Editing and Translation of Text Module

 History of Translation

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians,
though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as
giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent
since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes. The
demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses
acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without
translating marketing material and business documents.

Early History of Translation

The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means “to bring or carry across”. Another relevant term
comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means “to speak across” and from this, the term
‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of
theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translations have
been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem,
Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other
ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into
Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create
developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by
Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were
developed.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely
thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, their works were taken in
by Arabic scholars who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and
philosophical understandings. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the Middle Ages,
mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Religious Translation and Texts

The need for translation became greater with the development of religious texts and spiritual theories. As
religion developed, the desire to spread the word and encourage faith means that religious texts needed to be
available in multiple languages. One of the first translated religious texts is known to have been that of the Old
Testament which was translated into Greek in the 3rd century BC. This translation refers to the ‘Septuagint’,
which was a translation of the Hebrew bible into Greek, with Septuagint coming from the Latin word
‘Septuaginta’, which means seventy. This text is therefore often referred to the ‘Greek Old Testament’. Without
the use of our modern practices and tools, this translation was carried out by no less than 70 scholars who
painstakingly converted the text into Greek and this became the basis for future translations of the bible in
multiple languages.

Religion played such a critical role in translation development that the church even names Saint Jerome as the
patron saint of translation. Saint Jerome created a Latin bible in 4th century AD. This bible became the
predominant text used by the Roman Catholic Church. With the introduction of Protestantism, the need to
translate the bible and other religious texts into European languages heightened, Through the rapid translation
and distribution of the bible during the Protestant Reformation, Christianity had two clear paths – Roman
Catholicism or Protestantism. One of the clearest differences between these two forms of the religion was the
disparity in texts and the differences between crucial words and passages of the bible.

1
Unit-1: Meaning, Nature and Scope of Translation
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definition of Translation
1.2.1 Meaning of Translation
1.2.2 Definition of Translation
1.3 Nature of Translation
1.3.1 Qualities of a Good Translator
1.3.2 Audience and Purpose of Translation
1.4 Scope of Translation
1.4.1 Translation as Mediator
1.4.2 Translation as a Democratizing Agent
1.5 Translation as a Career
1.5.1 Increasing Importance of Translation in the Age of Globalisation
1.5.2 Areas of Translation
1.5.3 Importance of Translation and Interpretation
1.5.4 Job Prospects in Translation and Interpretation
1.6 Summing Up
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Unit-End Exercise
1.9 Model Answers to Self-Check Exercises
1.10 Further Readings

1.0 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning of translation

 Define translation and describe its different dimensions
 Describe the nature of translation and the intricacies involved in the process of
translation
 Elucidate the scope of translation in the Indian multi-linguistic and multicultural
context
 Discuss the opportunities available in the field of translation and interpretation

1.1 Introduction
Translation is as old as human civilization. Since the dawn of civilization, we, human
beings, have been using language to translate our thoughts and ideas. We use a set of
symbols or codes to communicate or transfer an idea or thought or a feeling to the person

2
whom we address during an act of communication. Here too we have translation. In this
sense, we translate every day. With the evolution of human society, we became more
anxious to know about the thoughts and feelings of people in distant places. Hence we
used two sets of symbols and codes to transfer the thoughts and ideas of people speaking
a different language to our own language. This gave rise to translation as we see and use
it today.

The story of translation dates back to the third millennium BC. The Babylon of
Hammurabi’s day (2100 B.C.) was a polyglot city, and much of the official business of
the empire was made possible by writers who translated edicts into various languages.
In India too our first writers were translators. Free translations and adaptations of epics
like Ramayana and Mahabharata have shaped Indian literature in a big way. Moreover,
Indian Literature until the nineteenth century consisted mainly of translations,
adaptations, interpretations and retellings. Translations of literary works and knowledge-
texts on medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, travel, ship-building, architecture, philosophy,
religion and poetics from Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Persian and Arabic enhanced our
awareness of the world.

India is multi-lingual country where all the regional languages coexist simultaneously
on an equal basis but the dominance of English continues. Over the years English has
become the only means of communication in all political, business and educational
affairs. Hence it is essential that we understand English and our Mother tongue to be able
to connect to our own communities in the immediate environment as well as other
cultural communities in the outer environment. Here comes the role of translation.
Translation allows different cultures to connect, interact, and enrich one another.
In the Indian situation, the role of translation is very significant as it is the home to
people speaking 22 recognized languages and hundreds of mother tongues and dialects.
Every day in business and office communication, we are required to make use of English
and one of our Mother tongues to communicate with people. So we are bilinguals by
default and use translation as a means to communicate. It is through translation that
people in the periphery and the centre, the dominant and the dominated cultures
communicate with one another. We can say that India would not have been a nation
without translation as we use translation to communicate and communication keeps us
united as a nation.

In this unit we shall discuss in detail about the various meanings and definitions of
translation, its nature, the process of translation, responsibilities of translators, scope of
translation and various job opportunities available in the field of translation.

3
1.2 Meaning and Definition of Translation
1.2.1 Meaning of Translation

The English word translation has been derived from the Latin word translation, which
itself comes from trans- and latum—together meaning "a carrying across" or "a bringing
across. In other words, it is the business of carrying across a message/written content
from one text to another, from one person to another and from one language(source
language) to a different language (target language). It can happen within the same
language (from one dialect to another dialect or from one form to another) or between
languages. It is best seen as a communication process where the transfer of a
message/written content from one language into a new language takes place.

However, poets engaged in the job of translation often think of translation as

‘interpretation’, ‘taking a view’, ‘bringing to life’, or ‘transformation’. Whatever may be
its meaning, every act of translation involves the expression of sense. A translation is a
text that is considered to be different from the original (the source text) but it is also a
fact that the source text and the translated text are the same in terms of the sense they
convey. It is often said that translation gives new clothes to a piece of writing by putting
it in a different form. This interactive relationship between source and translation goes on
in the hands of mature translators of prose and drama but it is the best in poetry.

1.2.2 Definition of Translation

Roman Jakobson, a leading linguist and noted expert in the subject of translation, defined
translation as "the interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language."'
Through this process of translation, texts in one language are transformed into texts in
another language with the same meaning. These materials range from the isolated words
in a language to the complex network of sentences of philosophical texts.

Some scholars define translation as an art or craft and some others call it a science. It is
called an art as all good translations are expressions of the creative urge of the translators.
Likewise, it is a science because of the technical formalities and complexities involved in
its process.

Oxford University defines translation as ‘The process of translating words or text from
one language into another:’ The Cambridge Dictionary also endorses that. This can
mean the word to word rendering of the text in one language to another or replacing
the equivalents of the words or phrases in one text to another. The translated text may
have formal equivalence when the source text and the translated text look alike in form.
It may have functional equivalence when the source text and the target text or translated
text convey the same sense or perform the same function, though they have formal

4
differences. It is often seen that the idioms and usage of the source language creep into
the target language through translations which often enrich and shape the target
language.

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a text in a source language (SL) into
a comprehensive version of target language (TL) without causing any loss to the original
message. It is often thought that if one is a bilingual s/he can be a good translator, which
is not the truth. People having good communicative and writing experiences in both the
languages can be good translators, which includes their being bilinguals.

While translating, a translator discovers the meaning of a text behind the forms in the
source language (SL) and reproduces the same meaning in the target language (TL)
with the forms and structures available in the target language. The form changes but the
meaning or sense or message remains the same. Nowadays we find translators using
computers to translate one language into another, but human beings still play the major
role in deciding the final output. While translating images/metaphors and emotive
expressions in literary texts, computers cannot replace human beings. Translating is
more than simply looking up a few words in a dictionary.

We cannot confine translation to one or two definitions. It is elastic in nature and depends
upon the person who does the translation. It differs from language to language, and from
culture to culture. Hence it is not as easy as it is thought to be. While trying to be a
different version of the original, it maintains its own uniqueness, an identity of its own.
In the next section, we will discuss the nature of translation, responsibilities of a
translator
and the complexities involved in the process of translation.

Self-Check Exercise-1

Answer the following questions in about 10-15 words.

(a) What is the meaning of translation?

(b) Can we define translation in fixed terms? Give reasons for your answer.

5
1. 3 Nature of Translation

Translation is an interpretative process. The nature of translation depends upon the nature
of the document. Translation of a technical or promotional document is easier and
requires less skill and expertise than the translation of a text of literature. The vocabulary,
grammatical rules and the sentence structures would match with the nature of the
document, the source language and the target audience. A successful translation satisfies
the needs of the target audience, either in terms of suitable structures or forms or in terms
of the appropriate transfer of meaning from the source text to the target text.

Besides having equal expertise in the source language and the target language, a good
translator should also have a flair for writing in the target language and be familiar with
the socio-cultural context in which a text is set. A successful translator is not a
mechanical translator of a text. S/he puts in his/her creativity to the fullest extent and
goes into the soul of the content. We can visualize him/her as a co-creator of the target
language text as the translated text he almost recreates the text reflecting his culture and
personality.

While translating, a translator takes into account the lexicon, grammatical structure and
cultural context of the text in the source language to understand the meaning built in the
text and then transfers the same meaning to the text in the target language with the help
of lexicon and grammatical structure appropriate to the target language and its cultural
context. In this process, every care is taken to ensure that there is no or minimum loss of
meaning. Earlier, faithfulness to the original text was considered to be one of the greatest
responsibilities of the translators. But now, with the mushrooming of multiple cultures
and languages and diversity of political views in a given context, the translator takes
liberty with the original text to allow some accommodation or adaptation in order to
keep pace with the sense or spirit of the original. Accommodation is inevitable in practice
if the translation is to maintain the essence, impact, and effect of the text in the source
language. This is particularly true of poetry where the text is highly emotive and artistic
in nature. A translator may come across a couple of words which are culturally-rooted
and thus untranslatable. Such words are difficult to be translated if the cultural context is
missing. But the fact is that individual words may not be translatable, but language is.

1.3.1 Responsibilities of a Good Translator

A good translator is not born, but made. With a little care and some labour, a person can
acquire the skills of a good translator. Some of the qualities that distinguish a good and
successful translator from a bad or unsuccessful translator are mentioned below.
Faithfulness to the Original Text and the Author: A competent translator should try to
get into the mind of the writer of the original text in the source language. S/He should
also fully understand the sense and meaning of the original author. S/He should try to put

6
 in every effort to ensure that the translation resembles the original text or is very close to
the original text in terms of its sense and message. Expert and experienced translators
know the requirements of a text, and make changes to communicate the style and
essence of a text with minimal variations from the original. While trying to be faithful to
the original text, s/he should not try to find difficult equivalent words in the hope that this
will add to the perfection of your translation. A faithful translator should act like the
author's mouthpiece in a way that he knows and comprehends fully whatever the original
author has said in his text. The translation should have all the ease of the original
composition.
 Technical Expertise: The translator has to be an analytical person with necessary
flexibility, adaptability and expertise in the use of technology so that s/he can pay close
attention to all details and adapt whenever there is a need. Moreover, s/he should have
thorough knowledge of the subject that s/he deals with. A person translating the
biography of a great personality should have thorough knowledge about the life and
achievements of the person concerned. A translator should be an excellent writer with
good research and language skills so that s/he can find out things which s/he requires and
make use of them in appropriate places. Writing skills help a translator make intelligent
choices in regard to words, structures and expressions. The translator should use forms of
speech and expressions in common use so that the audience is able to comprehend them
properly. Finally s/he should choose and order words appropriately to produce the
correct tone and convey the desired meaning.
 Using the Right Tools: The experienced translators know how to use the tools like good
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, encyclopedias, e-dictionaries, glossaries of
technical and standard works, etc. pertaining to the SL text and style guides to help
him/her out in moments of difficulty. One should start using them from the beginning so
that in course of time it becomes easy to find out the equivalent terms without wasting
much time and energy on them. Having the dictionaries on the computer can also save
a lot of time and labour. .
 Focus on Creativity: Expert translators are always creative. They always try to put the
text in the target language in a new and attractive garb to make it more acceptable to the
audience in the target language. They do this by using a new vocabulary, new
expressions and structures whenever necessary to make the translated text more
appealing to the audience. It is because of the creative component and the amount of
liberty involved in an act of translation, a translator finds his/her job very rewarding and
intellectually stimulating.
 Focus on Reading as an Important Pre-requisite: A serious translator should read a
lot to have an in depth understanding of the nuances of the languages s/he deals
with(both the source language and the target language). This habit is essential to help a
translator gain command of the language. In the list of reading materials, one may put the
classics, newspapers and digital material available online on the internet. .

7
  Linguistic Competence: A seasoned translator should be well-conversant with the
grammatical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features as well as the socio-cultural
contexts of both the source language and the target language. S/He may have the liberty
to interpret an idea in a different way but in no case should try to insert his/her own
ideas or personal impressions in the new product. Moreover, s/he should take care that
the style chosen for translation is appropriate for the target audience and should sound
natural and spontaneous to the readers of the translated text.
 Specialization: A mature translator should have sound knowledge of the discipline to
which the target text belongs, particularly the materials which have highly technical
vocabulary. You should be familiar with the new terminology and the latest
developments in the discipline on which you are working. If one has expertise in
translating literary texts, s/he will have difficulty in translating medical or business
reports or technical reports.
 Giving a Finishing Touch: In an act of translation, you should have enough patience
and do the job sincerely. You may also like to discuss your problem areas with the
persons you think competent to address the problems. Before preparing the final
product, you should go through the translated work two or three times and see if any last
minute changes can be made to make it look more accessible and acceptable. You may
like to change a few words, expressions or forms to improve the quality. Before letting
the work out for publication, you should ensure that the product is suitable for the
intended purpose and audience. You may have to change the style or language in
accordance with the audience and purpose. Once you are satisfied with the work, you
should put the original passage aside and listen to/read your translation with the ears
tuned in, as if it were a passage originally written in the target language. You may also
ask a friend of yours or an expert in the target language to listen to the translation and
give suggestions for improvement. After incorporating the changes suggested, submit it
to the agency or the organization who had assigned you the job.

1.3.2. Audience and Purpose of Translation

As translators we should also make it clear what kind of a text it is: technical, narrative,
or interactive or descriptive. After describing the text that is to be translated, we must
then mention the audience and purpose. A work of translation has a fixed audience and
purpose. The same text may be translated for different audiences and serve different
purposes. Say for example, Gulliver’s Travels of Jonathan Swift has been translated into
many languages for different purposes and for different audiences. The same text is read
by children and the adult readers alike. When the purpose differs, the audience also
changes.

When a text in a foreign or alien language is translated into a local language, we are
required to impart a local flavor to it to suit the needs of the local readers. This is called

8
domestication. On the other hand, when we are translating a text for a global audience,
from a local language, into a foreign or international language, we need to take into
account the cultural set up where we expect the translated text to be accepted. This is
called foreignisation. While deciding upon the audience, we also need to take into
account the age-group, level of mental or intellectual maturity and the level of exposure
to the content being translated. If we are translating, a book on discoveries and inventions
for small children, we need not give the technical details of the discoveries and
inventions. But it will be mandatory for us to give these details if our focus shifts from
school children to university students or research scholars.

Audience and purpose are closely inter-related. Audience determines the purpose and
purpose also determines the audience. . The audience could be any group: very young
children, adolescents, young adults, mature adults, senior citizens or people working in
different professional organizations or engaged in different vocations. They could be a
mix of consumers belonging to different age groups yet working in the same professional
work-setting. .

If children are our audience, we can translate something to entertain them, inform them or
educate them. But if adults are our audience, we may have purposes other than the ones
we have mentioned for children. Even for books written with the same purpose, entertain
for example, the language and style may differ. While translating an entertaining text for
the adults we shall have the liberty to include contents which are violent, sexually
explicit or frightening but while translating the same text for children we will be required
to remove all such words and expressions which might have adverse impact on the
psychological growth of children.

After a work has been translated, it has to be published either in the printed form or in the
digital form as is done on a website. The format of the text should match with the
medium where it is to be published. If the book has to be brought out in the printed
format, it has to be formatted accordingly to match one of the designs available in the
market. Likewise, for publishing a translated document on the website, all technical
formalities and requirements are to be met so that it can be easily published on a website.
Self-Check Exercise-2
Answer the following questions in about 10-15 words.
(a) Write down three main qualities of a good translator.

(b) How do audience and purpose define the quality of translation?

9
1.4 Scope of Translation
In the earlier days, translation was considered to be a sub-branch of linguistics. Gradually
it developed into an inter-disciplinary field of study. In the last three decades of the 20th
century Translation Studies started functioning as an autonomous branch of study.
Today, in this age of globalization, the scope of translation is immense. It stretches from
our immediate environment to every sphere of life. The significance and relevance of
translation in our daily life is multidimensional and extensive. Translation helps us to
know about the developments in the field of creative arts, education, literature, business,
science and politics. It has shifted from the traditional conception of the fixed, stable
and unchangeable nature of the text and its meaning to a text with wide scope for
variations.

In the post-modern word, translation has become so relevant that people visualize it as a
socio-cultural bridge between communities and countries. People now feel the
importance of interacting and remaining connected with the people of other socio-cultural
communities, both in their respective countries as well as countries across the world. In
this backdrop, translation has acquired an increasing importance and satisfies individual,
societal and national needs. Let’s take the Indian society as an example. Whatever we see
as Indian, be it literature, culture, history, politics, economics, it is a reality only because
translation has made it possible for people to understand, interpret and compile the
literature, culture, history, politics and economics of the respective states. In other words,
we can say that it has become a unifying factor for the country. K Satchidandnandan,
eminent poet, critic and former Secretary of the Sahitya Akaedmi, India has rightly said:

“Translation has helped knit India together as a nation throughout her history.
Ideas and concepts like 'Indian literature', 'Indian culture', 'Indian philosophy' and
'Indian knowledge systems' would have been impossible in the absence of
translations with their natural integrationist mission.”

1.4.1 Translation as a Mediator

Translators are the mediators between the source language/culture and the target
language/culture. It is their responsibility to ensure that this linkage between the known
language/culture and alien language/culture is properly established so that the readers
don’t lose the essence of the original. Translation of a language opens the doors to
unknown cultural and linguistic environments. In course of translation, the translator is
also required to use new terms, coinages and expressions to suit the requirement of the
text in the source language. This way s/he creates new vocabulary and contributes to the
richness and greater expressibility of the language into which a text is translated. This
helps the readers in the target language know and understand the vast expanse of

10
 knowledge available in the source language, hitherto hidden from them. At the same time
translation also promotes the growth of local literature and culture by bringing the great
wealth of literatures and cultures from foreign lands.. When we translate the great
masters of world literature like Shakespeare, Homer, Dante, Valmiki, Kalidasa or more
contemporary writers from Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Kafka, to Gabriel Garcia Marquez, J.
M. Coetzee, Pablo Neruda, Octavio Paz and others, we not only enrich our own
knowledge base, but also raise the standards of our own local or regional languages.

1.4.2 Translation as a Democratizing Agent

Translation is a strong democratizing agent. It strengthens democracy by giving equal

status to all languages and doing away with the dominance of a particular language.
When a text from one language, say for English, is translated into a regional language or
dialect, the speakers of the language/dialect are able to read and understand the literature
and vast resource of knowledge available in English. The ideas, thoughts and feelings of
the author in English are thus transferred or carried across to the regional
language/dialect into which the text is translated. This not only enhances the
knowledgebase of the target population but also increases their self-esteem and
confidence in handling routine affairs. Most importantly it gives an opportunity to the
weaker, disadvantaged and marginalized sections of people sections like the poor,
women, dalits, tribals, minorities, the disabled and others to make their voices heard.
Translation comes to them as a tool for empowerment as they can express their thoughts,
ideas and issues in a foreign language, take them to the outer world and make the
audience in the other worlds understand them.

On the other hand, translation also helps us to showcase to the world, especially the
colonizers, our rich cultural heritage and tell them that our literature and culture are as
good as theirs and thus fight colonial prejudices. The British had translated from India
only what they wanted and things that suited their prejudiced approach to Indian
literature and culture. Now the tables have been turned; now we are writing back, telling
them what they have to read to understand our peoples, literatures and cultures. Just like
the writers from the English world, our writers have acquired international acclaim and
have been embraced everywhere as English writers.

Self-Check Exercise-3
Choose the correct option and fill in the blanks.
(a) The significance and relevance of translation in our daily life is and
.
(i) multicultural, intensive (ii) multidimensional, extensive
(iii) multilingual, inclusive
(b) In the post-modern word, it has become so relevant that people visualize it as a
bridge between communities and countries. .

11
 (i) political (ii) economic (iii) socio-cultural
(c) Translators are the mediators between the source language/culture and the target
language/culture. .
(i) Mediators (ii) mentors (iii) messengers
(d) In course of translation, the translator contributes to the and greater
of the language into which a text is translated.
(i) Richness, expressibility (ii) brightness, admissibility (iii) happiness,
hospitality
(e) Translation democracy by giving equal status to all languages.
(i) weakens (ii) strengthens (iii) softens

1.5 Translation as a Career

1.5.1 Globalization and the Increasing Importance of Translation

With the rapid inflow of MNCs into the country due to the globalization of Indian
economy and the increasing need for translation in sectors like Universities, publishing
houses, research organizations conducting market surveys, medical science, tourism,
entertainment, public relations and mass communication, international organizations,
embassies, diplomatic service, BPO's, now translation and interpretation services are
being offered by many organizations which provide training and placement facilities for
the people working in the field of translation. All the Government Ministries like
External Affairs (MEA), Agriculture, Science & Technology, Textile and Education and
so on require Junior Translators, Senior Translators, Subject Experts and Assistant
Director (for official languages). Private companies such as HP, Oracle, Samsung,
Hyundai, LG, Thomson, GE and Aventis, etc also provide opportunities for language
experts. You can also take up assignments with the Indian National Scientific
Documentation Centre (INSDOC), Delhi if you are good at your job. In the state of
Odisha, after the implementation of the Odia Language Act by Government of Odisha,
Odia has become the official language with effect from 15th August 2016. The
opportunities are endless provided you have the quality and competence to deliver good
work in time. Translation is set to be a multi-billion dollar industry in the near future. So
there can be a no better occasion than this to start a career in translation.

Now a person having sound knowledge of more than one foreign language is preferred to
be posted as an interpreter or translator to facilitate the services required by the business
personnel or tourists from foreign countries. The services include working as interpreters
in Seminars, conferences or business negotiations and guiding the tourists on their visit
to tourist destinations. Some other associations like Indian Translators Association has
developed relations with leading translator associations at regional, national and
international levels with a view to exchange information, upgrade the quality of
translation and technological skills of its members and help them maintain professional
12
 standards in the industry. Simultaneously, it constantly acts as an interface between
government bodies and affiliates of the Translation Industry of India. Likewise, Indian
Translators provides services like translation and desk top publishing for over 100
languages. One can get a source document translated, typeset and printed ready for its
target market with the help of the human and technical expertise it has.

1.5.2 Different Areas of Translation

We are living in an age of translation and the avenues for translators are constantly
expanding. Some of these areas and vocations are indicated below:

Literal Translation
Literal translation is first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from
one language to another. We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the
reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source
language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the
interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style,
linguistic expressions and undertones differ. Beginners are encouraged to start with
literal translation but at the same time they should understand the differences between the
structures of the source language and the target language.

Literary translation: Literary translation is one of the most popular types of translation
because it makes the world literature available in the regional languages and takes the
literature in the regional languages to the audience around the world. Many institutions at
the local, national and international levels provide opportunities in literary translation.
The classics from all the countries are being translated into the local languages and the
classics in the Indian languages are being translated into English and other foreign
languages. Thus exchange of literature from one country to another, from one state to
another within a country have become a reality with the help of translation. Sahitya
Akademis at the Central level and state level, National Book Trust, regional literary
associations, associations of translators and publishing houses engage capable
translators to translate the chosen classics from the foreign languages to the Indian
languages and vice versa. In the recent years it has been noticed that the young non-
resident Indians who do not know their languages are eager to read their literatures in
translation in the languages they know. Moreover, foreign readers and intellectuals show
interest in Indian literature as they want to know the direction in which it moving.
Organization of literary festivals and book fairs all over the world speak volumes about
the relevance and significance of literary translation in our time.

We all know that our freedom struggle and later democratic struggles for social
reformation had been greatly influenced by the translations of the works of Victor Hugo,

13
Tolstoy, Rousseau, Gandhi, Tagore, Emile Zola, Maupassant, Gorky, Bankim Chandra,
Premchand and Subramania Bharati. The Government of India has recently launched a
new mission, Indian Literature Abroad (ILA) to popularize Indian literature among the
foreign readers. Big Indian publishing concerns like Penguin, Macmillan, Orient
Longman, Oxford University Press, Harper-Collins, Hatchett etc as well as smaller
regional publication houses like Gyanjug, Granthamandir, Friends Publishers are
encouraging translations of literary masterpieces on a large scale.

Knowledge Translation: The National Translation Mission, launched by the National

Knowledge Commission sponsors projects to translate textbooks and classical works in
areas like sociology, history, geography, geology, medicine, chemistry, physics,
mathematics, linguistics and political science into the Indian languages so as to raise the
standard of education in the respective Indian languages. Besides, it also democratizes
education by enhancing the accessibility of these resources to the rural poor and the
backward sections of society. Competent translators can get ample scope to make use
of their knowledge and skills to translate the resources available in English into their
own regional languages and thus enrich the repertoire of resources in the local language.

Media Translation: With the mushrooming of media industries in the print, electronic,
visual and auditory media- newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema, internet-
enabled entertainment services, especially in the regional languages, the need of
translators from one language into another has increased manifold. Publication of
newspapers and journals and running TV channels in the local as well as national
languages have become an exciting and rewarding business and offers multiple avenues
for employment and engagement. In the cinema industry, translators are also engaged to
take the films to the masses in several languages through dubbing and sub-titling. There
is no dearth of opportunities for people having good command over the source language
and the target language and sound knowledge of the media where they wish to work.

Machine Translation

In view of the increasing demand for translation, the complexity involved in the process
of translation and absence of competent translators, the scientists and linguists have
collaborated to automate translation or to aid the human translator in terms of specially
designed soft-ware programmes with an in-built mechanism for substituting the
structures in the source language into a chosen language. Computer-Aided Translation
(CAT) tools are increasingly being used by people across the world to meet the demands
and the challenges of the global market. The invasion of the Internet in every walk of
life has enhanced the role of translation in modern life and has facilitated the use of
machine translation in a big way. While taking decisions whether to use machine
translation or a professional human translator, we should take into account some

14
 important factors like cost, timeliness, target audience, quality and legal implications of
the text being translated and complexity of the subject matter. Sometimes, in human
translations also intervention of machine translation has the potential to enhance the
speed of translation and deliver the products in time. A translator is also benefited if s/he
is supplied with substitutes for technical jargon, specific terminology or keywords or a
glossary to meet his/her requirement during the process of translation. However, it is
almost impossible to think that machines can altogether replace human translators. We
shall be discussing the details of machine translation in a separate unit later.

1.5.3 Increasing Role of Translation and Interpretation

In our time, when geography is becoming history and internet is invading every space,
the importance of English has reduced and languages like Hindi, Mandarin, Japanese,
Arabic and other regional languages have gained momentum. Translators and Interpreters
for languages like English, Chinese, Japanese, French, German, Korean, Arabic, Persian,
Russian, Spanish, Portuguese and Hindi are in great demand across the world. In this
changed scenario, economic opportunities are in plenty for people who can translate from
one language to another, particularly from English to the local or regional languages.
People who are well conversant with more than two languages can act as translators or
interpreters and earn a dignified livelihood. A translator works with the documents and
recorded versions and works at his own pace whereas an interpreter is required to
communicate the sense intended by a speaker through the spoken mode. Translation is
the desk work where everything’s are taken in the written form while interpreters manage
translation orally. In both the cases, the focus is on the transmission of the message, not
on the substitution of equivalents for each and every word. An interpreter may be
required to interpret in real time as is done during meetings, conferences, speeches
etc. In such cases the interpreter receives the message in the source language and then
interprets and transfers the message to the audience in the target language. On the other
hand, in liaison interpreting or consecutive interpreting, the interpreter interprets the
speech of a speaker during the pauses s/he takes and then puts the message in the target
language for the audience. This happens mostly when the heads of governments of one
country visit a foreign country and they are invited to speak to an alien audience
speaking a different language. You can take up these assignments as a full time regular
employee of an organization, as a freelancer or as a part time assignment along with the
job you have. As a free lancer, you have complete freedom and can work for multiple
organizations and work at your own pace and convenience but on the condition that you
are disciplined and organized and are able to meet the deadlines.

15
1.5.4 Job Prospects in Translation and Interpretation
Job prospects for translation and interpretation vary from desk top translators to
secretarial, executive and public relation assignments. If you are a freelancer, you can get
work in translation bureaus, research organizations, international organizations like UNO,
FAO, foreign companies, Reserve Bank of India, publishing houses etc. Alternatively,
you can work in government and non-government agencies, universities, training centers
and multi-national companies as a regular employee. The salary may range from
Rs. 10, 000 to 1 lakh in accordance with your experience, knowledge and understanding
of the latest happenings of the world. You should look for the job that interests you most
and start preparing accordingly. In addition to all essential skills required for translation,
you should have a good mastery over the computer skills. .
Translation is not just word-by-word translation of text from one language to another; it
is putting the soul of a text into the body of another. Before starting translation as a
career, it is wise for you to have look at the works of famous translators to have an idea
of the level of originality and creativity required to make a piece of translation look
natural and professional. It is essential that a beginner in the field of translation should
understand the skills of translation before starting the translation of any work. Starting
from ordinary subjects or technical subjects with less ambiguity you should gradually
move to complex and difficult texts like literary masterpieces and knowledge texts in
various disciplines. Similarly you should move from small assignments to large
assignments and projects so that you can keep on sharpening the skills to match the
requirements of the employers. The more is the exposure, the more is the rate of success.

Self-Check Exercise-4
Answer the following questions in about 30 words. .
(a) When did the Odia Language Act come into force? What does it say?

(b) What is the difference between literal and literary translation?

(c) What is the difference between translation and interpretation?

(d) What are the advantages of a free-lance writer?

(e) What are the job opportunities available for people working in the field of
translation?

16
1.6 Summing Up
In this unit we discussed the meaning and definition, the nature and scope of translation and
translation as a career. While discussing the meaning of translation, we discussed its
derivation from the Latin word translatio and other meanings attached to it by the poet
translators. Starting with the definition given by Roman Jakobason, we discussed the
definitions given in the Oxford Dictionary, definition of translation as an art and as a science
and translation as an act of communication involving the transfer of meaning from a text in
the the source language text to the text in the target language. Under section Nature of
Translation we discussed translation as an interpretative process, the intricacies involved in
an act of translation and the responsibilities of good translators like faithfulness to the
original text, technical expertise, focus on creativity, focus on reading as a prerequisite, using
the right tools, linguistic competence, specialization, and giving a finishing touch. Under the
same heading we also discussed audience and purpose of translation in which we discussed
how audience and purpose determine the quality of translation. Under the next section Scope
of Translation we discussed the integrationist role of translation in India, the emergence of
translation as an independent discipline, translation as a mediator between two cultures and
translation as a democratizing agent by giving equal status to all languages and making the
voice of the marginalized communities heard. Under the last section Translation as a
Career, we discussed Globalisation and the increasing role of translation, different areas of
translation like literal translation, literary translation, knowledge translation, media
translation and machine translation, increasing role of translation and interpretation and job
opportunities in translation and interpretation.

1.7 Glossary
Edicts: Government orders which are forcefully and unfairly given, practiced especially in
the olden days
Adaptations: Changing a text to suit the needs of a particular audience. Classics of great
writers are adapted for school going children.
Dialects : A form of a language spoken by a people in a particular part of a country. It may
contain some different words, rules of grammar and ways of pronunciation.
Formal equivalence: Two items are said to be formally equivalent when their structures or
forms are same and they look alike.
Functional equivalence: Two items are said to be functionally equivalent when their
functions or meanings are same.
Bilinguals: People who know two languages and can use both the languages for everyday
communication.

17
Metaphors: An expression which describes a person or object by referring it to something
having similar characteristics Example: Milkha Singh is lion (Milkha Singh has been
compared to a lion as he supposed to have the strength of a lion).
Emotive expressions : Expressions which cause strong feelings and emotions in human
beings
Lexicon: All the words in a particular language or subject which are used in everyday
communication as well as academic writing
Accommodation: Accommodation is a technique used in translation to make changes in the
translated text and insert elements which are essential to make it natural.
Mouthpiece: A person who expresses the opinions of one particular organization or person
or speaks on behalf of the person or the organization concerned.
style guides: Manuals which guide the writers and translators about the formalities for
language and style to be used in written communication.
pragmatic features: Features which are concerned with the application or use of a
particular text or item in a realistic social set up
domestication: Domestication is the process in which elements of a foreign language or
culture are put to domestic use or given local colours.
Foreignisation: Foreignisation is the process in which elements of a local or domestic
language or culture are changed according to the tastes and requirements of an audience in a
foreign country autonomous: independent, having own identity
Multidimensional: Something or some quality which has multiple equally important aspects
or dimensions
integrationist mission: The mission which aims at unifying or integrating the nation
through a common action which links all the states and creates opportunities for interaction
expressibility: The power of a person or a language to express all aspects of human
emotions and feelings so as to make a communication sound natural
marginalized people: People who are considered lower in social order in a conservative
society
empowerment: The process or act through which people are made to feel more confident
and take control of their lives
prejudices: When you form an unfair and unreasonable opinion or feeling about someone
or something without giving it enough thought, you are prejudiced.
undertone: A particular but not obvious characteristic or quality or meaning that lies
hidden in a piece of writing or speech
Computer-Aided Translation ( CAT ) tools: The tools being used for Computer Aided
Translation are called CAT tools. They are soft-ware programmes used by professional
translators to make the translations uniform and reduce the time and energy spent on looking
for equivalents.
Jargon: Special words, phrases and expressions which are used by particular groups of
people in a vocation or profession, especially in their workplace

18
 liaison interpreting: Liaison interpreting or consecutive interpreting is interpreting a
message when the speaker takes a pause during his/her and conveying the message to the
audience in the target language afterwards
masterpieces: Important works of great writers, mostly the classics which withstand the
passage of time.

1.8 Further Readings

1. Bassnett, Susan. (2002): Translation studies. London: Routledge.
2. Cronin, Michael. (2003). Translation and globalization. London: Routledge.
3. Holmes, James S. (1988): The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. In Holmes, J.S.,
Translated! Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam:
4. Munday, Jeremy (ed.) (2007): Translation as Intervention. London: Continuum.
5. Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a science of translating: With special reference to
principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Leiden: Brill. (p.11)
6. Rodopi, 67-80. Reprinted e.g. in Venuti, L. (ed.) (2000), The Translation Studies Reader.
London: Routledge, 172-185.
7. Will, Frederic (1993). Translation: Theory and Pracitce-Resembling the Tower. The
Edwin Mellen Press.P. 187.
8. Wolf, Michaela/Fukari, Alexandra (eds.) (2007), Constructing a Sociology of
Translation. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation
10. http://ezinearticles.com/?Translation---Significance-and-Scope &id=753318
11. http://www.translationindia.com/
12. http://itaindia.org/
13. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/Translator-as-a-career-
option/articleshow/12893162.cms
14. http://employmentnews.gov.in/Career_in_Translation.asp
15. http://www.indiaeducation.net/careercenter/professional-courses/translators-interpreters/

Reference: CIT-01-Unit-01-Meaning,%20Nature%20and%20Scope%20of%20Translation.pdf

Prepared by:

DHARSINERO S. SABANDAL, LPT

NOTA BENE:
ANY CASE OF ILLEGAL REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THIS HAND-OUT IS
PROBIHITED, UNLESS PERMISSION OF THE PROPONENT OF THE OUTLINE OR THE
AUTHOR OF THE MAIN REFERENCE IS REQUIRED.
IGNORANTIA LEGIS NON EXCUSAT

19
20