-place applications.
Hydraulic robots usually employ hydraulic servo valves and analog resolvers for control and feedback.
Digital encoders and well-designed feedback control systems can provide hydraulically actuated robots
with an accuracy and repeatability generally associated with electrically driven robots.

6.13 Robotic Sensors

For certain robot applications, the type of workstation control using interlocks is not adequate. The robot
must take on more human-like senses and capabilities to perform the task satisfactorily. These senses
and capabilities include vision and hand-eye coordination, touch, and hearing.
Accordingly, we will divide the types of sensors used in robotics into the following three categories:

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

6.22 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
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 1 Vision sensors
2 Tactile and proximity sensors
3 Voice sensors

6.13.1 Vision Sensors

This is one of the areas that is receiving a lot of attention in robotics research. Computerized vision
systems will be an important technology in future automated factories. Robot vision is made possible
using a video camera, a sufficient light source, and a computer programmed to process image data.

Fig.6.18 – Vision Sensor

The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed position above the robot so that its field of vision
includes the robot’s work volume. The computer software enables the vision system to sense the presence
of an object and its position and orientation.
Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out the following kinds of operations:
 Retrieve parts that are randomly oriented on a conveyor.
 Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other objects.
 Perform visual inspection tasks.
 Perform assembly operations that require alignment.

All of these operations have been accomplished in research laboratories. It is merely a matter of time and
economics before vision sensors become a common feature in robot applications.

6.13.2 Tactile and Proximity Sensors

Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces between itself and other
objects within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into two types:
1 Touch sensors
2 Stress sensors (also called force sensors)

Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an object. A simple
microswitch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor. Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude
of the contact force. Strain gauge devices are typically employed in force-measuring sensors.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.23
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Potential uses of robots with tactile sensing capabilities would be in assembly and inspection operations.
In assembly, the robot could perform delicate part alignment and joining operations.
In inspection, touch sensing would be useful in gauging operations and dimensional-measuring activities.
Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object.

Fig.6.19 - Proximity Sensor

On a robot, the proximity sensor would be located on or near the end effector. engineered using optical-
proximity devices, eddy-current proximity detectors, magnetic-field sensors, or other devices.
In robotics, proximity sensors might be used to indicate the presence or absence of a work part or other
object. They could also help prevent injury to the robot’s human coworkers in the factory.

6.13.3 Voice Sensors

Another area of robotics research is voice sensing or voice programming. Voice programming can be
defined as the oral communication of commands to the robot or other machine.
The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system that analyzes the voice input and
compares it with a set of stored word patterns. When a match is found between the input and the stored
vocabulary word, the robot performs some action that corresponds to that word.
Voice sensors would be useful in robot programming to speed up the programming procedure, just as it
does in NC programming. It would also be beneficial in especially hazardous working environments for
performing unique operations such as maintenance and repair work.
The robot could be placed in a hazardous environment and remotely commanded to perform the repair
chores using step-by-step instructions.

6.14 Programming of the Robot

There are various methods by which robots can be programmed to perform a given work cycle. Divide
these programming methods into four categories:
1. Manual method
2. Walkthrough method
3. Lead through method
4. Off-line programming

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

6.24 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
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6.14.1 Manual method
This method is not programming in the conventional sense of the world. It is more like setting up a
machine rather than programming.
It is the procedure used for simpler robots and involves setting mechanical stops, cams, switches, or relays
in the robot’s control unit. For these low-technology robots used for short work cycles, the manual
programming method is adequate.

6.14.2 Walkthrough method

In this method, the programmer manually moves the robot’s arm and hand through the motion sequence
of the work cycle. Each movement is recorded into memory for subsequent playback during production.
The speed with which the movements are performed can usually be controlled independently so that the
programmer does not have to worry about the cycle time during the walkthrough.
The main concern is getting the position sequence correct. The walkthrough method would be appropriate
for spray painting and arc welding robots.

6.14.3 Lead through method

The lead-through method makes use of a teach pendant to power drive the robot through its motion
sequence. The teach pendant is usually a small hand-held device with switches and dials to control the
robot’s physical movement.
Each motion is recorded into memory for future playback during the work cycle. The lead-through method
is very popular among robot programming methods because of its ease and convenience.

6.14.4 Off-line programming

This method involves the preparation of the robot program off-line, like NC part programming. Off-line
robot programming is typically accomplished on a computer terminal. After the program has been
prepared, it is entered into the robot memory for use during the work cycle.
The advantage of off-line robot programming is that the production time of the robot is not lost to delays
in teaching the robot a new task. Programming off-line can be done while the robot is still in production
on the preceding job. This means higher utilization of the robot and the equipment with which it operates.

6.15 Robot Programming Languages

Non-computer-controlled robots do not require a programming language. They are programmed by the
walkthrough or lead-through methods while the simpler robots are programmed by manual methods. With
the introduction of computer control for robots came the opportunity and the need to develop a computer-
oriented robot programming language.
In this section, discuss two of these languages: VAL, developed for the Unimation PUMA robot; and MCL,
and APT-based language developed by McDonnell-Douglas Corporation.

6.15.1 The VAL language

The VAL language was developed by Victor Scheinman for the PUMA robot, an assembly robot produced
by Unimation Inc. Hence, VAL stands for Victor's Assembly Language. It is an off-line language in which
the program defining the motion sequence can be developed off-line, but the various point locations used
in the work cycle are most conveniently defined by lead through.
VAL statements are divided into two categories. Monitor Commands and Programming Instructions.
Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.25
Unit-6 Robot Technology
The Monitor Commands are a set of administrative instructions that direct the operation of the robot
system. The Monitor Commands would be used for such functions as:
 Preparing the system for the user to write programs for the PUMA
 Defining points in space
 Commanding the PUMA to execute a program
 Listing programs on the CRT

The Program Instructions are a set of statements used to write robot programs. Programs in VAL direct
the sequence of motions of the PUMA. One statement usually corresponds to one movement of the robot's
arm or wrist. Examples of Program Instructions include:
 Move to a point
 Move to a point in a straight-line motion
 Open gripper
 Close gripper

The Program Instructions are entered into memory to form programs by first using the Monitor Command
EDIT. This prepares the system to receive the Program Instruction statements in the proper order.

6.15.2 The MCL language

The MCL stands for Machine Control Language and was developed by McDonnell-Douglas Corporation
under contract to the U.S. Air Force ICAM (Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing) Program.
The language is based on the APT NC language but is designed to control a complete manufacturing cell,
including a cell with robots. MCL is an enhancement of APT which possesses additional options and
features needed to do off-line programming of a robotic work cell.
Additional vocabulary words were developed to provide the supplementary capabilities intended to be
covered by the MCL language. These capabilities include vision, inspection, and the control of signals to
and from the various devices that constitute the robotic workstation. MCL also permits the user to define
MACRO-like statements that would be convenient to use for specialized applications.
After the MCL program has been written, it is compiled to produce the CLFILE as output. The definition of
the CLFILE has been extended to accommodate the new MCL features that go beyond the conventional
cutter location data in APT. The extensions include such capabilities as:
 The definition of the various devices within the work cell and the tasks which are performed by
these devices
 Predefined frames of reference which are associated with the different machines or devices in the
cell
 User-defined frames of reference which could be used for defining the geometry of the work part
 The part identification and acquisition within the work cell
 MCL represents a significant enhancement of APT which can be used to perform offline
programming of complex robotic work cells

6.16 Robot Safety

A robotic system is an integration of robots, machines, computerized information channels, and humans,
no element of which can be considered perfect or immune from eventual failure and malfunction. The
proximity of humans to the robots allows the risk of mutual damage, resulting in the formulation of safety
guidelines that indicate how the conditions of conflict can be minimized.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

6.26 Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) |
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The high productivity levels associated with robotic systems can be only realized if all the system elements
are functioning safely and reliably.
However, until definitive regulations are imposed by law, attempting to determine the safety hazards of a
robotic assembly system is best done on a piecemeal basis, whereby each element is analyzed for risk.
The relationships between elements are known on a quantitative or qualitative basis. Therefore, the risk
factors can be transferred from one element to the others.

Fig.6.20 – Robot Safety

There are four groups of humans at risk from direct personal injury from a robot:
Programmers: A robot programmer using any one of the previously mentioned programming methods is
in direct contact with the robot. This closeness with the robot’s work envelope, with its inherent danger of
injury, distinguishes robotics from any other form of automation.
Maintenance engineers: A maintenance engineer is at risk from much the same dangers as programmers,
with the added risk of electrocution. Also, because maintenance procedures often require that safety
interlocks be disconnected, the inherent risk of injury is greater.
Casual observers: To the casual observer, robots are often seen standing still, apparently doing nothing,
for long periods. The programmer, of course, would know whether or not these pauses are intentional: the
robot may be performing a programmed delay or waiting. However, if, as is usually the case, the assembly
robot is not rigidly guarded, then a casual observer may move toward a seemingly stationary robot and be
injured when it continues its operation.
Others outside the assumed danger zone: Even though a robot has a known maximum work envelope, the
risk of injury is not limited to encounters within this envelope. If components manipulated by the robot are
not properly secured, then they can fly out of the grippers and strike personnel well outside the assumed
danger zone of the robot.
In a practical sense, safety procedures and devices allow the authorized entry of humans into a robot’s
work envelope with minimal risk of injury. Hardware devices and sensors monitor all anticipated
reasonable access to a robot’s work envelope.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.27
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 Fig.6.21 - Fixed Barriers

Physical safeguards are many and varied. They include. the following:
 Simple contact switches
 Restrained keys
 Pressure mats
 Infrared light beams
 Vision systems
 Flashing red lights within a work zone indicating that a stationary robot is activated but awaiting
an input, or performing a time-delayed operation

6.17 Robot Kinematics and Dynamics

Robot arm kinematics involves the analytical study of the geometry of the motion of a robotic arm for a
fixed reference coordinate system without regard to the forces/momenta that cause the motion.
In other words, robot kinematics deals with the analytical description of the spatial displacement of the
robot as a function of time, in particular, the relations between the joint-variable space and the position
and orientation of the end-effector of a robot arm.
There are two fundamental problems in robot-arm kinematics. The first is usually referred to as the direct
(or forward) kinematics problem and the second is the inverse kinematics problem. If the locations of all
of the joints and links of a robot arm are known, it is possible to compute the location of the end of the
arm. This is defined as the direct kinematics problem.
The inverse kinematics problem is to determine the necessary positions of the joints and links to move
the end of the robot arm to a desired position and orientation in space. Vector and matrix algebra are used
to develop a systematic and generalized approach to describe and represent the locations of the links of
a robot arm concerning a fixed reference frame.
Since the links of a robot arm can rotate and/or translate concerning a reference (world) coordinate frame,
a body-attached (joint) coordinate frame is established along the joint axis for each link.
In general, the direct kinematics problem reduces to finding a transformation matrix that relates joint
coordinates to world coordinates. Computer-based robots are usually servo-controlled in the joint-variable
space, whereas objects to be manipulated are usually identified in the world or part coordinate system.
To control the position and orientation of the end-effector of a robot to reach the target object, the inverse
kinematics solution is necessary to obtain the correct joint angle.

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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In other words, given the position and orientation of the end-effector of a six-axis arm and its joint and link
parameters, it is possible to find the corresponding joint angles of the robot so that the end-effector can
be positioned as desired.

6.17.1 Robot-Arm Dynamics

Robot-arm dynamics, on the other hand, deals with the mathematical formulation of the equations of robot
arm motion. Specifically, dynamics is concerned with the use of information about the loads on a robot
arm to adjust the servo operation to achieve optimum performance.
The information includes inertia, friction, gravity, velocity, and acceleration. The dynamic equations of
motion of an arm are a set of mathematical equations describing the dynamic behavior of the manipulator.
Such mathematical formulation is useful for computer simulation of the robot-arm motion, the design of
suitable control equations for a robot arm, and the evaluation of the kinematic design and structure of the
robot.
Robot-arm design: A robot-arm designer may want to enter the geometry of a proposed arm design along
with estimates of masses, loads, and so on, and simulate the dynamic performance of the arm.
Path planning: Basic path-control techniques provide a robot programmer with a tool to plan the desired
path for a robot. However, as the robot moves, and speeds and accelerations increase, kinetic effects may
result in an unexpected deviation from the planned path. Path simulation that considers the dynamic
model can be used to develop worst-case estimates of path deviations at high speeds.
Real-time control: It is known that no single choice of servo gains is appropriate to provide the best
performance of a robot. With the dynamic model of the arm.
The knowledge of kinematics and dynamics allows the control of an arm actuator to accomplish the
desired task following the desired path. Trajectory planning and motion control are of considerable
interest and importance, as these issues involve the degree of automation and intelligence of the robot.

References:
1. Robot Technology Fundamentals, James G. Keramas, Delmar Cengage Learning
2. CAD/CAM, Groover and Zimmers, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited
3. Industrial Robotics, Mikell P. Groover, Tata McGraw-Hill
4. Introduction to Robotics, Saeed B. Niku, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited

Prof. Sunil G. Janiyani, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Manufacturing (3161917) | 6.29
Unit-6 Robot Technology