STEEL DESIGN:MODULE1

PRINCIPLES OF

STRUCTURAL
STEEL DESIGN

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1 INTRODUCTION
Structural design involves creation of framework to support a structure and determination of
section properties of its individual elements. Architects design how the structure “looks like”
while structural engineers design the structure to hold the loads under the architectural
constraints. They, however, must work hand in hand and in coordination to finish the project
efficiently and economically. An economical approach to structural design requires provision of
least amount of materials producing adequate strength and to be constructed in simple and easy
way to reduce labor cost.

1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS:

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - It starts with
selection of structural system (Bearing wall,
Building Frame, Moment Resisting Frame, Dual
System, Cantilevered Column). Then, location
and formation of the system elements are
defined.

STRUCTURAL ANALYIS - all the loads that act on

the structre are defined, the framing is idealized
and analysis is perfomed to calculate the internal
forces (axial force, shear force, bending moment,
torsion) of each element based on different
combinations of loads and initial sizes of members.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN - based on analysis, each

elelment is designed (in concrete design: amount
of reinforcement is calculated, in steel design:
sectional strengths are checked vs required
strength) based on code provisions

MODIFICATIONS - design refinements are done

(adjustment of sizes, selecton of new section
properties, modification of layout etc.) and re-
analysis is performed until results are satisfactory

DRAFTING - structural plans with fully detailed

design drawings are created to aid the construction
process

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1.2 BASIC TYPES OF STRUCTURES

1.2.1 TRUSSES – consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular fashion

with top chords, bottom chords, webs and struts. External forces are considered
to act only at the nodes that results in internal forces in each member to be axial
tensile or compressive only.

1.2.2 FRAMES – used in buildings and are composed of beams (horizontal members
or inclined) and columns (vertical members) that are either pin or fixed
connected. The loading on a frame causes bending, axial stresses and shear
stresses in its members. The strength of such a frame is derived from the
moment interactions between the beams and the columns at the rigid or semi-
rigid joints.

PORTAL FRAME – single storey, single bay or multi-bay frames with pitched or
flat roof

Single Bay, Pitched Roof Portal Frame Single Bay, Flat Roof Portal Frame

Two-Bay, Pitched Roof Portal Frame

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MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (RIGID FRAME) - three-dimensional frame

composed of columns and beams rigidly connected to resist gravity and lateral
loads by action of flexure

BRACED FRAME – composed of beams and columns that are “pin” connected to
resist gravity loads but with bracing to resist lateral loads.

1.3 LOADS
1.3.1 GRAVITY LOADS (VERTICAL)
DEAD LOAD – weight of all permanent elements in structure including self-weight
LIVE LOAD – weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure (furniture,
equipment, occupants of building), at various positions to produce critical
conditions for all elements
1.3.2 LATERAL LOADS
WIND LOAD – positive or negative pressure of surfaces of building produced
from velocity of air
SEISMIC LOAD (EARTHQUAKE) – system if horizontal forces produced by
structure’s response to ground motion due to earthquake acting at each level of
the building
1.3.3 OTHER MINIMUM LOADS – Fluid pressure, lateral soil pressure, ponding loads,
self-straining force

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1.4 CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS

Structures are designed under the provisions of structural codes and specifications
stating requirements and criteria of structural safety, integrity and workability. These
codes are guidelines and restrictions and not design procedures implemented in a
country, sometimes modified by a city.
NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (NSCP)
UNIFORM BUILDING CODE (UBC)
INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE (IBC)
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)
AMERICAL INSITUTE FOR STEEL CONSTRUCTION (AISC)

2 STRUCTURAL STEEL

Stress-Strain Curve of Mild Steel

Tensile strength test is performed to determine the structural properties of steel. A test
specimen is subjected to tensile load then stresses and strains are calculated and plotted.
Under Hooke’s Law, the stress is directly proportional to the strain up to the proportional limit.
The elastic limit is reached after that, followed by the yield point where the stress becomes
constant but with increasing strain (yielding or plastic range). The steel then goes strain
hardening until it reaches peak stress or ultimate tensile strength, after which the stress
decreases with “necking” until it fractures.

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2.1 TYPES OF STEEL

2.1.1 Carbon – mostly iron and carbon, with less than 1% carbon
LOW CARBON (MILD) STEEL: contains 0.04%-0.30%, This is one of the largest
groups of Carbon Steel. It covers a great diversity of shapes; from Flat Sheet to
Structural Beam
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL: has a carbon range of 0.31%-0.60%, stronger than
mild steel but more difficult to form, weld and cut.
HIGH CARBON (TOOL) STEEL: has carbon range of 0.61% to 1.50%, very
difficult to cut, bend and weld
2.1.2 Low Alloy – has small amounts of one or more alloying elements such as
manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper chromium and aluminum added to
increase the strength
2.1.3 Stainless – steel alloy with increased corrosion resistance, with more alloying
elements such as chromium at least 11%, nickel or molybdenum. Alloy content is
15-30%

2.2 STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES

Different grades of structural steel are identified by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
Most commonly used structural steel is A36, which is a mild steel containing not more
than 0.26% carbon, 0.04$ phosphorous and 0.05% sulfur. Other commonly used are
ASTM A572 Grade 50 and ASTM A992. The properties are given in the following table.

PROPERTY A36 A572 Gr. 50 A992

Modulus of Elasticity 200,000 MPa
Yield Point, min. 248 MPa 345 MPa 345 MPa
Tensile Strength, min. 400 MPa to 552 448 MPa 448 MPa
MPa
Yield to Tensile ratio - - 0.85
Elongation in 200 mm 20% 18% 18%

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2.3 STANDARD CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES

CATEGORY DESCRIPTION

HOT ROLLED:

Wide Flange (W dxw)

S-shape (S dxw)
Channel (C dxw)
Tee (WT dxw)
Angle (L HxBxt)

BUILT UP

COLD FORMED:

PLATE:
Angle (BA HxBxt)
Channel (BC HxBxt)

LIGHT GAGE:
Stiffened C (LC HxBxCxt)
Stiffened Z (LZ HxBxCxt)
Rec. Tube (LR HxBxt)
Square Tube (LR HxBxt)

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3 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will safely and
economically resist the applied loads. Economy means minimum weight—that is, the minimum
amount of steel.
3.1 Design Basis (as per NSCP 2015)
Designs shall be made according to the provisions for Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD) or to the provisions for Allowable Strength Design (ASD).
3.2 Limit States
No applicable strength or serviceability limit state shall be exceeded when the structure is
subjected to all appropriate load combinations such that:
𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ≤ 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
Limit state can be fracture, yielding, buckling or serviceability such as maximum
deflection depending on the type of element and support conditions.
Strength can be tensile strength in tension members, compressive strength in columns,
flexural strength or bending strength and shear strength in beams, etc.
3.3 ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)
 Member selection such that properties prevent the maximum applied loads or
service loads to exceed an allowable or permissible value to maintain an elastic
behavior
 The allowable stress is the elastic range of the material
 Member Selection by:
o Cross-sectional Area, A
o Moment of Inertia, I
o Elastic Section Modulus, S
NSCP Eq. 502.3-2
𝑹𝒏
𝑹𝒂 ≤
𝛀
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:
𝑹𝒂 = 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝑺𝑫 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑹𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝛀 = 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑹𝒏
= 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛀

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3.4 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

 Design based on failure mode or limiting state
 Loads are factored to bring the members to its limit state or failure but safe under
service loads
 Design strength is nominal strength multiplied by a reduction factor or resistance
factor
 Resistance factor defines the usable or permissible strength and is less that 1.0
NSCP Eq. 502.3-2
𝑹𝒖 ≤ 𝝓𝑹𝒏
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:
𝑹𝒖 = 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑹𝒏 = 𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝝓 = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝝓𝑹𝒏 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

3.5 LOAD COMBINATION

3.5.1 LRFD COMBINATION NSCP 203.3.1
𝑈1 = 1.4𝐷 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑈2 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿 𝑓1 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦,
𝑈3 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 > 4.8𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑈4 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑓1 = 0.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝑈5 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊
𝑈6 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸
3.5.2 ASD BASIC LOAD COMBINATION
𝑆1 = 𝐷
𝑆2 = 𝐷 + 𝐿
𝑆3 = 𝐷 + 0.6𝑊
𝐸
𝑆4 = 𝐷 +
1.4
3.5.3 ASD ALTERNATE LOAD COMBINATION
𝑆1 = 𝐷+𝐿
𝑆1 = 0.75(𝐷 + 𝐿 + 0.6𝑊) The 0.75 factor is used as a one-
𝐸 third increase in allowable
𝑆2 = 0.75 (𝐷 + 𝐿 + )
1.4 stresses shall be permitted for
𝑆3 = 0.6𝐷 + 0.6𝑊 all combinations with W or E.
𝐸
𝑆4 = 0.6𝐷 +
1.4

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4 TENSION MEMBERS
Tension members are structural elements designed to resist axial tensile forces. Common
tension members are truss members (bottom chords and webs), bracing of braced frames in
buildings and bridges, suspension cables in roofs and bridges.
The stress in any tension member is
𝑷
𝒇=𝑨

so the only determinant of the strength is the cross-sectional area. Circular rods and rolled
angle shapes are commonly used. Connecting these members to other members may be by
bolts, rivets or welds. The presence of holes (to accommodate bolts or rivets) reduces the area
resisting the stress and affects the performance of the tension member.

4.1 LIMIT STATES

A tension member can fail by two limiting states or mode of failure:

 Net Area – reduced gross area due to existing holes

 Effective Net Area – reduced net area to account for non-uniform stress
distribution when not all parts of the member is connected

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GROSS AREA

𝑡⬚
𝑤𝑔 = 𝐵 + 𝐻 − 𝑡⬚
𝑤𝑔 𝐻

𝑡𝑝 𝑡⬚ 𝑡𝑝
𝐴𝑔 = 𝑤𝑔 × 𝑡𝑝 𝐴𝑔 = 𝑤𝑔 × 𝑡⬚

Local standard shapes that are commercially available have their properties calculated and tabulated
in the ASEP Steel Handbook.

NET AREA

When tension members are connected to other members or spliced by bolts or rivets, holes are
punched creating a reduction in the cross-sectional area. Across holes, normal to the direction of the
load fracture or rupture is expected to occur. The net area, 𝐴𝑛 , is then calculated as the gross area
less the projected area of the holes with each hole area equal to efffective hole diameter multiplied
by thickness of the member.

𝑡𝑝 Projected area
of hole = 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡𝑝
𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒
𝑤𝑔
𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒

𝑡𝑝
rupture line
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛 × 𝑡𝑝
𝑤𝑛 = 𝑤𝑔 − 𝑛 × 𝑑𝑒
𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑒
Alternately,
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝑛 × 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡𝑝
𝑑𝑏 = 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 Where:
𝑑𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑑𝑒 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

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NSCP 2015

It can be observed from Table 510.3.3 of NSCP 2015 that bolts under 24 mm will require a nominal
hole diameter of 𝑑ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 + 2 𝑚𝑚 and bolts 24 mm and larger will have 𝑑ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 + 3 𝑚𝑚.
Furthermore, for the calculation of net area (in tension and shear) the effective hole diameter (damaged hole) is:
𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 + 4 𝑚𝑚 for 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 < 24 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 + 5 𝑚𝑚 for 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 ≥ 24 𝑚𝑚
where: 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 + 2 𝑚𝑚

STAGGERED HOLES
 if the holes are staggered, a correction factor is used to account for the increased tensile
strength on an inclined fracture path.
 As per NSCP 2015:

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NSCP 2015

𝑔 𝑤𝑔 inclined fracture area

𝑡𝑝

𝑨𝒏 = 𝒘𝒏 × 𝑡𝑝
𝒔𝟐
𝒘𝒏 = 𝒘𝒈 − 𝒏 × 𝒅𝒆 + ∑
𝟒𝒈
𝒔𝟐
𝑨𝒏 = 𝑨𝒈 − 𝒏 × 𝒅𝒆 × 𝒕 + ∑ ( × 𝒕)
𝟒𝒈

𝑔1 inclined
𝑔1 fracture area
𝑡𝑝 with notch
𝑡⬚
𝑔2 𝑔2
𝒈 = 𝒈𝟏 + 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒕

𝑡⬚ 𝑡𝑝 𝑡𝑝

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When different possibilities of rupture pattern are conceivable, the one corresponding to the smallest
area should be considered.
𝑑 𝑎
𝑒 𝐴𝑛,𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − 1 × 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡

𝑏
𝑃
𝑓

𝑔 𝑐
𝑑 𝑎
𝑠𝑒𝑏 2
𝑒 𝐴𝑛,𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − (2 × 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡) + ( × 𝑡)
4𝑔𝑒𝑏
𝑏
𝑃
𝑓

𝑔 𝑐
𝑑 𝑎
𝑠𝑒𝑏 2 𝑠𝑏𝑓 2
𝑒 𝐴𝑛,𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − (3 × 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡) + ( × 𝑡) + ( × 𝑡)
4𝑔𝑒𝑏 4𝑔𝑏𝑓
𝑏
𝑃
𝑓

𝑔 𝑐

𝐴𝑛,𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔 − (2 × 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡)
𝑑 𝑎
𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑒 5× = 𝑓𝑡 × 𝐴𝑛,𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑔
6
6 6 6
𝑏 𝑃 = 𝑓𝑡 × 𝐴𝑛,𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑔 ×
𝑃 𝑃 5
6 𝑓 To be comparable to other possible net areas with full
𝑃 𝑃
load resistance as shown above, this net area should
6 6 6
𝑔 𝑐 then be multiplied by the factor 5 :
Modified,
6
𝐴𝑛,𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔 − (2 × 𝑑𝑒 × 𝑡) ×
5

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EFFECTIVE NET AREA

When some part or element of the member’s cross-section is not connected, the connected element
becomes overloaded and the unconnected part is not fully stressed. This effect called shear lag makes
the unconnected part ineffective. To account for shear lag effect in the calculation of strength, the net
area is reduced or calculated as effective net area.

NSCP 2015

SHEAR LAG FACTOR, 𝑼

𝒙̄
𝑼=𝟏−
𝓵

Where: 𝑥̅ = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℓ = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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For welded connection,

The definition of 𝑥̅ was formulated by Munse and Chesson (1963) and illustrated in the following
figures:

NSCP 2015 considers the general formula of shear lag factor as Case 2 and presents alternative
values, some presented in the following table directly from the code:

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4.2 NSCP TESILE STRENGTH REQUIREMENT

LRFD: 𝝓𝒕 𝑷𝒏 ≥ 𝑷𝒖

ASD:
𝑷𝒏
≥ 𝑷𝒂
𝜴𝒕

Where: 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝜙𝑡 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑛
= 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛺𝑡
𝜙𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛺𝑡 = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

NSCP 2015

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4.3 BLOCK SHEAR RUPTURE (BSR)

𝑤𝑔𝑣
Net area in shear
𝑡𝑝
𝑑𝑒 /2
𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒 /2
Net area
in tension
𝑤𝑔𝑡

4.3.1 NSCP BLOCK SHEAR STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS

NSCP 2015

 𝑨𝒏𝒕 = net area along the tension surface

 𝑨𝒏𝒗 = net area along the shear surface or surfaces
 𝑨𝒈𝒗 = gross area along the shear surface or surfaces

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4.3.2 BLOCK SHEAR PATTERNS

o FLAT PLATES

o CHANNELS AND ANGLES

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5 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Compression members are structural elements designed to resist axial compressive forces.
Common tension members are columns, truss members (top chords, struts and webs),
bracings for buildings and bridges.
𝑷
The stress in any tension member is 𝒇 = 𝑨 assumed uniformly distributed across the area.

5.1 COLUMN THEORY

A long, straight, slender member subject to an axial compression load P will become unstable
when the load is large enough and produce a deflected shape like bending. The member is
said to have buckled, and the corresponding load is called the critical buckling load. Take
note that if the compression member is “stockier”, shorter and larger cross-section, it will take a
much larger load to produce buckling.

5.1.1 EULER BUCKLING LOAD

For very slender members, instability occurs at a stress below the elastic and
proportional limit. With pinned ends, free to rotate, the critical buckling load is
defined as formulated by Leonhard Euler in 1759 and known as Euler buckling
load:
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒄𝒓 =
𝑳𝟐

Where:
𝑬 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑰 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑳 = 𝑈𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

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If this load is divided by the cross-sectional area, we can define the critical
buckling stress as:
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑟 2
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = = 2 =
𝐴 𝐿𝐴 𝐿2
𝝅𝟐 𝑬
𝑭𝒄𝒓 =
(𝑳/𝒓)𝟐

Where:
𝑭𝒄𝒓 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝒓 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑳/𝒓 = 𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
5.1.2 CONCEPT OF BUCKLING
Based on Euler’s buckling load, buckling occurs when the load reaches 𝑷𝒄𝒓 or
the stress reaches 𝑭𝒄𝒓. Compression member will buckle about principal axis
with the largest slenderness ratio, or minimum moment of inertia and radius of
gyration.
The image below shows the buckling mode of a wide flange section about x-axis
and y-axis, respectively. Take note that for symmetric sections, the principal
axes (axes about which moment of inertia is maximum and minimum) are the
local x and y axis and the axis with larger inertia is the strong axis and the axis
with smaller inertia is the weak axis.

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𝑥
𝑥
𝑦 (minor)
𝑦

Lateral support normal to

the minor (y-axis) of 𝐿𝑥
column, restrains lateral 𝐿𝑦 =
2
displacement normal to the
𝐿𝑥 minor axis but not prevent
lateral displacement normal
𝐿𝑥
to the major axis 𝐿𝑦 =
2

𝑥-axis buckling 𝑦-axis buckling

5.1.3 EFFECTIVE LENGTH, 𝑳𝒆 = 𝑲𝑳

Boundary conditions or end restraints of compression members influence the
length of buckling. When ends are both pinned, ends are unrestrained, the joints
rotate, and the entire length of the member is subject to buckling. If one end is
“fixed”, it is restrained from rotation thus reducing the length that will bend due to
buckling. Theoretical and suggested values of NSCP 2015 of effective length
factor, 𝑲, are given in the following table.

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2EI 2E
Pcr  Fcr 
KL 
2
KL / r 2
SUPPORT CONDITIONS K KNSCP
PIN-PIN 1.0 1.0
PIN-FIXED 0.7 0.80
FIXED-FIXED 0.5 0.65
𝐿 L
ROLLER-FIXED 1.0 1.2
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐾𝐿
Le = KL ROLLER-PIN 2.0 2.0
FREE-FIXED 2.0 2.1

The critical buckling load and stress are then calculated as:
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒄𝒓 =
𝑳𝟐
𝝅𝟐 𝑬
𝑭𝒄𝒓 =
(𝑲𝑳/𝒓)𝟐

5.1.4 END CONDITIONS OF COLUMNS IN FRAMES

The effective length factor, 𝑲, depends on the rotational restraint of the ends of
the column. The idealization of column ends (i.e. pinned or fixed) is based on
type of connection and properties of girders connected at the ends. However,
the rigid or fixed condition is hardly achieved in actual. The end conditions then
should be defined by the rotational stiffness (𝑬𝑰/𝑳) of the members connected
at a column end.
Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer (1992) concludes that the effective length
factor depends on the ratio of column stiffness to girder stiffness at each end of
the member expressed as:
∑ 𝑬𝒄 𝑰𝒄⁄𝑳𝒄 ∑ 𝑰𝒄 ⁄𝑳𝒄
𝑮= =
∑ 𝑬𝒈 𝑰𝒈⁄𝑳𝒈 ∑ 𝑰𝒈 ⁄𝑳𝒈
Where:
∑ 𝑬𝒄 𝑰𝒄⁄𝑳𝒄 = sum of stiffness of all columns at an end of a column in question
∑ 𝑬𝒈 𝑰𝒈⁄𝑳𝒈 = sum of stiffness of all girders at an end of a column in question

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Frame Joint

Frame Elevation

Jackson-Mooreland Alignment Charts (Johnston, 1967) are then used to define the value of 𝑲.
Calculated values of 𝑮 at top and bottom end of the column are found and connected in these
nomograms by a straight line intersecting a value of 𝑲 in the middle scale. Take note that
values of 𝑮 and 𝑲 are defined based on an axis of buckling normal to the plane of the frame.
Another set of values must be defined for buckling about the other axis.

Jackson-Mooreland Alignment Charts

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5.2 NSCP GENERAL PROVISION

5.2.1 DESIGN CRITERIA
The basic requirements for compression members are in Section 505 of NSCP 2105.
LRFD : 𝝓𝒄 𝑷𝒏 ≥ 𝑷𝒖 𝝓𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗

𝑷𝒏
ASD : ≥ 𝑷𝒂 𝜴𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕
𝜴𝒄
Where: 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜙𝑐 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑛
= 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛺𝑐
𝜙𝑐 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛺𝑐 = 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

5.2.2 LIMITATION ON SLENDERNESS RATIO

User note in Section 505.2 of NSCP 2015 states that:
“For members designed on the basis of compression the slenderness ratio
𝑲𝑳/𝒓 preferably should not exceed 200.”

5.2.3 NOMINAL STRENGTH

For singly symmetric and doubly symmetric members (W, S, C shapes) with
compact and non-compact section, the limit state of flexural buckling is applicable
where:
NSCP 2015

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