Modern Delhi Public School Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.

Js)
CELL
Cytology -The cell and its structures
studied under a branch of
are
biology called cytology.
Definition:- The structural & functional unit of living beings is called cell.
OR
An unit of biological activity, delimited by a differentially permeable membrane and gapable ofself
reproduction.
che
DISCOVERY OF CELL
1. Robert Hooke (1665) An
:-
English man and first curator of
Royal society of London.
Observed a thin transverse section of bark of a tree under
self designed microscope.
He noticed honey comb like compartments.
-

He coined the term cell.

He wrote book
a -

Micrographia.
He actually observed dead cells.
2. Antony Von Leeuwenhoek (1674) was first to observeliving
cells like bacteria [from tartar of teeth],
erythrocytes [fish), sperms and protozoans-eg orticella]
Cork section shown in
3. N. Grew (1682):- Proposed cell concept whichstates that
Robert Hooke's Microscope
cell is unit of structure of
organisms
4. Rudolf Virchow (1858)- Proposed thatnew cells arise
from the pre-existing cells.
5. Knoll & Ruska
(1932):-Designedtheelectron microscope
which was employed to study theutra
structure of cell and various cell'organelles.
Ocular eye piece

Body lube
0arse adjustmenl-

Fine adjustment- -Revolving nose piece

ARM High powerobjective
- Low power objective
Stage clip
Cover slipp
Stage Slide
Inclinalion joint
Condenser
Mirror

Base
Paris of an ordinary compound nmicroscope

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 Cell The Fundamental Unit of Iife(
Modern Delhi Public
School
(N.S.J
Basic criteria for defining the cell
(i) Presence of genetic material

(ii) Presence of limiting plasma membrane.

(ii)Presence of a metabolic machinery.

Cell is called functional unit of all organisms, because all the vital activities or physioláe
ogical

activities
circulation, etc] are performed at the level ofeell
i.e. respiration, digestion, excretion,
Cell is called structural & functional unit of life because-
cells.
living organisms are composed of one or
more
) All the

(i) All the cells have similar basic structure.

similar functions.
(i)Similar cell organelles of different cells perform
CELL THEORY

Cell theory was presented by Schleiden (Botanist) (1838) and Schwann(Zoologist) (1839). According
the cell istiebasic unit of life.
allplants and animals are composed of cells and
Later discoveries led to the modification of cell theory. Modifiedeell theory is temed as cellprinciple

modern cell theory.

Modern cell theory postulates that

1.
All living beings are composed of minute units, the cells

cell membrane, and in many ca

2. A cell is a mass of protoplasm containing a nudleus and bounded by a
by a cell wall also;

3. All cells are basically alike in structure andmetabolic activities;

interactions of the consuu
4. The functions of an organism as a wholeis the result of the activities and
cells; and

All living cells arise from the pre-eisting cells.

Normal size rthuman 20 um to 30 um in diametre.
(A) Size of cell
-

i) Largest cell Inanimals- Ostrich egg (15 cm is diametre]

Toplants-Acetabularia [an alga 6-10 cm]
(i) Longest cel In animals- Nerve cell [upto Imt]
In plants- Hemp fibre.
t0

Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism [Mycoplasma -0.1

i)Smallest cell-PPLO
-

orms.
it
of cell mainly depends upon the specific function pero
B) Shapeofcell- Shape
Discoidal/saucer
-
RBC
Elongated- Nerve cell i)

Spindle Muscle cell (iv) Spherical-Eggs.

i Branched- Pigment cell of the skin. (vi) Slipper shaped - Parameciu

(vii) Cuboidal - Germ cells of gonads. (vii) Polygonal Liver cells. Biology

Gre
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1odern Delhi Public School Cell: The Fundamental Unit oflLife (N.S.E.Js)
Number of cells On the basis of number of cells the organisms ean be categorised as
(i) Unicellular Single celled eg-Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Plasmodium- Malarialparasite
Chlamydomonas.
i) Multi cellular- Many cells eg - Higher Plants & Animals.
Majority of the multicellular organisms havea large body composed of numerous cells. Thenumber of
cells in such onganisms is correlated to the size of the body. For instance, a humanbeiggwerghing about
60kg has about 60 x 10" cells, and the blood (vaseular tisue) in human contains about 3010"corpuscles.

There are also instances wherein the number ofcells are fixed in multicellular oggunisins, e.g, rotifers
and nematodes. In such organisms, mitosis stops during embryonic devglopment THe phenomenon of
having a fixed, genetically constant number of cells is called eutely.

Endoplnsm

Nudeus

Conlractne
Vacuolo

LIVER CELL

CHEEK CELLS
Cyntal Wotor Gioule
Food Vauole

Amoeba

cOLUMNAR CELLS
FAT CELL

e
HENS EGGG SMOOTH MUSCLES

PARAMECIUM NEURON
Diversity of cell shape

Units of Measurement Used in Cel Biology

The cells and their organelles are measured by fractions or multiples ofa millimetre. A millimetre is one-
thousandth ofa metre. Is symbol is mm. One-thousandth of a millimetre is called a micron, or micrometer
Its symbolispm and it is equal to 10 m. One thousandth ofa micron is termed millimicron or nanometre
s symbol is nm. One-tenth of a millimicron is known as Angstrom. Its symbol is Ä.

mm(millimetre) 10metre
= 10 mm
um (micrometre)
T nm or 1 mm (millimicrometre) = 10 mm or 10° mm

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 Cell: The Funamctal Onit of Lit

School
Life NSEA
Publie mm.
Modern
Delhi
nm o r 10 mm or 10
=10-
I A(Angstrom)
Mod
Chromatin
Cap
Ribosome

Stalk

B. ACETABULARIA C. HENSEGG
A. PPLO
Variation in cell size

Prokanyotes and Eukaryotes: All living organisms

are made of cells.Atd based on the kind ofcellsth
.

are made up of, they are divided into two groups -prokaryotesAndeukayotes.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC& EUKARYOTICCELLS

Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryoticcell

Cell size Average diameter 0.5-Sum Diameter varies between. Ium-40 um
Protoplasm Relatively rigid, resistantto desiccation More fluid and sensitive to drying and t
drying) and can withstand wide changesin changes in temperature and pressure.
pressure and temperature

Nucleus |Lacks true nucleus; circular DNAlies nakedin-(True nucleus bound by nuclear membrane
the cytoplasm; no chromosomes, nucleolus or contains linear DNA associated with proteins
nuclear membrane; nucdeoplasm called and RNA (forming chromosomes); nucleolus
nucleoid, undifferentiated from cytoplasm and nuclear membrane present; nucleoplasm
distinct
|Organelles |Membrane-bound organelles like Golgi bodies, |Membrane-bound organelles present.
plastids, mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum(ER) arçabsept
Ribosomes Smaller and randomly aeattered in the
Bigger, can be free (80S) or attached to the E
cytoplasm (70S) (70S) are present in mitocondria & chloropla
Cell division Divides by sirople fission; spindle is not Divides by mitosis or by meiosis
|formed, no mitosjs and meiosis
Respiration Kespiratory enzymes are located on the infolds Mitochondria are the seat of aerobiC I9p
of plasm membrane (mesosomes)
Photosynthesis No organized chloroplast;, photosynthesis takes stacked

place on photosynthetic membranes which lie Organized chloroplasts (containing

freely in the cytoplasm. membranes called grana) take pau
Examples Bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) photosynthesis
other All organisims.
 Public School
dern Delhi Cell: The Fundamental Unit
of Life (N.S.E.Js)

Organelles Compound Microscope Electron microscope

Cell membrane Very thn membrane Trilaminar structure

Golgi complex Network- like or small rodlets Stacks of flattened cisternae

Mitochondria Rods, rodlets, filamentous Cylindrical, double-membrared, with

the inner membrane infoldod

Lysosomes Not visible Membrane-bound, ovál, rounded

vesicles
Ribosomes Not visible Composed of two subparticles

Endoplasmic Not visible Flattened sacs, membranous, some

reticulum with ribosomesattached,others
without ribosomes.
Centrioles Rounded bodies AConsisting of two groups of fibres of
microtubules, at right angles to each
other
Nucleus Visible as a rounded body with Clearly visible chromatin threads and
barely visible nuclear membranenuclear envelope oftwo membranes;
nuclear pores visible.
Nucleolus A dense body Fibre-like structure studded with
granules of ribonucleoprotein.
DIFFERENCES BETWEENPEANT CELL& ANIMAL CELL
S.
PLANTCELL ANIMAL CELL
No
Animal cells are generally sniall in size.
Plant cells are usually largerthan animal cells

2 The plasma membrane of a plant ell is surrounded |Cell wall is absent.

by a rigid cell wall made up ofcellulose.

3 Plastids (leucoplasts, chloroplasts, chromoplasts) Plastids are absent.

are present in plantcells,
4 Vacuoles is large & centrally located. Vacuoles are less in numoer and smaller in size.
5Plant cells have many simpler units of Golgi Animal cells have a singl: highly elaborate Golgi
complex, caled dictyosomes. complex.
found in plant cells |Animal cells possess cetrioles.
6Centrioles have not been
except in'a few lower plants).
Cytokinesis takes place by cell-plate
formation. Cytokinesis takes placc: by cell furrow
formation
8 |Plant cells usually have a regular shape. Animal cells are usually irregular in shape.

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 Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life
Life (NSEJ
Public School
Modern Delhi
Pne M

Fimbrio
NciN
Duttov
Bacterial cell

Sewouy
Phagosome
Endoplasme oocyolc
Cel wall
ereumen.
Mrugicu Gen
Plasma
embrane

otuolu
roi
Oui Cona*

-Tonoplest Cunlokes th

Cnraspre*
Uunsmec
notody
RIbosomC Relcym<

Riboon50und< Nicer P
Enwekpo
Central lo RLER
-Cytoplssn Nuueue
Mitochrdron
HeehNASN
-Nucleous
Cel Memun -Eutomam
Nucleus

yopan
Nueaia
- Mitochondrion
SVace
Animal cell
Pastds

Plant cel

NATURE, OCCURRENCE AND FUNCTIONS OFCELLULAR STRUCTURES

Part ofcel Nature
Plasma
Function
Living, selectively Plantand animar cells Regulates entry and exito
membrane or cell pemeable, compOsed of
membrane lipids and proteins substances in and out ofth
cell
Cell wall Non living, rigid, Plancells, Bacterial cell & |Provides strength and
Impermeable, composedK ng rigidity to the cell, alows
cellulose, peptidoglyéan o free passage of substance
chitin
Endoplasmic Living network of Plant and animal cells but Forms tubules and sacs
reticulum (ER) membranes, onne
the nucleus and plasma absent in mammalian RBC (inner compartment)
membrane
a) Smooth ER Lacks ribosomes
Plant and animal cellsS Site of synthesis oflipids N
metabolism of
carbohydrates,
6) Rough tudded with ribosomes
detoxification ofdugs
surfaced ER Plant and an imal cells
Site ofprotein synthesisA
Ribosomes ving, membrane less
cell|Plant and animal cells
organelle, dense, spherical Site for protein synthesis
bodies composed of RNA occur freely or remain
and protein attached to ER also present
in prokaryotic cell

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 Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.Js)
Delhi Public School
Modern
Occurrence unction
Partofcel Nature
Mitochondria Living, double-membraned, Plant and animalcells; Release energy
inner membranefolded to absentinbactería and RBCs
form cristae,DNA, 70S
ribosomes present.

Living, consist oftubules Plant and animal cells Conde

Golgi body absent inblue green algae, synthesize ins
vesicles and vacuoles
bacteria mature RBCsand additignbfoabobydrateinto
Sperms Soepotens,involved
vsosonme and cell-plate
torar on

Living, double-membraned Plant cells Site ofphotosynthesis,

Plastids dhloroplasts impartgreen
with a proteinaceous matrix, colour, chromoplasts impart
confain DNA andlipid
colour to fuit andflowers,
1

droplets, 70Sribosomes leucoplasts store starch

Living, saclike,bounded by Mainly in anineC s and Break down
of structures or
Lysosomes molecules
a singlemembrane, contain some plant oel
digestive enzymes
Centnioles iving, microtubular cells,generally in Arrangement of spindle
structure the dict area of fibres
Ccytoplasoutside the
ucleus called centrosome

Living, enclosed byt Plant and animal cells Storehouse of chromatin

Nucleus
membranes perforated absent in mature which contains DNA, the
nuclear pores, con mammalian RBC'sand molecule ofinheritance;
nucleolus and ohrort sieve tubes in the phloem contains nucleolus
network tissue

Nucleolus
Composedof D A,proteins Inside the nucleus of plant Tts DNA synthesizes
and RNA and animal cell ribosomal RNA (Synthesis
of Ribosomes)

(A) Multiple Choice Questions

cell because glycerine and water are
1. Glycerine or water is used for preparing temporary mount of a
(A) Hypotonic to cell sap (B) Isotonic to cell sap

(C) Hypertonic to cell sap (D) None of these

. Whena cell is mounted in glycerine:

A) Endosmosis takes place (B) Exosmosis takes place

)Neither exosmosis nor endosmosis takes place D) None of the above

A compound microscope makes use of_ at one time:

Y(A) I lens (B) 2 lenses

(C) 3 lenses (D) None of these

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Modern Delhi Public School Cell The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.Js )
TLMEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE OR PLASMALEMMA:
Each cell (prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic) is surrounded by a covering called plasma membrane or
plasmalemma or cell membrane. Most cell organelles in eukaryotic cells (e.g., Mitochondria, Plastids,

Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Peroxisomes, Vacuoles etc).

subcellular unit membranes. These membranes, thus, compartmentalise the cell.
are
enclosed by
lecular Structure of Plasma membrane.
Plasma membrane is a living, ultra-thin, elastic, selectively permeable membfane hemically, it is
composed of phospholipids, proteins, oligosaccharides and cholesterol, glycoprotene glycolipid
Fluid Mosaic Model:- In 1972, S.J. Singer and G Nicolson proposed flyid mosaic model to explain
the structure and funetions of plasma membrane. According to this model, tie plásma membrane is
made up ofa phospholipid bilayer. There is a protein monolayer'floating about' in the fluid phospholipid
bilayer. The two types of proteins are (i) Intrinsic proteins which are embeded in the phospholipid
matrix incompletely or completely, and (i) Extrinsic proteins whicn ocqur superficially either on the
outer surface or on the inner surface of the phospholipid layern other ords, the membrane is a viscous
fluid with phospholipids and protein molecules
arranged as a mosai
Oligosaccharide molecules are present on the exposéasntace of the plasma membrane. They are
associated with proteins as well as lipid molecules formingelycoproteins and glycolipids respectively.
Cholesterol molecules are inserted between the
phospholipid molecules of plasma membrane of animal
cells to stabilize the membrane.
Presence of lipids and proteins provides flexibilitý the
to plasma membrane. Proteins present in the
membrane serve as

Branching carbohydrate portion of

protein which acts asan antigen
Glycolipid
Hydrophilic heads of
phospholipid molecules

Hydrophobic tails of
phospholipld molecules

Completely embeded
Intrinslc proléin molecule
Extrinsic protein molecule
ore lying on the surface

Partally embeded Intrinsic

protein molecule
Fluid mosaic structure of the plasma membrane
) Enzymes catalysing chemical reactions within the membrane.
Transport proteins (permeases) for movement of water soluble ions.
nPumps for active transport of materials and
Receptor proteins (e.g, glycoproteins on the cell surface) to recognize and bind specific
molecules such as hormones.
Fluid mosaic model is also described as "a number of
protein icebergs floating in the sea of
lipids
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Modern Delhi Public School Cell The
Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E
Types of membranes :
) Impermeable membrane - If the membrane does
not allow passage of substances (solvent and sollod
through it.
(i) Permeable membrane:- If the membrane allows free
passage of solute and solvent through it
(i) Semipermeable membrane:- If the membrane allows passage to solvents but
solutes. prevents the passint
(iv) Selectively permeable membrane :-If the membrane allows the
passage of solyent nd fowsele
solutes
Advantage of Selectively permeable membrane:- Selective
The useful
permeability ensures that
molecules enter the cell,
The metabolic intermediates remain within the cell and
The secretions and wastes leave
the cell.
Thus, semipermeability of cell membranes enables the cell to maintain
internal environment homeostasis, i.e., a cons

inspite of the changes outside it.

The substances
generally drawn in the cell include:
) Raw materials for
metabolism, viz. food stuffs, water, salts and oxygen; and
i) Regulatory substances, e.g, vitamins and hormones.
The substances
generally turned out of the cells include
) The products of metabolism,
namely, nitogenouswastes and carbon dioxide; and
) Secretions.
Following mechanisms are involved in the entry or exit of various materials across
plasma membr
(A). Physical processes. (B) Biological processes.
Physical Processes :- These processes are slow and do not expend energy. These occur down
concentration gradient and do not/ise carier
proteins. Physical processes include. (i) Diffusion
Osmosis.
B. Biological processes -These proceases are rapid and often use energy in the form of ATP. These
occur down as well as
agáinstthe concentration gradient and often use carrier proteins. Biolog
processesinclude:
. Mediated transport
) Faciliated transport/ diffusion (ii) Active transport
2. EndocytosisPinooytosis and Phagocytosis)
3.
Exocytoss
, Diffusion :- The process by which a substance uniformly spreads into another substance by r aikthe
movement of its particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of its lower coln
due to their kinetic energy is called diffusion.
Jt is faster in
gaseous phase than in liquid phase.
Significance of diffusion
( Diffusion helps in the distribution of various substances ofthe
throughout the cytopla
e
cytoplasm

without much delay.

he body«
) It helps in the exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon
and their environment. dioxiae

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Modern Delhi PublicSchool Cell: The
Fundamental Unit of Life
(ii) Various materials such as gases,
liquids and solids dissolve in the (N.S.E.Js)
diffusion. medium, i.e., air or liquid by
(iv) Loss of water in vapours form from the aerial
parts of the plants
diffusion. (transpiration) occurs thtough
(V) Flowers of plants spread aroma through diffusion. It attracts insects and
pollination. other arimals for
Osmosis
The diffusion of water or solvent through a
concentration of solutes to
semipermeable membrane from aoluton of lower
a solution of
higher concentration of solutes is çalle
Osmosis is of two types: ösmosis.
1. Endomosis
2. Exomosis
Endosmosis: It is the entry of water molecules into the
cells
when surrounded by
hypotonic solution.
throughisemipermeable plasma membrane
Exosmosis: It is the exit of
water molecules from the cells throughsemipermeable plasma membrane
when surrounded by
hypertonic solution.
Types of solutions
1.

2.
Isotonic solution
Hypotonic solution, and qn
Hypertonic solution.
1.
Isotonicsolution:
lsotonic solution is one in which the
of the red blood cells. 0.9% salt
concentration of water and solutes is the same as in the cytoplasm
solution and 5% glucose solution are isotonic for red blood cells.
2. Hypotonic solution
Hypotonic solution is one in which the concentration of solutes is less and
concentration of water is
more as compared to
inside the red blöod cells. 0.66% salt solution and 0.2% glucose solution are
hypotonic for red blood cells
3.
Hypertonic solution
Hypertonic solution is one inyhich the concentration of solutes is more and the concentration of
water
is less as compared do
in thé cytoplasm of the red blood cell. 1.25% salt solution and 10% glucose
solution are
hyperonidtor
red blood cells
Other examples of osmosis
1 Fresh water inicellular organisms (e.g.,Amoeba, Paramecium) continuously gain water in their bodies
due to osmosis. These organisms have structures
(e.g., contractile vacuoles) to throw out excess of water
from their bodies.
2 Most plant cells have the tendency to gain water due to osmosis.
Absorption of water by the plant roots from the soil through root hairs is also an example of osmosis.
4. Certain plant movements (e.g., seismonastic movements in 'touch-me-not' plant) occur due to loss or
gain of water.
Stomata are present in the leaves. They open and close at different times of the day due to osmotic
movements of water.

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Modern Delhi Public School Ccll: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N
In plants, cells, tissues and soft organs (leaves, young shoots, flowers) maintain turgidity NSEA
idity or strel
form duc to osmotie absorption of water.

DIEEERENCESBETWEENDIFEUSIONAND OSMOSISS
S.No Difusion Osmosis
Difiusion can occur both in air and liquid (water)smosiscc only in liqui
medium
mediun
I t involves
It (Solids, liquids
involves movement of molecules
ormolecules movenuenteof
only from
sov
gases) from the region of their higher their higher Con the tégio
concenurduOn
the region oftheir lower concentration. oncntra
Tegion of their lowef to h
lt can occur without or through a
semipemeable|lt always takes place t
conçehtration.
membrane. semipermeable membrane. rough
tt equalizes It does not
of solvent equalzE
the concentration
moleculestheinconcentrai
of dirusaoie
throughout the medium. the
the medi
invgved
It is dependent upon the kinetic energy of themoleculesnough i s the diffusion of sal
of diffusing substance only. molecules
the
only, yet it is influenced
b
presence of solutes in the system
Mediated transport:
Type of transport of materials across the
GUcose Binding
Glucose Site Bound Glucose
plasma membrane with the help of carrier Extracellular V
FIOG
proteins is called mediated transport. ember V
Cylosol
Types of mediated transport Glucose
Permease Channel in
Mediated transport is of following Scheme showing entry Pemease Gucese
Cu
two types of glucose into erythrocytes
() Facilitated transport
(ii) Active transport
() Facilitated transport:- In
this cáse, transport proteins (e.g. permeases) assist molecules to difla
through the membrane downthe concentration gradient, i.e., from the region of
the region of lower higher concentrati
concentrationagross the membrane. It is, therefore, also termed as facilitated diffui
No cellular energy is used
în suchitransport. A carrier protein combines with specific substance
glucose) to be transported and moves it down the concentration (e a

another through a
gradient from one side of membran
In liver and red
chanel formed by it.
bloodcells, facilitated transport moves glucose across the cell membrane by spe
carrier protein
miolecule in both directions, depending upon whether glucose concentration 5 n
inside or outsjde
themembrane.
ii) Activeiránsport:- In this case, carrier proteins move substances against the concentration g
1.., fromlower
concentration to higher concentration. This "uphill" transport involves work an
requires energy provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Mechanismof active transport of materials is described below:
(i) he carrier protein has a binding site for ATP in addition to the binding site for the substrate. stheA
molecule binds to the carrier protein, it is hydrolyzed to ADP.
(ii) of tne
y released brings the substrate binding site ofthe carrier protein to the surface u
h e substrate present in the medium joins the carrier protein at substrate binding site tO

substrate complex. Binlogr

 Modern Delhi Public School Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.Js)

(ii) The substrate bound carrier protein undergoes conformational change and carries the substrate through
a channel in it to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane.

(iv) Now, the fom of binding site changes and the substrate is released. The carrier protein regatns its
original form and is ready to transport another molecule of substrate.
There are many active transport systems in the
cell.Among these, sodium-potassium exchaneepump
is prominent. It maintains sodium and potassium gradients between cells and thesurrounding extracellular
fuid.
Importance of active transport-The Na - K' exchange pump plays following

(i) It helps in maintaining a positive charge on the outside of the membrane aFd nogativeCharge on the
inside (resting potential),
(i) It helps in nerve impulse conduction,

(i) It helps in muscle contraction,

(iv) It helps in urine formation in kidney tubules,

(v) It helps in salt excretion in marine birds, and

(vi) It helps in controlling water contents of the cell.

DIERERENCES BETWEEN ACIIVE RANSPORr AND DINCUSION

S.
No.l Active Transport Diffusion
1 |ltis a rapid process. Ttis aslow process.
lt can move materials through a biomembranet can move materials across a biomembrane
against the concentration gradient. down the concentration gradient.
3 It takes place in one direction only. Iftakes place in both directions.
4 It needs carrier proteins to occur. It occurs without carrier proteins.
5 It uses energy of ATP It does not use energy.
It allows all transmissible molecules to pass
6 It brings about selective uptake of materia ls.
through membranes
7 It leads to accumulation ofmaterialsin the cells. |ltdoes not accumulate materials in the cells.

Bulk Transport:
Animal cells canalso activelytake in and turm out materials in masses much larger than in the hither to
described processesyuilizing enengy. Such materials include macromolecules, lipid droplets and solid
particles. Itemsofthissize cannot cross the phospholipid bilayer by diffusion or with the help oftransport
proteins. Special processes are involved in the transport of such large quantities of materials.
Theseinclude endocytosis (phagocytosis) and exocytosis.
Endocytosis
The term endocytosis refers to invagination of a small region of plasma membrane, and ultimately
forming an intracellular membrane-bound vesicle. Endocytosis is not shown by plant cells because of
theit rigid cell wall and internal turgor pressure. Depending upon the intake of fluid droplet or solid
particles, endocytosis is of two types:
() Pinocytosis ii) Phagocytosis
) Pinocytosis:- The non-specific intake ofa tiny droplet of extracellular fluid by a cell through the cell
membrane which cannot otherwise pass through it. It is also, therefore, termed as cell drinking. It was

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 Cell: The damental Unit of
Modern Delhi
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4moeba. In this process,

a
inva.
small region of plasma membrane
Life (N.S.J
first observed in
This pocket is called caveola. The noc. et
ates and
the
eepens an inalyn,
formed.
into the pocket so
droplet passes vesicle.
or pinocytotic
vacuole called pinosome
a fluid-fillcd
nips off as by cell
Phagocytosis is the intake
of solid particles a
through cols

i ) Phagocytosis -

also called ccll cating. Phagocytosis

is the major fecding method in many unicelll
Amocba) and simple metazoa (e g.. sponges).
nembr ane,
rganisms te,
An area of the plasma membrane. coated initially with actin-myosin, comes in contan
the cell membrane to put out tiny protoplasm
contact With the f
particle(s). The contact induces
The pseudopodia meet on the ot
other side oiprocesses,
psepdopodia, around the food particle(s). ofthe food e

wster is formed.
cle(s) in pardroplticeldtosg
and fuse. In this way, an internal vacuole, called phagosome, containing food paticle
a

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis
Extracellular fluid

Soild paticle

PlasmaE
membrane

Pseudopodium

(A) (B)
Phagosome Vesicle
(food vacuole)
cytoplasm
A.
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis B. Pinocytosis
DIFEERENCES BETWEEN PINocYTOSIS AND PHAGOCYTOSIS
Pinocytosis
1 is the intake of
extracellular
Phagocytosis
fluid droplets. It is the intake of extracellular particles
jCell membrane invaginates to take
material up the|Cell membrane grows around the particle
3
Microfilaments play pseudopodia.
no
role in.endocytosis. Microfilaments play an important role
4 It is a nutritive process, phagocytosis.
It is a nutritive and defensive process.
Pinocynoic vesicle_ are only 0.1 um wide.
Phagocytotic vesicles are I to 2 um or more wide
Exocytosis
ExOcytosis isthe process that involves fusion
membrane Lo extrude its contents of membrane of the lasma

to the exocytotic vesicle wi"

Plasma
surrounding medium.
Cylosol Membrane

Exocytotic
Vesicie

Cell
Setrevo Cell
Secretion
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(N.S.E.Js)
This process is also called cellular vomiting or ephagy and the vesicles that turm out the materials are
termed exocytotic vesicles.

Exocytosis process is responsile for :

(i) removal of undigested food left in the food vacuoles in the

cells.
(ii) secretion of substances such as hormones, enzymes, and
(ii) replacement of internalized membrane by the fusion of exocytotic vesicles
ith he celmembrane.
Functions of plasma membrane

1. It gives a definite shape to the cell.

2. It provides protection to the internal contents of the cell.

3. It regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell
4. It can internalize solid and liquid materials by infolding or/6xtending around them. This is a

process of active intake of materials.

5. In animal cells, it is involved in adhesion, recognition and inthe fomation of vesicles, cilia, flagella,
microvilli, etc.

Plasma membrane acts as a mechanical barrier to

protoplasmso äfter rupturing or breakdown of plasma
membrane, the protoplasmic contents will be disperséd imthe surrounding medium.
CELL WALL

Discovered by Robert Hooke

() The outermost covering of the plant cell is called ceil wall.

(ii) It is absent in animal cell.

(111) It is rigid, thick, porous and non-living structüre. It become impermeable due to deposition of cell wall
materials.

Middle lamella: Common layer between twgjplant cells is called middle lamella. It consists Ca & Mg pectates
(Plant cement). Fruits becomessoft and juicy due to dissolve of middle lamella.
Primary Wall Outermost layer
(i) Cell wall Secpndary wall: Rigid, thick
(absent in meristem cells)

Tertiary wall Present only in tracheids of

gymnosperm
(ii) Cellulose is a main constituent of cell wall but addition to cellulose -

Hemicellulose, cutin, pectin,

Lignin, Suberin are also presents in cell wall
(iii) Cellulose microfibrils and macrofibrils arranged in layers to form skeleton of cell wall. In between these
layers other substances like pectin, hemicellulose may be present. These form matrix of cell wall.
(iv) Network of cellulose fibre forms skeleton of cell wall.

(v) Composition:- (i) Cellulose+ Hemicellulose-in plants

(ii) Chitin -in fungi

(ii) Peptidoglycan- in bacteria and mycoplasma.

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 School Cell: The Fundamental Unit
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NUCLEUS-HEADQUARTER OF THE CELL
Discovered by- Robert Brown (1831)
cleus is double membrane bound dense protoplasmic body, which controls all cellular mçctabolism

the genetic information of cell"

and encloses
as controller or
director of cell.
Nucleus is consicder
cell contain at least one nucleus. but some cells having more tharone nucleus.
Generally eukaryotic
following type
-

These may be

Coenocytic cells
-
This type of cells, are formed by free nuclear division.
(a)
Vaucheria etc.
Ex. Endosperm, Rhizopus,
the fusion of cells.
Syncytium -

Syncytial condition is formed by

(b)
muscles.
Ex Epidermis of nematods, striped
(ii) RNA 10%
(i) Protein 85% (i) DNA O%
Chemical composition of nucleus

It is made up of following four

contents:
Structure
Ribosome

RER

Nudeolus 7Nucdear Pores

Chromatin
Material

- Outer Membrane
Nuclear
nner Membrane Envelope
Perinucear Space

Ribosomes
Nucleoplasm

(a) Nuclear membrane/Nuclear envelope/Karyotheca

(b) Nuclear sap/Nucleoplasm/Karyolymph.

(c) Nucleolus
(d) Chromain threads.
(a) Nuclear envelope: Nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, that separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm.The nuclear membrane has minute pores. These are called nucleo-pores. Nucleopore takes

part in exchange of different substances between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.

(b) Nucleoplasm:-The part of protoplasm which is enclosed by nuclear membrane is called nucleoplasm.

t coniains chromatin threads and nucleolus.

Nucleolus:- Discovered by Fontana. Usually one nucleolus is present in each nucleus but sometimes
more than one nucleoli are present. It is a store house of RNA & site of r-RNA transcription and
processing of ribosome assembly.Calcium is essential for maintenance of nucleolus.

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 School Cell: The Fundamental Unit
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Chromatin Threads:- A darkly stained network ot long and fine threads called
(d) threade
chromatin
Chromatin threads are intermingled with one another forming a network called chromatin reticnu
um
Functions of Nucleus
The nucleus perfoms following functions:

. It controls all the metabolic activities of the cel1

2 It brings about growth of the cell by directing the

synthesis of structural proteins.
3 lt takes part in the formmation of
ribosomes.
4. It regulates cell cycle.
. It contains genetic information and is concerned with the
transmission ofhereditary fraits from one
generation to another.

CHROMOSOME
At the time of cell division the chromatin threads
separate apartrom one ainother and become smaler
and thicker, are called chromosome.
A chromosome is a
deeply staining, rodlike structure
witha part that
Cnromaid

is usually constricted. This is the

point primary constrictioncalled
of
the centromere.
CenTomere

The chromosomes are defined by their length and the position of centromeres - Kneochore

1. lf the position of the centromere is such that the two ams of the
chromosomes are equal then it is called metacentric.
If one of the of the chromosome is Chromatid
arms
smaller than the other,
it is called submetacentric.

f one arm of the chromosome is considerably smaller than the other, this straight chromosome is called
acrocentric.

. When the centromere occupies oneend of the chromosome, it is called telocentric.

The tips of chromosomes are called telomeres.

Teiccentre
chromesome

Ams Centromere-
Centromere-

Arns Telomere

Metacenturc chromosome Sub-metacentuc chromosome ACTOCentK CHroSmesome

1. Prokaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA. But they are circular as the two ends ofthe DNA
joined.There is only one chromosome in a prokaryotic cell. This chromosome is not complexedwi
Proteins(histones and acidic proteins), which is a characteristic of eukaryotic chromosomes.
Eukaryotie chromosome results from the condensation of the chromatin, which happens only duuring
the early part of cell division. In this condensed state its genes are not active.

Biology(
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 Modern Delhi Public School
Cell The Fundamental Unit
Number of Chromosomes of Life (N.S.E.Js)
The number of
chromosomes within the nucleus is constant in all individuals of a
example, there are 46 chromosomes in a human given species. For
being; 40 in a mouse; 8 in a fruitfly (DrosOphila
melanogaster) 20 in maize ; 24 in tomato and 48 in As it potato.
one setreceived from each
represents two sets
of chromosomes,
parent, this number is called the diploid number (2n) of
(egg or sperm) contains half this number of chromosomes, or thechromosomes,
nucleus of a gamete The

Thus a human
gamete contains 23 chromosomes. A
haploid numnber.
Chromatin threads are made up of- complete set of
chromosomes called genome.
is

DNA
i) Protein [Histone protein)
Gene:-The segment of DNA and act as unit
of heredity
ATP-Adenosine triphosphate. It is also known
bio-synthesis &mechanical work.
as energy
currency.t to pertorm
providesenergy
Homologous chromosomes:- All chromosomes are found in
called homologous chromosomes. pair and thechrómosomes of a pair are
Non-homologous chromosomes:-Chromosomes of different pair
The nucleus of
prokaryotes is also known nucleoid.
Nucleus is also called director of
cell as it controls
Nucleus is absent in sieve tubes of
most of the cellutar activities.
vascular plants & mature
RBC also lacks RBC's of mammals. Mammalian
Golgibodies, Mitochondria, ER,
MITOCHONDRLA :-It is a rod shaped structure Lysosomes
Power house of cell or ATP-mill of cell. dytoplasm. foundin It is absent in
prokaryotes.
Discovered by Kolliker (1857) and termed it
Mitochondria term was proposed by
sarcosomes. Altmann (1894) renamed it bioplast.
Benda (1897)
Higher number of mitochondria are found in metabólically active cells.
Structure
It is double me ane bound cellorganelles
The space between inner and
outer mitochondrial membrane is called perimitochondrial space.
The outer membrane is smooth
and Straight. The inner membrane is infolded into
the cavity. These
fingure-like infoldingsare calledascristae.
Cristae is studded with pín headparticles called oxysomes or
elementary particles or F-F, particles.
The fluid filled in mitochondrial cavity is called matrix.

Intermembrane
Inter ristal space or
space Outer
inner chamber Inner membrane
Dense chamber
(electron
Granule (malrix) transport chaln)
Oxysome Intracristal
Ribosomes Space
(70S)\\ Outer
Crista Membrane

Crista
Matrix ith enzymes
for proleln synthosis.
lipld synthesis and
DNA krebs cytle
(drcular)

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 Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E J
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FunctionIts main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of AlP, thats why it is also t
SEJs)
also known as
powerouse of the cell.
MPORTANT POINTS

) Mitochondria and plastids are also known as semi-autonomous cell organelles as they havina
pe of ribosome, circular DNA and many enzymes which are useful in its protein synthesis. 70s
(i) 3 billion of body's cells die every minute. Most are formed again.
An egg cell is the largest human cel.
(iv) Cell wall of plants is made up of cellulose. The cellulose is important for us in production of pane

(v) Largest cell organelle - Nucleus

aper,
Second Largest cell organelle-Chloroplast [ in plantcell), Mitochondria-lin Apimal cell
PLASTIDS
Plastid term first used by Haeckel. Chloroplast term was proposed by Schimper.

Shape Jer
Frets or Lnelae

Discoidal or oval Higher plants.

-

Girdle shaped -Ulothrir

() Spiral shaped Spirogyra
(iv) Cup-shaped-Chlamydomonas. Thyakoid
Granun nLS

Structure Ribosomes RINA Pas3OUS

It is double membrane bound cell organelle and is the largest organelle of cell.

Plastids have
following 2 parts
(a) Grana:-It constitutes of the lamellar system. The
stack of thylakoids are called grana.Each lamellais
made up of unit membrane.Each
granum of the chloroplast is formed by superimposed. closed
compartments called thylakoid.
Different grana are connected with the help oftubular connections, called stroma lamellae or Fret
channels or intergranum.
(b Stroma:-It is a granular transparent substance filled in cavity of chloroplast. It is also called as matrix
Grana are embedded in it.lt containsenzymes of calvin cycle or dark reaction.
Plastids are of three types
1. Leucoplasts are colourless plastids. They store food in the form of starch, protein and lipids.
2. Chloroplasts are green plastids which contain chlorophyll. Green leaves have chloroplasts.
3. Chromoplasts are variously coloured plastids present in flowers and fruit.
Functions
A
1. By trapping solar énerg, green plastids manufacture food through photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts provide colour to various flowering parts.
3 Leucoplasts help in the storage of protein, starch and lipid (oil).
IMPORTANT POINTS
(i) DNA of chloroplast is called plastidome.
(i) The fossil record
provides evidence of the presence of prokaryotes about 3 billion years while
ago
eukaryotes have a fossil history of only one billion years. It means that before the appearance of yotes
prokaryotes were the only form of life on this planet and had comparatively simpler cell.
euka
ENDOPLA`MIC RETICULUM
First observed by Garnier (1897) and termed as Ergastoplasm.
E.R. name proposed by K.R. Porter. [Credit for discovery of ER goes to
Porter
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 Modern Delhi Public School Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.Js)
Components of E.R.
Cisternae These are long. Nattened and unbranched
units arranged in stacks.
(i) Vesicles These are oval membrane bound structures.

(ii) Tubules These are irregular, often branched tubes bounded by membrane. Tubules
associated with cistemae.
may free or
It is also known as "System of Membranes".

Nucleus Lumen
Outer membrane l
Inner membrane ch
Endoplasmic reticulum

Cell membrane
Cistemae
Endoplasmic reticulum as seen in section
Vesice Tubules

Parts ofErdoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes Lumen

4
Lumen
(A) (B)
(A) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(B): Smoothendopla_mic reticulum

Types ofE.R.

Rough E.R/Granular E.R Smooth E.R./Agranular E.R.

Ribosome Present Absent
Function Concerned with protein synthesis Concerned with glycogen and üpid metabolism
Functions-The endoplasmic reticulurn has the following functions.
1. It increases the surface area
of the cytoplasm for various metabolic activities of the cell.
2. It gives internal
suprortto
the colloidal matrix (cytoplasm).
It is associated
.
withthe synthesis,storge and transport of metabolic products.
4 It helps in the formation of the cell plate and nuclear membrane during cell division.
5. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is associated with the synthesis of proteins.
6. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) secretes lipids which along with proteins constitute cell
membrane by a process called membrane biogenesis.
7. SERplays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.
Cytoskeleton
Itcontain three types of protein fibres:
Microtubules (made up of tubulin protein),
2.
yMicrofilaments (made up of actin protein),

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 Modern Delhi Public School Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.Js)
Intermediate filaments (made up of keratin and other types of proteins).
GOLGI COMPLEX
Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) in nerve cels of owl.
Other names:-

i) Lipochondrion, (ii) Dictyosomes - In plants

Position: It is located near the nucleus.

The cytoplasm surrounding Golgi body have fewer or no other organelles. It is daled Golgi ground
substance or zone of cxclusion.
Golgi bodies are pleomorphic structures, becaue component of golgi bodyare diferent in structure &
shape in different cels.

Structure: lt is formed of four types of contents.

Cisterna These are long flattened and unbranched saccules. 410 8 saccules are arranged in a
stack.

(i) Tubules - These are branched and irregular tube like stuctures associated with cisternae.

iii) VacuolesLarge spherical structures associated to tubules.

(iv) Vesicles - Spherial structures arise by budding from tubules Vesieles are filled with secretory materials.

Golgibody is single membrane bound cellorganelle.

Transport vesicles
reaching foming face
oCis Face

Saccule
Swollen
End
Golgi Ground-
Substance
Tubule-
Trans Facea
Secretory vesicles Coated
leaving mature Vesicles
tace

Function:
It involved in cell-secretion andacts as storage, modification and condensation or packaging membrane.

(i) It forms the Acrosome of sperm [Acrosome :- A bag like structure filled with lytic enzymes which

dissolve egg membfane af the time of fertilization]

(ii) It forms the lysosomes and secretory vesicles.

(iv) It is the site for formation of glycolipids and glycoproteins.

(v) Synthesis of cell wall material (Polysaccharide synthesis)

(vi) Cell plate formation (phragmoplast) during cell formation.

Lysosome
First obsérved and the term coined by Christian De Duve (1955)
Lysosomesare spherical bag like structures [0.1-0.8 m] which iscovered by single unit membrane.With
the exception of mammalian RBC they are reported from all cells. Lysosomes are filled about50
different ypes of digestive enzymes termed as acid hydrolases.

10
 Modern Delhi Public School
Cell The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.S.E.Js
)
Lysosomes are highly polymorphic cell organelle. Because, during functioning,
different morphological and lysosomes have
physiological states.
Functions

) Heterophagy :-It involve in digestion of

foreign materials received in cell.
(i) Autophagy:- Digestion of old or dead cell
(ii) Cellular
organelles.
digestion (Autolysis) :-Sometimes all
lysosomes of a cell burst to dissolve the
That's why lysosomes also known as
suicidal bags.
collcompletely.
Claude (1941) First observed them Ribosome-Engine of cell PROKARYOIC EUKARYOTICc
and called microsome.
Palade (1955) coined the term
Ribosome. 50S
Subunit 60 8
All living cells have Ribosomes. Subunit

[Both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes]

These are smallest and membraneless cell organelles. 30 S-
Subunit
ubuni

Ribosomes Ribosome
(On the basis of their
sedimentation coefficlent)

Prokaryotic ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes

70s
80s

Larger subunit Smaller subunit

50s Larger subunit
Smaller subunit
30s 60s
Magnesium ion [Mg*] is essentialfor 40s
binding of both the sub units of ribosome.
Functions
Site of protein synthesis, so theseare alao called protein factories.

Peroxisome term
Peroxisomes/Uricosomes.
was
firstused þy De Duve.
It contains
peroxide forming enzymes.(perosidases)
Functions:
(i) In animals
peroxisomes áre concerned with B-oxidation of fatty acids &
(ii) In plants
peroxisomes are concerned with B-oxidation of fatty acids,peroxide metabolism.
peroxide metabolism
photorespiration. and

IMPORTANT POINTS
Scattered Golgibodies in the cytoplasm of plant cells are also called
Dictyosomes.
Lysosome found in four forms that's why it is also called polymorphic cell
Chloroplasts are centres of photosynthesis to prepare the organic food organelle.
called so are
kitchens of the
cells.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles of animal cells arise from
Golgi-complex.
Tonoplast:- Plasma membrane that covers the vacuole is called tonoplast.
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 Cell The Fundamental Unit of Life (N.
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Vacuoles are of three types which contain food material.
The vacuole
Food vacuole
. The vacuole which is filled by liquid material (sap)
Sap vacuole
2. The vacuole that
concern with ation e.g.
osmoregulation e.g. Anoaba
4
Contratile vacuole
3.
Functions
substences.
water and other
Storage of food, (osmoregulation), and mai
water from the cell
(ii) They help in the elimination of excess internal
pressure of the cell
named it as centrosome.
Centrosome:-Discovered by Benden. Boveri
cells. Only few type of a plant cellsshow its presenca
sence.
Centrosome is generally found in animal
cell and shaped like star.
It is situated near the nucleus of the
Each centrosome has two centrioles. The two centrioles
are placed perpêndicular to each other
called as "CentrosphereCentriolesand centrosphere collectivek
ctiv ely
Cytoplasm which surrounds centrioles
called centrosome or microcentrum or diplosome.

Function -
(i) In animal cells centrioles play important role in initiation otcelitdivision by arranging spindle fibres
between two poles of cell.

i) The location ofcentrioles during cell division deides thoplane of division.

(ii) It form the basal granule of cilia and flagella inmiro-organisms, zoo-spores & motile gametes.

(iv) Form tail of sperm.

Cell inclusions:
The cell inclusions are non living materials present in the cytoplasm. They are often called deutoplasm

substances. They may be organic orinorganic compounds, or both. The common cell inclusions a
stored organic food materials, secretions and excretions, and inorganic crystals.