Origins, formation and mineralogy

Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced
by man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes
that formed it:
breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine
or marine.
subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy
surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching,
contamination.

Origins of soils from rocks

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:

igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry

sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water
(seas, lakes, etc.)
e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate

metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g.
marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist,
gneiss).

Weathering of rocks
Physical weathering
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the
actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and
wearing. The products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical
weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock
particles, but Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains.

Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation
by decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally
fine soils with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay
mineral depends on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as
quartz, are resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged.

quartz
A resistant and enduring mineral found in many rocks (e.g. granite, sandstone). It is
the principal constituent of sands and silts, and the most abundant soil mineral. It
occurs as equidimensional hard grains.
haematite
A red iron (ferric) oxide: resistant to change, results from extreme weathering. It is
responsible for the widespread red or pink colouration in rocks and soils. It can form a
cement in rocks, or a duricrust in soils in arid climates.
micas
Flaky minerals present in many igneous rocks. Some are resistant, e.g. muscovite;
some are broken down, e.g. biotite.
clay minerals
These result mainly from the breakdown of feldspar minerals. They are very flaky and
therefore have very large surface areas. They are major constituents of clay soils,
although clay soil also contains silt sized particles.

Clay minerals
Clay minerals are produced mainly from
the chemical weathering and decomposition
of feldspars, such as orthoclase and
plagioclase, and some micas. They are
small in size and very flaky in shape.
The key to some of the properties of clay soils, e.g. plasticity, compressibility,
swelling/shrinkage potential, lies in the structure of clay minerals.

There are three main groups of clay minerals:

kaolinites
(include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite) formed by the decomposition of orthoclase
feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin is the principal constituent in china clay and ball clay.
illites
(include illite and glauconite) are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the
decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales
(e.g. London clay, Oxford clay).
montmorillonites
(also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium
momtmorillonites, bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic
igneous rocks containing silicates rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g.
Na+, Ca++) results in high swelling/shrinking potential

For more information on mineralogy see http://mineral.gly.bris.ac.uk/mineralogy/

Transportation and deposition

The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the
soil (i.e. the size, shape, composition and distribution of the grains). The environment
into which deposition takes place, and subsequent geological events that take place
there, largely determine the state of the soil, (i.e. density, moisture content) and
the structure or fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding, stratification, occurrence of joints or
fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.)

Transportation
Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air:
grains become sub-rounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing poorly-
graded deposits. In moving ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution
becomes wider, deposits are well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders.

Deposition
In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river
terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas. In still
water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with
time, even seasonally or daily.
  Deltaic & shelf deposits: often vary both horizontally and vertically.
 From glaciers, deposition varies from well-graded basal tills and boulder clays
to poorly-graded deposits in moraines and outwash fans.
 In arid conditions: scree material is usually poorly-graded and lies on slopes.
 Wind-blown Löess is generally uniformly-graded and false-bedded.

Loading and drainage history

The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil will have been profoundly
influenced by the history of loading and unloading since it was deposited. Changes in
drainage conditions may also have occurred which may have brought about changes
in water content.

Loading /unloading history

Initial loading
During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil increases as more layers are
deposited over it; thus, it is compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition
continues, the soil becomes stiffer and stronger.

Unloading
The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of overlying layers.
Unloading can also occur as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large
excavations made by man. Soil expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it was
initially compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said to be overconsolidated.
The degree of overconsolidation depends on the history of loading and unloading.

Drainage history

Chemical changes
Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh
water develop weak collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy
periods, cycles of wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface to form a
cemented soil.

Climate changes
Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to
wetting and drying; thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing
foundation damage, especially after exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water
from soil in the process of evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore
either shrink as trees grow larger, or expand following the removal of large trees.

Coarse soils
Particle size tests
The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the
sample. When a wide range of sizes is present, the sample will
be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each sub-
sample.

Particle-size tests

Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried

out by washing the soil specimen on a 60m sieve mesh.
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles >
60 m. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken
through a nest of sieves of descending size.
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are
allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of
the suspension is measured at time intervals. Sizes are
determined from the settling velocity and times recorded. Percentages between sizes
are determined from density differences.

Particle-size analysis

The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size
sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer
(passing) against log size. A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is
called a grading curve. The position and shape of the grading curve determines the
soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also from the
grading curve.
Typical grading curves

Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid its identity and
description.
Some typical grading curves are shown in the figure:
A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)

Grading characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included
in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using
geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading
characteristics

First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:

d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample
d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample

From these the grading characteristics are calculated:

Effective size
d10
Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
Ck = d30² / d60 d10

Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil