University of Gondar, IoT, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Electromagnetism
It is magnetism produced by electric current. It has the same characteristics with
horseshoe magnet, or earth’s magnetic field.
Magnetism develops in the centre of the conductor and expands outward into space
around the conductor. The lines of force appear in the form of circles around and
distributed uniformly along its entire length and at right angles to the conductor. They
do not remain stationary but travel in a circle around the conductor. The strength of
the magnetism is in direct proportion to the amount of current flowing. If, for
instance, the amount of current is doubled, the resultant magnetism will be doubled.
Right Hand rule:

If the wire is grasped with the right hand with the thumb pointed in the direction of
current flow , the fingers will point in the direction of flow of the magnetic lines of
force around the wire.

Electromagnetic Induction

Induced e.m.f. can be generated in two ways:

a) By relative movement (the generator effect)
b ) By changing a magnetic field (the transformer effect )
The generator effect
Let us take a coil C wound with a large number of turns, and connects it to a
galvanometer G. (it is a very sensitive moving coil ammeter). If a permanent magnet
M is moved up to and along the axis of C, as shown in the figure bellow, the moving
coil of G is deflected, thereby indicating that there must be an electromotive force
induced or generated in coil C. Immediately as the movement of M ceases, the
moving coil of G returns to it original position. This effect proves that e.m.f is
induced only while M is moving relative to C.

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Let us now move M away from C. The galvanometer deflection is found to be in the
reverse direction, showing that the direction of the induced e.m.f depends upon the
direction in which M is moved relative to coil C.

If next, we hold the magnet stationary but move the coil towards the magnet and then
away from it. The deflection of the galvanometer is found to follow exactly the same
sequence as it did when the magnet was moved and the coil held stationary. This
result shows that the generation of e.m.f in C depends only upon the relative
movement of the magnet and the coil.

If the permanent magnet is turned through 1800 so that its south pole is pointing
towards the coil it is found that a repetition of the movements described above is
accompanied by galvanometer deflections similar to those previously obtained, except
that their directions are reversed. Thus, the direction of the e.m.f induced by bringing
the south pole up to the coil is the same as that previously obtained when the North
pole was moved away from the coil.
Let us next bring the magnet up to the coil at different speeds. It is found that the
greater the speed, the greater is the deflection of the galvanometer and, therefore, the
greater must be the e.m.f induced in the coil.

Direction of the induced e.m.f

The simplest method of determining the direction of the e.m.f. induced or generated in
a conductor is to find the direction of the current due to that e.m.f Thus in fig below,
AB represents a metal rod with its ends connected through a change over switch to a
moving coil galvanometer G. With s on side a, let as move AB downwards between
the poles NS of an electromagnetic and not the direction of G,S deflection. Let us then
moves S over to be so as to connect G in series with a high resistance R across a cell
C. G may again be deflect in the same direction. The polarity of C must be that shown
in fig that is the current through the galvanometer must be in the direction by the
arrow alongside G. Hence, the e.m.f. generated in AB must be acting from A towards
B when the rod is moved down wards through the magnetic poles NS.

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Fleming's right hand rule

If the first (fourth) finger of the right hand be pointed in the direction of the magnetic
flux, and if the thumb be pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor
relative to the magnetic field, then the second fingers (third middle) held at right
angles to both the thumb and the first finger, represents the direction of the e.m.f.

Lenz's Law

The direction of an induced e.m.f is always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.

e.g. When a N-pole is being pushed towards a coil, the current flows in the direction
to produce a N-pole at the near end, and repel the approach of the magnet.
When a north pole is withdrawn, a south pole is induced at the near end to attract it.
Magnitude of the induced e.m.f

Factors that determine the magnitude of the induced voltage;

1. The strength of the magnetic field
2. The speed at which lines of force are cutting across the conductor
3. The number of conductors that are cutting across the lines of force

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E=Bld/t =Blv
Where:

E = The average induced voltage (in volts )

B = The flux density of the magnetic field (in tesla )
L = The length of the conductor with in and at right angles with the magnetic
field. (in metres )
D = The distance (in metres) through which the conductor is being moved with
in and at right angles with the magnetic field during time t
T = The time (in seconds ) taken by the conductor to cover distance, d
V = The average velocity of the conductor at right angles with the direction of
the direction of the magnetic field.
Generation of an alternating e.m.f

When electricity generated by a coil is supplied through slip rings and brushes (so the
coil can rotate) the amount of current flowing to the camp will change and, at the
same time, so will the flow direction.
As the coil rotates, the current generated on the first half of the turn will be supplied
from the brush on side A, pass through the lamp and then return to the brush on side
B.
On the latter half of the turn, the current will be supplied from side B & return to side
A.
Since alternating voltages and current are often represented by sine waves. This may
be plotted either by reference to the sine valve or graphically as in fig. Thus with any
convenient radius OA, draw a circle and insert radii every, say 30 0 on the right mark
off a horizontal scale in degrees and draw the dotted vertical lines to meet the
horizontal projections from the corresponding points on the circle A curve drawn
through the various intersections is a sine wave thus for any angle  in fig (a).
perpendicular AB

Sin  hypotenuse OA

AB = OA sin 
If the fig- (b) M is the maximum value of the alternating quantity & is also referred to
as pear or the crest value. If M is instantaneous value of the alternating quantity ( M =
M sin )
In fig ---- (a) the vertical dotted lines represents lines of magnetic flux and loop AB is
shown after it has rotated through an angle  from the peripheral speed of each side of
the loop to be V meters per second this peripheral can be represented by length of a
line A1 drawn at right angles to the plane of the Loop. We can resolve A1 in to two

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components AM & AN perpendicular and parallel respectively two the direction of

the magnetic flux, as shown in fig (b)
< MLA = 900 < MAL = <MAO = 
AM = AL sin  = Vsin 
The e.m.f generated in A is due entirely to the component of the speed perpendicular
to the magnetic field. Hence if B is the flux density in Webers per square meter and if
L is the length in meters of each of the parallel sides A & B of the Loop.

e.m.f generated in one side of the loop = Blvsin volt

and
Total e.m.f generated in loop = 2 Blvsin volt
i.e the generated e.m.f is proportional to sin. When = 90, the plane of the loop is
vertical and both side of the loop are cutting the magnetic flux at the maximum rate,
so that the generated e.m.f is then at its maximum value E m . it follow that, when
=90, Em =2Blv volt
If b= breadth of the loop in meters
N= speed of rotation in revolutions/ second
Then v= bn meters / second
And Em =2Blbn volt
=2BAn volt
Where A= lb area of loop in square meters
If the loop is replaced by the coil of N turns in series each turn having an area of
square meters.
Maximum value of e.m.f. generated in coil will be :
Em =2BAnN volt
An instantaneous value of e.m.f. generated in coil will be:
e= Em sin=2BAnN sin

Three-phase supply
To generate electricity more efficiently, the automobile alternator uses three coils
arranged as shown in the following fig.

This consists of three separate voltage of the same amplitude and frequency but
separated in phase by 1200, each of this voltages being referred as a phase of the
supply. Each phase referred to by a letter A,B and C or a colour Red, Black, and blue.
Three- phase supply systems have advantages over single phase systems in that:
1. a higher efficiency is possible in the generator
2. Fewer conductor and hence aluminium and copper is required for transmission
and distribution.
3. Three-phase motors have better characteristics than single phase-phase ones.
A three-phase supply can be generated by having three such coils on the same drive
shaft, the coils being at an angles of 1200 to each other, as shown bellow

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If the instantaneous e.m.f. generated by the red coil is taken as the reference, then;
eR = Emsint
The e.m.f. of the black coil is then given by
eB = Emsin9t-1200)
The e.m.f. of the blue coil is then;
EBlue = Emsin9t-1200)

While the above discussion illustrates the principles involved, a practical form of a
generator would have the field rotating and the coil stationary the arrangement being
of the form in the fig. above.
CHARGING SYSTEM
Purpose of the charging system

The charging system has two jobs:

a) It recharges the battery
b) It supplies electrical current to meet the operating needs.
The functions can also be taken as the jobs of the alternator.

All charging circuits operate in three stages

 During starting:- Battery supplies all load current
 During normal operation:- Generator supplies all current and recharges the battery
 During peak operation:- Battery helps generator supply current

There are two types of charging circuits:

 DC charging circuits, and
 AC charging circuits

AC charging system
Components: Battery, Alternator, Voltage regulator, and Charge indicator (Ammeter)
with connecting wires and ground
Alternator
It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The engine crankshaft pulley
drives the alternator through a belt a two to three times crankshaft speed.

The main components of the alternator and their functions

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 Fans
The fans pull air through the slip ring end frame and cools the rectifier and regulator
for inbuilt type alternators. The vent holes in both end frames allow the fan to pull
ventilating air to the alternator.
 Rotor
The rotor is composed of two cores, a field coil, slip rings and rotor shaft. The field
coil is wound in the same direction as rotation and each end of the coil is connected to
a slip ring. The two cores are
installed at each end of the
coil so as to enclose the field
coil. Magnetic flux is
produced as current flows
through the coil and one pole
becomes the North Pole and
the other the South Pole. The
slip rings are made of metal
with a highly brush contacting
surface and they are insulated
from the rotor shaft.

 Brushes

They ride on each slip ring

and conduct battery current to
the rotor winding to create
magnetic field. One is insulated from the frame but the other is grounded

 Stator

The stator assembly is composed of Laminated iron frame and three sets of windings,
wound into slots in the frame. The windings make a three phase unit due to the
manner of their connection. The type of connection are Star and Delta connections.

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Star (Y) connection

The first three ends of the windings are connected together to form a common point.
The other three ends are connected to the output lines. A fourth cable, called the
neutral line, is often brought out from the common point. The availability of the
neutral line makes it possible to use all three phase voltages as well as all three line
voltages.

In star connection:

Il = Iph

Vl = 1.73 *Vph
Where:
Il = Line current
Iph = Phase current
Vl = Line voltage
Vph = Phase voltag

 The voltage between any line and the common is called the phase voltage.
The voltage between any two lines is called the Line- to -Line voltage or simply Line
voltage.

Delta_ connection

If the three phase windings are connected in series to form a loop, we would have a
Delta connection. There is no common connection for the three phases. Hence, the
Delta cannot have a neutral line. The three lines are taken from the ends of the
windings; therefore, the line voltages are also the winding or phase voltages. The
current in each line is drawn from the two
windings join to feed a single line.

Il = 1.73 * Iph
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Vl = Vph

 Diodes

Three positive diodes and three negative diodes are

usually mounted in a metal bracket called a heat sink.
The heat sink takes heat from the diodes, which gets
hot in operation, and transfers the heat into the air. It
has large surfaces. The current generated by the
alternator is supplied from the positive side diode
holder so it is insulated from the end frames.
Operation of Alternator

Alternators produce electricity by means of the induction principles. Hence, the

essential parts of the alternator are:
a) A magnetic field, and
b) Conductors which can move so as to cut the flux
In the alternator the magnet (rotor) revolves but the conductors (stator) remain
stationary. It produces alternating current in the stator. Let’s take a single loop.

The rotating bar magnet supplies the

moving field.. As the loop rotates
magnetic lines of force are being cut
by the two legs in the opposite
direction so, current is induced in the
loop. Therefore, as the magnet spins
and the two poles alternatively pass
the two legs of the loop, current in the
loop flows first in one direction and
then in the other and alternating
current flows.

The single loop in the above discussion results in a pulsating current when it is
rectified. To provide a smooth flow of current three phase is built which give
overlapping pulses of alternating current. When these pulses are rectified a
comparatively smooth flow of direct current is obtained.

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But in the actual alternator, the number of loops are increased as well as the magnetic
field strength. That is to say the electromagnet is made up of many turns of a wire.
When current flows in the electromagnetic winding, a strong magnetic field is created.
The winding is connected to the battery through a pair of insulated rings that rotate
with the shaft. A pair of stationary brushes ride on the rings which make continuous
sliding contact with the slip rings.

The alternating current generated in the three legs of the stator circuit passes through
the six diodes and is converted it to direct current.
Rectification
The electrical components of an automobile require direct current for operation and
battery needs direct current for charging. The alternator produces three phase
alternating current but
the charging system of
the automobile can not
use this electricity
unless it is converted to
direct current. There
fore, the alternating
current is rectified into
direct current by diodes
which are built in the
alternator circuit.
Thus we can see current from each coil to the diodes is constantly changing direction
in the three leads so the direction of current from the diodes does not change but
forms a circuit with varying polarity.
Factors that are affecting the alternator output are:
 The speed of the rotor,
 Strength of the magnetic field, i.e., number of turns of wire in the rotor winding,
amount of electricity applied to the rotor coil, the air gap between the rotor poles
and the stator
 The number of turns of wire in the stator coils, and
 Inductive reactance
Circuits of the alternator
There are three standard circuits for the alternator:
 Pre- excitation circuit
 Excitation circuit (self- excitation )
 Generator or main circuit
Pre-excitation circuit
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The battery current first flows through the charge indicator lamp and to the excitation
winding in the rotor. This is necessary because the remenance in the excitation
winding of the iron core is very weak at the instant of starting and at low speeds, and
does not suffice to provide the self-excitation needed for building up the magnetic
field.

Excitation circuit

The excitation current generates the magnetic field during the operation of the
alternator so that the required alternator voltage can be induced in the stator windings.
The excitation current comes from the current flowing in the three-phase windings. It
comes from the alternator through the regulator IG and F terminals or flows through
the three exciter diodes if present.. Hence, no external power source is required for
self excitation.

Generator circuit

The induced voltage in the stator windings is first rectified by the power diodes. Then,
the current flows to the battery and the loads in the vehicle electrical system.
The stator winding voltages are a function of the angle of rotation of the rotor.

1. Let’s take 300

Current from A and C winding ends takes the same

path to winding end B. In this case there is voltage
present across all the phases.

2. Taking 1200
Voltage at the star point of A is positive. But for winding C it is negative, and for
winding B it is zero. So current flows from the end of the winding A and through the
positive diodes to alternator terminal B+ from where it flows through the battery, or
the load, to ground and via negative diodes to winding C.

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The examples are momentary values. In reality, the phase voltages and currents
continually change their magnitude and direction, where as the DC supplied for
battery charging and for the loads always maintains the same direction. This is due to
the fact that irrespective of the rotor’s position, all the diodes always involved in the
rectification process.
Diode-trio ( exciter diodes )
These are three field diodes in order to excite the field coil. When the ignition switch
is ON, field current is supplied through the reverse current prevention diode and
initial exciting resistor, from IG terminal. The field current is as small as 0.5A when
the alternator stops with the ignition switch ON. Therefore, the discharge from the
battery is small.
When the alternator starts to generate , a portion of the generated current is supplied
directly from the three field diodes during power generation. The reduction in the
field current becomes less due to the resistance of external wiring and the like.
Therefore, it is possible to improve the output.

Voltage Regulator
The only regulator used in AC charging system is the voltage regulator.
Function:
It limits the DC output voltage according to external load and state of charge of the
battery. If the output is not controlled the battery will be overcharged and the
electrical equipment will be damaged.
Controlling the electrical flow through the field coil in the rotor does the control.

A. One point type regulator

In this regulator a resistor (R) is connected in series with the field coil (F) of the rotor.
This resistance is by passed by the points while the engine is running at low speed .
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Since the magnetic field in the coil is weak, the points remain closed. When the
voltage of the alternator is increased the magnetic field will be strong and the points
open. So, current passes through the resistor and the field coil. This decreases the
magnetic field strength and the voltage of the alternator reduces and the points close
again. In this manner the voltage is stabilised by this type of regulator.

However, one point type regulator is not used very often in present day automobiles
because of the following disadvantage.
a) There is great fluctuation of voltage at low speed when the points are
opened and closed
b) A large resistance will cause more sparking when the points are open,
resulting in shorter life of the points.
B. Two point type regulator
The characteristic of the two-point type regulator is that it has both low speed and
high speed operating ranges.
At low speed, the moving point opens and closes the low speed point (P1) in the same
manner as one point type regulator make and break the contact. At high speed the
moving point contacts P2 and field current ceases to flow. The voltage output of the
alternator decreases. This decreases the field strength of the regulator and the moving
point closes again with P1 and the cycle is repeated.

But the disadvantage of this type of regulator is the voltage drop due to the hysteresiss
effect when changing from the high-speed side to low speed side. Nevertheless.,
compared to the one point type, the resistance can be made smaller so there is less
sparking so there is a longer life of the points.
Characteristics of the regulators
For the point type regulators, there are various reasons why voltage fluctuates. But the
primary causes are due to its hysteresis and temperature characteristics.

A. The hysteresis characteristics

The lowering of voltage when the moving point
change from high speed side to the low speed point
called hysteresis effect and causes to remain a
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residual magnetism from the high speed operation in the coil core and continue to pull
the moving point for a short time. This phenomena cause to the alternator out put to
decline. There fore no attempt should be made to adjust the regulator when the
voltage is dropping due to this effect. A 12 volt system will drop from 0.5 to 1 volt.

B. The temperature characteristics

The magnetic coil of the voltage regulator employs copper wiring. If the temperature
of this wire rises, the resistance is increased and there will be a reduction of force
(electromagnetic force) of the magnetic coil. This results a higher alternator output
voltage. To prevent such arise in voltage, the regulator utilizes either a resistor or
bimetal element for temperature compensation, but some use both.
The resistor reduces the over all resistance in accordance with the temperature
fluctuation as a result strong electromagnetic force is
developed and the contact point will be pulled
sufficiently.

The bimetal element is used together with a spring

which supports the moving point. The bimetal
element reduces the spring tension as the temperature
rises. Therefore, the contact point will be easily
opened to prevent the rise of alternator output
voltage.

C. Voltage Relay (Charge lamp relay)

A Charging system employs a two-element combination accurate voltage regulation.
This is because, the voltage regulator operates in accordance with the voltage
generated by the alternator. If there were no voltage relay, there would occur a drop in
voltage in the magnetic coil because the voltage is applied to a long circuit via the
ignition switch. A reduction of voltage would cause a proportionate decrease in
magnetic force of magnetic coil so the moving points would not pulled sufficiently.
As a result, alternator voltage would rise to high.

Operation of a regulator with voltage relay

a. When the ignition switch is on engine stepped.

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When the ignition switch is turned on field current from the battery flows to the rotor

and excites the rotor coil.

At the same time, battery current also flows to the charge warning lamp and the lamp
comes on.

Engine operation- (low speed to middle)

After the engine is started and the rotor is turning. Voltage is generated in the stator
coil, and neutral voltage is applied to the voltage relay so the charge warning lamp
goes out. At the same time; out put voltage is acting on the voltage regulator. Field
current to the rotor is controlled in accordance with the out put voltage acting on the
voltage regulator. Thus depending on the condition of point PL0, the field current
either passes through or does not pass through the resistor (R)

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C. Engine operating (Middle speed to high speed)

As engine RPM increases, the voltage generated by the stator coil rises and the
pulling force of the magnetic coil becomes stronger with a stronger pulling force, field
current to the rotor will flow intermittently. In other words moving point PL 0 of the
voltage regulator intermittently make contact with point PL2.

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IC-Regulator
The solid state regulator allows battery current to excite alternator field coils ,and also
controls charging voltage at safe values.
It may be separately mounted or inbuit type.

Advantages over mechanical regulator:

 It is almost foolproof i.e., incapable of error or failure

 It is smaller in size i.e., compact and light
 It can control higher field current with improved durability and reliability (this is
due to lack of mechanical points).
 A narrower out put voltage range and little or no variation with alternator speed
and input voltage i.e., no hysteresis characteristics.
 Voltage variation at the rated load, or at maximum output current of the alternator
is between 0.5-1v
 Good resistance to vibration , climatic effects and high durability due to lack of
moving parts
 Voltage out put becomes lower as its temperature rises, hence proper charging of
the battery can be performed. This is because the Zener diode become more
conductive as temperature rises
 Spark free switching prevents radio interference

Disadvantage

Susceptible to unusually high voltage and temperatures.

N.B.
If a load exceeds the alternators capacity is applied, the output voltage will suddenly
drop, as in the case of point type regulator. Therefore, never apply an excessive load
when checking the output voltage.

Operating principles of IC regulator

The solid state regulator controls the field current using transistors, diodes, and
resisters
As in the illustration shown below, when the output voltage at terminal B is low, the
battery voltage is applied to the base of Tr1 through resistor R and Tr1 turns on. At the
same time, field current flows from B
to rotor coil.

When the out put voltage at terminal B

is high a higher voltage is applied to the
zener diode (ZD) and when this voltage
reaches the zener voltages, the zener
diode becomes conductive.
Accordingly, as Tr2 turns on Tr1 turns
off. This interrupts the field current.
Regulating the out put voltage.

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Principle of operation (EE- Type)

Basically speaking, the operating principles is the same for all electronic regulator
types. The type EE electronic regulator is used here as an example.
The actual value of the alternator voltage between terminals D+ and D- is registered
by a voltage divider (R1, R2, and R3). A Zener diode in parallel with R3 functions as
the alternator’s setpoint generator. A partial voltage is permanently applied to this
diode. The regulator remains in the “On” state as long as the actual alternator voltage
is below the set value. The Z-diode’s breakdown voltage has not yet been reached at
this point. That is, no current flows to the base of transistor T1 through the branch
with the Z-diode. T1 is in blocking state. With T1 blocked, a current flows from the
exciter diodes via terminal D+ and resistor R6 to the base of transistor T2 and
switches T2 on. Terminal DF is now connected to the base of T3 by the switched
transistor T2. This means that T3 always conducts when T2 is conductive. T2 and T3
are connected as a Darlington circuit. The excitation current , Iexc, . flows through T3
and the excitation winding and increases during the “On” period, causing a rise in the
alternator voltage UG. At the same time, the voltage at the setpoint generator also
rises. The regulator assumes the “Off” state as soon as the actual alternator voltage
exceeds the setpoint value The Z-diode becomes conductive when the breakdown
voltage is reached, and a current flows from D+ through resistors R1, R2 in the
branch with the Z-diode, and from there to the base of transistor T1 which also
becomes conductive.
As a result, the voltage at the base of T2 is practically 0 referred to the emitter, and
transistors T2 and T3 blocked. The excitation circuit is open circuited, the excitation
decays, and the alternator voltage falls as a result.
As soon as the alternator voltage drops under the set value again, and the Z diode
switches to the blocked state, the driver stage switches the excitation current on again.
When the excitation current is open circuited a voltage peak would be induced due to
the excitation winding’s self induction (stored electrical energy) which could destroy
transistor T2 and T3. A “free-running diode” D3 is connected parallel to the
excitation winding, and at the instant of open-circuiting absorbs the excitation current
thereby preventing the formation of a dangerous voltage peak. The control cycle in
which the current is switched on and off by connecting the excitation winding
alternately to the alternator voltage or short-circuiting it with the free-wheeling diode
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is repeated periodically, the on/off ratio depends on the alternator speed and the
applied load. The ripple on the alternator DC is smoothed by capacitor C.

A-Type IC regulator

Principle of
operation

When T1 turns
on and the
ground circuit is
closed, exciting
current flows
through the
rotor coil.
If the output
voltage is
higher than a
predetermined
voltage, the Z-
diode allows a
signal to pass to
Tr2. This signal
interrupts the
rotor coil
ground circuit
via Tr2 and Tr1.

B-Type IC Regulator
Advantages over A-Type IC regulator:
 It detects the voltage at the battery terminal by way of terminal S, thus providing
more accurate voltage regulation.
 An open circuit in the rotor is detected via circuit A and the resister(Rd) , turns on
the discharge warning light.
 If terminal S of the alternator becomes detached, circuit A interrupts the current
that flows to the rotor coil, thus preventing the generation of electricity. At the
same time it turns on the discharge warning light.

 If terminal B of the becomes detached, the resistor R3 and diode(D3) act to limit
the current that flows to the rotor coil in order to protect the alternator and
regulator from excess voltage.
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