COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Composite Structures,

held at Paisley College of Technology, Scotland,from 16 to 18 September
1981, organised in association with the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
and the National Engineering Laboratory.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Edited by

I. H. MARSHALL

Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering,

Paisley College of Technology, Scotland

APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS

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 APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

International Conference on Composite Structures

(lsI: 1981: Paisley College of Technology)
Composite structures.
I. Composite materials--Congresses
2. Composite constructions-Congresses
I. Title II. Marshall, I. H.
III. Institution of Mechanical Engineers
IV. National Engineering Laboratory
624.1'8 TA664

ISBN-13: 978-94-009-8122-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-8120-1

DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-8120-1

WITH 74 TABLES AND 362 ILLUSTRATIONS

© APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD 1981

Softcover reprint of the of the hardcover 1st edition 1981

The selection and presentation of material and the opinions expressed in

this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors concerned.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the publishers, Applied Science Publishers Ltd,
Ripple Road, Barking, Essex, England
 Preface

The papers contained herein were presented at the First International

Conference on Composite Structures held at Paisley College of
Technology, Paisley, Scotland, in September 1981. This conference was
organised and sponsored by Paisley College of Technology in association
with The Institution of Mechanical Engineers and The National
Engineering Laboratory (UK).
There can be little doubt that, within engineering circles, the use of
composite materials has revolutionised traditional design concepts. The
ability to tailor-make a material to suit prevailing environmental
conditions whilst maintaining adequate reinforcement to withstand applied
loading is unquestionably an attractive proposition. Significant weight
savings can also be achieved by virtue of the high strength-to-weight and
stiffness-to-weight characteristics of, for example, fibrous forms of
composite materials. Such savings are clearly of paramount importance in
transportation engineering and in particular aircraft and aerospace
applications.
Along with this considerable structural potential the engineer must
accept an increased complexity of analysis. All too often in the past this has
dissuaded the designer from considering composite materials as a viable, or
indeed better, alternative to traditional engineering materials. Inherent
prejudices within the engineering profession have also contributed, in no
small way, to a certain wariness in appreciating the merits of composites.
However, the potential benefits of composite materials are inescapable.
The last two decades have seen a phenomenal increase in the use of
composites in virtually every area of engineering, from the high technology
v
vi Preface

aerospace application to the less demanding structural cladding situation.

Research and development in this field have been unparalleled in history
with the rate of advance of knowledge seeming to increase daily. Such
advances can only be fully utilised if shared and discussed with others who
have similar interests. With this in mind, and with a conscious need for
dissemination of knowledge between users, manufacturers, designers and
researchers involved in structures manufactured using composite materials,
the present international conference was organised.
Authors from thirteen countries combine with delegates from virtually
every major industrial nation in the world to make this a truly international
gathering of specialists in an ever-expanding technology. Topics under
discussion range from the possible uses of natural fibre composites to
precision fabrication techniques employed in the space shuttle programme,
each contribution relating to a particular aspect of composite structural
engineering.
An international conference can only succeed in making a contribution
to knowledge through the considerable efforts of a number of enthusiastic
and willing individuals. In particular, thanks are due to the following:

The Conference Steering Committee

Professor J. Anderson Paisley College of Technology
(Chairman)
Dr W. S. Carswell National Engineering Laboratory
Dr J. Rhodes University of Strathclyde
C. I. Phillips Scott Bader Co. Ltd
J. A. Wylie Centre for Liaison with Industry and
Commerce, Paisley College of Technology
Dr E. J. Smith Pilkington Brothers Ltd

The International Advisory Panel

L. N. Phillips, OBE Royal Aircraft Establishment (UK)
Professor R. M. Jones Institute of Technology, Southern Methodist
University, Dallas (USA)
Dr A. R. Bunsell Ecole des Mines de Paris (France)
Professor S. W. Tsai Air Force Materials Laboratory, Ohio (USA)
Dr W. M. Banks University of Strathclyde (UK)
Dr C. Patterson Institute of Physics, Stress Analysis Group
(UK)
Dr E. Anderson Battelle Laboratories, Geneva (Switzerland)
 Preface vii

The Local Organising Committee

G. Macaulay
1. S. Paul
1. Kirk
F. A. Allen
The Conference Secretary, Mrs C. MacDonald

We are also grateful to many other individuals who contributed to the

success of this event. A final thanks to Nan and Simon for their support
during the conference.

I. H. MARSHALL
 Contents

Preface ...................................................................................... v

Session I: Plenary
(Chairman: T. C. DOWNIE, Paisley College of Technology, Scotland)

1. Composite Materials Education in the United States ........ .

R. M. JONES (Southern Methodist University, Dallas, USA)

2. Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology

Transfer ............................................................................. 16
J. HUMPHREYS (Pilkington Brothers Ltd, Ormskirk,
England)

Session II: Bolted Connections

(Chairman: W. S. CARSWELL, National Engineering Laboratory, East
Kilbride, Scotland)

3. Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted

Joints ................................................................................. 34
D. W. WILSON and R. BYRON PIPES (Center for Composite
Materials, University of Delaware, Newark, USA)

4. Stress an<\. Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite

Laminates ........................................................................... 50
S. R. SONI (Universal Energy Systems, Inc., Dayton, USA)
ix
x Contents

5. Some Environmental and Geometric Effects on the Static

Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints ................ 63
J.A. BAILIE, L. M. FISHER, S.A. HOWARD and K. G. PERRY
(Lockheed Missiles & Space Co. Inc., Sunnyvale, USA)

Session III: Environmental Effects

(Chairman: S. W. TSAI, Air Force Materials Laboratory, Ohio, USA)

6. The Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates in Aqueous

Environments ..................................................................... 79
R. C. WYATT (CEGB, Bristol, England), L. S. NORWOOD
(Scott Bader Co. Ltd, Wellingborough, England) and
M. G. PHILLIPS (University of Bath, England)

7. Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin 92

P. BONNIAU and A. R. BUNSELL (Ecole des Mines de Paris,
France)

8. Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments ....................... 106

P. J. HOGG, D. HULL and M. J. LEGG (University of
Liverpool, England)

Session IV: Research and Development: Analytical Studies

(Chairman: I. H. MARSHALL, Paisley College of Technology, Scotland)

9. Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply Strips ... 123

G. J. TURVEY (University of Lancaster, England)

roo Analysis of Thermally Stressed Variable Thickness Composite

Discs-a CAD Technique .................................................. 135
D. G. GORMAN (National Institute for Higher Education,
Limerick, Ireland) and J. P. HUISSOON (Trinity College,
Dublin, Ireland)

11. Optimization of Laminated Shells with Multiple Loading

Conditions and Fabrication Constraints ............................. 144
R. T. BROWN (Atlantic Research Corporation, Alexandria,
USA) and J. A. NACHLAS (Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, USA)
 Contents Xl

Session V: Research and Development: Marine Applications

(Chairman: L. N. PHILLIPS, lOBE:, Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Farnborough, England)

12. Recent Developments in Polyester Matrices and Reinforce-

ments for Marine Applications, in Particular Polyester/
Kevlar Composites ............................................................. 158
L. S. NORWOOD (Scott Bader Co. Ltd, Wellingborough,
England) and A. MARCHANT (Anthony Marchant and
Associates, Rumsey, England)

13. The Testing and Analysis of Novel Top-Hat Stiffener

Fabrication Methods for use in GRP Ships ....................... 182
A. K. GREEN and W. H. BOWYER (Fulmer Research
Laboratories Ltd, Slough, England)

14. The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull

Construction ...................................................................... 202
1. BIRD and R. C. ALLAN (Admiralty Marine Technology
Establishment, Dunfermline, Scotland)

Session VI: Research and Development: Modelling Techniques

(Chairman: A. W. LEISSA, The Ohio State University, USA)

15. Development of Cylindrically Orthotropic Model Material

for Transmission Photoelasticity ........................................ 224
P. K. SINHA (Bihar College of Engineering, Patna, India)
and B. L. DHOOPAR (Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, India)

16. Photoelastic Techniques for the Complete Determination of

Stresses in Composite Structures ........................................ 235
R. PRABHAKARAN (Old Dominion University, Norfolk,
USA)

17. A Boundary Layer Approach to the Calculation of Transverse

Stresses Along the Free Edges of a Symmetric Laminated
Plate of Arbitrary Width Under In-Plane Loading ............ 247
D. ENGRAND (Office National d'Etudes et de Recherches
Aerospatiales, Chat ilion , France)
xii Contents

Session VII: Physical and Mechanical Characteristics (1)

(Chairman: D. HULL, University of Liverpool, England)

18. On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber

Composite .......................................................................... 262
A. P. S. SELVADURAI (Carleton University, Ottawa,
Canada) and N. MOUTAFIS (University of Aston,
Birmingham, England)

19. The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate. 285

H. F. BRINSON and D. H. MORRIS (Virginia Polytechnic and
State University, Blacksburg, USA), W. I. GRIFFITH
(Michelin Corporation, Greenville, USA) and D. DILLARD
(University of Missouri, Rolla, USA)

20. Viscoelastic Properties of Composite Materials .................. 301

A. CARDON and CL. HIEL (Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Brussels, Belgium)

Session VIII: Structural Analysis: Platework Systems

(Chairman: D. W. WILSON, Center for Composite Materials, University of
Delaware, USA)

21. Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Postbuckling Studies on

Composite Plates ............................................................... 312
A. W. LEISS A (The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA)

22. On the Use of the Effective Width Concept for Composite

Plates ................................................................................. 335
J. RHODES (University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland)
and I. H. MARSHALL (Paisley College of Technology,
Paisley, Scotland)

23. Unsymmetrical Buckling of Laterally Loaded, Thin, Initially

Imperfect Orthotropic Plates ............................................. 352
I. H. MARSHALL (Paisley College of Technology, Paisley,
Scotland)
 Contents xiii

Session IX: Structural Analysis: Structural Systems

(Chairman: R. M. JONES, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, USA)

24. The Effect of Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Fibre

Reinforced Composite Plain Channel Section Columns ...... 366
A. R. UPADHYA (National Aeronautical Laboratory,
Bangalore, India) and J. LOUGHLAN (Cranfield Institute of
Technology, Bedford, England)

25. The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix

System ............................................................................... 383
v. G. ISHAKIAN and L. HOLLAWAY (University of Surrey,
Guildford, England)

26. The Post buckling Behaviour of Composite Box Sections 402

W. M. BANKS and J. RHODES (University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, Scotland)

Session X: Physical and Mechanical Characteristics (2)

(Chairman: L. S. NORWOOD, Scott Bader Co. Ltd, Wel/ingborough,
England)

27. The Effect of Thermal Strains on the Microcracking and

Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP .................................. 415
F. R. JONES, A. R. WHEATLEY and J. E. BAILEY (University
of Surrey, Guildford, England)

28. Electrically Conductive Prepreg Systems ............................ 430

G. L. PATZ (Hexce/ Corporation, Dublin, USA)

Session XI: Structural Evaluation Techniques

(Chairman: E. ANDERSON, Battelle Laboratories, Geneva, Switzerland)

29. Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic

Thermomechanometry (Dynamic Mechanical Analysis) ..... 438
P. BURROUGHS and J. N. LECKENBY (Du Pont (UK) Ltd,
Stevenage, England)
xiv Contents

30. Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress-Wave-Factor

and Acoustic Emission ....................................................... 450
A. T. GREEN (Acoustic Emission Technology Corporation,
Sacramento, USA)

3l. Vibration Testing of Composite Materials ......................... 463

J. L. WEARING and C. PATTERSON (University of Sheffield,
England)

Session XII: Design

(Chairman: W. M. BANKS, University of Strathclyde, Scotland)

32. A Minimum Energy Composite Automobile ...................... 475

R. M. McLAY (COMtech Inc., Essex Junction, USA) and
J. BUCKLEY, T. FLOYD and D. VIENS (The University of
Vermont, Burlington, USA)

33. Structures in Reinforced Composites .................................. 484

W. S. CARSWELL (National Engineering Laboratory, East
Kilbride, Scotland)

34. Properties and Performance of GRC ................................. 496

B. A. PROCTOR (Pilkington Brothers Ltd, Ormskirk,
England)

Session XIII: Experimental Studies

(Chairman: E. J. SMITH, Pilkington Brothers Ltd, Ormskirk, England)
35. Buckling of Plates trips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy
Laminates .......................................................................... 512
J. F. M. WIGGENRAAD (National Aerospace Laboratory,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

36. The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites. 536

R. J. LEE (University of Bath, England) and D. C. PHILLIPS
(A ERE, Harwell, England)

37. Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Candidate Resins for Use in

Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair Schemes ..................... 555
D. P. BASHFORD and A. K. GREEN (Fulmer Research
Laboratories Ltd, Slough, England) and K. F. ROGERS and
D. M. KINGSTON-LEE (Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Farnborough, England)
 Contents xv

38. Temperature Increase in SMC Fatigue Testing .................. 573

S. V. HOA and S. LIN (Concordia University, Montreal,
Canada)

Session XIV: Fabrication Studies including Natural Fibre Composites

(Chairman: C. L. PHILLIPS, Scott Bader Co. Ltd, Wellingborough,
England)
39. A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space
Structures Elements ........................................................... 580
H. COHAN and R. R. JOHNSON (Lockheed Missiles & Space
Co. Inc., Sunnyvale, USA)

40. Manufacturing Methods for Carbon Fiber/Polyimide Matrix

Composites ........................................................................ 592
W. C. MACE (Lockheed Missiles & Space Co. Inc.,
Sunnyvale, USA)

41. The Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement: Some

Structural Considerations ................................................... 602
D. G. SWIFT (Kenyatta University College, Nairobi,
Kenya)

42. On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 618

K. G. SATYANARAYANA,A. G. KULKARNI, K. SUKUMARAN,
S. G. K. PILLAI, K. A. CHERIAN and P. K. ROHATGI
(Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR), Trivandrum,
India)

Session XV: Fracture and Failure Analysis

(Chairman: J. ANDERSON, Paisley College of Technology, Scotland)
43. Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite
Sandwich Structures ........................................................... 633
I. ROMAN, H. HAREL and G. MAROM (The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, Israel)

44. Progressive Failure Model for Advanced Composite

Laminates Containing a Circular Hole ............................... 646
D. Y. KONISHI (Rockwell International, Los Angeles,
USA), K. H. Lo (Shell Development Company, Houston,
USA) and E. M. Wu (Lawrence Livermore Laboratories,
Livermore, USA)
xvi Contents

Session XVI: Research and Development: Analysis of Laminated Structures

(Chairman: J. RHODES, University of Strathclyde, Scotland)

45. Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to

Random Loads .................................................................. 656
C. MEl (Old Dominion University, Norfolk, USA) and
K. R. WENTZ (A FWALj FIBED Flight Dynamics
Laboratory, Ohio, USA)

Session XVII: Physical and Mechanical Characteristics (3)

(Chairman: A. R. BUNSELL, Ecole des Mines de Paris, France)

46. Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Mechanical Properties

of Epoxy Resin and Composite Systems ............ ................ 674
R. J. MOULTON (Hexcel Corporation, Dublin, USA) and
R. Y. TING (Naval Research Laboratory, Orlando, USA)

Session XVIII: Finite Element Studies

(Chairman: C. PATTERSON, University of Sheffield, England)

47. A Comparison of the Failure Pressure as Predicted by Finite

Element Stress Analysis with the Results of Full Scale Burst
Tests on GRP Flanges ....................................................... 690
A. MUSCAT! and R. BRADFORD (CEGB, Bristol, England)

48. Elastic-Plastic Flexural Analysis of Laminated Composite

Plates by the Finite Element Method ................................. 704
F. F. MAHMOUD (Zagazig University, Egypt)

Index .......................................................................................... 713

 1

Composite Materials Education in the United

States

ROBERT M. JONES
School of Engineering Applied Science, Southern Methodist University,
Dallas, Texas 75275, USA

ABSTRACT

Composite materials is a rapidly maturing technology, with emerging

applications in a broad range of industries far beyond the aerospace domain,
where composites first became popular. However, educational institutions
have not uniformly recognized this new status by appropriately changing the
engineering curricula. Most educational programs in composites are still at
the embryo stage. Some institutions have taken the lead in reshaping what is
presented to students. This revision of engineering education is reviewed at
three levels: undergraduate, graduate, and after graduation. Formal courses
at all levels are addressed, as well as special design projects which involve
students to a very 'high degree in activities that enable them to experience a
broad spectrum of topics in composites. Most importantly, the various
philosophies for teaching composites are discussed including courses, design
projects, research projects, seminars, and other activities that constitute an
appropriate composite materials educational experience.

INTRODUCTION

The modern revolution in composite materials began in the fifties with the
development of filament winding techniques for glass fibers to make rocket
motor cases. The usefulness of composites expanded drastically in the
sixties with the advent of the so-called advanced fibers boron and then
graphite. These fibers had sufficiently better mechanical properties to allow
2 Robert M. Jones

significant weight reduction and, in time, cost reduction in comparison to

structures made of conventional metals. These accomplishments were
achieved by a relatively small number of engineers and scientists. Now with
a technology that is increasingly attractive to an ever-broadening group of
industries, the problem is to educate a larger number of engineers. They
must have an appropriate background in analysis, design, and fabrication
of structures and mechanical devices made of composite materials that are
available now. Moreover, the new engineers must be prepared to treat
materials that are sure to be developed in the future.
Engineering educators, like engineers in general, are typically con-
servative and do not respond rapidly to changes in their environment.
Specifically, the engineering curricula have not been revised by all
institutions to respond to the obvious industrial demand for engineers with
part of their education devoted to composite materials. However, some
institutions have been quite innovative in developing strong programs in
composite materials at both the undergraduate and the graduate levels.
Moreover, after graduation education activities in the form of short courses
and seminars have played an important role in the development of
composites technology. The various current forms of education at the three
levels, undergraduate, graduate, and after graduation, are reviewed in the
following three sections. There, philosophies of education in composites
are described along with examples of active educational programs.

UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

Introduction
Undergraduate education is the level of education which in the future will
have the most impact on widespread acceptance and use of composite
materials. By sheer numbers alone, because undergraduates far outnumber
graduate students, the composites community will benefit most by enlarged
educational activities at the undergraduate level. More students should be
made aware of and become familiar with at least the advantages of
composites, if not the analysis tools to use them. Those graduates will then
think of composites as a viable alternative to conventional metals when they
design as practising engineers. However, there is no uniform agreement on
how undergraduates should be educated in composite materials
technologies.
First, the elements or phases of composites education are examined
along with the prerequisites that must (or should) be met prior to treatment
 Composite Materials Education in the United States 3

of composites. Then, the facilities needed for the various phases of

composites education are developed. Finally, examples of educational
philosophies are discussed.

Elements of Composites Education

The basic elements or phases of composites education are listed in Fig. I.
There, the logical first step is observation of composite material behavior.
Naturally, we must first know what we are dealing with. The fact that
composites have different stress-strain response in different directions is
but the beginning. We must examine all stress-strain response as well as
how the response is changed by different proportions of the composite
constituents.

• Observation of material behavior

• Modeling material behavior
• Analysis of structural elements
• Analysis of structures
• Design of composite structures
• Fabrication of composite structures

FIG. I. Elements of composite materials education.

The next element in Fig. I is modeling the observed material behavior.

The most common and simplest model, or idealization of behavior, that of
a linear elastic orthotropic material, is a topic that can be readily studied at
the undergraduate level (even though many students do not seem to recall
the relation between Young's modulus and the shear modulus for isotropic
materials). Development of linear elastic idealizations of composite
material behavior is probably the realistic limit of complexity for an
undergraduate student (except for truly bright students who always manage
to accomplish more than we expect anyway). More complex models such as
various kinds of nonlinearities or viscoelastic behavior might best be left to
the graduate level.
Analysis of structural elements is the next step in Fig. I in the logical
development of composites education. Laminated beams can easily be
addressed at the undergraduate level with some possible progression to
laminated plates and shells. The difficulty here is the lack of preparation of
the student to address plate problems. Such preparation would typically
occur in an advanced mechanics of materials course which is usually taught
as an optional course in the senior (fourth) year. Accordingly, composites
as a course would logically follow an optional course, i.e. as an elective after
4 Robert M. Jones

an elective. Such a tenuous chain of circumstances does not lead to the

probability that great numbers of undergraduates will be educated in
composite materials. The alternative to enforcing a prerequisite is to
introduce plates in a composites course when laminated plates are
addressed. An additional difficulty is that students will not necessarily have
had a structural or mechanical design course prior to composites. Thus,
students do not get the full impact of contrasting composites design with
metals design because metals design has not yet 'become a part of them' ,i.e.
they are not yet really familiar with metals design, so they cannot fully
appreciate the advantages of composites over metals.
Perhaps the most effective manner in which to include composites in an
undergraduate curriculum is to treat composites topics simultaneously with
metals topics in the same courses. This approach would require extensive
revision of many current 'standard' courses as well as the corresponding
textbooks. Currently, only brief consideration is given to composite
materials topics in a very few undergraduate mechanics of materials
textbooks. If such an extensive rethinking and revision of undergraduate
mechanics courses were to take place, then we would be able to guarantee
that all undergraduates have a significant exposure to composites. That is,
we would have brought composite materials topics into the mainstream of
the mechanics courses that form an essential part of civil, mechanical, and
aerospace engineering curricula. Such a full integration of composites will
probably take at least a few more years, if not longer.
The topics of analysis of structures and then design of composite
structures in Fig. 1 are subject to the same, if not stronger, preparation
difficulties as analysis of structural elements. Namely, all those topics have
barely been digested or understood by undergraduates, so the substantial
complication of composite materials is a difficult step for them to take. Real
progress in these topics will probably await graduate study or independent
study after graduation.
The final topic in Fig. 1 offabrication of composite structures is perhaps
the easiest for students to understand of all the topics in Fig. 1. That is, for
some fabrication processes, no specific knowledge of advanced analysis
topics is necessary if you merely want to observe the process. However, the
meaningful control of fabrication processes to achieve specific structural
performance goals does require substantial knowledge of the analysis
process as well as the design process. Thus, some fabrication concepts can
be introduced at the undergraduate level, but many must wait until later.
Perhaps the most important factor controlling what fabrication is taught is
the availability of fabrication facilities, as addressed in the next section (you
 Composite Materials Education in the United States 5

certainly cannot do much more than introduce filament winding if you do

not have a filament winding machine !).

Facilities for Instruction

The facilities necessary for instruction in various topics in composite
materials have a wide range of possibilities. As a lower limit at which only
mechanics of composite materials is addressed, no facilities are required.
However, such a purely theoretical or textbook approach has serious
limitations and does not constitute a balanced, well-developed educational
experience. Measurements, experiments, and fabrication can be described
with the aid of sketches and pictures, but there is no true understanding
without the actual experience of seeing an experiment being performed or,
better yet, performing it yourself!
The desirable instructional facilities are now quite briefly summarized.
To start with, the usual hydraulic testing machines found in almost every
laboratory can be used for some of the simple characterization tests such as
normal stress versus normal strain. However, more specialized testing
devices are necessary to perform general mechanical characterization of
composites, e.g. shear testing with a rail shear rig. For fabrication of epoxy
matrix composites, vacuum bagging or pressure bagging is an absolute
minimum capability with a more reasonable minimum being a heated press
or, better yet, an autoclave. Advanced fabrication facilities include filament
winding and compression molding with little likelihood of tape laying
machines, pultruders, or complex weaving machines being available at the
university level. Fabrication of metal matrix composites is seemingly too
complex and expensive to be considered at the undergraduate level. Finally,
various levels of computers are essential for analysis as well as for control of
experiments and reduction of experimental data.

Philosophies of Undergraduate Education

Currently, three different philosophies of undergraduate education are
operational in the United States. First, composites are addressed solely in
formal coursework as a supplement to the normal curricula. Second, design
project experience is the first contact a student has with composites. Third,
a combination of coursework and design project experience is available to
the student. Examples of each of the philosophies are discussed in the
following paragraphs. In all the discussed implementations of these
philosophies, fabrication of composites is included, even in the formal
course.
6 Robert M. Jones

Formal coursework
At the Georgia Institute of Technology ,a course 'Fundamentals of Fiber
Reinforced Composites' is cosponsored by the Schools of Aerospace
Engineering, Civil Engineering, Engineering Science and Mechanics,
Mechanical Engineering, and Textile Engineering. Obviously, the course
has widespread support among the schools and, moreover, is externally
supported by a grant from Owens/Corning Fiberglas. Fundamental
analysis techniques are studied along with manufacturing processes and
fabrication as well as design. The course is quite popular (it attracted nearly
fifty students at its first offering). The fundamental motive for the course is
to provide a forum for addressing the special characteristics of composite
materials outside the usual mechanics courses.

Design project experience

At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, undergraduate students
are able to participate in design projects as well as in research projects as
junior members of a team headed by a graduate student. Through the
mechanism of seminars and weekly discussions, all members of each team
are made familiar with composites, with the work of other members of their
team, and with the work of other teams. Thus, all participants in the
program learn from each other. Analysis, fabrication, and testing are
possible activities for all teams.

Combination of coursework and design project experience

Two schools follow the philosophy of combining formal coursework
with design project experience. These schools are the Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute and the University of Delaware.
At RPI, the program in composite materials is a strong interdisciplinary
effort involving the Civil Engineering and Materials Engineering
Departments as well as the Mechanical Engineering, Aerospace
Engineering, and Mechanics Department. Many composites topics are
addressed in some of the customary courses, i.e. the usual courses have been
modified to address composites. The first all-composites contact a student
might have is in a senior design project called CAPGLIDE (~omposite
Aircraft frogram Glider) sponsored by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) and the Air Force Office of Scientific
Research (AFOSR). This design project is an alternative to the senior
laboratory course. The project is popular because, by the senior year,
students are anxious to actually build something (in contrast to the usually
disjointed purely theoretical or purely experimental activities prior to the
 Composite Materials Education in the United States 7

senior year). Students enter the project without specific coursework

background in composites. However, their experience on the project during
the fall semester usually entices them to take a formal composites course in
the spring. Still, the biggest problem for students is obtaining the requisite
technical background early enough to have an impact on the design project.
As in the MIT program, weekly discussions and seminars are an important
part of the information transfer in the project. These discussions are the
formal mechanism for teaching the students about composites. During the
fall, students might design, analyse, fabricate, and test a fitting for the
glider. Or they might make parts in preparation for the spring phase. Or
they might develop a fabrication technique. During the spring, the glider
design is refined, and the glider is fabricated. Simultaneously, students
might take a formal composites course. Typically, in accordance with the
experience across the country for complicated design projects, the project
activity might extend into the summer (and beyond). The ability to continue
the project stems from the involvement of juniors and even sophomores in
the design teams. Thus, year-to-year continuity is maintained.
The University of Delaware also has a combination coursework and
design project program based in the Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering Department with strong participation from the Chemical
Engineering and Civil Engineering Departments. The courses
'Experimental Mechanics for Composite Materials' and 'Composite
Materials' follow a plates and shells course offered during the junior year.
During the senior year, fully half of the required design projects involve
composites. For example, a high speed bicycle was developed, and the
prototype placed third in forty-three nationwide entries. Also, a Mini-Baja
off-the-road cart-like vehicle was designed and constructed of composites
and entered in a regional competition.

GRADUATE EDUCATION

Introduction
Graduate education in composite materials must include the fundamen-
tal elements of composites education displayed in Fig. 1, but at a higher
level of sophistication, completeness, and accomplishment. Generally, by
the graduate level, most difficulties with prerequisites to courses have
disappeared. For example, an advanced mechanics of materials course
should have been completed at the beginning of a typical graduate program
(if not before). Moreover, the uniformly higher maturity of the graduate
8 Robert M. Jones

student as compared to the undergraduate student allows a more detailed

examination of topics in composites. In particular, graduate students have
a more advanced mathematics background than undergraduates.
Moreover, some form of design coursework and/or project is part of the
background of the typical graduate student. Thus, graduate students are
generally prepared to address the complexities of composites.
In this section, the various philosophies of graduate education currently
being pursued in American institutions are briefly discussed. Then, the
specific activities in what are termed major programs are described. Finally,
other programs of a smaller magnitude are briefly mentioned.

Philosophies of Graduate Education

The philosophies of graduate education in composites depend both on
the school and on the degree pursued. Three major elements are prominent
in the current philosophies: coursework, the design project, and the
research project.
Virtually all schools with any activity in composites have some formal
composites coursework. Moreover, many such schools have modified other
courses which are not predominantly about composites to include some
composites topics that are complementary to the main theme of the course.
F or example, laminated plates can be treated in the latter stages of a plates
course (with similar developments in a shells course). Similarly, anisotropic
elasticity can be addressed as part of an elasticity course.
A second important, but not uniformly accepted, element in a
philosophy for graduate education in composites is the design project. The
importance of a design project seems to lie most clearly at the Master's
degree level as opposed to the Ph.D. level. That is, a Master's degree can be
a program developed to prepare a designer or to give an analyst significant
design experience both to motivate analysis and to put analysis efforts in
proper perspective. In contrast, a Ph.D. program would probably be
focused on a more restricted topic (than a design) which might be attacked
from either an analysis or an experimental point of view or both.
The third element in a philosophy for graduate education in composites
is the research project. Traditionally, research is an intimate part of every
Ph.D. program. And, the opportunities for research in composites are now
even more exciting than in more mature areas simply because the area of
composite materials constitutes an emerging technology. Research
activities are specifically excluded from this discussion, but would be an
appropriate subject for another paper.
The three elements, coursework, the design project, and the research
 Composite Materials Education in the United States 9

project, are blended into strong programs at only a few American

universities. Those programs are called 'major' programs in this paper. No
criticism of other programs is intended; the point is that several programs
have achieved special distinction and deserve attention as possible models
for other programs. Both major programs and other programs are
described in the following paragraphs.

Major Composite Education Programs

Anyone who attempts to categorize activities involving people runs the
risk of being criticized for his/her definitions used to distinguish between the
various categories. With this risk clearly in mind, I propose the following
qualifications for a major program in composites education:
(1) More than one formal course in composites is offered regularly.
(2) More than just a few of the faculty participate in the program, and
several of the faculty devote a large percentage of their time to
composites (as opposed to only a partial interest in composites).
(3) Design experience is a prominent part of the program in either or
both of the undergraduate or beginning graduate levels.
(4) Extensive research activity exists.
The United States institutions which I feel have major programs are:
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (VPI), University of
Delaware, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), University of Oklahoma
(one of the oldest continuous programs), University of Florida, Texas
A & M University, and University of Wyoming. Unless I am incompletely
informed, these universities are the only ones whose programs satisfy the
foregoing obviously imperfect criteria to be called a major program. The
first three mentioned programs are the largest and are described in the
following paragraphs.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (VPI)

With the strong participation of National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) personnel over the past twenty years, VPI has built
up an impressive program in structural mechanics. During the past ten
years, substantial growth has occurred in the number of faculty members
engaged in composites research and education to the point where about a
dozen faculty members now work solely on composites. Some of this
growth has resulted from a cooperative program between NASA and VPI
at the graduate level. Most of the growth stems from extensive sponsored
research activity.
10 Robert M. Jones

The NASA-Virginia Tech. Composites Program is part of the VPI

program and has two major objectives. First, graduate students are
educated in preparation for careers in research, development, design, or
teaching. Second, research is conducted on problems of current interest.
Both objectives are in the national interest, hence the NASA involvement.
Two phases exist for both the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees: on-campus study
and a research residency at NASA Langley Research Center. For the M.S.
program, on-campus study in formal classes lasts for twelve months
followed by at least a six-month research residency. For the Ph.D. degree,
the on-campus phase consists of 18 months of courses plus initiation of the
research activity. Then, the research residency is at least 12 months at
NASA Langley Research Center. The research can be either of a
fundamental nature or of an innovative structural application.
VPI offers five quarter-long courses in composites:

ESM 4040 'Mechanics of Composite Materials'

ESM 5150 'Stress Analysis of Composites'
EMS 5070 'Mechanics of Composite Structures'
MATE 5lO0 'Modern Composite Materials'
ESM 6100 'Failure in Composite Materials'

where ESM stands for Engineering Science and Mechanics and MATE
stands for Materials Engineering. The first four courses are required in the
M.S. program along with the usual structural mechanics and materials
courses. The last course is required in the Ph.D. program (as are the first
four for persons entering at the Ph.D. level) in addition to the usual courses.

Unil'Cfsity of Delaware
The University of Delaware has a strong program in composites
featuring a multidisciplinary organization, the Center for Composite
Materials. The Center has the usual objectives of education and research,
plus the objectives of documentation of the state of the art and
dissemination of information. One of the activities in the documentation
objective is the creation of a composites design guide. The research
activities are sponsored by various governmental agencies and companies.
Overall sponsorship ofthe industrial research program of the Center comes
from over a dozen companies, some of which are listed in Fig. 2. Each
company pays the same fee each year as a continuing sponsor. In addition,
some other companies and government agencies sponsor specific research
projects of a short term nature.
 Composite Materials Education in the United States II

• Owens/Corning Fiberglas • Celanese

• International Harvester • Rockwell
• Pittsburgh Plate Glass • Hercules
• General Motors • Dupont
• General Electric • Xerox
• Graftek/Exxon • Ford
FIG. 2. University of Delaware Center for Composite Materials industrial research program
sponsors.

The formal courses in composites at the University of Delaware include:

MAE 410 'Experimental Mechanics for Composite Materials'
MAE 617 'Composite Materials'
MAE 817 'Composite Materials'
where MAE stands for Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering. Some of
the courses are designed and numbered for both undergraduate and
graduate students with the latter being required to prepare a term paper
and/or do some experimental research.
The experimental and fabrication facilities and capabilities include:
Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation
Tension-Torsion Fatigue System
Injection Molding Machine
High Strain Rate System
Electron Microscope
Autoclave
Extruder
plus some of the more usual facilities of mechanical, aerospace, and
chemical engineering departments.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RP I)

The strong RPI interdisciplinary program at the undergraduate level is
continued into the graduate level also with the sponsorship of NASA and
the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR). Formal coursework
includes 'Composite Materials' and 'Designing with Composite Materials'
as well as the addition of composites topics to the usual structural
mechanics courses.
The NASA-AFOSR Program includes three activities: CAPCOMP,
COMPAD, and INSURE. CAPCOMP stands for ~omposite Aircraft
'program Component. Currently, the Boeing 727 elevator actuator
attachment is being designed in graphite-epoxy composites to replace an
12 Robert M. Jones

aluminum alloy attachment. COMPAD stands for Computer Aided

Qesign. This phase of the program is in its initial stages with activities in
enhancement of the SPAR finite element computer program, investigation
of structural optimization programs, and development of preprocessors
and postprocessors for finite element analysis programs. INSURE stands
for Innovations and Supporting Research and is a collection of small
research projects supporting the overall composites program. Examples of
such research projects are resin characterization and optimization,
moisture effects, optimization of laminated plates under shear loading,
fatigue, ultrasonic nondestructive testing, and metal-matrix composites.
Of course, RPI has other research activities sponsored by organizations
besides NASA and AFOSR. One of the attractive features of the RPI
program is that professors work across the usual department boundaries
without the aid (or constraint) of a formal composites organization.
Weekly meetings of the more than a dozen interested faculty members from
the various participating departments keep the program moving.

Other Programs
The remaining composites education programs in the United States are
classified as nonmajor because they have the following characteristics:
(1) Usually only a single formal course in composites exists, and that
course is typically mechanics of composite materials. Such a course
might or might not be offered on a regular basis.
(2) Usually only a few faculty are involved in composites, and, ofthose
few, perhaps only one is dedicated solely to composites.
(3) Little if any design experience results from the program.
(4) The research activity underlying the advanced educational levels is
small to moderate (because of the small number of faculty members
dedicated to composites).

• Iowa State • Wisconsin

• Univ. of Illinois (Chicago & Urbana) • Ohio state
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology • Hartford
• Georgia Institute of Technology • Cincinnati
• Illinois Institute of Technology • Purdue
• Air Force Institute of Technology • Drexel
• Univ. of California at Berkeley • Kansas
• Univ. of California at Los Angeles • Dayton
• Wichita State • Tulsa
• Southern Methodist • Texas
FIG. 3. 'Other' programs in composite materials education.
 Composite Materials Education in the United States 13

Without any further discussion, the so-called 'other' programs in

composites education are listed in Fig. 3. Other programs of various sizes
surely do exist, and I apologize for overlooking them. I would be pleased to
have more information about all programs mentioned and especially about
programs that I do not list in Fig. 3.

AFTER GRADUATION EDUCATION

Education apart from formal full-term courses offered by universities has

played a very important role in the development and application of
advanced composite materials. Historically, the first formal courses on
composites might be the short courses organized by Dr Stephen W. Tsai
under the sponsorship of the University of California at Berkeley in the late
sixties. Of course, Professor Albert G. H. Dietz of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and others lectured on composites in the late forties
and early fifties. However, those efforts preceded the advanced fiber
development that is the foundation for the current rapid expansion of
composites applications.
The present after graduation educational activities are of two types: (l)
open short courses or seminars and (2) in-plant short courses. A list of the
major open short courses is given in Fig. 4. Three major universities sponsor

Open short courses or seminars

• Univ. of California at Berkeley (Tsai)
• Univ. of California at Los Angeles (Beaumont)
• George Washington Univ. (Noor)
• Technomic Publishing Co. (Salkind)
• Jones Mechanics Research (Jones)
In-plant short courses
• Bert
• Vinson, Chou and Pipes
• Jones
FIG. 4. After graduation composite materials courses.

open short courses organized by the gentlemen whose names are in

parentheses. Also, two private ventures have sponsored composites short
courses in recent years. Other composites short courses have been offered
from time to time, but only those listed have been offered regularly. In-plant
short courses have been presented by Dr Charles Bert, Dr Jack Vinson, Dr
Tsu-Wei Chou and Dr Byron Pipes, as well as by the author. My in-plant
courses are listed in Fig. 5 to show the interest by industry in the education
of engineers in composite materials. Course sizes ranged from twenty to
14 Robert M. Jones

• Naval Air Development Center (Aug. 71)

• Naval Weapons Center (June 75)
• Bell Helicopter (fall 75 and spring 79)
• Rockwell-Tulsa Div. (fall 77)
• Thiokol (June 79)
• Naval Ship R&D Center (July 79)
• Lockheed Missiles & Space (Dec. 79)
• Boeing Aerospace (April 80)
• Naval Air Rework Facility, Cherry Point, NC (July 80)
• Vought Corporation (fall 80)
• Celanese Research (Jan. 81)
FIG. 5. In-plant composite materials short courses by Robert M. Jones.

over fifty people. Some companies, such as General Dynamics in Fort

Worth, Texas, organize and present their own composites courses with
emphasis on topics of special importance in company applications.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Composite materials education in the United States is reviewed at three

different levels: undergraduate, graduate, and after graduation. Programs
now exist at all levels in contrast to the situation only a few years ago. Rapid
progress is being made toward integration of composite materials topics
into the mainstream of traditional engineering education.
At the undergraduate level, courses in composites have been introduced,
and some existing courses have been modified to incorporate composites
topics in parallel to similar metals topics. These changes are merely
recognition that composite materials are here to stay and, in fact, are
expanding rapidly in application. However, as is typical with conservative
engineers, the applications have occurred before the formal treatment of
the new topic in engineering curricula. And, there is a compelling need to
treat composite materials at the undergraduate level because the B.S.
degree is tending to become a terminal degree. Thus, educators might have
only one early opportunity to have an impact on the lifetime educational
background of a typical engineer.
Graduate education continues to be the primary source of highly
educated contributors in research, analysis, and design of structural and
mechanical systems made of composite materials. The various research
activities are a fundamental part of graduate education and are now quite
lively.
Many engineers are redirecting their careers toward composite materials
because of recent developments in engineering technology and because of
 Composite Materials Education in the United States 15

design philosophy changes forced by decreased energy availability. The

drive to increase the energy efficiency of all vehicles from airplanes to
automobiles has put pressure on engineers to use composite materials.
Engineers with traditional educational backgrounds have several ap-
proaches available to help them redirect their careers accordingly. Short
courses are an ever more popular way to start a new speciality on a formal
basis (as opposed to self-study) in a short period of time (in contrast to the
always available alternative of going back to school for a Master's degree).
Some companies are either bringing in consultants to teach such short
courses or developing company courses.
The various levels of composites education are assisted by the availability
of the textbooks listed in the bibliography. The list is restricted to American
textbooks, in consonance with the topic of this paper. More advanced
books are expected to appear as composites technology matures and the
need for more advanced courses becomes apparent and widespread.
Some composite materials education topics are ignored in this paper, the
basic technical focus of which is on the structural mechanics of composite
materials. Perhaps the most obvious missing technical topic is polymer
chemistry and its influence on mechanical properties. Also, processing
technology is only obliquely alluded to. Both topics, and others not even
mentioned, are important parts of developing composites technology.
Perhaps others more able than I in those areas will see fit to address how
those topics are treated in the American educational system.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AMERICAN COMPOSITE MATERIALS

TEXTBOOKS

CALCOTE, L. R., The analysis of laminated composite structures, New York, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1969.
ASHTON, J. E., HALPIN, J. C. and PETIT, P. M., Primer on composite materials:
Analysis, Westport, Connecticut, Technomic, 1969.
ASHTON, J. E. and WHITNEY, J. M., Theory of laminated plates, Westport,
Connecticut, Technomic, 1970.
VINSON, 1. R. and CHOU, T.- W., Composite materials and their use in structures,
New York, Halsted Press (Wiley), 1975.
JONES, R. M., Mechanics of composite materials, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1975.
CHRISTENSEN, R. M., Mechanics of composite materials, New York, Wiley, 1979.
TSAI, S. W. and HAHN, H. T., Introduction to composite materials, Westport,
Connecticut, Technomic, 1980.
AGARWAL, B. D. and BROUTMAN, L. J., Analysis and performance of fiber
composites, New York, Wiley, 1980.
 2

Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting

Technology Transfer
JOHN HUMPHREYS

Pilkington Brothers Limited, Research and Development Laboratories,

Lathom, Ormskirk, Lancashire L40 5 U F, England

ABSTRACT

This paper holds as its basic tenet that market growth for any new
engineering material results from being able to provide the design engineer
not only with parts that work but also with sufficient design technology for his
continuing use of that material in like applications. The higher the design
stresses and risk the greater is the quantity and quality of technology
demanded. Since with many of today's composite materials much of this
technology is still in the hands of materials suppliers, toolmakers and
moulders it is suggested that actions by these to ensure as rapid as possible a
transfer of technology to the designer is an essential prerequisite to growth.
Naturally the desire of designers to acquire such information varies by
country and by company, involving many factors such as legislation,
regulation, consumer demands, investment needs, etc., as well as the state of
technology itself. It is therefore further suggested that the preferred route
for generating and transferring technology is by attacking actual, specific,
design needs thrqugh collaborative developments. Examples from the
automotive industry are cited.

INTRODUCTION

'Engineering Plastics and Composites' covers an extremely wide spectrum

·of candidate materials, thermosets versus thermoplastics, filled versus
unfilled, reinforced versus unreinforced additive modified, etc. These are
not only in competition with each other where reduced weight and energy
16
 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 17

consumption are required, but with the newer metal products of HSLA
steel/plastic or aluminium/plastic laminates, and thin wall zinc die casting.
Pilkington Brothers Ltd currently promotes glass reinforced systems in
automotive application, but the specific constraints here are, it is believed,
no more than typical of the problems to be faced generally. Automotive
applications are the biggest single market area identified for engineered
plastics. Conferences and papers (references 1-6) on the various merits and
problems are legion. Substitution by plastics of virtually every part on a car
has been shown to be technically possible and yet they still account for only
5 % or less of total vehicle weight. Why should this be so and what has
technology yet to achieve?

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER~AN OVERVIEW

The normal design sequence is to prepare schemes on paper, detail to fulfill
a specific duty, prepare a model, select materials and process, produce
prototypes, refine and finally manufacture; i.e. the component designer is in
full control making value judgements based on past experience. With a neW
material this is not possible, much of the technology resides with the
developer of that material and with its subsequent processors. In the case of
composite plastics the situation is more complex (Fig. 1) in that there are
not only many choices, each with its own mix of properties, but the basic
technologies of polymer chemistry and fibre physics are completely alien to
the currently practising engineer. Training of engineers in these tech-
nologies is obviously vital (as perhaps is the training of chemists and
physicists in engineering) and~as Bob Jones, in our other plenary paper,
has shown~is receiving attention. But what of today's engineers, how do
they learn on the run and gain sufficient confidence in these new materials as
to use them in ab initio design? While it is always possible to pass
information along the supply chain the submission is that the only way
which has so far proved to achieve any real success is through collaborative
developments. Technologists, from the material suppliers, compounders,
moulders, toolmakers and customers, must be prepared to act in unison to
promote new materials into new applications. It is not sufficient merely to
make parts that work, some of the technology must be transferred as well.
Although perhaps an altruistic belief, supplier companies must clearly
separate activities geared to making a larger marketplace from those
intended to establish or increase market share. This is not to say that, in an
industrial environment, one must lose sight of potential sales, but rather to
demonstrate firstly that a material works and secondly that it works
 18 John Humphreys

FI6~S COM~OS

FIG. I. Maze diagram.

because of one's particular ingredient. Put it the other way round and
immediately the bogey of sole sourcing arises. It is equally important to
break down these materials and markets and identify those applications
which are easy from those which are not, and to define what developments
are necessary for the latter to happen. There will be no overnight or across-
the-board changes; gaining of technical expertise, knowledge and hence
confidence is a gradual thing and only when the designer has that
confidence will new materials be adopted. This is of course galling for the
eager supplier, but is nevertheless confirmed by history.

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER-THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY

While there is quite clearly an automotive industry, the all-embracing

concept of auto-design is extremely elusive. It does however segment readily
into:
BODY DESIGN-STRUCTURAL (chassis, unitary); APPEARANCE (doors,
wings, bonnet).
STRUCTURAL PARTS-sub-frames, suspension, wheels.
MECHANICAL PARTs--engine, transmission.
ELECTRICAL PARTs-ignition, lighting, controls.
INTERIOR COMPONENTs-dashboard, seats, trim.
 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 19

which crudely, is in descending order of mechanical duty, and hence risk.

There is of course a wide spread of duty for all components within each
category too. The history of developments in each group so far shows that
initial trials were with low risk parts fitted to low volume models, spreading
progressively to larger volumes and higher risks.
The penetration of plastics into each sector is very different and the prime
motivators are, it is suggested, also different. Considering these in reverse
order we see:

Interior components. A fully mature sector with plastics as the preferred

materials both in trim and in semi-structural items such as dashboards,
using mainly PVC and urethane foam systems. These are now highly cost-
effective materials and it is not often remembered that many are composite
systems. At least part of the initial motivation was through Government
regulation for occupant safety in an accident.
Electrical components. Again a fully mature plastics sector with virtually
every polymer system represented. In this sector the initial motivator was
almost entirely technical, electrical resistivity, and for this reason plastics
(including rubber) has been the preferred material from inception.
In both these sectors the basic design requirements of the materials are
well understood by the auto-engineer who has full confidence in specifying
them.
Body appearance panels, lightly stressed mechanical parts. Here the
market is fragmented both as between the US and Europe and as between
high and low volume production.
The low volume market has long recognised the design flexibility and low
part cost of glass reinforced systems, initially with hand lay-up and more
recently with matched die moulding. General Motors, Lotus and now de
Lorean are the obvious proponents of all plastic, high technology parts.
The truck industry is equally a large user of matched-die moulded plastics
in body parts; both sectors specify plastics systems 'as standard'.
High volume production is today's major talking point. Under
Government regulatory pressure to improve low speed impact, and to
reduce fuel consumption, and with assumed adverse consumer reaction to
smaller cars, the US auto industry and its suppliers have invested heavily in
the technology of plastic body parts, with the result that GM and Ford are
today direct major producers of parts in SMC, DMC and latterly RRIM
urethanes,7 - 10 with large in-house research and development resources.
Government standards were such that the industry was initially prepared to
pay for weight savings (figures up to $1 per lb were quoted). Meanwhile in
20 John Humphreys

Europe, long subject to energy conscious scales of vehicle and petrol

taxation, vehicles were already more energy efficient and the main plastics
developments were in impact enhanced bumpers using mainly glass
reinforced thermosets (Renault 5, Fiat Strada, Talbot Alpine) or steel
reinforced thermoplastics (Volkswagen, Renault) although plastic rear
doors are used in some lower volume models (Volkswagen). Quite clearly as
a result of higher activity in manufacturing and development there has been
a major transfer of technology in the US, but much less so in Europe. With
the recent down-sizing of US cars developments over the next few years
will be most interesting. Both markets are now being supplied with cars of
similar shape, size and weight.
Neither market will pay for weight reduction, plastic parts have to be
lighter and cheaper to justify further capital write-off of metal-working
machinery; their technical objectives are similar, to reduce unit costs
through:
(i) improved compounding control to reduce material variability;
(ii) improved moulding control to reduce component variability;
(iii) improved mechanical handling to reduce cycle times;
(iv) controlled anisotropy;
(v) improved painting capability;
(vi) improved test methods for materials and components.
In addition, action to reduce the tooling costs for early prototypes will
increase the number of components evaluated.
This sector is expected to be the growth sector for the 1980s with SMC
and RRIM as currently preferred systems. Apart from the recently
announced Talbot Murena and GM P cars, most progress is nevertheless
expected to be through part by part, model by model substitution. The
major difference will probably be that in the US this growth will be led and
fed by the auto-industries' own R. & D. effort, whereas in Europe much of
the auto-maker's needs will continue to be fed for several years either by its
suppliers, or by direct import of US technology.
Highly stressed body and mechanical parts. Perhaps the most imaginative
development here is the 'plastic engine' developed by Polimotor Research
Inc. comprising 27 kg of resin, 7 kg of carbon fibre and II kg glass fibre in a
2· 3 litre engine of 77 kg total weight; this is half the weight of a traditional
US 'cast iron' engine. Power outputs from limited running, arc comparable
with conventional engines of similar capacity (> 100 bhp). While far
beyond any cost effective criteria, at $2 on cost per kg of weight saved, it
does demonstrate technical capability and provide a base for practical value
 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 21

engineering. At the opposite end of the technical spectrum, and empha-

sising the part by part approach, Mitsubishi have a glass reinforced
phenolic carburet tor body fitted to the production Galant engine, while
G M have a glass reinforced epoxy leaf spring on their 1981 Corvette.
Glass reinforced nylon is now beoming the norm for radiator header or side
tanks, and more recently for valve or rocker box covers.

It is clear, therefore, that over a wide range of duties, the automotive

industry has already acquired an appreciation of the technology of
composites (Fig. 2), today's applications are no more than extending this
into new sectors with new designers. The part by part approach, which has
worked well in the past, is likely to be successful in the future, and where
significant new materials technology still resides with the supplier(s) it
behoves that supplier to undertake collaborative development with the
auto-industry to ensure that not only is a successful part produced but also
that some of the technology is transferred, until the designer has sufficient
knowledge and confidence to specify these new materials. The efforts of the
Polymer Engineering Directorate (SRC) and the Polyester Compounds
Group to promote these ends are worthy of our support.

/
/
...- --
MATURITY

EXPER1MENTAl

TII'f

FIG. 2. Auto-market sector penetration diagram.

22 John Humphreys

TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY-SOME EXAMPLES

In support of these beliefs, the Pilkington Group has assigned significant

R. & D. effort to promoting the use of glass fibre reinforced engineering
composites, primarily in automotive applications. A total system resource
from material selection, through to moulding of prototype components in
thermosets, with support from laboratory test facilities, has been
established. It works closely with resin suppliers, compounders, moulders,
toolmakers and auto-engineers. Obviously, individual prototype com-
ponents are unique and confidential to collaborating partners as is any
detailed material or processing specification, but much of the general
information gained is being incorporated into published data 12 - 15 Direct
facilities available allow for production of prototypes up to about It kg in
weight, and not unexpectedly substitution of cast aluminium or zinc die
castings falls readily within this ambit.
TABLE I
GM materials characterisation chart-required FRP material property matrix

Condition
Property 23°C 90°C 150°C -40°C 90°C
100%
RH

Tensile strength (MPa)

Tensile modulus (GPa)
Poisson's ratio
Strain to failure ( %)
'Knee' stress (MPa)
'Knee' strain (%)
Compression strength (MPa)
Compression modulus (GPa)
Strain to failure (%)
Shear strength (MPa)
Shear modulus (GPa)
Strain to failure (%)
Flex modulus (GPa)
Flex strength (MPa)
Impact energy (kJjm 2 )
Matrix crazing strain (%)
Stress level for 10 6 (T- T")
Fatigue life (MPa) (Flex)
Creep
CTE (J11lljm/"q
 Engineering Plastics~Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 23

TABLE I-contd.

Condition
Property 90 a C 150 a C -40 a C

Specific gravity
Fibre percent (%)
Resin percent (%)
Filler percent (%)
Interlaminar shear
strength (MPa)
Moisture expansion (%)
Residual strengths:
Moisture (MPa)
Gasoline (MPa)
Brake fluid (MPa)
Transmission fluid (MPa)
Motor oil (MPa)
Antifreeze (MPa)
5 % Salt solution (MPa)
1·5 mm Notch strength (MPa)
3·0 mm Notch strength (MPa)
6·0 mm Notch strength (MPa)
Thermal cycle (MPa)
Bolt strength (MPa)
Bond strength (MPa)

-: Test conditions which may be omitted.

aT~T = Tension~tension fatigue.

Many of these parts have common factors; for example, they:

(i) are exposed to petrol, oil, water, antifreeze and hydraulic fluid;
(ii) are subject to compressive bolt loadings;
(iii) experience thermal cycling;
(iv) have hang-on parts providing steady loads;
(v) experience fatigue induced through engine and road motions;
(vi) have circular upstands for pipe connections; and
(vii) are mounted on resilient gaskets.
Material characterisation involves extensive testing, as typified by the
GM Specification for Random Fire Reinforced SMC shown in Table 1,
extracted from reference 7.
24 John Humphreys

However one cannot simply assume that all SMC or DMC systems have
similar properties. Our own work, Figs 3 and 4, shows dependence upon
both the resin system used and the environment so that what is 'best' in
water is not necessarily 'best' in petrol. To date we have found water or
water/antifreeze to be, generally, the largest detractor from start property
although we expect ethanol or methanol based fuels to be much more
aggressive than current petrols.
Additionally, the properties obtaining in a moulded part are usually
significantly lower than ideal, either in total or locally, due to such factors as
(i) fibre attrition during processing, (ii) fibre orientation during flow
through the mould and (iii) flow fronts and fibre starvation.
Injection moulded DMC parts are notorious in this respect, as compared
to similar SMC parts (Fig. 5). In order to discriminate between the
performance of like-materials in use, we have found it essential to operate
test methods which can rapidly assess fibre length, dispersion and
orientation, and relate these to observed mechanical properties.
Our recent work on test method development has two main objectives:
(i) to obtain a better appreciation of the fibre contribution to the
dynamics of failure, i.e. not just the gross material performance;
(ii) to generate test data of use both to the material supplier and the
component designer or producer.

STRENGTH DECAY IN ANTIFREEZE AT 10S 0 (

- •- f!ISI!I£NOl A
- - - VINYL ESTE R
- . - TfRAPHTHALATE
........ ISOPHTHALATE
- 0 _ ORT~T HAUTE

12() ' ' '.

\"
" \..'" '-
\
, ' .......

'....
o
"
. .........
. -------- --
" 0, 6," . ---.-----. . --. _ __ . _ __ __. _ _
°....... 0

40 '-...°--°-0_ 0_ 0 _ 0 -
-0--0_ 0 --0 - 0 - 0-_0

\4 21
EXPClSlIlE TIME · DAYS

FIG. 3. Exposure tests-antifreeze.

 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 25

STRENGTH DECAY IN PETROL AT REFLUX TEMPERATURE

- • - BlsP":NOl A
-. _- •••• ISOPH1HALATE
- 0 - 0II1HOPHTHALATE

EXPOSURE liME ' DAYS

FIG. 4. Exposure tests-petrol.

TENSILE MODULUS - PROCESS EFFECTS

70% GLASS
so

40

VI
VI
OtiC - COMPRES SION MOOllJEO
~ 30 20°/.
VI
/"
/
/ - DNC - INJECTION MOULDED

20
1/" 20·/.
I ,'
I, '
I ,'
10 1:':
«:'F
0.2 0.4 0.6 STRAm 0/. 0.8

FIG. 5. SMC versus DMC modulus.

26 John Humphreys

DYNAMIC IMPACT PERFORMANCE OF RRIM URETHANE

% GlASS

CHOPPED STRAI«lS - t6 HUED fleA£ -~7

- - - 3.1 ---14.9

.- ,.,
- -51 - ' -19.8
--···· · 24Jo

, -.

10 15 20 10 15 20
DISPLACEHOO mm

FIG. 6. Impact on RRIM.

We have found instrumented impact measurement and acoustic emission

techniques valuable tools. In Fig. 6we see the effect on impact of increasing
concentration of chopped and milled glass fibres on RRIM urethane. The
respective concentrations required to give impact equivalence are quite
clearly seen to be in the ratio 1 :3. With AE we have been able not only to
reproduce this equivalence ratio but also to determine anisotropy due to
fibre orientation (Fig. 7). Extending this to measurements on components

ACOUST IC EMI S SION ANISOTROPY IN RRIM URETHANE

( HOPPED STRANDS HILLED FIeA£

- - PARAllEL TO FLOW
- - PERPUOCULAR TO fl(1;l 3000
I
1500
I
I I
I /
~ I /
' 1000 / 2000
/
!g / /
~ / /
/ /
/ 1000 /
500 ,- /
/'
/'
..- ,-
--- --- ---
,-
---
10 15 20 2S )0
W!J(iHT % GLASS ( ONTENT

FIG. 7. Orientation in RRIM using AE.

 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 27

we can also demonstrate variations in the ability oflugs, on a compression

moulded SMC part, to withstand bolt forces. These compare well with
measured variations in the failure loads although we are as yet unclear as to
the true significance of the AE data in such an application. This work does,
we believe, parallel the existing use of AE to predict or monitor the
suitability of parts for their specified duty.
Many automotive parts are intended to be removed and replaced to
facilitate routine maintenance and are therefore usually bolted on.
Allowance must here be made not only for normal use but for abuse by the
unskilled mechanic or owner.
Bolt (or screw) sizes and applied torques are often specified to make the
bolt the weakest link. Direct substitution with a GRP part, particularly
where a thick resilient gasket is employed, frequently results in matrix
cracking due to local overstraining and, in an under-bonnet environment,
with oil and grease, such cracks are readily seen. Our laboratory simulation
(Fig. 8) attempts to provide data on suitable bolt/washer/section thickness
combinations, and shows that for a given thread size mushroom-head
screws are preferable to hexagon-head bolts and large washers preferable to
small (Fig. 9). Alternatively section thicknesses around bolt holes can be
increased (Fig. 10).

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF'BOLT DOWN' CAPABILITY

COMPOSITE
r-:.:==~~-~~~=?

BOLSTERS

FIG. 8. Instron bolt simulation rig and results.

28 John Humphreys

FIXING LUG FAILURE IN LAB. TESTS

30 ISO M6 THREAD
COMPRESSION ea.STER

I..AIU ISO W4SHER

20

..
A SMAlL IS 0 WASHER
PAN HEAD",

HE XMiONAL HEAD

50 60 70 80 90 100 120
(ONTACl AREA UNOER lEAD/WASHER mm 2

FIG. 9. Bolt/screw/washer effects.

Finally, by combining points from several projects into two generalised

examples it can be demonstrated that through consideration of the total
system of materials/moulding/component design, not normally possible
without collaboration, it is possible to obtain acceptable results.

Failure Under Applied Load

A component of cross-section as shown in Fig. 11 cracked at point A
under a low applied load, P. Finite element analysis predicted a much
higher loading should be possible, based on normalised material failure
stress. Measurements of fibre attrition showed that the moulding process
was breaking down the fibres. Experiments with changed processing
conditions reduced the attrition and increased the failure load, but not
 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 29

FIXf.lG LUG FAILURE IN LAB. TESTS

30 "AN HEAD H6 S(REW

COHI'RESSION BOLSTER

SHEAR BOLSTaI
10

4 6
COMPOSITE SECTION THICKNESS 11m

FIG. 10. Thickness effect on bolt down .

••••• FINAl. SHAF'E

IllBS ON OUTSIOE
I.AIGR RADUS INSIDE ---
BOLT LOAD AT FAiLURE:-
IImlAL P
• IHPflOVEO PROCESS UP
< IHAIOVE D CCH'OJIID 1.7 P
~ • LARGE RAD US 2SP
-RIBS BP

TOTAL SYSTEM COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT

FIG. 11. Generalised cross-section of component.

30 John Humphreys

sufficiently. Further experiments with changes to the compound for-

mulation and incorporated fibres gave further improvements, but still not
adequate for the specified duty. However, fibre attrition was now minimal
and the actual failure stress was comparable with that predicted; any
further improvements would have to be from changed component design.
Again using finite element analysis several options were considered, the
increased load capability being balanced against added weight, until an
acceptable result was achieved. The tooling was modified and the new
component confirmed predictions. Changing formulation, processing
conditions and component design collectively would have been extremely

~f'
'POp· UP' IN R\INT AND PRIMER ONLY

SCRATCH IN Sl.8S1RATE

'~ '
POROSITY IN SUBSTRATE

SB:TIONS THROUGH VISIBLE PAINT FAULTS

FIG. 12. Painting.

 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 31

difficult without the full cooperation and technical appreciation of resin

and fibre suppliers, toolmakers, moulders, and components designers.

Painting
There have been many reports on the problems of painting compression-
moulded SMC, usually expressed as 'pop-up' or 'mooncraters' in the
painted surface, and blame is often laid at the door of the compounder or
moulder. Inspection, under a scanning electron microscope (SEM), oflocal
sections taken through the faults in painted plaques showed four quite
distinct causes producing the same visual effect (Fig. 12):
(i) top coat faults not reproduced in the primer;
(ii) primer faults not reproduced in the substrate;
(iii) substrate faults: (a) surface scratches from mishandling and (b)
surface porosity from compound/moulding.
Clearly not only had the causes to be separated but potential solutions
were in quite different steps in the,production process.
The real point to be made is that this is an area not strictly relevant to the
expertise of a fibre supplier and solutions were not expressly under our
control, but we did own an SEM. Because of our participation in other
developments we were invited and happy to assist. I hope our small
contribution helped those involved to identify what was and was not under
whose control and hence actively promoted attacks on all the real causes.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In addition to all the quantifiable factors which must be satisfied before

composite materials are used as regular engineering materials is the
intangible, but daunting factor, of what can be called the 'technology gap'
which if not bridged engenders a total lack of designer confidence. With
composite materials there is a 'materials maze' in which much of the
technology presently resides with the material suppliers and/or moulders
and is often of a form or a technical language not readily assimilated by the
busy engineer. It is believed that the only successful route so far proven is
for all parties to participate in specific applications developments. In this
way technology is transferred progressively through the period of that
development, leading to requests for further joint work. Historical evidence
from within the auto-industry indicates that once the designer has acquired
sufficient confidence in a particular material he is more than capable of
32 John Humphreys

generating the customer pull which reflects III growth and increased
penetration.
It may be thought that all the foregoing is essentially correct and so
patently obvious that it need not have been said or written. Conversations
with those at the other end of the 'materials maze' indicates, unfortunately,
otherwise.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is published with the permission of the Directors of Pilkington

Brothers and Mr A. S. Robinson, Director of Group Research and
Development. Thanks are also due to those in the fibre, polymer,
toolmaking, moulding and automotive industries who have contributed in
any way to composite materials processing through collaborative
developments.

REFERENCES

1. PALERMO, J. c., Glass fibre reinforced plastics in the European and North
American transportation market, Proceedings B.P.F. Conference, Brighton,
1980.
2. CHARLESWORTH, D., Potential uses of plastics in automobiles, PRI
International Coriference Plastics on the Road, July 1980.
3. SCOTT, P., International developments in fibre reinforced plastics for land
transport, RAPRA Members Report No. 47.
4. BEST, J. R., Reinforced plastics to minimise energy consumption over life cycle
of an automobile, 36th Annual Coriference, RP/C, SPI, Washington, 1981.
5. SHELTON, J. A., GRP in automobiles, Fulmer Research Institute, Meeting on
Fibre Reinforced Materials in the Motor Industry.
6. HABLITZEL, H. and JOHNKE, K. D., The use of plastics in European cars-an
update, SAE Passenger Car Meeting, Dearborn, June 1980.
7. SANDERS, B. A. and RIEGNER, D. A., Fiber reinforced plastics test specification.
General Motors Report No. MD-006, G.M. Tech. Center, Warren, Michigan,
March 1979.
8. SANDERS, B. A. and RIEGNER, D. A., A characterisation study of automotive
continuous and random glass fiber composites, G.M. Report No. MD 79-023,
presented to SPI 1979 National Technical Coriference, Detroit, November
1979.
9. MIKULEC, M. J., RRIM-A new process for the automotive industry, 34th
Annual Technical Conference, RP/C Institute, SPI, 1979.
10. MIKULEC, M. J., Refining of the RRIM process, materials and equipment,
International Conference, Strasbourg, France, June 1980.
 Engineering Plastics-Some Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 33

II. HARTLEY, J. R., More than just a lightweight, Automotive Industries, 63, 1980,
Sept.
12. JOHNSON,A. E. and JACKSON, J. R., Theetfect of milled and chopped glass fibres
on the anisotropy of RRIM composites, RRIM-What's in it for me? PRI
Conference, Solihull, Feb. 1981.
13. JACKSON, J. R., Acoustic emission from short fibre GRP composites, Interfaces
in Composite Materials, PRI Conference, Liverpool, April 1981.
14. ROWBOTHAM, M., Achieving the impossible-plastic intake manifold, BPF
Conference, Brighton, 1980.
15. SMITH, E. J. , Ford inlet manifotd project, Materials development and selection,
Pilkington Group Press Release, Feb. 1980.
 3
Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in
Composite Bolted Joints*

DALE W. WILSON AND R. BYRON PIPES

Center for Composite Materials, College of Engineering,
University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19711, USA

ABSTRACT

A semi-empirically based strength analysis was developed for the shearout

failure mode in composite bolted joints. The failure model utilizes a
polynomial 'stress function' in conjunction with a point stress failure
criterion to predict strength as afunction offastener size, edge distance and
half spacing. The development of the stress function is based on a two
dimensional plane stress finite element analysis using quadrilateral elements
with orthotropic material properties. The two constants, m and C,for the
point stress criterion, were determined using empirical datafrom boltedjoint
tests performed for [45/0/ - 45/0 2 / - 45/0/45/0 2 /90]5 Hercules AS/3501-6
graphite epoxy laminates with fastener sizes ranging from 3·18 mm
(0'125 in) to 9'52 mm (0'375 in). Verification of the strength predictions
determined from the failure model was accomplished by comparison with
experimentally determined shearout strength data.

INTRODUCTION

With advanced composites being considered for many structural

applications requiring mechanically fastened joints the importance of
effective design and analysis procedures is evident. Material anisotropy,
brittleness and heterogeneity intensify the stress concentration effects and
provide mechanisms for competing failure modes. The mechanisms and
* Sponsored by NASA/Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 23665, USA.
34
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 35

strengths associated with each failure mode have been studied exten-
sively1 -18 but to date no single analysis procedure has been developed
which accurately models bolted joint strength for all failure modes.
The analysis of bolted joint strength requires the analytic determination
of the state of stress in the joint and the application of an appropriate failure
criterion. However, the closed-form solution for determination of the stress
field near a hole loaded by a rigid inclusion in a finite-width, semi-infinite,
anisotropic plate is intractable. Hence numerical methods must be used to
determine the state of stress. Both finite-element 1- 4 and approximate
elasticity solutions 4 - 6 have been developed for plane stress analysis of the
stresses in an anisotropic plate loaded by a frictionless pin. The choice of an
appropriate failure criterion has been the deficiency of most analyses.
Distortional energy,t,2 Tsai Wu/ maximum stress, fracture toughness 5
and the Average Stress Failure criteria 6 have all been employed with
various degrees of success. An acceptable degree of accuracy and reliability
has not been obtained with anyone of the above criteria for all failure
modes primarily because there are different failure mechanisms associated
with each mode and no single criterion can model them all. This paper
concentrates on identification of the appropriate failure criterion for the
shearout failure mode.
Since the shearout failure mechanism resembled that exhibited by finite-
width notched composites, the point stress failure criterion used in the
prediction of notched strength oflaminates was the focus of this study. The
point stress criterion formulated originally by Whitney19 assumes that
failure occurs when stress at a characteristic distance (do) adjacent to the
notch reaches the unnotched strength of the laminate. Pipes 2o ,21 has since
generalized this model by showing that the characteristic length, do, is not a
material property, but varies exponentially with notch size. The
characteristic distance must be determined empirically for each laminate
configuration and material system.
Application of this criterion to bolted joint analysis can reduce
substantially the empirical data base required for a general analysis.
Characterization tests need only determine effective laminate properties
and the notch sensitivity for bolt loading, thus eliminating the other
geometric variables.

PROCEDURE
Analysis of bolted joint shearout strength using the point stress failure
criterion requires determination of the state of stress in the joint and
 t.H

'"

y
&2
1 15'
,...
UNIFORM ~
PRESSURE
"'''''''" I I I I ~
,T t:;-
§

~
?Il
.1' ~
.,
TRANSLATIONS FIXED §
."
'iii'
~
FIG. I. Finite-element model used to analyze the bolted joint.
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 37

experimental evaluation of the characteristic length parameter, do.

Empirical data characterizing the effects of fastener edge distance and half
spacing was developed previously15.16 and is used in the verification of the
proposed strength model.
A finite-element analysis was used to determine the state of stress along
the shearout failure plane. A functional representation of the stress profile
along this plane including the parametric effects of geometry was developed
based upon the finite element results. Strain measurements at three points
along the failure plane of a bolted joint test coupon were used to verify the
finite-element results.
The Structural Analysis Program SAPV was used to develop the two-
dimensional finite-element model of the joint. The model employed the
plane stress quadrilateral element with orthotropic material properties to
form the mesh subjected to the boundary conditions depicted in Fig. I. The
bolted joint was treated as a loaded hole containing a frictionless rigid
inclusion in a finite-width, semi-infinite strip. The X translations were fixed
in the region 0::;; rx < n/2 (the point at n/2 was not fixed) and the load
introduced by a pressure loading at the Z = 0 edge. Sixteen different
geometric variations of the model were developed to analyze the effects of
geometric parameters e/D and WID on the state of stress. The
experimentally determined material properties used in the finite-element
model and failure criterion are listed in Table I.
The test specimens for both the material characterization and the
fastener size effect studies were fabricated from a single lot of Hercules
AS/3501-6 graphite/epoxy prepreg. The laminate configuration was
[45/0/ -45/0 2 / -45/0/45/0 2 /90]s which resulted in a cured panel thickness

TABLE 1
Material and strength properties

Property Value

10·9 10 6 psi 75·2 GPa

4·39 10 6 psi 30·3 GPa
0·397
0·160
2·00 10 6 psi l3-SGPa
131·0 ksi 903·2MPa
45·2 ksi 311·6MPa
140·0 ksi 965·0MPa
21·7 ksi 149·6MPa
38 Dale W. Wilson and R. Byron Pipes

of 3·0 mm (0·118 in) using manufacturer-recommended autoclave process-

ing procedures.
Standardized test procedures were utilized in determination of the basic
material properties. Details of the test procedure, fixturing and specimen
geometry can be found in the reference section. 22 ~ 24 The bolted joint
specimen was of the same single fastener design described by Wilson and
Pipes 20 in an earlier report and is shown in Fig. 2. The geometric
parameters ejD and WjD were selected to result in shearout failures and
were held constant for three fastener hole diameters: 3·2mm, 6·4mm and
9·5mm.

1°r -t
t
e
~
t~L
FIG. 2. Bolted joint test specimen geometry.
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 39

Both bolted and pin loading tests were performed. Aspecially designed
clevis fixture was used to simulate bolted load reaction through the hole in
the coupon while standard wedge action friction grips introduced load at
the tabbed end of.the specimen. For pinned tests the load was reacted by a
high strength steel pin and no constraining contact was allowed on the
laminate surface surrounding the pin. To simulate the out-of-plane
constraint caused by a bolt, annular washers with an inside diameter equal
to the pin diameter and an outside diameter equal to twice the pin diameter
were employed. Care was taken to insure excellent fit of the washer to the
pin and the pin to the fastener hole for each test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The finite-element analysis was performed for sixteen different geometries

with values of the ejD and WjD parameters ranging from two to six.
Defining the shearout plane as the x-axis shown in Fig. 3, shearout stress
distributions were plotted for each geometry studied. Variations in these
stress distributions were then determined as functions of ejD and WjD. The
point stress criterion was then applied using the parameters defined in
Fig. 3.
The stress analysis was verified by normal strain measurements taken at
45 to the loading axis at three locations along the x-axis. A comparison of
0

the measured strains with strains calculated from finite-element analysis

results at the same locations is shown in Fig. 4. The comparison showed

TW/2

T : Unnotched Shear
~_~1
r----- e ----~I
o Strength at Laminate
do : ''critical Length"

FIG. 3. Description of the shear out point stress failure criterion.

40 Dale W. Wilson and R. Byron Pipes

18.0

16.0
Finite Element
14.0 Predicted Strain

12.0

10.0
.,
~
~
8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0

x/e
FIG. 4. Plot of the strain profile along the shearout plane for strains oriented at 45 to the
0

loading direction.

close agreement of the measured and predicted response which formed the
basis for a reasonable degree of confidence in the finite-element analysis.
A simple collocation method was used to fit the shearout stress
distribution, 't"so' by a polynomial expansion of the space variable in non-
dimensional form. The shearout stress distribution fit by this procedure
possessed the geometry WID = 6·0 and e/D = 2·0. The polynomial was
assumed to be of the form:
't"so/if = A(xo/x) + B(xo/X)2 + C(XO/X)3
where A, Band C are constants determined by fitting the polynomial
through these points on the shearout stress distribution curve, Fig. 5. The
dotted line shows the correlation of the stress polynomial fit with the
original finite-element profile. Since the critical distance parameter (do) is
small, the constants were chosen to provide the best fit for x/e < O· 3. Note
that the stresses determined from the polynomial are conservative for x/e >
O· 3, and do not pass through zero at x/e = 1. The constants A, Band Care
given on Fig. 5.
Parametric studies were conducted using finite-element models to
investigate the influence of e/D and WID on the shear stress distributions.
Results from this study are shown in Figs 6 and 7 for WID and e/D,
respectively. Note that the form of the curves in the region of interest (small
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 41

60

5 ,0

4.0 WID· 6 .0 e/0-20

- Finite Elemenl Model

., 30
---

rllt·
~)lnonuGI Fit
AI....,.I.BI ..ot.)·.ChO".I'
I:
A·15.95
B·~0301 10·1
20 C. - 015:.: 10. 2

10 1 1.0

10

1,0
.. I.

FIG. 5. Finite-element predicted shearout stress profiles and comparison to approximate

polynomial fit.

6 .0

5.0

40

.,;:: 30

20

10

0 .0
01 02 03 OA 05

FIG. 6. Effect of varying WID on shearout stress profiles for elD = 2.

42 Dale W. Wilson and R. Byron Pipes

0 .1 02 03 04 o. ~

FIG. 7. Effect of varying el D on shearout stress profiles for WID = 6.

values of x) doesn't change significantly, only the magnitude of the stress

changes. Plotting the maximum shear stress as a function of WjD and ejD
results in the curves shown in Figs 8 and 9, respectively. From Fig. 8, Lmax is
obviously a linear function of W j D. The maximum shear stress is a non-
linear function of ejD and asymptotically approaches a constant for
ejD ~ 6. It was found that this non-linear relationship is exponential in
character.
Using these results it was possible to incorporate the Wj D and ej D
dependence of the shear stress distribution into the polynomial stress
function. Since the shape of the curves and the location of the peak shear
stress remains constant for all WjD and ejD geometries of interest, the
magnitude of the stresses can be adjusted by introducing non-dimensional
shift parameters ~(WjD) and '1(e j D). These parameters are functions of
W j D and ejD respectively and were developed from the data in Figs 8
and 9.
The following forms were found for the parameters:

~(WjD) = m. (Wj D) (I)

Lmaxl'WID~6
where m = slope of the Lmax versus WjD curve in Fig. 8 (m = 0·83) and
'1(ejD) = cxe(~-e/D) + {3 (2)
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 43

6.0

4.0

2.0

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

WID
FIG. 8. Variation in shearout stress concentration with WID.

where rx, f3 and ~ are constants found by fitting the curve in Fig. 9. It was
determined that rx = 0'75, f3 = 0·84 and ~ = 0·50.
By combining the non-dimensional geometric parameters with the
original functional representation of the stress profile, the following 'stress
function' incorporating geometric effects was determined.

!xlii = ~(W/D)I'/(e/D{A(xo/x) + B(xo/x)2 + c(~ YJ (3)

This approximate functional relationship for the stress is suitable for

incorporation into the failure criterion.

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

e/D
FIG. 9. Variation of maximum shear stress concentration with eiD.
44 Dale W. Wilson and R. Byron Pipes

The point stress failure criterion is expressed as

where Txy is the in plane shear stress along the shearout plane (eqn. (3)), TO is
the unnotched strength of the laminate and do is the critical distance.
The critical distance parameter is a function of hole size and has the
following form 20

do =~(:Jm
Constants C and m are found from empirical data by measuring To and
determining T~~t for two fastener sizes. For the [45/0/ -45/0 2 / -45/0/45/
O2 /90]5 Gr/E laminate tested in this program m and C for shearout failure
were found to be 0·114 and 7·12, respectively. A plot of shea rout strength as
a function of fastener size in Fig. 10 shows the correlation of the predicted
failure strengths and experimental data for three fastener sizes. The
excellent agreement is not surprising since two of the three data points were
empirically fitted to the failur.e criterion for determination of do. As a
further test of the model's validity, results from experimental studies
characterizing shearout strength as a function of WID were compared to
the strengths predicted by the semi-empirical shearout model. Excellent

1.0

0.9

0.8

o o
0.7

0.6
..0
"-
..
0
U> 0.5

0.4 TO - Unnotched Shear Strenoth

TSO- ShearOtJt Stress at Foilure

0.3
- Theoretical Model
0.2 m:0.114 c: 7.13

0.1

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
o (in)

FIG. 10. Correlation of model predicted shearout strengths with experimental data as a
function of hole diameter.
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 45

1.0

0.8

....o
...0
0.6
...'"
TSO - SHEAROUT STRENGTH
0.4 TO - UNNOTCHED SHEAR STRENGTH

• _ EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED DATA

(WILSON, ET AL., 1979) 0=0.201

0.2 - PREDICTED BY MODEL

2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

WID

FIG. II. Correlation of shearout strength as a function of WID with experimental data.

agreement was found between the measured strengths and predicted

strengths as seen in Fig. 11. These results are for a fastener size of 4· 77 mm
which is not one of the fastener sizes used to determine the constants for the
model.
The bolted joint's shearout strength behavior predicted by the model was
investigated for several combinations of edge distance and half spacing
geometry of practical interest. It is seen that shearout strength decreases
sharply with increasing half spacing for WID geometries between 2·0 and
8·0 (Fig. 12). For WID < 4·0 the shearout failure mode is not predicted
(TsalTo> 1'0) for any of the elD cases studied. Failure is predicted for all elD
cases when WID exceeds 5·25. From a design standpoint this implies that if
the half spacing is made large, the tendency for ShC,lfOUt failure is increased.
This is clearly seen in Fig. 13 which examines shearout $trength behavior as
a function of WID. For WID = 6, shearout failure is mdicated for all values
of elD shown. When WID is less than 4·0 shearout failun" are not predicted
for any of the elD geometries studied. These predictt'd'-}cnaviors agree well
with experimental findings.
 T,O - Shearaut StrenQth ;5::
2,8
To - Unnotch Strength

26 2,6

24 2.4
WI D; 2 0

22 2 .2

20 2.0

1. 8
;-
18 :?
16 1.6 "'~"
...0
WI D; 3.0
14
....
0
1.4 ~ ::
0;;-
...0
.:' g
.... 12 12 §
...3 ~- W/0' 40 "'-
10 1,0 ?':l
~
..,
0.8 O.B c
W/D - S,O
0 - 0 ,250
~ ''"0"
-<;.
06 0.6
_ e/0-20 ~
_ 8/0- 4 0 0.4
- e/0 - 60
0 ,2 0 .2

I 1
"'f 2,0 40 6.0 8 ,0 10.0 2.0 4 .0 6 .0 8 .0 10.0
WID e/ D
FIG. 12. Shearout model strength predictions as a function FIG. 13. Shearout model strength predictions as a function
of WID. of e/D.
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 47

CONCLUSIONS

A semi-empirical shearout strength model for analysis of composite bolted

joints has been formulated which accounts for effects of joint geometry on
strength behavior. The model employs the point stress failure criterion for
notched strength in composites to analyze a shear mode failure.
The critical distance parameter do is determined empirically once the
shear stress distribution along the shearout failure plane is known. The
shear stress distribution was determined using plane-stress, finite-element
analysis and was examined in the analytic form by curve fitting to a
polynomial expansion.
Comparison of experimentally determined shearout strength data with
model predicted failures has su bstan tiated the accuracy of the model. It can
thus be concluded that: (I) the point stress criterion may be applied for the
shearout failure mode occurring in notched composites loaded by a
mechanical fastener when an accurate determination of the shear stress
distribution along the failure plane exists; (2) the simple plane stress finite-
element analysis predicts the shear stresses along the shearout failure plane
with sufficient accuracy for the present analysis and (3) the failure model
can incorporate the effects of geometry (ejD and WjD) on strength
behavior and predict shearout failure without deperidence on empirical
data for various ejD and WjD geometries.
The advantage of using the proposed shearout failure model is a
reduction in empirical data needed for bolted joint analysis. The basic
material properties and a single set of data quantifying shearout strength as
a function of fastener size are sufficient for analysis using the proposed
model. This eliminates the need for a large series of tests to determine
shearout strength for various WjD and ejD geometries.

REFERENCES

1. WASZCZAK, J. P. and CRUSE, T. A. Failure mode and strength predictions of

anisotropic bolt bearing specimens, J. of Composite Materials, 5, 1971, July,
p.421.
2. WASZCZAK, J. P. and CRUSE, T. A. A synthesis procedure for mechanically
fastened joints in advanced composite materials, AIAAjASMEjSAE 14th
Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, March 1973.
3. SONI,R. SOM, Failure analysis of composite laminates with a fastener hole,
Materials Laboratory, Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories,
Technical Report No. AFWAL-TR-80-401O, March 1980.
48 Dale W. Wilson and R. Byron Pipes

4. HARRIS, H. G. and OJALVO, I. U. Simplified three-dimensional analysis of

mechanically fastened joints, Proceedings of the Army Symposium on Solid
Mechanics, AMMRC MS74-8, September 1974.
5. JONG, THEa DE, Stresses around pin-loaded holes in elastically orthotropic or
isotropic plates, J. Composite Materials, 11, 1977, July, p. 313.
6. OPLINGER, D. W. and GANDHI, R. R. Stresses in mechanically fastened
orthotropic laminates, Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Fibrous
Composites in Flight Vehicle Design, Dayton, Ohio, May 21--4, 1974.
7. EISENMANN, J. R. Bolted joint static strength model for composite materials,
NASA-TM-X-3377, 1976.
8. RAMKUMAR, R. L. Bolted joint design, Proceedings of ASTM Symposium on
Test Methods and Design Allowables for Fibrous Composites, Dearborn,
Michigan, October 3-4, 1979.
9. HART-SMIlH, L. J. Bolted joints in graphite--epoxy composites, Douglas
Aircraft Company, NASA Contract Report No. NASA CR-I44899, June 1976.
10. Advanced composites design guide, Vol. I, Design, 3rd Edition, Contract
F33615-74-C-5075, North American Rockwell/Los Angeles Division, January
1973.
11. VAN SICLEN, R. C. Evaluation of bolted joints in graphite--epoxy, Proceedings
of the Army Symposium on Solid Mechanics, AMMRC MS74-8, September
1974.
12. COLLINS, T. A. The strength of bolted joints' in multi-directional CFRP
laminates, Composites, 8, 1977, January.
13. HYER, M. W. and LIGHTFOOT, M. C. Ultimate strength of high-load-capacity
composite bolted joints, Composite Materials: Testing and Design (5th
Conference), S. W. Tsai (Ed.), ASTM STP 674, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1979, 118-36.
14. QUINN, W. J. and MATlHEWS, F. L. The effect of stacking sequence on the pin-
bearing strength in glass fibre reinforced plastic, J. Composite Materials,.11,
1977, April, p. 139.
15. WILSON, D. W. and PIPES, R. B. Behavior of composite bolted joints at elevated
temperature, University of Delaware Center for Composite Materials, NASA
Contract Report No. 159137, September 1979.
16. WILSON, D. W., PIPES, R. B., WEBSTER, J. W. and RIEGNER, D. L. Mechanical
characterization of PMR-15 graphite/polyimide bolted joints, Proceedings of
ASTM Symposium on Test Methods and Design Allowables for Fibrous
Composites, Dearborn, Michigan, October 3-4, 1979.
17. KIM, R. Y. and WHITNEY, J. M. Effect of temperature and moisture on pin
bearing strength of composite laminates, J. Composite Materials, 10, 1976,
April, p. 149.
18. WILKINS, D. J. Environmental sensitivity tests of graphite-epoxy bolt bearing
properties, Composite Materials: Testing and Design (4th Conference), ASTM
STP 617, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1977,497-513.
19. NUISMER, R. J. and WHITNEY, J. M. Uniaxial failure of composite laminates
containing stress concentrations, Fracture Mechanics of Composites, ASTM
STP 593, 1975.
20. PiPES, R. B., WETHERHOLD, R. C. and GILLESPIE, J. W. J. Compo Mater., 12,
1979, p. 148.
 Analysis of the Shearout Failure Mode in Composite Bolted Joints 49
21. PIPES, R. B., GILLESPIE, J. W. and WETHERHOLD, R. C. Polymer Eng. and Sci.,
15,1979, No. 16.
22. Standard test method for tensile properties of oriented fiber composites, ASTM
Standards, Part 35, ASTM D-3039-76.
23. HOFER, KENNETH E., RAO, P. N. and HUMPHREYS, V. E. Development of
engineering data on the mechanical and physical properties of advanced
composite materials, AFML TR-72-205, Part I, lIT Research Institute, 1972.
24. GARCIA, R., WEISSHAAR, T. A. and MCWITHEY, R. R. An experimental and
analytical investigation of the rail shear-test method as applied to composite
materials, Experimental Mechanics, 20, 1980, No.8, August.
 4
Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in
Composite Laminates
SOM R. SONI

Universal Energy Systems, Inc., 3195 Plainfield Road,

Dayton, Ohio 45432, USA

ABSTRACT

Composite laminates with a through-the-thickness fastener hole, free or

loaded, have been treated for stress and strength analysis under uniaxial
tensile loading conditions. This investigation has been carried out within the
framework of laminated plate theory. A finite element method has been
utilized to conduct the stress analysis of the laminate with a loadedfastener
hole. For this case the hole is assumed to be filled with a rigid core, simulating
a bolt, and displacement boundary conditions are applied at the semicircular
contact surface. The strength analysis is based on the tensor polynomial
failure criterion applied to each ply. The results for a free hole boundary
condition are obtained by using closed form solutions. An approximation
procedure is suggested to calculate stress levels for multidirectional
laminates using the stress fields in individual ply laminate systems. This
procedure works for both the loading conditions. The strength predictions
for the loaded hole case are close to the experimental results.

INTRODUCTION

With the increasing demand for composite materials and their wide use in
highly stressed lightweight constructions, it has become important to
develop a deep insight into the failure of composite bolted joints. There
have been several investigations on the strength analysis of bolted joints. 1
For the optimum design of bolted joints in composite laminates, a
50
 Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 51

knowledge of stress distribution around the fastener hole due to the applied
load is very important. With the variation in ply orientations and volume
fractions in the laminate, the stiffness properties change and consequently
the stress levels pertaining to the same boundary conditions differ. For
optimum strength requirements, one needs to compute stress levels in the
laminate for given boundary conditions with different volume fractions and
ply orientations. Because, in many practical situations, the closed form
elasticity solutions are not available, a finite element method has to be
implemented. Conducting this analysis by changing the effective material
properties for each laminate in the fine element analysis will be very
expensive. In the present investigation, the finite element method has been
used to conduct the stress analysis of the laminate for a number of ply
orientations and volume fractions. For the free hole boundary condition a
closed form solution 2 has been used. A simple averaging procedure has
been suggested to approximate the stress levels in the composite laminates,
with any combination of ply volume fractions, from the stress distributions
in constituent ply laminates with the same set of boundary conditions.
The present study consists of the computation of stress distribution in
composite laminates with a free or a loaded fastener hole. The results are
calculated for various multidirectional laminates including the constituent
angle ply laminates. The stress levels at various points in the constituent
angle ply laminates are used to approximate the states of stress for
multidirectional composite laminates with different ply volume fractions.
There exists a very good agreement between the exact results and the results
obtained by the approximation method for multidirectional laminates. The
exact results are the values obtained by using the effective material
properties of the multidirectional composite laminate.
Strength analysis is conducted by using the tensor polynomial failure
criterion. 3 In the bolted joint case the strength of the joint is considered as
an applied stress at which the strongest ply at the weakest point fails. This
consideration is supported by a recent study by Knight,4 on strength
analysis of composite laminates. His conclusion is that the uniaxial strength
of a laminate containing a 0 -ply is its last ply failure strength and that of
0

one without 0 -ply is its first ply strength. The strength ratios for two
0

laminates are computed for various values of diameter to width ratio. The
mode of failure is also predicted.
In the case of the free hole boundary condition the strength of composite
laminates at each point around the hole boundary is computed. Two
laminates were considered. It has been shown that the laminate may not fail
at the point of stress concentration.
52 Som R. Soni

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Figure 1 shows a laminate with a fastener hole, co-ordinate axis and

possible simple uniaxial loads. The following three combinations ofloading
conditions can be investigated. (i) Loaded hole (N' = 0). (ii) Free hole
(P = 0). (iii) Partially loaded hole (N' = 0, P = 0).
The loaded hole condition resembles the bolted joint situation and is of
great practical importance in engineering applications. The first two cases
of boundary conditions are investigated.

Loaded Hole
There exists no reliable closed form solution for the study ofloaded hole
laminates. Consequently, a finite element technique has been utilized to
conduct the stress analysis of such laminates. During the development of
the mathematical model for this analysis, the following assumptions were
made.
(I) The laminate obeys the laws of classical laminated theory.
(2) The contact surface between the laminate and the bolt IS
semicircular.
(3) The hole is filled with a rigid core.
(4) No transverse load, due to the bolt, is acting at the laminate.
The loaded hole boundary conditions are imposed by introducing radial
displacement constraints at the semicircular contact surface and a
prescribed load on the opposite plane edge. A general purpose finite
element computer code, NASTRAN, has been used to conduct the stress
analysis of the laminate. Due to the symmetry of the laminate and applied
loads about the x-axis, half of the laminate has been modeled for finite
element analysis. This part has been divided into 372 quadrilateral and

I( II
r I
I r
I -E----+i

<---'_ _ _ _ .L.W_ _ _ D-_J_~_- p_~-l. 1 ~~.

__ --+ '"

FIG. I. Laminate with dimensions and co-ordinate axis. L = 13· 3 em, h = 0·2032 em,
W = 2·54em, E = 0·S94em, D = 0·3175-0·gem.
 Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 53

FIG. 2. Finite element grid of the half of the laminate.

triangular constant strain elements. The effective laminate material

properties, based on the laminated plate theory,3 have been used. A finite
element grid plot, as obtained during the NASTRAN computations, is
given in Fig. 2. Various numerical exercises with different finite element
grids show that the present model is good enough to give acceptable results
for all practical purposes.

Free Hole
A closed form solution given by Lekhnitskii 2 for laminates with a free
circular hole has been used. The main objective of the present study is to
verify the approximation, suggested in the following section, to determine
the stress levels for multidirectional laminates from stress distribution in
constituent angle ply laminates with the same boundary conditions. For
that reason, no finite width correction factor has been included in the
computation of results through this formulation.

APPROXIMATION

The stress levels for individual angle ply laminates (0,90, (± 8)s) are
computed either by the finite element method or closed form solutions. Let
these stress components, at a point, be denoted by (<T~, <T~, r~y),
54 Som R. Soni

i = 0 ,90
0 0
(± (})s for laminates 0 ,90
, ••• (± (})s. The stress levels at the
0 0 , •••

corresponding points for a multidirectional laminate (Om/90n/( ± (})p)s are:

1
rr x = {mrrO + nrr 90 + 2prr( ± 9),}
m+n+2p x x x
1
rr =
y m+n+2p
{mrro +nrr 90
Y Y
+ 2prr(±9}.}
Y

1
, =
+ n + 2p) {m,Oxy + nr xy + 2p,(±9),}
90
xy (m xy
where m, nand p are the number of plys for 0 90 ± () orientations,
0 , 0 , 0

respectively, and rrx, rry and 'xy are the stress components in the
multidirectional laminate.

LAMINATE MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The analysis of composite laminates which have midplane symmetry, i.e.
the ply orientations in the lower half thickness of the laminate, are the
reflections of those of the upper half plys. Such laminates are assumed to
behave like homogeneous anisotropic plates. The procedure of computing
the effective material properties of multidirectional laminates is described
in references 5 and 6. The effective modulus of the composite laminate is
simply the arithmetic average of the modulus of the constituent plys.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Stress distribution is computed for each element around the hole boundary
of the laminate. Graphite epoxy T300/5208 is taken as a representative
composite material for all the numerical calculations. The dimensions of
the laminate considered are shown in Fig. 1. The material properties are as
follows.
Longitudinal Young's modulus Ex = 181 G Pa
Transverse Young's modulus Ey = 10·3 GPa
Longitudinal shear modulus Es = 7·17 G Pa
Longitudinal Poisson's ratio vx = 0·28
Longitudinal tensile strength X = 1500 MPa
Longitudinal compressive strength X- = 1500 MPa
Transverse tensile strength Y = 40 MPa
Transverse compressive strength Y- = 246 MPa
Longitudinal shear strength S = 68 MPa
 Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 55

The finite element results for the stress field are presented in graphical form.
For checking the accuracy of numerical values obtained by the present
model, stress component a x was calculated for a free hole laminate along
the line normal to the x-axis and bisecting the hole for a quasi-istropic
laminate. Values of ax computed by using infinite plate theory and finite
width correction factor were also given. The agreement was very good. 7
Figure 3 shows the comparison between the exact results and
approximate results for a loaded hole laminate (0/90/ ± 30)s' Figures 4 and 5

B <IN

ax
.!l.

+ or
X 1XY
0
AI'PROXI~\I\TE

FIG. 3. Comparison between approximate and finite element (exact) stress levels for
(0(9O( ±30)s-laminate, loaded fastener hole, D = 0·5cm.
56 Som R. Soni

4. OjN
II

~ ~
... or
~ Tx,
0 EXACT
2.

-2.
FIG. 4. Comparison between approximate and exact stress levels for (0/90/ ± 30)s-laminate,
free fastener hole.

4. OjN

~ <li
... or
:lc:: TxT
2. 0 EXACT

-2.
FIG. 5. Comparison between approximate and exact stress levels for (0/90/( ± 30h)'-
laminate, free fastener hole.
 Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 57

show the comparison of results for (0/90/ ± 30)s and (0/90/( ± 30hk
laminates, free hole boundary condition. Thus it has been shown that, given
the stress distribution in angle ply laminates with a loaded or a free fastener
hole, the stress levels in a multidirectional composite laminate with any
volume fraction of these angle plys can be approximated. It has been
demonstrated that the suggested approximation gives results very close to
the finite element results obtained by using the effective material properties
of the laminate.
Figures 6 and 7 demonstrate the variation in strength of a laminate
having a loaded fastener hole. The parameter P (=load/diameter x
thickness) denotes the strength of the notched laminate and No denotes the
strength of the unnotched laminate. As indicated earlier, the last ply
strength is taken as the strength of the laminate. The laminate ply
orientations considered are (0/90/ ±45)s and (0/90/( ±45h)s' Experimental
results are also shown in the diagrams and are in close proximity to

M - - - - CCWRESSIVE (ca-p,)

2
t\---~--.l,'t-__ NET TENS IOO (NT,)

NOTCH INSENSITIVE
--- NOTCH SENSITIVE
EJ<l>ER ItlENTAL

o
o .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0

0/11

FIG. 6. Strength ratio versus diameter to width ratio of a (0/90/ ±45}s-laminate.

58 Som R. Soni

CCM'RESS IVE (CeM>.)

NOTCH INSENS IT I VE
NOTCH SENS ITI VE
EXPERIMENTAL
CO"P.

o
o .2 .4 .6 .8 1. 0

D/H

FIG. 7. Strength ratio versus diameter to width ratio of a (0/90/( ± 45h).-laminate.

N N/2

2.SN
(960)

---'---- -- --
FIG. 8. Projection of failure mode for (0/90/ ±45), laminate, D/W = 0·125. Compressive
failure.
 Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 59

predicted strengths. In both cases, a demarcation line is drawn that gives the
impending mode offailure with the variation in DjWfor a given value of E
(shown in Fig. 1). The criterion used to decide the mode of failure is shown
in Fig. 8. The point of failure is acertained by using the tensor polynomial
failure criterion. The inspection of stress components at that point and the
laminate strength in the corresponding direction will project the type of
failure. This aspect has been explained in detail in reference 1.
Figure 9 gives the first and last ply failure strengths of( ± 15)s-laminate at
each point of the free hole boundary. This diagram is given to show that the
point of failure is not at the point of stress concentration. Another case
considered in the free hole boundary condition is a laminate with
continuous variation in ply angle. The trend of variation in ply orientation

smENGTH
(rIPa)

1200.

800.

N4-r- - I - --,-.
400.

o . +-----------,-----------,-----------~ 8
o. 3~. 60. 90.

FIG. 9. Variation in strength of the (± l5),-laminate W.r.t. e. for a free hole boundary.
+.
*7. first ply; last ply.
60 Som R. Soni

CD

I
0
d
'" .2
~
C
.~
Ci

I
>.
is..

/ 0
0 .s'"
'" .S

/
<=
.2
I :: .... ~
.;::

> 7).11 '"

;>
on

'"
0

1/
0
.S '"
I-/
0
M
E
0
()

/r-f- .s
V
.~

?I / ~

N
-'=
/ 0
·s'<="
~
1/ /
I .S '"
r-~ / I is..
on
>.

I
+-'
<=
r'- /~ '"
~
II / glo
+'"
°
0
M
0
:0
....
r- ~
on
.£
/ ",
M on
<=
II /
0 0
0
~

" " ';:l

" "
I
()

'" '"
o.!::
° I
'"
/ "
:::
~ I I
I
°0
~
E
'"
"0
l! :>

V
.....
I 0

t:i

I °0
~
ti:
 Stress and Strength Analysis of Bolted Joints in Composite Laminates 61

STREIIGTlI
(lIPa)

1200 .

600. /

400.

I • 0.3

0·+---------~--------.---------~8
o. 30. 60. 90.
FIG. 11. Variation in strength of a continuously varying ply orientation laminate, W.r .t. fJ,
for a free hole boundary, (J. =0·3. ~, first ply; +,last ply.

is given in Fig. 10. The volume fraction of each ply orientation is given by
the corresponding blocks. The angle lying at the center of the block
represents ply orientation and the height of the block is the corresponding
volume fraction. Figure II gives the first and the last ply strengths of this
laminate for r:t = O· 3 (a parameter given in Fig. 10). There, too, we find that
the failure does not occur at the point of stress concentration (8 = 90°).

REFERENCES

I. SONI, S. R., Failure analysis of composite laminates with a fastener hole, ASTM
Special Technical Publicat ion. Joining of Composite Materials, STP749 (1981).
2. L EKHNITSKII, S. G ., Anisotropic plates. Translated from second Russian edition
62 Som R. Soni

by Tsai, S. W. and Cherion, T. New York, Gordon and Breach Science

Publishers, 1968, pp. 171-5.
3. TSAI, S. W. and Wu, E. M., A general theory of strength for anisotropic
materials, J. Compo Mat., 5 (1971), 58-80.
4. KNIGHT, M., Experiments on strength of composite laminates. (Private
communication.)
5. TSAI, S. W. and HAHN, H. T., Introduction to composite materials, Technomic
Publication Co., Westport, Ct., USA, 1980.
6. TSAI, S. W. and HAHN, H. T., TI-59 magnetic card calculator solution to
composite materials, Air Force Materials Laboratory Report, AFML-TR-79-
4040, January, 1981.
7. SONI, S. R., Inplane stress analysis ofmuItidirectional composite laminates with
a fastener hole-Using stress distribution in the constituent angle ply laminates.
IntI. Symp. on the Mechanical Behaviour of Structured Media, Carleton
University, Ottawa, May, 1981.
 5
Some Environmental and Geometric Effects on the
Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted
loints*
1. A. BAILIE, L. M. FISHER, S. A. HOWARD and K. G. PERRY
Lockheed Missiles & Space Company Inc.,
Sunnyvale, California 94088, USA

ABSTRACT

Results of an extensive test program to determine static strength are

correlated with the design methodfor mechanically fastened composite joints
proposed by Hart-Smith. Among the variables covered were the amount of
absorbed moisture in the laminates, their layup, bolt spacing, multiple bolt
rows, single and double lap configurations. Tension shear testing was
conducted at room temperature, 394 K (250°F), and 427 K (310°F) to
assess the impact of temperature on strength. Correlation with the design
method over this wide range of variables is considered to be highly
satisfactory. Ofparticular interest was the ability of the method to correctly
predict interaction effects among closely spaced bolts.

NOTATION

C Stress concentration relief parameter.

d Bolt diameter.
Fbru Ultimate bearing strength.
Ftu Ultimate tension strength.
k tc Stress concentration factor for a composite.
k te Stress concentration factor for a linear elastic material.

* This work was supported by LMSC Missile Systems Division Independent

Development Funds.
63
64 J. A. Bailie et al.

P Joint failure load.

p Bolt spacing.
Tg Glass transition temperature.
w Joint width.
O'b Bearing stress.

INTRODUCTION

The relative brittleness of graphite epoxy laminates, compared with many

light alloy structures, means that special attention must be given to the
design of bolted joints in these composites. Plastic deformation and the
consequent stress redistribution in ductile metals results in lower stress
concentrations. This leads to rather uniform load sharing among the bolts
at high load levels. Such forgiving behavior occurs to a lesser degree in fiber-
dominated composites. In addition, there are several complications, unique
to high performance composites, arising in bolted joints in these laminates.
Among them are the effects of moisture, layup, interaction among adjacent
bolts and many geometric variables. To cover this wide range of designs,
various approaches are being developed. 1 These can be broadly considered
to range from the empirical methods intended for preliminary design use to
very detailed non-linear finite element analyses of specific configurations.
This study is intended to produce data to correlate with the empirical
approaches suggested by Hart-Smith. 2 ,3
In those works, Hart-Smith presents the results of test programs on
bolted joints in graphite tape epoxy and utilises them in the derivation of
empirical design methods. His techniques were used to explain some of the
results in a test series on graphite cloth epoxy joints, including high
temperature effects.4 The present work is an extension of that study. One
purpose is to assess the importance of absorbed moisture. The effect of
temperature and moisture on the bearing strength of single bolt joints has
been studied. 5 ,6 Those studies demonstrate typical strength degradations
of bolt bearing capability at elevated temperatures.
Another item of concern is the incomplete knowledge of bolt interactions
as functions of bolt spacing, moisture and temperature. A great deal of
effort is currently being devoted to multi-bolt joints at room tempera-
ture. 7,8 For some applications, a need arises to provide data at higher
temperatures. Because tension and bearing response are affected differently
by temperature and moisture, their interaction requires careful study for
joints that are designed to be near optimum.
 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 65

Anomalous results between single and two row tests on single lap joints
soon suggested that the difference between single and double lap joints
deserved further attention. Agarwal 8 has shown a small difference between
the two for joints in tape laminates, tested at room temperature. Most other
test results reported are for symmetric double lap conditions where bolt
rotation is inherently prevented. In single lap configurations, particularly of
the thinner laminates, the bolt rotation can be quite severe, leading to non-
uniform loading across the join t thickness. A su bset of tests was devoted to
evaluating the parameters influencing the importance of this loading
eccentricity.
To provide empirical data of interest to design and development
engineers, a test program was structured to cover the variables of interest in
laminates typical of launch vehicle primary, and aircraft secondary,
structures. These results were to be interpreted using Hart-Smith's method
to promote further understanding of graphite cloth epoxy joint behavior.

TEST SPECIMENS

The material used is Fiberite HMF330Cj34 graphite cloth epoxy. The cloth
consists of an 8 HS weave of T300 fibers. The matrix is the 934 resin. All the
single lap joints were 8-ply layups giving thicknesses of approximately
0·274 cm (0·108 in) thickness. To assess the impact of layup, a series of tests
were run with both [0]4S and [45/0]2S layups. These laminates will provide
data on the influence of 45-degree ply percentage. To conserve on the
amount of composite material, many tests were conducted using 0·254cm
(0·10 in) thick titanium laps in conjunction with composite members.
Failure always occurred in the composite. In the fully composite double lap
joints, the inner members were [45/0]2S layups while the outer members
were [45/0]s to provide balanced symmetric configurations. Edge distance
was 4d to ensure freedom from shear out failures. All bolts were 0-476 cm
(3/16in) diameter titanium and the bolts torque to 3·39kNm (30 in lb). In
multi-row joints, the rows were 2·54 cm (1·0 in) apart.
Evaluation of the importance of moisture conditioning was carried out
by testing after three different conditioning cycles. Allowing laminates to
remain in ambient atmosphere for between 3 and 4 months prior to testing
was shown by weight monitoring to gain roughly 0-4 %water. These are
referred to as 'ambient'. Others were conditioned at 60 %relative humidity
(RH) until equilibrium was reached. This corresponded to approximately
66 J. A. Bailie et af.

0·8 %water absorbed. Afew specimens, referred to as 'dry', were dried out
in an oven until no further weight change was noted.
Tests on the laminates showed the glass transition temperatures (TJ
averages of ten tests to be 443 K (337°F) when dry, 409 K (277°F) when
ambient and 394 K (250 OF) when conditioned to 60 %RH. Thus the highest
structural test temperature was above Tg , except when the material had
been dried out. It is hardly likely that a structural material will be subjected
to severe loading when above its T g • These 427 K (310 OF) tests were
intended to determine whether a catastrophic strength degradation
occurred slightly above T g •

TEST PROCEDURES

Conventional tension shear loading was utilized with a 'hot box'

surrounding the test specimen, as illustrated in Fig. 1.Three replicates of

FIG. I. Test set up.

 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 67

every test were performed at the three temperatures 297,394 and 427 K (75,
250 and 310°F). Ball joints were employed top and bottom to exclude
moment loading. For high temperature testing, two hot-air guns, set to
produce air at the test temperature, were utilized. In structural tests, only
surface thermocouples were installed. To ensure equilibrium thermal
conditions, a few joints not used for strength testing but containing
thermocouples on their surface and buried in the laminate midplanes, were
employed in preliminary tests. Their objective was to derive the time
between the surface and midplane thermocouples reaching test tempera-
ture. One minute after test temperature was reached at midplane 1·27 cm
(0'5 in) behind the bolts, load application commenced at the rate of
0·05 cm/min (0·02 in/min).
To measure load-deflection data, two methods were employed. One was
typical loading head motion-a crude estimate as it includes all the motion
within the loading fixture. A much more precise indication was the relative
deflection between a bolt and neighboring laminate, obtained using the
deflectometer shown in Fig. 2. Operating on the quadraflex principle with a
strain gaged arm, it provided the desired information for the double lap
joints. A few exploratory tests on single lap unrestrained joints confirmed
that rotation under load, inherent in these configurations, precluded the
extraction of useful data from these configurations.

,I
,, /

I
I
I
I

FIG. 2. Deflection gage to measure bolt-composite relative motion.

68 J. A. Bailie et al.

TEST DATA AND ITS INTERPRETATION

The general philosophy behind the test matrix was to derive the data needed
for the use of Hart-Smith's methodology.2,3 The essential ingredients of
this type of test program are:
(a) Bearing strength determination of wide, single-bolt joints.
(b) Tension strength determination using narrow, single-bolt joints.
The specimens used to determine bearing strength had a d/w ratio of 0·2, or
width of 2· 38 cm (0'9375 in); those to extract tension strength had a d/w of
0·375 or width of 1·27 cm (0'5 in). In addition, it is necessary to know Flu,

0.8....----.--- - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

C • 0
(PERFECTlY
PL'-STtC) -

0.6

- - - ONE BOLT IN A N R
AROW
STRI P

0.2

o 0.2 0.' 0.6 0.8

NON DIMEN SIONAl BOLT SPACING dI p

FIG. 3. Difference in strength between one bolt in a narrow strip and a single row of bolts in a
wide joint.
 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 69
the tension strength of the unnotched laminates. Item (b) provides
coefficient C, which defines the degree of stress concentration relief, relative
to linear elastic (brittle) materials. 2 ,3 This latter reference also shows that
there is a difference between a single bolt and wide joint containing a single
bolt row whose bolt spacing is the same as the single-bolt joint width. This
applies to both theoretical stress concentration in brittle materials and its
relief in non-brittle materials. This difference is quantified in Fig. 3, where
it is seen to be small for lower values of C and when bolt diameter is less than
approximately one-third the bolt spacing. It is only significant for very close
bolt spacing and highly brittle materials. To check this, specimens with
seven bolts in a single row were tested, and the theory was confirmed.
Hence, the adequacy, in most design applications, of testing single-bolt
joints to obtain C and applying the result to wide joints was substantiated.

SINGLE BOLT TESTS

Bearing behavior is summarized in Fig. 4. The importance of temperature is

significant and, as expected, moisture degrades high temperature strength.
This Figure also demonstrates a clear difference between single- and
double-lap joints. Unfortunately, since the basic references 2 ,3 are not yet
generally available, the bare essentials of the derivation of parameter Care
repeated here. For a joint failing in tension, it is postulated that a linear
relationship exists between the elastic isotropic stress concentration factor,
kle' and that for the composite at failure, k te of this relationship is:

k tc - I = C( k te - I) (I)
in which k tc is given in terms of the failure load, P, by:
k tc = Ftuwt(1 - d/w)/P (2)
Clearly, for a completely brittle material, C is unity while for a perfectly
plastic material it is zero and there is no stress concentration. Knowing
k te ,2,3 simple tests produce k tc from eqn. (2) and C is extracted from
eqn. (I).
Bolted joint tension tests to determine parameter C are summarized in
Table I. Joint strength is well known to be sensitive to the percentage of 45-
degree plies, so 0 and 50 %were utilized in this test series, to quantify the
effect. Table I highlights the fact that decreasing the percentage of 45-
degree plies and/or raising temperature over the test range produce
significant decreases in stress concentration relief (i.e. raise the value of C).
70 J . A . Bailie et al.

(MPol
1.25
(K51)

180
-
SYMBOL

-)C-

-=>--
l).p
DOUBLE
DOueLE
DOUBLE
ENV
DRY
AMB
60%
---<>- SlNCLE AMe
~ SINCLE 60%
-~- DoueLE AMI
DOUeLE /)O'!(,
160

1...:r NorAlIO ...

G1.00
~ 140

..•
I>
Z

":
120

~ 0.75
100

80

0.50

100 100 300 400 ('f!

~-'I-L
I ______~-'I__~!_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _
JOO 400 500 ( OK I
TEMPUAlURE

FIG. 4. Single bolt bearing strength as a function of temperature.

Qualitative explanations are as follows: the 45-degree plies diffuse load

around the bolt hole and thereby reduce stress concentration at the hole
edge. At higher temperatures, resin strength and stiffness are reduced,
thereby lessening its ability to support the fibers and transfer load adjacent
to the hole.
Table I also indicates that differences in tension failures, as reflected in
parameter C, obtained from single- and double-lap tests, do not differ very
significantly from quasi-isotropic layups. Those with no 45-degree plies
appear to be more sensitive, as would be expected in a more brittle material.
Rotation under load of multi row configurations is less than for single rows.
Hence, it appears reasonable to expect multirow joints, critical in tension,
to be less sensitive to whether single- or double-laps were used.
 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 71

TABLE 1
Stress concentration relief parameter C as a function of layup, temperature and
environment H M F330C; 34 graphite cloth epoxy
Parameter C

Layup Lap Temp. Dry Ambient 60%RH

[45/0] 2S Single X 0.13 0.18 0.18

[45/0J 2S Single Y 0.14 0.19 0.25

[45/0] 2S Single Z 0.22 0.24 0.32

[45/0] 2S Double X 0.11 0.14 0.14

[45/0J 2S Double Y 0.14 0.12 0.16

[45/0] 2S Double Z 0.22 0.23 0.21

[0] 4S Single X 0.54 0.41 0.45

[0] Single Y 0.58 0.52 0.64

4S
[0] 4S Single Z 0.60 0.70 1.13

[0] 4S Double X 0.42 - 0.39

[0] 4S Double Y 0.44 - 0.53

[OJ 4S Double Z 0.58 - 0.65

Notation: X = 297 K (75 OF); Y = 394 K (250 OF); Z = 427 K (310°F).

MULTIPLE BOLT TESTS

Using Hart-Smith's method, design charts can be produced, one for each
value of C. Those for C = 0·2 and C = 0·4 are presented here as Fig. 5. The
joint efficiency is simply the failure load divided by the gross area of the
laminate; once it is known, failure load prediction is trivial. The parameter
Ubi FlU is the bearing stress ratio. As the number of bolt rows increases, this
value decreases since the load per bolt decreases for a given total load on the
joint. For prescribed values of the design parameters Ubi pu and dip, it is
clear from these two Figures that the lower the value of C, the greater is the
joint efficiency.
To assess the degree of correlation between Hart-Smith's theory and the
HMF330Cj34 graphite cloth epoxy, a fairly extensive series of multibolt
tests were run and predictions made for each one. The parameter range
included both layups, all three test temperatures and environmental
 0.8 ,-------. -----------------------------------, 0.8 rl----~------------------------------_, -..J
N

C ' 0.2
C • 0.4

\- PUFECTLY PLASTIC
0.6 0.6
\ • Pt:R FECTl Y PlASTIC

i
'i
itt- i
Co.
>- ~
;::
<....
~ ...~Z
~O.~ ~O . .. :>..
1// ~
::. ~
z z ~
Q 1/ / ~ulFtu ~
Q
~
/1leU 2.0

f! 2.5
0.2 il 1.2

drh- - - SING LE ROW

vr 8I'MING FAILUltES 2 .5

a:D SINGLE ROW

V lEM ING FAILURES

or "
0.2 0. 4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
80lT DIAMETER TO PI TCf< UTlO, dIp BOLT DI AMETER TO PlTCf< U TIO, d r p

FIG. 5. Bolted joint design charts for multiple bolt rows.

 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 73

conditions, as well as narrow strips with two and three bolts, two values of
dip in two-row, eight-bolt 'wide' joints. Some were double laps, others
single. Results are summarized in Table 2. Counting each test temperature
as a separate test, a total of 63 tests were conducted.
In general, agreement between test and prediction is considered to be
most encouraging. The test to prediction ratio given in the last column of
Table 2 was within 10 %of unity for 46 of the 63 tests. Only in two cases did
it exceed 20 %. This is a strong endorsement for the method as a preliminary
design tool.
Among the general observations that can be made for the parameter
ranges considered are the following:

The differences between the ambient and conditioned specimens are

not particularly significant. To see this, compare tests 1 with 2,3 with 4,
11 with 12, 14 with 15 and 16 with 17. This arises because of the failure
mode being dominated by tension strength which has been shown 11 to
be only slightly influenced by moisture and is entirely consistent with
Agarwal's tests. S
Differences in strength per unit width between narrow strips having the
same width as bolt spacing in wide joints are small. This is evident by
comparing tests 1 with 3, 2 with 4, 5 with 6, 7 with 8 and 9 and 10 with 11
and 12. This is important as it confirms the adequacy of testing narrow
joints as a good simulation of larger, more expensive, joints.
As expected from comments made in discussing single bolt data, it is
clear that there is relatively little difference between single- and double-
lap multirow joints made from quasi-isotropic layups. Comparing
tests 3 with 6, 9 with 14 and 10 with 15 illustrates this. However,
comparison of tests 8 with 13 and 9 with 19 shows the laminates
without any 45-degree plies to be more sensitive to lap type. Hence,
different values of C were used in the predictions for tests 8 and 13.
Using single lap, single-bolt data to predict failures for the 13 series at
room temperature resulted in markedly inferior correlation. The
quasi-isotropic joint data suggest that, for realistic joints containing a
reasonable percentage of 45-degree plies, only one of the two lap
configurations needs to be tested to provide the design data for most
joints, regardless of lap details. This, too, is in agreement with
Agarwal's works on tape laminates containing bolted joints. It should
be noted that these single lap joints were unrestrained against rotation.
In practical applications it is highly likely that the joint will be attached
to a member offering some degree of rotational restraint about an axis
74 J. A. Bailie et al.

parallel to the bolt lines. Then the agreement between the two is likely
to be even closer.
Greater degradation as a function of temperature is evident in the [0]4S
joints relative to the quasi-isotropic laminates. This is consistent with
Table 1 data and previously derived 11 unloaded hole data which
demonstrate higher stress concentration factors in the former
material.
Except for tests 16 and 17, which have three bolt rows, all those
summarized in Table 2 have two rows. In these two, the failure loads at
the lower temperatures are a somewhat smaller fraction of the
predicted load than in most other tests. Further testing is required to
resolve why the method is overpredicting the stress concentration relief
in these situations.

TABLE 2
MUltiple bolt test summary

dip
Test or Width Test Load Prediction Test
No. Layup Bolts Lap Env d/w em In Temp kN k Ib kN k Ib Predicti,?n

1 [45/01 28 2 8 A 0.2 2.38 0.94 X 16.95 3.81 17.04 3.83 0.99

y 17.26 3.88 16.59 3.73 1.04

~ Z 9.74 2.19 10.90 2.4.5 0.89

2
j 60%

~
j j X
Y
Z
18.15
15.66
10.81
4.08 17.04
3.52 16.59
2.43 10.90
3.83
3.73
2.45
1.06
0.94
0.99

3 8 A 9.53 3.75 X 75.66 17.01 68.10 15.31 1.11

y 71.75 15.13 66.41 14.93 1.08

~ Z 55.73 12.53 58.09 13.06

j
0.96
4 60%

~
j X
Y
Z
71.48 16.07 68.10 15.31
69.88 15.71 66.41 14.93
54.62 12.28 58.09 13.06
1.05
1.05
0.94

5 2 D A 2.38 0.94 X 16.01 3.60 18.90 4.25 0.85

y 15.48 3.48 18.40 4.14 0.84

~ ~ ~ 12.54

j
Z 2.82 13.43 3.02 9.94

6 8 9.53 3.75 X 79.91 17.74 75.66 17.01 1.05

y 72.86 16.38 73.61 16.55 0.99

7 [0) 48
~
2 S A ~.286
~ ~
1.67 0.66
Z

X
57.78 12.99 53.60 12.05

13.39 3.01 12.32 2.77

1.08

1.09
y 11.83 2.66 10.50 2.36 1.13

~ ~ ~ Z 7.16 1.61 8.50 1.91 0.84

8
j 8

~
6.73

~ i
2.63 X
y
z
53.69 12.07 49.33 11.09
49.51 11.13 44.21
37.14 8.35 33.98
9.94
7.64
1. 08
1.18
1.09

9 [45/0) 2 2 A 1.67 0.66 X 11.61 2.61 11.48 2.58 1.01

, t
t t
y
Z
10.85
8.01
2.44 11.21 2.52 0.97

• •
1.80 8.01 1.80 1.00
 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 75

TABLE 2-contd
dip
Test or Width Test Load Prediction Test
No. Layup Bolts La En d/w em In Temp kN k Ib kN k Ib Prediction

10 145/0) 28 2 S 60% 0.286 1.67 0.66 X 11.25 2.53 11.48 2.58 0.98
y 2.26 11.21 2.52 0.90

~
10.05

11 8
~
A
~
6.73 2.63
~ Z

X
8.50

47.55
1. 91

10.69
8.01 [1,80]

45.90 10.32
1.06

1.04
Y 46.26 10.40 44.75 10.06 1.03

12
~
60%
Z

X
36.52

4e.48
8.21

10.90
32.03

45.90
7.20

10.32
1.14

1.06
Y 43.32 9.74 44.75 10.06 0.97
Z 37.50 8.43 32.03 7.20 1.17

13 (0) 48 D X 61.47 13.82 66.90 15.04 0.92

Y 52.22 11.74 41.99 9.44 1.24
Z 37.94 8.53 33.99 7.64 1.12

14 )45/0) 2 2 A 1.67 0.66 X 10.68 2.40 11.48 2.58 0.93

y 10.05 2.26 11.21 2.52 0.90
t I Z 9.03 2.03 8.01 1.80 1.13

TO
15 X 10.63 2.39 11.48 2.58 0.93
Y 9.74 2.19 11.21 2.52 0.87
Z 8.81 1.98 8.01 1.80 1.10

16 3 A X 9.96 2.24 11.88 2.67 0.84

y

~
9.87 2.22 11.61 2.61 0.85
Z 8.72 1. 96 8.58 1. 93 1.01

17
j 60%

~
X
Y
Z
9.83
9.83
9.12
2.21
2.21
2.05
11. 88
11.61
8.58
2.67
2.61
1.93
0.83
0.85
1.06

18 2 A 0.375 1.27 0.50 X 9.12 2.05 8.81 1. 98 1.03

Y 8.01 1.80 8.14 1. 83 0.99
Z 7.03 1. 58 7.29 1.64 0.96

19 1014s X 12.05 2.71 12.14 2.73 0.99

Y 8.27 1.86 9.16 2.06 0.90
Z 6.94 1. 56 7.61 1.71 0.92

20 45/0) 2S Dry .286 1. 67 0.66 X 12.85 2.89 13.03 2.93 0.99

y 11.65 2.62 12.68 2.85 0.92
Z 11.25 2.53 11.74 2.64 0.97

21 101 4S
j j j j X
Y
Z
15.17
15.26
12.72
3.41
3.43
2.86
15.12
14.81
12.01
3.40
3.33
2.70
1. 00
1. 04
1.06

Notation
D = Double lap joint
S = Single lap joint
A = Ambient conditioning
60 %= 60 % Relative humidity conditioning
Dry = No moisture
X=297K (75 OF)
Y = 394 K (250 OF)
Z = 427 K (310°F)
76 J. A. Bailie et af.

While not evident from the Table, it is important to restate that not all
double lap joints were of the same construction. Only tests 5 and 6 had
all composite members. Tests 13 to 21 had titanium alloy outer
members, and 8-ply composite inner members. In all tests 5 and 6
failure was of the 4-ply outer laps with [45/01s layups. This was
surprising because many failure theories for composites suggest a
'volume' effect in which a flaw size per unit volume is postulated.
Hence, thicker laminates have a greater probability of containing a
critical flaw, resulting in lower strength. These failures suggest a
different mechanism at work. To check into it a series of 2·54cm
(1·0 in) wide 4- and 8-ply quasi-isotropic test specimens, each
containing a single hole, were tested in tension. Three hole sizes-
0·476,0·635 and 1·27 cm (3/16,1/4 and 1/2 in)-were included. Failure
stress ratio of 4- to 8-plies ranged from 0·83 to 0·93, while the
unnotched strength ratio was 0·93. This confirms the reduced tension
strength of thinner laminates in all cases. Fiber volume measurements
and photomicrographs failed to show any discernible differences
between the two thicknesses, so no explanation is currently evident.
Thus far, only failure loads have been discussed, without any attention to
either failure modes or the load-deflection data. The purpose of obtaining
the load-deflection curves was to assess joint linearity and provide data on
the failure process. These findings can be briefly summarized as follows.
Non-linear response at load levels below approximately 10 %to 20 %of the
failure load were indicative of the bolts seating and the joint settling down.
When tension failures occurred, response was linear to within less than 5 %
of the failure followed by a sudden typical tension failure. In bearing
failures, stiffness reduced rapidly, beginning at approximately 90 %to 95 %
of the peak load, and became negative as a progressive failure occurred in
conjunction with decreasing load. In joints where single-bolt tension
failures occurred, there was very little, if any, decrease in stiffness as a
function of temperature or moisture conditioning. When bearing failures
resulted, there was a clear decrease as a function of temperature, in joint
stiffness over the linear load-deflection regime. This amounted to as much
as 30 % between RT and 427 K (310°F) tests.

CONCLUSIONS

This large series of experiments covering numerous geometric and material

variations correlates very well with predictions by Hart-Smith's method. 2.3
 Static Strength of Graphite Cloth Epoxy Bolted Joints 77

These references have previously been used with confidence in a number of

unpublished studies as a design method for joints in tape laminates. Similar
confidence is now justified for its application to cloth laminates. The ability
of the method to account for interaction effects between closely spaced
bolts is considered to be particularly important.
It has been demonstrated that the quasi-isotropic layups containing
loaded holes exhibit markedly superior stress concentration relief
compared with laminates without any 45-degree plies.
As efficiently designed multirow bolts frequently fail in a predominantly
tensile mode, the influence of absorbed moisture on their strength was
confirmed to be relatively unimportant.
Wide joints having many bolts per row were compared with narrow strips
containing a single bolt per row and having a width equal to the bolt spacing
of the wide joints. Their strengths per unit width were very similar. This
substantiates the simulation of operational wide joints by much cheaper,
easier to test narrow strips, when the loading is normal to the joint axis.
A special deflection gage was developed to measure relative motion
between a bolt and the neighboring laminate. It provides for more useful
data than the conventional crosshead motion measurement which includes
the motions of the loading fixture.
The small sample size of three precludes any definitive statements being
made about design strengths. More replicates are required to provide an
adequate data base for this purpose.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The relative deflection gage used in these tests was developed by A. M.

Holmes.

REFERENCES

1. GARBO, S. P. and OGONOWSKI, J. M., Effect of variance and manufacturing

tolerances on the design strength and life of mechanically fastened composite
joints, AFFDL-TR-78-179, December, 1978.
2. HART-SMITH, L. J., Bolted joints in graphite epoxy composites, NASA
CR144899. June, 1976.
3. HART-SMITH, L. J., Mechanically fastened joints for advanced composites-
Phenomelogical considerations and sample analyses, Proc. of the Fourth
Conference on Fibrous Composites in Structural Design, San Diego, CA.
November, 1978. (To be published.)
78 J. A. Bailie et al.

4. BAILIE, 1. A., DUGGAN, M. F., BRADSHAW, N. C. and McKENZIE, T. G., Design

of graphite cloth epoxy bolted joints at temperatures up to 450 K. Proc. of
ASTM Symposium 'Joining ofComposite Structures'. Minneapolis, Minnesota,
April, 1980. (To be published.)
5. KIM, R. Y. and WHITNEY, 1. M., Effect of temperature and moisture on pin
bearing strength of composite laminates, J. Compo Matis., 10 (April, 1976),
149-55.
6. WILKINS, D. 1., Environmental sensitivity tests of graphite epoxy bolt bearing
properties. Composite Materials Testing and Design (Fourth Conference).
ASTM STP617, 1977, pp. 497-513.
7. RAMKUMAR, R. L., Bolted joint design. Proc. ofSymposium on Test Allowables
for Fibrous Composites. ASTM Conference held at Dearborn, M Ion October
3rd and 4th, 1979. (To be published.)
8. AGARWAL, B. L., Behavior of multi fastener bolted joints in composite materials
(Paper No. 80-0307). Proc. AIAA 18th Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Pasadena,
CA. January 14--16, 1980.
9. McKENZIE, T. G. and HOWARD, S. A., Unpublished Data. Lockheed Missiles
& Space Company, 1979.
10. CROSSLEY, F. A., VOLLERSEN, C. A., GOETZ, A. C. and DAVIS, G. E., Structural
test program for a major graphite epoxy composite component for the Trident
I Missile. Proc. 4th Aerospace Testing Seminar. Institute of Environmental
Sciences, 1978.
11. BAILIE, 1. A., DUGGAN, M. F., FISHER, L. M. and YEE, R. c., Effect of holes on
graphite cloth epoxy laminate's tension strength at temperatures up to 450 K
(350°F). Presented at AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS 21st Structures Structural
Dynamics and Materials Conference. Seattle, WA. May 12-14, 1980. (To be
published.)
 6
The Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates
in Aqueous Environments

R. C. WYATT
CEGB Scientific Services Department, South Western Region,
Bedminster Down, Bristol, England
L. S. NORWOOD
Scott Bader Co. Ltd, Wollaston, Wellingborough,
Northamptonshire NN9 7RL, England
AND

M. G. PHILLIPS
School of Materials Science, The University,
Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, England

ABSTRACT

To remedy the lack of soundly based design data which has hindered the use
of GRP for power station cooling water systems, an extensive programme of
creep-rupture testing is in progress at Bath University, funded jointly by
CEGB and Scott Bader Co. Ltd.
The paper describes the background and aims of the work and gives details
of the test programme and equipment, including a cell for single-sided
exposure of a tensile testpiece. The behaviour of a polyesterjcsmjw.r.
laminate in seawater is shown to be little affected by temperature in the range
2o-60°C. Seawater and distilled water are indistinguishable in their effects
onfully immersed laminates at 40°C. The influence of testpiece width and
reinforcement pattern are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The South Western Region Scientific Services Department of the CEGB

has recently embarked on a programme of GRP component design and
79
80 R. C. Wyatt et al.

installation, the objective being to stimulate the future use of the material
on the basis of sound design and successful installations at selected sites. 1,2
Design of hand-lay-up components has been based on BS 4994: 1973,
using a derived load design factor (K of BS 4994) of about 15, but certain
misgivings are felt about the approach defined in the standard. One point of
particular concern is the degree to which account is taken of time-
dependency in the presence of water, bearing in mind a CEGB requirement
for a thirty-year life on new plant. The design factor specified in BS 4994 to
cover long-term behaviour, K 2 , has a specified maximum value of 2·0. By
contrast, early tests on the GRP material, subsequently used in most of the
recent CEGB applications, 1 predicted a thirty-year creep-rupture strength
in water at 40°C, only 10% of initial strength. This suggests that a design
factor of 10 is needed to cover time dependence, leaving a factor of 1·5 to
cover all other features.
To establish a more satisfactory basis for design in the long-term;it was
decided that further creep-rupture tests were necessary, especially as certain
features of the previous tests 1 had been questioned. Scott Bader Company
Ltd, suppliers of resin for CEGB's recently fabricated c.w. components,
being similarly involved in development in this field, agreed to contribute to
the cost of a comprehensive test contract. A third contributor is the
Generation Construction and Development Division of CEGB
(Barnwood, Gloucester) whose role is to monitor and approve the design of
new power stations. A programme was agreed between the three parties and
a contract placed with South Western Industrial Research Ltd (SWIRL),
the industrial research organisation of Bath University.

TEST PHILOSOPHY AND PROGRAMME DETAILS

Main Programme
Details of the main programme (Programme A) are given in Table 1. The
material was prepared in individual panels of size 760 x 760 mm by W. and
J. Tod Ltd, using conventional hand-lay-up techniques. This company has
fabricated a number of large components recently installed in CEGB c.w.
systems, using similar materials and construction. The company were
requested to aim for glass/resin ratios (by weight) of2:1 for csm and 1:1 for
woven-roving-ratios typical of commercial practice.
The main aim of Programme A is to establish a statistically sound creep-
rupture strength prediction. To ensure statistical security, the testing
specification demands a minimum of 30 tests, broadly separated into
 Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates in Aqueous Environments 81

TABLE 1
Details of main test programme A

Materials and construction Test conditions

Resin: Scott Bader Crystic 625 TV Immersion medium:

Artificial seawater
Reinforcement: Multemat chopped Mode of immersion:
strand mat (csm) by Fibreglas Ltd Total
Type ECK 25 bi-directional woven-roving Specimen width: 25 mm
(w.r.) by TBA Ltd Edge conditions: Unsealed
Construction: 1 x 300 g/m 2 csm Test temperatures:
1 x 830 g/m 2 W.r. (warp) 20°C: Code A20
1 x 600 g/m 2 csm 40°C: Code A40
1 x 830 g/m 2 W.L (weft) 60°C: Code A60
1 x 300 g/m 2 csm
Cure: 5 h at 60°C

distinct bands of failure time, such that plotting on a logarithmic time scale
will provide a reasonably uniform spread of results over the interval
10 3-10 7 '8 s (17 min-2 years). Five replicate tests are called for at each load
level for all but the longest-term tests.
Tests to the above schedule are being carried out at three temperatures:
20, 40 and 60 0 e (Programmes A20, A40 and A60 respectively). Since the
material is nominally identical to that used in earlier work the results now
obtained at 40 e offer a direct comparison. The tests at 20 e will provide
0 0

data at a temperature more relevant to sustained service conditions, whilst

those at 60 0 e will complete a time/temperature frame-work in which
superposition techniques can be examined.
A major criticism of the previous test programme (see the introduction)
concerned the width of the test specimens (6 mm). Scepticism regarding the
validity of data obtained with such narrow specimens stems from two
sources. Firstly, a very rapid take-up of water throughout the specimens
would be expected because of the exaggerated influence of cut specimen
edges and exposed glass fibre ends. Secondly, unpredictable variations in
strength might arise from using a width no greater than that of a single
bundle in the woven-roving reinforcement. A notable difference introduced
in the present programme is therefore the use of a specimen of25 mm width.
A further criticism of the previous work is that it used distilled water as an
immersion medium, whereas seawater would be involved in eEGB
applications. It has been argued that osmotic influences, known to apply in
polyester resins, would diminish the take-up of water in the latter case and
82 R. C. Wyatt et al.

might thus reduce the rate of decay of strength in a creep-rupture test.

Hence, to counter such arguments, the present programme uses an artificial
seawater of standard composition.

Supplementary Programmes
To exploit fully the comprehensive data obtained in Programme A,
supplementary programmes were included to examine certain important
materials and test variations. These are summarised below to show the
scope of the investigation. Table 2 provides details of the variations upon
which results are reported here.
Programme TI provides a link with the earlier work, reference I, by using
testpieces of the same width, 6 mm.
Programme T2 investigates the effect of sealing cut edges in the testpiece.
As a second link with the earlier programme,l T3 uses distilled water as
the immersion medium, so that the importance of osmotic effects can be
assessed.
The last of this group of supplementary programmes, T4, deals with
exposure to water on only one of the two main faces of the laminate. The
pattern of water take-up under such conditions will clearly be very different
from that in conditions of total immersion, with or without edge sealing. To
summarise therefore Programmes Tl-T4, together with A40, study the
factors governing water ingress, and their influence upon degradation of the
laminate.
In Programmes MI-M7, the response of different laminate systems to
seawater at 40°C are studied.
The polyester resin used in M I is nominally identical to that used in
Programme A except that it contains no thixotropic agent. That in M2 is of
TABLE 2
Supplementary programmes: Materials and testing procedures

Programme Chosen variation from A40 Experimental details

code (variations from A40)

Tl Narrow testpiece Specimen width: 6 mm

T3 Distilled water Immersion medium: Distilled water
M3 Epoxy resin Resin: Ciba-Geigy XD 927
Reinforcement: Type 9504 w.r.
from Scandinavian Glassfiber
(nom. wt. 820 g/m2)
M7 All-woven-roving Construction: 4 x 830g/m 2 w.r.
construction (warp/weft/warp/weft)
 Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates in Aqueous Environments 83

a different polyester type expected to provide a greater degree of water

resistance.
Programmes M3 and M4 examine the use of resin of different chemical
types, epoxy and vinyl ester.
The powder-bound csm of Programme M5 replaces the p.v.a. emulsion-
bound csm of the main programme.
The incorporation of Programmes M6 and M7 is an attempt to isolate
the performance, in creep-rupture, of the two basic reinforcement types
combined in Programme A, i.e. chopped strand mat and woven-rovings.

TESTING EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES

Design and Construction of Test Rigs

Load points
A simple first-order lever was employed, with an arm ratio of 20: 1. The
loads available ranged from 180 to 2000 kgf.
The basic unit comprised two load points symmetrically disposed about
the centre ofa 54 in length of3 x l-tin channel section. Groups of four units
were mounted on base frames as shown in the photograph (Fig. 1).
Rectangular tanks in stainless steel were constructed in two sizes, or
accepted respectively four to eight load points.
To keep down cost of manufacture and to facilitate small variations in

FIG. I. General view of test facility at Bath University.

84 R. C. Wyatt et al.

applied load, hanging weights were made in the form of large boxes, to be
filled with gravel or (for the highest loads) lead shot.
To reduce vibrations and bearing damage when a sample breaks, a baulk
of timber is located beneath the lever arm, as may be seen in the left
foreground of Fig. I .This is made the basis of a simple system for sample
break detection by standing it upon a pressure switch so that contact is
made when the sample fails.

Cell for single-sided exposure

Programme T 4 requires laminates to be exposed to seawater at 40 °C on
one face only. This technique does not appear to have been used before with
simple tensile loading, but only with specimens in the form of tubes .
So that use could be made of the facility constructed for the main
programme it was decided to construct an 'air-cell', for the protection of one
face and the edges of a standard testpiece. Besides excluding water, it was
required that the cell exert the least possible influence on the mechanical
behaviour of the testpiece.
The design adopted is shown in the photograph (Fig. 2).
A 'perspex' strip, profiled to match the specimen gauge length, carries at
one end a 25 mm spacer which forms the base of the air-cell. At the upper
end, the cell wall is located against the sample clamping nut. There is thus
no restraint on the extension of the testpiece .
After the testpiece has been correctly clamped up, a two-part cold cure
adhesive, Bostik 'Boscoprene Cement' No. 2402 is used to attach the lower
end of the cell to the GRP, and then to attach flexible side membranes over
the profiled edges of testpiece and cell wall. 'Neoprene' rubber sheet I mm
thick is used. Tensile tests carried out with a water-filled cell in place show
no detectable change in UTL and no leakage of water prior to fracture of
the GRP.

FIG. 2. Components of cell for single-sided immersion of tensile testpiece.

 Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates in Aqueous Environments 85

Experimental Procedure
Sample preparation
For the majority of tests, samples were machined to give a parallel-sided
central portion 65 mm long by 25 ± O· 5 mm wide. End tabs were 38 mm
wide by 90 mm, and shoulder radius 75 mm.
Samples for Programme Tl were prepared with a central parallel portion
50 mm long by 6 mm wide, but were in respect of end tabs and fitting
identical to those described above.

Tensile testing
Ten samples were tested from each category of material, using an Instron
1195 screw-driven machine with crosshead speed 5 mm/min, causing
failure to occur within the time range 30-90 s.

Stress-rupture testing
The lever arm was first supported by a small hydraulic jack, in such a
position that it would move down toward the horizontal as the sample
extended. The sample train was anchored first at the lower end. The size and
design of the anchor points was such that this was quite readily achieved,
although elbow-length rubber gloves had to be worn when operating in
tanks at 60°C.
After the top anchor point had been attached and slack taken up in the
linkage, load was gradually applied by operating the release valve of the
hydraulic jack.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tensile Testing
Table 3 gives the tensile test results, for all categories of material
concerned, expressed as Ultimate Tensile Unit Load (UTUL) in units of
newtons per millimetre width as recommended in BS 4994, 1973.
As stated, each result is the mean of ten determinations on testpieces
selected at random from the laminates. The standard deviation of each
sample is reported, and in the worst case the 95 %confidence limits are set at
mean value ± 20 %.
The mean and standard deviation for the whole population are reported
also. Using these as a basis for comparison and employing Student's ttest, it
is found that for five of the material variables (i.e. A, M 1, M2, M4, M5)
involving changes to resin but none to the reinforcement, no significant
effect can be detected on the UTUL against the background variability.
86 R. C. Wyatt et al.

TABLE 3
Tensile test results

Code Description Glass Mean Standard

content UTUL· deviation
(kg m- 2 ) (N/mm) (N/mm)

A Crystic 625 2·86 239 19

Ml No thixotropic agent 2·86 269 10
M2 Crystic 397 2·86 262 15
M3 Epoxy resin 2·84 276 18
M4 Vinyl ester resin 2·86 261 10
M5 Powder-bound 2·86 251 17
M6 All csm 3·00 223 10
M7 All-w.r. 3·32 309 29
T! Narrow sample 2·86 206 17
T2
T3 As 'A'
T4
Total population 253 31

• Ultimate Tensile Unit Load, BS 4994, 1973.

The increased unit strength associated with epoxy resin (M3) is

significant at the 5 % level, i.e. it could arise by chance once in twenty
tests.
As would be expected, changes in the reinforcement pattern to all csm
(M6) and to all woven-roving (M7) produce more significant changes in unit
strength: the reduction in the first case being significant at the 1 %level and
the increase in the latter significant at the 0·1 % level.
Finally it may be remarked that for the standard lay-up there is a highly
significant reduction in unit strength on changing to a narrow testpiece
(Tl). This is not unexpected, but it emphasises the need for using testpieces
of adequate size to give a realistic assessment of these materials.

Creep Rupture Tests

Creep rupture testing commenced in November 1979. The results
reported in this paper are those available at the time of writing, for (a) the
main programme (A20, A40, A60) and (b) the four supplementary
programmes (M3, M7, Tl and T3).

Main programme
Statistical treatment of results. Figures 3 and 4, show creep rupture plots
for Programmes A40, and A20 plus A60 respectively. All experimental
 Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates in Aqueous Environments 87
100
CREEP-RUPTURE PLOT
, Program "40

--~
. --. AA
Me an U.T.U.L. 239 """""

--..
P,Q: see text.
AA ~
A
'" ,
- A

~ ·l
Q A
A A

1~
20 ~
o
10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10'
TIME to fai lure, sec

FIG. 3. Experimental results for creep-rupture of polyester/glass laminate in seawater at

40°C.

points are included, and unit loadings are expressed as a percentage of mean
(short-term) ultimate tensile unit load. In each case a best-fit straight line is
shown, calculated by regression analysis of log time on normalised unit
load; i.e. assuming an equation of the form:
log t = A - B(u/uo) (1)
where A and B are constants, t is the time to failure associated with unit load
u, and Uo is Ultimate Tensile Unit Load.
100r-----.------.------r------rr==========~
CREEP-RUPTURE PLOT
'- Program '20 •. '60 0.
~~---'~~~----~~--------~------~I
Me an UJ.U.L. 239

~i~----+------~~~~----~==T===~
..
~~-------r--------~-------r----~~~~~~~------~
9
A ~M ............................
20~----~------~------~------+-----~------~

"40 best fit - - -

10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10'

TIM E to failure , sec.

FIG. 4. Experimental results for creep-rupture of polyester/glass laminate in seawater at

20°C and at 60°C, compared with 'best-fit' line for 40°C from Fig. 3.
88 R. C. Wyatt et al.

This equation is appropriate iflife predictions are to be made, but it must

be used with caution. To illustrate this point, Fig. 3 shows the two
regression lines determined from A40. Curve P conforms to the above
equation. Curve Q shows the regression of stress upon log time and has an
equation
u
-= M - Nlogt (2)
uo

where M and N are constants not related in any simple way to A and B of
eqn. (1). In this case the two lines are quite close, indicating a high degree of
correlation in the data (r = 0'91), but nonetheless curve Q (eqn. (2)) gives an
unjustifiably optimistic prediction for the thirty-year creep-rupture
strength. In making predictions of this type it is important to choose the
correct regression line, a fact which some previous workers have not
appreciated.
In Figs 3 and 4 the longer-term points suggest a down-turn in the creep-
rupture curves at both 40 and 60°C, and it is proposed to collect more data
in these regions.
Temperature effects. Figure 4 compares the best-fit lines for the three test
temperatures. The trend is as expected, and is similar to the findings ofD. 1.
Steel 3 who performed flexure tests on similar materials. However, the
differences with temperature in the present work are quite small, and may
not be significant against the background scatter. Furthermore, unit loads
in each case have been normalised to the measured Ultimate Tensile Unit
Load at 20°C. It is probable that the observed effects of temperature in
stress-rupture would appear even smaller when normalised against
Ultimate Tensile Unit Load measured at the temperature of test.

Supplementary programmes
Exposure conditions. In Fig. 5 are plotted the results for 6mm wide
testpiece (Tl) and for distilled water immersion (T3) together with the best-
fit line for A40 as a reference.
It appears that the effect on test results of a large reduction in specimen
width is negligible. This is a rather surprising conclusion, for which two
opposing explanations could be offered. Firstly, it might be argued that, in
both cases, water take-up is sufficiently rapid (perhaps totally or partially
through cut specimen edges) for saturation to be reached very quickly.
Beyond very short times, the creep-rupture performance would then be
similar for both specimen types. Alternatively, if water take-up is extremely
 Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP Laminates in Aqueous Environments 89

100
CREEP - RUPTURE PLOT
P,og,omT1: 6. T3 :.
....
~ ~
Me on U.T.U.l.
8~ e. T1
• T3 23.9

.. ~ ~
~
~

"
8 --- _-..:;;;;
....
~---
20
A~O best lit - ---

~O' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10'

TIM E 10 loi lu,e. sec .

FIG. 5. Effects of sample width and of immersion medium upon creep-rupture behaviour of
polyester/glass laminate at 40°C.

slow, then penetration of water might be insufficient within the time scale of
the tests to affect creep-rupture performance. Again the behaviour of the
two types of specimen would appear similar. At the time of writing no water
uptake measurements are available to resolve this question. The lower
initial strength of the 6 mm specimen should be recalled. A consequence is
that a comparative plot in terms of absolute (non-normalised) unit load
would indicate a noticeably poorer performance in the case of the narrower
specimens for the same material.
Changing the immersion medium from seawater to distilled water is
shown by Programme T3 to produce no significant change in the rate of
degradation. Such a conclusion is perhaps not surprising in view of the low
concentrations of soluble salts in the former (e.g. 6 g/litre NaCl, equivalent
to a O·IN solution. Thus distilled water may be used with confidence for
future test work, which will greatly reduce experimental difficulties.
Alternative laminates. Data from programme M3 are plotted in Fig. 6.
Clearly the epoxy laminate deteriorates more rapidly than does the
polyester material. In the preparation of this laminate the woven-roving
reinforcement was changed to one known to have an epoxy-compatible
finish. No commercially available csm reinforcement with a finish
specifically designed as epoxy-compatible could be traced so the material
used in Programme A was retained. This was recognised as a potential
shortcoming but it was unavoidable. In the present situation a would-be
commercial user of epoxy resin for a similar purpose would face the same
90 R. C. Wyatt et al.

~Or-----.------.------~-----rr==========~
CREEP - RUPTURE PLOT
Program M3 6. M7 ...
~~------~~~~~----~------~I
::I Mean U.T.U.L.
;:::! M3 276
~ M7 309
I~--~~~~~----~==~==~
....
~~------+-------~------~~~~~~~---+-------;
9
201~----~-------+-------r------+-~~--r-~~~

A 40 best fit - - - -

10' 10' 10' 10' 10'

TIM E to faj lure •• ec.

FIG. 6. Effects of resin type and reinforcement pattern on creep-rupture behaviour of

laminates in seawater at 40°C.

problem. It cannot be deduced from present evidence how significant this

incompatibility is.
Figure 6 shows also a plot of data from Programme M7. Comparison of
the best-fit straight line with that from Programme A40 reveals what is
probably a negligible difference in creep-rupture performance between
laminate of all-woven-roving construction and that of the basic csm/woven-
roving construction. It should be noted that the absolute unit loads applied
are higher in the case of the woven-roving material, because of its higher
strength.

CONCLUSIONS

(i) The stress-rupture behaviour of a polyester/csm/w.r. laminate in

seawater is relatively little affected by temperature and that change
may be due to the alteration in static strength.
(ii) At 40°C, distilled water and seawater are indistinguishable in their
effects, upon stress-rupture of the standard laminate.
(iii) In a comparison between 6 mm and 25 mm wide testpieces, the
UTUL of the narrow specimens is lower, but the rate of
degradation in stress-rupture strength is indistinguishable.
(iv) An all-w.r. laminate and a csm/w.r. laminate show little difference
in stress-rupture behaviour, in relation to their respective strengths.
 Stress-Rupture Behaviour of GRP lAminates in Aqueous Environments 91

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are indebted to Mr N. Heppell who carried out much of the
experimental work, W. and J. Tod Ltd who prepared the laminates, the
Generation Development and Construction Division of the CEGB for
financial support, Mr M. D. Holdstock of that department for his
contributions to the preparation of programmes and Mr D. A. Pask, South
West Region Director-General of the CEGB, for permission to publish
this paper.

REFERENCES

1. BRYAN-BROWN,IM. H. and WALKER, D. M. Power station condenser water

boxes in GRP, British Plastics Federation 1lth Reinforced Plastics Congress,
1978, Paper 14.
2. BRY'AN-BROWN,M. H., WALKER,D. M.and WYATT,R.C.Advancesintheuseof
GRP for the power industry, British Plastics Federation 12th Reinforced Plastics
Congress, 1980, Paper 22.
3. STEEL, D. J. The creep and stress-rupture ofreinforced plastics, J. Plastics Inst.,
1965, October. 16.1-7.
 7

Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reinforced

Epoxy Resin

P. BONNIAU AND A. R. BUNsELL

Ecole des Mines de Paris, Centre des Materiaux,

B.P. 87, 91003 EVRY Cedex, France

ABSTRACT

Water absorption by glass fibre reinforced epoxy resin and its influence on
tensile strength have been studied and the role of the resin hardener shown to
be very important. All tests were conducted under conditions of relative
humidity ranging from 0 % to 100 % RH and in the temperature range
25°-90°C. It was found possible to apply diffusion theories to those
materialsfor which diamine and dicyandiamide hardeners had been used but
not when an anhydride hardener had been employed. Damage, as revealed by
a fall in tensile strength, was found to occur at relative humidities greater
than 6{}-70% RH. It was seen, both under humid conditions and in
immersion tests, that this damage was not related to the quantity of water
absorbed by the composite but to the temperature and time ofexposure after
the water concentration limit was passed.

NOTATION

D Composite ditTusivity (m 2 s - 1)
t Time (s)
h Thickness of plate (m)

p=--JDi DitTusion parameter (Dimensionless)

h
W Weight of plate (kg)
Wd Weight of dry plate (kg)
Wm Weight of saturated plate (kg)
92
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin 93

W-Wd
M=--- Moisture content percentage ( %)
Wd
Mm= Wm- Wd Maximum moisture content percentage (%)
Wd
Vj Fibre volume fraction ( %)
T Temperature (0C)
RH Relative humidity ( %)
Probability of a molecule of water passing from the
combined phase to the free phase (s -1)
f3 Probability of a molecule of water passing from the
free phase to the combined phase (s -1)

INTRODUCTION

The use of glass fibre reinforced composites is often limited by poor

knowledge of their long-term behaviour and one of the most important
unknown influencing factors is the effect of absorbed water. The amount of
water generally absorbed by these materials is quite small, typically less
than 1 %; however, earlier studies have shown that this water can cause
dramatic loss of mechanical and physical properties. 1.2 Several studies on
carbon fibre reinforced epoxy resin indicate that this loss of properties is
due primarily to the absorption of water by the body of the ·resin. 3,4
Water absorption by epoxy resins seems to occur by instantaneous
adsorption at the surface followed by diffusion into the body of the resin.
The water is in the form of free molecules or groups of molecules linked
loosely by hydrogen bonds to the polymer. This being the case, it has been
found that the rate of water absorption can often be correctly described for
both the resin 5 and the composites 6 by employing the diffusion laws. In this
instance there is simply the diffusion mechanism operating and no
degradation of the resin occurs. Above certain thresholds of humidity and
temperature other mechanisms due to the presence of the water in the resin,
such as swelling 7 and plastification,3 lead to degradation of the material.
These effects have been reported elsewhere but our knowledge of the causes
is largely qualitative and they seem to vary with the composite components
and the conditions of curing. The primary aim of this study has been to
examine the limitation of the diffusion laws for three types of glass
reinfprced -epoxy (grp) under humid and immersion conditions whilst
assuming that simple diffusion cannot be considered to be, in itself, a
damaging process which would lead to a fall in material strength.
94 P. Bonniau and A. R. Bunsell

DIFFUSION MODELS AND CURVE FITTING

Two diffusion models have been considered; the first is the classical case of
absorption of a single free phase and the second is of the Langmuir type
which involves the diffusion of two phases, one free to diffuse and the other
linked to the material and unable to diffuse.
Both these models are based on the theoretical ideas which are expressed
as Fick's Law and which involve the water concentration gradient as the
driving force of the diffusion.
The validity of the models can be determined by observing the water
uptake of a plate of thickness, h, initially dry and then exposed to
conditions of fixed humidity and temperature. The weight gain, M%, as a
function of time, t, may be expressed for the single free phase model as a
function of two parameters-the diffusivity, D, and the weight gain at
saturation, M m %.6- 8
Dt
-<0·05 (1)
h2

Dt
->0·05
h2
° ° [1- n82exp - Dt
M%=Mm% h2·n I[ 2]] (2)

In the two-phase model M % as a function of time is expressed by four

parameters-diffusivity, D, Mm %, the probability of a molecule passing
from the attached to the free phase, (x, and the probability of a molecule
passing from the free phase to the bound phase, /3.8- 10
When:

absorption may be written as:

Dt ° ° (X (iii
% (X + P" Jn0 -y Jl2
4 (3)
Jl2<0005 M% = Mm 0

Dt
Jl2> 0005 MOl
1o = Mm 1o
0/ [1 -_/3-
+ /3
(X
exp ( - (X t)
0

__(X_o~oexp[_ Dt on 2
(X + /3 n 2 h2
JJ (4)

It will be seen that the second model reduces to the first when (X = 1 and
/3=00
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin 95

The parameters are calculated using either eqn. (2) or eqn. (4) according
to the model employed and for points for which (Dt/h 2 ) > 0·05. The
method of minimum variances, as used for curves of an exponential shape,
was employed. 11 The calculations were made using a TI 59 calculator and a
precision of 0·001 was arrived at in 10 min for the first model and in 1 h for
the second.

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

The three materials used were in the form of plates made by UDD-FIM and
are generally used as insulators in electric motors. All three were similar,
being made from glass type E fibre cloth in a Bisphenol A epoxy resin. The
only difference between the three series of materials was the hardener used
to cure the resin. The hardeners used were diamine, dicyandiamide and
anhydride. These are shown in Table 1.
Ten environmental chambers were used in these tests, allowing
conditions of 0 %to 100 %RH and 25-90 °C to be obtained plus immersion
in distilled water over the same temperature range (see Fig. 1). Relative
humidity was controlled in the chambers by means of saturated salt
solutions. Relative humidity was measured with an hygrometer probe of
lithium chloride type DMS 100 produced by Richard-Pekly. Temperature

TABLE 1
Characteristics of the three studied materials

Material 1 Material 2 Material 3

Type of hardener used with Diamine Dicyandiamide Anhydride

Bisphenol A resin

Filament type E.C.9.68 E.C.9.68 E.C.9.68

Glass fibre Number of threads in warp
cloth per centimetre 17 17 17
Number of threads in weft
per centimetre 13 13 13
Number of cloth layers
per millimetre 7 6 6
Composite Fibre volume fraction 56% 48% 48%
Density (g/cm 3) 1·90 1·80 1·80
Usual upper service temperature 155°C 140°C 140°C
96 P. Bonniau and A. R. Bunsell

~
- Hygrometer

. - - Speed 01 rotation. 4 I rlmn

,- - Thermo meter

r---

V
f----

~
'- - Heating element

o
N
<D
•
- ~
~
~

- Composite plates

- - - Insulat ion
t
- - Regulati o n
t
1 II

t I - Salt solution or

I
liquid ilter

!
I
I
520 .l
FIG. I. Schematic view of an environmental chamber.

measurements were made with a numerical thermometer, type PN 2S, made

by A.O.I.P., as well as an electronic transducer, type LX 5600, which also
controlled the regulation and which was made by National Semiconductor.
The composites were in the form of thin plates so as to have negligible
edge effects and ensure a condition of one-dimensional diffusion normal to
the fibre directions. The dimensions of the plates were n = 210mm ± 0-4,
1= 300 mm ± 0-4 and h = I mm ± 0·16. A range of plate thicknesses were
used with the first material, h = 0·2, 0·5, 1 and 2 mm.
The plates were weighed on an electronic balance made by Sartorius, type
1205 MP. The balance was enclosed in a Faraday cage in order to eliminate
electrostatic effects on the plates and to act as a draught shield.
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin 97

The tests were conducted in a total of 29 different environments for

material 1 and 13 different environments for the two other materials. In
every test either two ot three plates were simultaneously exposed to the
same conditions.
The tensile tests were conducted at 5 x 10- 2 mN - 1 on an Instron tensile
machine. Tensiletests were conducted after nine different exposures under
humid conditions and for immersions. The shape of the tensile test
specimens is shown in Fig. 2. All specimens were initially dried over a period
of two weeks at 100°C.

,......- -. _ _ .-1""-_ _ _ _~
FIG. 2. Tensile specimen shape .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The first material, having a diamine hardened resin, showed excellent

agreement with the first model, as shown in Fig. 3. Initially the absorption
curve is linear as a function of Jt and this is followed by a curving until
saturation. Studies with plates of differing thickness showed that the water
was uniformly distributed in the saturated material and the behaviour
appeared to be perfectly reversible. Figure 4 shows a different behaviour for
the dicyandiamide hardened material which shows a double plateau which
is not correctly described by the first model. It is necessary to apply the
second two-phase model to this material in order to describe the
experimental results and it has been possible to calculate the different
diffusion parameters.
It was found that the behaviour described by Shen and Springer 6 for
carbon fibre reinforced epoxy is also seen in these first two materials in that
the diffusivity is a unique function of the temperature and follows a
Arrhenius type law (see Fig. 5) and the saturation level is a linear function of
relative humidity (see Fig. 6). For the second material it has been possible to
show that IY./(IY. + /3), which corresponds to the proportion of the water
concentration in the free phase in the total, is constant and around 0·7.
 98 P. Bonniau and A. R. Bunsell

•
I

Immersion
,
Vapour 90°C Vapour l00%RI< I

T.OC ~um. dry rc hum dry

3 %RH Ilum dry
0 0 0 90 ,
(9 90 0 • o
10
,
I III 60 • •60 c • I
I

28
52 ,
Q
0
40
25
•
I
Q

•
40
25
•
• .." I
I
I

•
I
74 .~
100 '$ (9 , I

, I

,,
,-
2 "' 0

,- " .... - - -- -.-

,
• ...,.,.... ....0 0

J' "
--c......_ I--- - ---'-...IiIL- - - - -- - -
I
p . . ~., I

I
0"

I
I I

, I
/
I

I '
I '
I I
I '
I I
I I.
,I'
.5 p

-..,..,.........~~~. . . . . . .~IOO+-I---+--~--..---=-500~1::---'---r-:2::5:r:OC:::·~_·D:: 2.9 10- 1 -..'ta

~
1-1

__=, I, 10 tOo 00200 0 0 0 '~O-c'_D= 7.4 10-1

- , I • ••
10 50 IOOOC_D:: 2.2 10-' -

-----~-~~---~5~~~~~~~--~--~~~2~0--~to~"C~:D::Q2 10-' -

FIG. 3. First material absorption curves. The solid curves are theoretical and obtained by
consideration of single free phase diffusion. The experimental points on the curves correspond
to the conditions used for the tensile tests,

Knowing the diffusion parameters it was then possible to use the

parameter p = Dt/h in order to represent the curves for the two materials. J
It proved impossible to arrive at a stable state of saturation for the third
material due to leaching and loss of material which became appreciable
above 40 °e,as can be seen in Fig. 7. The principal loss mechanism was due
to erosion of the resin at the surface. However, it is to be noted that the
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Rei1!forced Epoxy Resin 99

II"

.
3
Vapour 9O"C Vapour IOO%R..!:! Immer si on
"RH hum d~ T.OC hum. dry T.OC. hum dry _
•• -
-- ----
0 10 • • 90 0
• •
• •
--
•, •.
-
10 10 60 0

• •• .." --
()
-40
,
.- --
21 I .040
52 0 25 25 • •
74 4
100 •
•• • .- '"
.-
.- .- 0
.- '" •
2
.- .- .- '" 0

, ,,
•,- ,

.
/

, ,-
/

.-
" .;- -- -
-----
I
I
~

...
_.a- ---- -- ~ ------
•
..
I

. ..
,
I
I
, , '" •• '"

,, "
I

, "
I

I
I
I
--====== '"
, I

,
,,
.-,
'"
.5 t.5 P
I , I I

~~', i
2S·C"_O= ~ 10- 1 mm',
10

10
I
100
,
100
300
, I
40.c:O= 1.2 10- 1
I I
10 50 60 ·'C: 0= 3.-4 10-'
I I
5 10 90.(:_D= 12 10. 1

FIG. 4. Second material absorption curves. Solid curves are theoretical and obtained by
consideration of two-phase model. The experimental points on the CUf\!es correspond to the
conditions used for the tensile tests.

curve obtained at 25°C was similar to that found with the second material
and so corresponds to two-phase diffusion; this enables us to again employ
the reduced parameter p = Dt/h in comparing curves. J
It is to be noted that the saturation levels and the diffusivities obtained in
the study agree well with the results given by Morgan et al. 5 for pure resin.
We can see from the above results that in the case of the first material
water absorption is accounted for by simple diffusion into the body of the
100 P. Bonniau and A. R. Bunsell

D _mm'/I_

mat.' - o. E = 11.3 ! 1 kul/IMI

kce&ltnoll
10

10 ~ ____ ~~ __ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ __________ ~

100 80 60 40 20 o T _"C_

FIG. 5. Diffusivity versus temperature for the two first materials in water vapour. Arrhenius
relationship.

Mm"
...•...
o
o

Mm" = •. RH"
.5 • = '" ! 0.1"

100 RH'4
FIG. 6. Saturation limit versus relative humidity for the two first materials in water vapour.
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reiriforced Epoxy Resin 101

,~
- --- •
0 •
I
I
c •
I

2 /
/

I
I
•
/

,
I
I
,,
I I
I
,,
,,
I ,,
I ,,
,
o ",
,,
,,
,,
,,
,, •
, ,,

,
,
,,,..
" ,
"" ,~

", , .... ,
....
-1
"" , , \~
\\ "
" , \
\
""
,
",,
"
~"r to"C ",,
-2 i"NI tuft ~ ,
•••
•, • 0
,
• ", •
51 ,• ~ (I

• ,, •
0

• •
. ,, 0
74 CI
" "
100 's
• • • ~,
~
"
FIG. 7. Third material absorption curves. The experimental points on the curves correspond
to the conditions used for the tensile tests. The negative points show the weight loss due to
leaching and were revealed by redrying.
102 P. Bonniau and A . R. Bunsell

resin where it is loosely attached by hydrogen bonding. This mechanism is

also the principal-but not the sole-one in the other two materials
considered. In the case of all three materials, however, the strength was seen
to fall at values of relative humidity above 60-70 % corresponding to a
weight gain of 0·6 to 0·7 %for the first two materials (see Figs 8, 9 and 10). It
seems that at this stage of absorption a concentration limit is reached at
which the water concentration in the material is no longer in equilibrium
with the surrounding environment.
The result is a swelling and plastification of the resin leading to increased
internal stresses. It should be noted that there was not a direct relationship
between weight gain and the damage produced. For identical saturation
levels ( ~ 1 %) it seemed that the strength reduction produced depended on
the temperature and also the time of applied load. In addition, the third
material shows an increase in breaking strength going from the dry state to
the concentration limit (Fig. 10), suggesting a mechanism of stress
relaxation due to leaching.
This hypothesis of a limiting concentration agrees well with the results
obtained by immersion in that, with all three materials, the observed
behaviour did not correspond to the situations covered by the diffusion
laws. Above 40°C the weight gain was continuous and passed the saturation

...
levels found under humid conditions for the first two materials (Figs 3 and

~- -

• 0

74
100
•
'.
e
$
40
25
~

• .• "
6

.5 1.5 P

FIG. 8. Variations of tensile strength under different conditions for the first material.
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reiriforced Epoxy Resin 103
Water Ab orption by Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin 103

CTr . MPa.
400

c
"
~
. " ~()

.. -
0 J

Y
"

,
o.
0 0
• ", 0
I

0
2OQ.
•
Vapc ur 90'C
%RH hum d!L
0 • • Vapour l00%B!:i Immersion
10 I
, (J) T."C. ,",um. dry ~."C. hum dry
•
•"
28 0 I 90 0
~~
52 J () 60 •, 60 • 0
74 • • 40
•
(J)

•
40
.
Y
"
"
's 25 25
100 "

or .MPa.
400
l
()

•
AY
" "
"
•
(J)
'(J)

~
0
0
0
~
o •
0 0
200 ~
• •
Vapour 9 0 · C .
%RH hum dry
• •
•
I
0 0 Vapour IOO%RH Immersion
10 • T."C ~um. dry ~ ~t!!l.
~
(J)

28 > 0 90
" • 90 0 •
40 +-
52 0 60 •
• ~
J 0
~-
74 • 0 40
.
Y
"
100 • " 25 .5• • 25 .6

1.5 p

FIG. 10. Variations of tensile strength under different conditions for the third material.
104 P. Bonniau and A. R. Bunsell

4). In the case of the third material leaching remained most important (Fig.
7). When large weight gains were detected-for example, of 3 % at 90°C-
this was due to capillary movement of water along the cracks which were
produced. In all cases the strength of the material continued to drop, as was
found on exposure to humid conditions, as a function of temperature and
time and was again seen not to be a simple function of weight gain.
Strength loss produced in the first type of material proved to be
irreversible but that produced in the other two materials was partially
reversible after drying (see Figs 8, 9 and 10). The complexity of the internal
situation of the materials prevents a clear interpretation of the
phenomenon; however, it seems that the mechanisms which determine the
two-phase absorption in materials 2 and 3 lead to bonding which results in
partial recovery when dried.
In all cases the first damage produced seems to be connected with a
transition process in the resin. According to Carter and Kibler 12 the
observed behaviour due to the presence of water is produced by a lowering
of the glass transition temperature and hence greater mobility of the
molecular chains. On the other hand, Peyser and Bascom 13 consider that it
is more likely that hydrogen bonds are being broken due to the greater
mobility of the water molecules. In addition, the presence of glass fibres in
the resin complicates the interpretation as they can be attacked by water 14
and failure at the interface allows water to penetrate the material by
capillary action.

CONCLUSIONS

It has been shown that a good relationship between the observed water
uptake of a glass epoxy composite and the diffusion laws is a necessary but
not an intrinsically sufficient condition for no damage to be produced. In
the cases of resins hardened with diamine or dicyandiamide a steady
saturation level was reached under humid conditions but at greater than
60-70% RH damage progressed as a function of temperature and time.
This behaviour was also seen for the composite hardened with anhydride
although surface erosion prevented a quantitative analysis.
The hypothesis that a concentration limit exists agrees with the results
obtained by immersion during which damage occurred under all conditions
and as a function of temperature and time.
The observed behaviour suggests that a transition process is involved in
 Water Absorption by Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Resin 105

the resin and that cracks are produced which allow the penetration ofliquid
water by capillary action. It is only at this latter stage that the possible
deterioration of the glass fibres need be considered.

REFERENCES

1. SHEN, C. H. and SPRINGER, G. S. Effects of moisture and temperature on the

tensile strength of composite materials, 1. Composite Materials, I. 11 (January
1977) 2.
2. ISHAI, O. and ARNON, U. Instantaneous effect of internal moisture conditions
on strength of glass-tiber-reinforced plastics, Advanced composite materials-
Environmental effects, ASTM-STP 658 (J. R. Vinson), 1978, pp. 267-76.
3. DEIASI, R. and WHITESIDE, J. B. Effect of moisture on epoxy resins and
composites, Advanced composite materials-Environment effects, ASTM-STP
658 (J. R. Vinson), 1978, pp. 2-20.
4. SHIRREL, C. D. Diffusion of water vapor in graphite/epoxy composites.
Advanced composite materials-Environment effects, ASTM-STP 658 (J. R.
Vinson), 1978, pp. 21-42.
5. MORGAN, R. J., O'NEAL, J. E. and FANTER, D. L. The effect of moisture on the
physical and mechanical integrity of epoxies. 1. Materials Science, 15 (1970)
751-64.
6. SHEN, C. H. and SPRINGER, G. S. Moisture absorption and desorption of
composite materials, 1. Composite Materials, 10 (January, 1976) 2.
7. HAHN, H. T. and KIM, R. Y. Swelling of composites laminates. Advanced
composite materials-Environmental effects, ASTM-STP 658 (J. R. Vinson),
1978, pp. 98-120.
8. CRANK, J. The mathematics of diffusion. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
9. GURTIN, M. E. and YATOMI, C. On a model for two phase diffusion in
composite materials, 1. Composite Materials, 13 (April, 1979) 126.
10. CARTER, H. G. and KIBLER, K. G. Langmuir-type model for anomalous
moisture diffusion in composite resins, 1.' Composite Materials, 12 (April,
1978),118.
11. LEWIS III, DAVID, Curve titting techniques and ceramics, Ceramic Bulletin, 57
(1978).
12. CARTER, H. G. and KIBLER, K. G. Entropy model for glass transition in wet
resins and composites, 1. Composite Materials, 11 (July, 1977) 265.
13. PEYSER, P. and BASCOM, W. D. The anomalous lowering of the glass transition
of an epoxy resin by plasticization with water, 1. Materials Science, 16 (1981)
75-83.
14. MARTIN, D. M.,AKINC, MUFITand MOOOH, SHIN, Effectofformingandaging
atmospheres on E glass strength, 1. American Ceramic Society, 61 (1978)
308-11.
 8
Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments
P. J. HOGG, D. HULL AND M. J. LEGG
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science,
University of Liverpool, PO Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, England

ABSTRACT

Stress and strain corrosion of glass fibre-polyester resin materials is

characterised by flat fracture surfaces with only small amounts offibre pull-
out. The times to failure and fracture surfaces of hoop wound and ±55°
helically wound pipe sections tested in diametrical compression are
compared with the results of stress corrosion on ± 55 wound tubes tested
0

under biaxial loading conditions. All the tests were carried out in water or
hydrochloric acid. The failure times are strongly dependent on the stresses
parallel to the fibres. Transverse cracking, parallel to the fibres, is also
important since it affects the flow of acid to the fibres and produces local
regions of stress concentration. The results are compared with fracture
surface studies on GRP tanks which have failed in service.

INTRODUCTION

GRP is extensively used in the chemical process industry for applications

such as pipework, reaction vessels and storage tanks. The conditions are
often severe, frequently combining pressure, high temperatures and
chemically reactive reageI}ts. In most environments GRP is reasonably
inert, especially when the component is not subjected to service loads.
Recently, however, it has been shown that even in an aqueous environment
in the presence of a sustained load stress corrosion cracking can occur. 1
106
 Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments 107

When the environment is acidic, this cracking can occur very rapidly and
may result in catastrophic failure.
The increasing industrial awareness of acidic stress or strain corrosion
has led to the use of barrier layers which delay or eliminate cracking of the
structural GRP. These layers may be pure resin gel-coats, thermoplastic
liners or resin-rich layers reinforced with glass or organic fibres.
The use of barrier layers is expensive and usually serves only to delay the
cracking effect. To ensure an adequate service life, generous safety factors
have to be used in barrier layer design. Detailed design information is
required, therefore, concerning the predicted life of GRP under acidic stress
corrosion conditions. Laboratory tests are required to characterise crack
initiation and growth, and provide information relevant to the many and
varied loading conditions encountered in service.
Most of the work reported in the literature has involved simple test
configurations such as three-point bend tests on flat laminates and
diametrical compression tests on sections of pipe. All these tests show that
the times to failure are strongly dependent on the level of applied tensile
loading. 2 - 5 Hogg and Hull 2 reported that, in unidirectional laminae,
cracks nucleate normal to the fibre direction and produce distinctive flat
fracture surfaces. This observation emphasises the importance of tensile
stresses parallel to the fibre direction. Bailey and Jones 6 have also reported
a stress corrosion phenomenon associated with crack propagation parallel
to the fibres due to stresses acting transverse to the fibres.
The present work is concerned primarily with the effects of biaxial
loading on stress corrosion and is based on internal pressure tests on
filament wound pipes. This is particularly relevant to the more complex
loading conditions experienced in service conditions and the results are
compared with those obtained from diametrical compression tests on pipe
sections in the same environmental conditions. The fracture surfaces
obtained in both these tests are compared with those found on a vessel
which has failed under stress corrosion conditions in an attempt to correlate
laboratory test results with service failures in large vessels.

REVIEW OF RING COMPRESSION TEST RESULTS

In this section, which is based on previously published work, 2 - 4 a brief

review is given of the failure processes which occur in ring compression of
glass fibre-polyester resin composite materials. In ring compression tests,
pipe sections are dammed to contain the corrosive environment and
108 P. J. Hogg et al.

compressed between parallel plates under either constant load (stress

corrosion) or constant deflection (strain corrosion) conditions. The process
of environmental degradation is monitored continuously by measuring the
deflection versus time and load relaxation versus time for stress and strain
corrosion respectively. Failure results from crack formation along the
bottom of the pipe section in the areas of maximum tensile strain. These
cracks eventually result in leakage of the corrosive liquids out of the section.
Failure can be divided into four main stages. After the initial visco-elastic
response of the pipe, there is a region of slow degradation during which
crack nuclei form and coalesce. This leads to rapid crack propagation and
pipe fracture. After leakage of the liquid the fracture processes slow down.
The micro mechanisms involved are described in reference 2.
To demonstrate the effect of different fibre geometries, loads and
corrosive environments, it is necessary to specify some critical stages in the
failure process. In this work the times to the onset of rapid crack growth, 11'
and to leakage of the liquid through the pipe wall, t 3 , have been used.
The main results obtained from the ring compression tests can be
summarised as follows:

(a) Stress and strain corrosion are similar phenomena. Stress corrosion
occurs in shorter times than strain corrosion because stress
relaxation occurs in the latter test configuration.
(b) In hoop wound pipe sections, the predominant stresses in the
material in contact with the corrosive environment are tensile
stresses parallel to the fibres (TIl' The times to failure decrease with
increasing (TIl as shown in Fig. 1.
(c) In ± 55 helically wound pipe sections, which experience both
0

longitudinal «TIl) and transverse stresses «T .L)' the times to failure

show the same form of stress dependence as hoop wound sections
but the times are shorter for a given value of (T II (Fig. I). This is
attributed to the formation of transverse cracks (parallel to the
fibres) which allow the corrosive environment to penetrate into the
material and raise the local value of (TIl acting on the underlying
fibres.
(d) The times to failure decrease with increasing acid concentration in
the range O'IM to 2·5M and are shorter in mineral acids than in
organic acids (Fig. I).
(e) Both stress and strain corrosion are characterised by flat fracture
surfaces with iittle evidence of fibre pull-out. In hoop wound
sections the flat fractures grow normal to the fibres and the
 Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments 109

30

25

20 +55"(o6SM)

:55"(25M)

15
•
oT~____~__~____~__~~--.~~~T
10 10 100 1000 10.000 100.000 1000.000
TIME . t) . MINS

FIG. I. Effect of longitudinal tensile stress, 0' 11' on the failure times (13) of hoop wound and
± 55 sections of glass fibre-polyester resin composite materials, Vr = 0·45.
0

direction of maximum tensile stress. In ± 55 laminates fracture is a

0

combination of transverse cracks and 'stress corrosion' cracks. In a

given lamina the stress corrosion cracks form at right angles to the
fibres and develop a stepped morphology which is associated with
the distribution and position of transverse cracks in adjacent
laminae.

STRESS CORROSION SERVICE FAILURES

Several GRP plant failures, thought to have been caused by stress corrosion
cracking, have been investigated. These structures were typically large
tanks for storage of aqueous acids.
In most cases fracture originated at regions of local stress concentration
such as the junctions between the tank and connecting pipework. Final
failure was catastrophic and consistent with the sudden propagation of a
crack. Otherwise, no general weakening of the structure was observed.
Some of the failed vessels were found to contain cracks on the inside walls
which extended up to 80 %of the wall thickness. These cracks were situated
at positions of high local stress .
110 P. J. Hogg et al.

The fracture surfaces viewed on a macro-scale were reasonably flat

throughout. Fairly smooth surfaces were observed at the fracture origin,
and the surface became more fibrous in nature away from this area.
Scanning electron microscopy of the fracture origin revealed all the features
which are characteristic of stress corrosion in the ring compression tests.
These features include co-planar fibre-matrix fracture, featureless fibre
fracture surfaces and delaminations between poorly bonded layers offibres.
An example is shown in Fig. 2. The fracture surfaces were rougher than in
unidirectional laminae presumably due to the many possible fracture
paths which are present in the CSM laminates used in tank construction.

FIG. 2. Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture surface at the origin of a crack in a
GRP tank used for storing acid after it had failed in service. Tank fabricated from chopped
strand mat and woven cloth reinforced polyester.

It is apparent that the planar cracks nucleate at the inside wall of the tank
and grow slowly in a plane approximately normal to the pipe wall. Away
from the nucleation region the crack surfaces become more fibrous
indicating fibre pull-out and more conventional fracture processes. This
suggests that as the cracks get longer and grow more quickly the influence of
the corrosive environment decreases. Flat fractures appear to be associated
with stable crack growth. The transition to fibrous fracture, which is
associated with unstable crack growth, is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Some of the service failures occurred in vessels protected by barrier
layers, notably gel coats reinforced with organic fibres . Although direct
 Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments 111

evidence is not available, it is probable that these layers delayed fracture but
it is equally clear that they have not prevented it. Examination of the
fracture surface markings reveals that in some cases fracture initiated below
the barrier layer suggesting that barrier layer damage is not a pre-requisite
for crack initiation.
In general the fracture surfaces are consistent with the model proposed
for stress corrosion (reference 2). No comparisons of the times to failure of
commercial vessels and laboratory test samples have been made because
there is insufficient data on service failure history or on laboratory pipe tests
using CSM.

FIG. 3. Scanning electron micrograph showing the transition from flat fracture to fibrous
fracture . Sample cut from a GRP tank after it had failed in service.

BIAXIAL STRESS CORROSION

Test Procedures
In biaxial stress, where O"Hoop = 20"Axiai (Mode 2), optimum structural
integrity of a filament wound pipe, as defined by the maximum weepage and
burst strengths, occurs at helix angles close to ±55 ° for tests in air and
water. 7.8 This work has been extended to tests in acidic environments and,
to date, has been restricted to pipes wound at the 'so-called' optimum angle
(54'7 °) using 1M hydrochloric acid. A full description of pipe preparation
has been given elsewhere;7.9 Fibreglass FGRE 20/70 'E' glass roving and
Impol T500 polyester resin (Atlac 490-05C) have been used throughout.
112 P. J. Hogg et al.

The Mode 2 test, described in reference 9, has been modified to provide

static fatigue conditions in which a constant pressure is applied for the
duration of the test. Certain other refinements were necessary to contain the
acid medium over long periods. Three successful types of end closure have
been used and are illustrated in Fig. 4. Types (a) and (b) are essentially
adaptations of the conventional method, 10 in which the '0' ring seals have
been extended into the pipe away from any possible damage due to
clamping. The type (c) end plug is relatively inexpensive and ideal for long-
term tests. It relies on the adhesion between the previously roughened pipe
bore and a cast epoxy plug to resist the end thrust generated by internal
pressure, and has proved successful up to a pressure of 50 bar. The stainless

CD flange (2) pressure Inlet

<2> spl, t calla r 5 (6) cast epoxy lAY I03/HY95~
Q) reonforcemenllglass cloth) ('!) stamless steel ~ug
~ taper(9lass cloth or cast epoxy)

FIG. 4. End closures for GRP pipes internally pressurised with acids.

steel plugs are treated with release agent prior to casting; thus it is a simple
task to liberate the plugs after testing by cutting otT the pipe end and
pushing the plugs out. The pipe ends were provided with a resin gel coat and
glass surfacing tissue before winding. For long exposures, ethylene
propylene rubber rings are used.
A schematic representation of two creep stations capable of subjecting
four· 50 mm diameter pipes to two ditTerent test pressures is shown in Fig. 5.
Each station may be isolated enabling other stations on the rig to be used
simultaneously without detriment to the otller creep tests. Separation of
acid and hydraulic fluid is achieved in the single-specimen station by means
of the conventional rubber bag (see reference 9) and in the multi-specimen
station by PTFE pistons running in honed stainless steel cylinders. The
 Failure oj GRP in Corrosive Environments 113

Station 1 (single specimen) Station 2 (three specimens)

pipe speCimens - -----1

hyd r o- pneumatic
accumulator
test
l i qUid

non - ret urn valve

PTFE
,---,"--pressur e piston
transduc er

hydraulic
fluid

stat i on Isolaltng
valve

high preuure
_ _ _....t...._ _ - ..:::::l- sou r c e -c=> - - _ _L . -_ _
FIG. 5. Schematic layout of two internal pressure creep stations for GRP pipes .

pistons also serve as shut-down valves so that loss of fluid from one
specimen is arrested before it can affect adjacent tests.
Initial weepage in the pipe is detected by a 'rain alarm' . Aclosely spaced
double helix of fuse wire is first wrapped around the pipe; loss of liquid
through the pipe wall produces a contact between the wires which is utilised
to trigger an audible alarm and stop a timer. Strain measurements have
been made using resistance strain gauges bonded to the external surface of
the pipe with an epoxy resin.

Results
In short-term tests at 20°C using a water environment, weepage occurred
at CTH ~ 105 MN m -2 in the form offinedroplets. Weepagewas preceded by
114 P. J. Hogg et al.

creaking and whitening which started at O"H ~ 40 MN m - 2 and was

associated with transverse cracking. The amount of transverse cracking
increased rapidly with increasing pressure. For O"H < 105 MN m -2 under
constant load (i.e. creep) conditions using a water environment delayed
weepage occurred. The times to failure in both water and I M hydrochloric
acid are shown in Fig. 6 along with data obtained by Mieras 8 from similar
tests on ± 50 0 glass fibre-polyester resin pipes. The data in Fig. 6 art
plotted in terms ofthe applied hoop stress O"H and the initial elastic strains at
the start of the test.
At short times the weepage stress in acid was similar to water and
weepage occurred as fine droplets. However, for creep tests at lower
pressures, the times to weepage were significantly less than in water, as
shown in Fig. 6. There was a corresponding change in the weep age process.
F or hoop stresses in the range 50 to 90 MN m - 2, the first stage of weepage
was droplet formation but this changed to fine jets which developed into
strong jets associated with well defined cracks in the pipe wall. Eventually
the rubber bag expanded through the crack in the wall and burst. Below
O"H = 50 MN m - 2 jet weepage was not observed before exhaustion of the
acid through droplet weepage.
The fracture surface appearance of tubes failed after loading in the range
O"H = 50 to 90 MN m - 2 is completely different from failure in the absence of
a corrosive environment. A general view of the fracture zone is shown in
Fig. 7. The line crack AB has formed parallel to one set of fibres in the pipe
wall. At each end of the line crack there are regions showing extensive
microcracking and delamination. These zones are typical of normal pipe
deformation in air and formed when the rubber gag expanded through the
pipe wall. They are not directly associated with stress corrosion cracking.
The section of the pipe in the region AB was removed to examine the
fracture surface directly. The surface was flat (Fig. 8) and similar to other
stress corrosion failures reported elsewhere. 2,4 The four-layer construction
of the pipe is clearly visible. A detailed examination of the fracture surface
showed that failure started at the inside surface of the pipe due to transverse
cracking of the inner layer. The cracks propagated in a plane parallel to the
fibres at or near to the fibre-resin interface. Some fibre fracture occurred in
this layer owing to the presence of out of plane fibres (see position X, Fig.
9(a)). Fracture of the second layer occurred in the same plane as the first by
stress corrosion cracking normal to the fibre direction (Fig. 9). Fracture
surface markings show that stress corrosion cracks in the second layer
nucleate at the tip of the transverse crack in the first layer (Fig. 9(b)). The
fracture surface of the second layer is stepped. The steps on the surface arise
 120

1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - short - Ier m ",eepo9 e (",oteri

Hoop
stress
~o
(MN m21

60
Mlero s
(re t 8)

1,0
0 1/'1 HCI

~ ",oler
20

a
0 ·1
10 1 10 10° 101 10 2 10 1 10' 1O~
Time (hours I

0,5
III ",ote r
Inltlol
straIn •
0
(%1 0,4 '''O t t-t.t. ,gll urt
( "atlr,
8 1M Hel
DO Hoop

0.3 0
111111
~ ~

~-
0,2
short - " rill fOllurt
( wotrr '

0.1 0
•
b
0
10 1 10 1 ,0° 101 10 2 10l 10' , OS
Tim e (hoursl

FIG. 6. Degradation effects of an acid environment on filament wound GRP pipes tested in
biaxial stress (Mode 2). (aJTime to weepage at constant hoop stress. (b) Time to failure against
initial hoop and axial strains.
116 P. J. Hogg el al.

FIG. 7. Optical micrograph ofa stress corrosion crack in a ± 55° pipe failed in Mode 2 using
1M He\.

because in a ±55 a wound pipe the plane of the transverse cracks in the first
layer is not normal to the fibre direction in the second layer (see reference 4
for details). The fracture markings at the end of the stress corrosion crack in
the second layer extend towards the third layer which failed by transverse
cracking (Fig. 9(c». Thus, the transverse cracks appear to have been
nucleated by the stress corrosion cracks in the second layer. The fourth
layer has failed by stress corrosion cracking, coplanar with the third layer

FIG. 8. Scanning electron micrograph of fracture surface of crack, along line AB in Fig. 7.
 Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments 117

FIG. 9. Higher magnification scanning electron micrographs of fracture surface in Fig. 8

showing: (a) transverse crack in first layer (left-hand side), stress corrosion crack in second
layer and transverse crack in third layer ; (b) nucleation site of stress corrosion crack in second
layer at tip of a transverse crack in first layer; (c) fracture surface markings from stress
corrosion crack extending towards a transverse crack in the third layer.
118 P. J. Hogg et al.

FIG. 10. Scanning electron micrographs showing: (a) transition from transverse crack in
third layer to stress corrosion crack in fourth layer; (b) nucleation of stress corrosion crack in
fourth layer at tip of transverse crack in third layer.

(Fig. lO(a)). Once again the stress corrosion cracks have nucleated at the tip
of the preceding transverse crack (Fig. lO(b)). The fracture process is
illustrated schematically in Fig. 11.

Discussion
The relation between the times to failure obtained from internal pressure
and ring compression tests is shown in Fig. 12. All the data have been
expressed in terms of the effect of a lion failure times. The results of Mieras 8
from Mode 2 creep tests with water are not directly comparable with the
present data because for a winding angle of ± 50 the value of a1- is higher
0

than for ±55 for a given hoop stress or a II. This means that for a given
0

hoop stress the creep rate will be higher and the time to weepage less in
± 50 pipe than in ±55 pipe. The relatively small decay in strength shown
0
0

in Fig. 12 at high hoop stresses (aH> 90 MN m - 2) in Mode 2 tests indicates

that under these conditions the life of the pipe in both acid and water is
limited by transverse crack propagation which can lead to weepage without
fibre fracture. 11 This is further supported by the absence of jet weepage in
high hoop stress tests.
At lower stresses, stress corrosion cracking strongly affects the weepage
strength as shown by the significant reduction in failure times compared
 Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments 119

I ~ ~I~
I~~
I~
~ ~

08 08
a b

c
FIG. 11. Schematic representation of radial development of a stress corrosion crack,
initiating from a transverse crack in innermost lamina of a (± 55 0) pipe subjected to an acidic
environment in Mode 2. (a) Transverse cracking in first layer; (b) stress corrosion cracks
nucleated in second layer; (c) growth of stress corrosion cracks in second layer producing
transverse cracking in third layer; (d) stress corrosion cracks which have nucleated and grown
in fourth layer.

with a water environment. At hoop stresses below ~ 40 MN m - 2, no

damage was obvious after initial loading of the pipe but quite severe
damage was evident after several hundred hours. It is not clear whether or
not this damage is due to corrosion-enhanced transverse cracking. 6 Tests
are in hand to determine the effect of internal pressure under conditions
where, according to linear elastic analysis,l° (T.L is approximately zero. In
Mode 3 tests 9 this occurs in hoop wound pipes and in pipes wound at ± 57 o.
In the diametrical ring compression tests on hoop and ± 55 ° pipe
sections failure is due to crack propagation by fibre fracture. Much higher
values of (Til are possible than in Mode 2 tests because transverse cracking
does not dominate the failure process. In other words failure is controlled
by (Til and the slope of the failure line in Fig. 12 is determined solely by the
stress or strain corrosion effect. However, the relative positions of the hoop
and ± 55 °lines is affected by transverse cracking. In ± 55 °wound sections
transverse cracking is extensive in ring compression 4 whereas in hoop
120 P. J. Hogg el al.

3.0

1.5

Ring comprusion. t, 0 hoO{l

1.0 10.65'" HOI <> !55

0.5

10 10) 10' Iff

TIme Iminsl

FIG. 12. Comparison of time to failure 11 in diametrical ring compression with time to
weepage in Mode 2 on basis of longitudinal stress, () II' showing transition from conventional
weepage behaviour to corrosion-induced failure in conditions of biaxial stress.

sections it is minimal. 2 The effect of transverse cracking is also minimised by

the non-uniform stress state which exists through the wall of the pipe when
it is subjected to diametrical compression. This tends to restrict cracking to
the inner layers where the tensile stresses are higher, at those positions in
contact with the corrosive environment.
In the long-term Mode 2 tests weepage with acid occurs before weepage
with water. The weepage times depart from the water results, which are
 Failure of GRP in Corrosive Environments 121

supported by the results of Mieras,8 and follow a line parallel to the ring
compression data. This similarity in stress dependence at longer times
reflects the emerging dominance of a failure criterion based on 0"11' The
displacement of the line to shorter times compared with the ring
compression data on ± 55 pipe sections is probably due to the effect of
0

transverse cracks. Thus fracto graphic studies (see Fig. 10) show that the
stress corrosion cracks initiated in the second layer at the tip of a transverse
crack in the first layer.
These results show that stress corrosion of composite materials is
determined largely by tensile stresses parallel to the fibres and that the
processes which occur are affected by transverse cracking. The relative
importance of these processes will depend on the fibre arrangement and
loading conditions. Transverse cracking occurs at low stresses in the
absence of any corrosive environment but there is evidence from long-term
Mode 2 tests at low hoop stresses that the transverse cracking threshold is
also affected by the environment.
In CSM laminates the relative magnitude of 0" II and 0"1. stresses will not be
the same as in aligned laminates. This will affect the fracture path and
fracture morphology. However, the examination of service failures from
tanks made from CSM shows that flat fracture occurs and all the evidence
indicates that stress corrosion failure is involved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Science Research Council for financial
support, and to their colleagues, without whose help this work could not
have been done.

REFERENCES

1. AVESTON, J., KELLY, A. and SILLWOOD, J. M., Long term strength of glass
reinforced plastics in wet environments. In: Advances in composite materials,
I.C.C.M.3, Bunsell, A. R. et al. (eds), Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1980,
pp.556-68.
2. HOGG, P. J. and HULL, D., Micromechanisms of crack growth in composite
materials under corrosive environments, Metal Science, 14 (1980) 441-9.
3. HooG, P. J., HULL, D. and SPENCER, B., Stress and strain corrosion of glass
reinforced plastics. To be published in Composites (1981).
122 P. J. Hogg et al.

4. HULL, D. and HOGG, P. J., Nucleation and propagation of cracks during strain
corrosion of GRP. In: Advances in composite materials, I.C.C.M. 3, Bunsell,
A. R. et al. (eds), Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1980, pp. 543-55.
5. ROBERTS, R. C., Design stress for glass fibre reinforced polyester and long term
environmental stress failure mechanisms, BPF Reinforced Plastics Congress,
Paper No. 19, Brighton, 1978.
6. BAILEY, J. E. and JONES, F., Environmental stress-corrosion edge-cracking of
glass reinforced polyesters. In: Advances in composite materials, I.C.C.M. 3,
Bunsell, A. R. et al. (eds), Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1980, pp. 514-28.
7. SPENCER, B. and HULL, D., Effect of winding angle on the failure of filament
wound pipe, Composites, 9 (1978) 263-71.
8. MIERAS, H. J. M. A., Irreversible creep of filament wound glass reinforced resin
pipes, Plastics and Polymers, 41 (1973) 84-9.
9. HULL, D., LEGG, M. J. and SPENCER, B., Failure of glass/polyester filament
wound pipe, Composites, 9 (1978) 17-24.
10. LEGG, M. J., Ph.D. thesis, Liverpool University, 1980.
II. JONES, M. L. C. and HULL, D., Microscopy of failure mechanisms in filament
wound pipe, J. Mat. Sci., 14 (1979) 165-74.
 9

Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply

Strips

G. J. TURVEY

Department of Engineering, University of Lancaster,

Bailrigg, Lancaster LA] 4YR, England

ABSTRACT

The behaviour of cross-ply laminated bimodular strips in the elastic large

dejfection regime is studied. Dejfections, etc. have been computed for
uniformly loaded strips with opposite edges either simply supported or
clamped, using the Dynamic Relaxation (DR) method. The bimodular strip
results are compared with corresponding results for strips made of
conventional composite material, i.e. composite material with elastic
constants identical with the bimodular tension values. It is shown that for
strips made of highly bimodular composite material the conventional
composite strip results provide a good approximation (except at very low
pressures) to the bimodular strip results when the strip edges are simply
supported; however, when they are clamped the agreement between the
conventional and bimodular values is usually poor.

NOTATION

a strip width
All' A12 in-plane stiffnesses
B ll , B12 coupling stiffnesses
D ll , D12 flexural stiffnesses
ex strain in the x-direction
E L , ET longitudinal and transverse elastic moduli
ho strip thickness
123
124 G. J. Turvey

kx curvature in the x-direction

MX,My stress couples
Mx (=E}-lhC; 4 a 2 MJ dimensionless stress couple
NL number of laminae in the strip
N x , Ny stress resultants
fix (=E}-lhC;3a 2 N x ) dimensionless stress resultant
q lateral pressure
if (=E}-lhC; 4 a4 q) dimensionless lateral pressure
Qij (i, j = 1, 2) reduced stiffnesses
u displacement in the x-direction
W strip deflection
w(=hc;lw) dimensionless strip deflection
x,Y, Z Cartesian strip co-ordinates
Zk' Zk-l lamina upper and lower surfaces
VLT> VTL Poisson's ratios

Superscripts
c compressive value (for elastic moduli); value at
strip centre
e value at strip edge
t tensile value

1. INTRODUCTION

The elastic compressive and tensile moduli of several unidirectional, fibre-

reinforced, composite material systems are known to differ significantly in
magnitude. Composite materials exhibiting this phenomenon are com-
monly referred to as bimodular composites. The analysis of structures
fabricated from these materials is usually more difficult than that of
conventional composites, i.e. composites fabricated from laminae possess-
ing equal valued tensile and compressive moduli, since it is not known a
priori which parts of the structure are in tension and which are in
compression. Therefore, the analysis must be accomplished iteratively
rather than directly.
At the present time the theory of bimodular materials is still under
development. Several theories have been proposed 1 - 3 and a number of
exact solutions have been obtained for some simple plate and strip
problems. 4 - 7 In addition, ReddyB has used the finite element method in
 Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply Strips 125

conjunction with the bimodular theory proposed by Bert 3 to obtain a

number of approximate solutions to plate problems.
All of the plate and strip solutions referred to above relate to small
deflection behaviour. Up to the present time, the only studies of large
deflection bimodular behaviour appear to be due to Kamiya,9.1o who
considered only isotropic bimodular materials. To the best of the author's
knowledge no large deflection analyses of plates, in which the individual
laminae exhibit orthotropic properties, have yet been reported. The present
paper seeks to explore-if only to a limited degree-the large deflection
response of orthotropic bimodular structures. The particular problem
selected for study is the uniformly loaded, cross-ply laminated, bimodular
strip in a state of cylindrical bending. The principal reason for selecting this
problem is that it is one-dimensional and, hence, analytical and
computational effort may be minimised.
A finite-difference implementation of the Dynamic Relaxation (DR)
method is used to solve the strip large deflection equations, since the
method is not only relatively simple to program but also has a direct
physical interpretation.
The present study concentrates on cross-ply strips built up from two or
three, equal thickness, unidirectional laminae. Furthermore, only uniform
loading is considered and the strip edges are assumed to be either simply
supported or clamped with full in-plane restraint. Numerical results are
obtained for deflections, etc. These are presented in dimensionless form and
compared with similar, conventional composite strip results (tension
modulus solution) in order to demonstrate the influence of bimodular
behaviour on the large deflection response.

2. STRIP GEOMETRY AND LAMINA PROPERTIES

The strip geometry and the positive co-ordinate system are shown in Fig. 1.
Each strip is assumed to be fabricated from a number of equal thickness,
unidirectional, bimodular orthotropic laminae. These are stacked in a
cross-ply sequence in the z co-ordinate direction, i.e. the fibre-directions of
successive laminae are alternately parallel to the x and y co-ordinate
directions.
The type of unidirectional lamina considered here does not correspond to
any specific material system, but its properties have been chosen as being
representative of a material which is strongly bimodular in character. The
elastic constants of this material are listed in Table 1.
126 G. J. Turvey

' .--
z,w
b c
x,u

FIG. I. Strip and lamina details. (a) Strip geometry and positive co-ordinate system. (b) Part-
section through a two-layer, cross-ply strip. (c) Part-section through a three-layer, cross-ply
strip.

TABLE 1
Elastic constant ratios of a highly bimodular, unidirectional lamina

EVE}

2·00 1·00 0·50 0·40 0·20

3. BIMODULAR STRIP STIFFNESSES

It is possible to classify laminates fabricated from conventional composite

materials according to their through-thickness elastic symmetry. This type
of classification system breaks down for bimodular composite materials.
The reason for this is that the position of the neutral surface rather than the
strip mid-plane is of relevance in defining the elastic properties of each
lamina, and as the strip mid-plane and the neutral surface are not generally
coincident no through-thickness elastic symmetry exists. Thus, for a given
 Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply Strips 127

type of lay-up, e.g. cross-ply, fewer stiffnesses will be zero for bimodular
materials than for conventional composite materials. The stiffnesses
required for the analysis and the expressions for their evaluation are given
below:
n

All = LQll(Zk- Zk-l)

I

AI2 = L Q12(Zk - Zk-I)

I

(1)
n

I~ -
B I2 ="2L 2
Q 12(Zk -Zk-I)
2

in which
2 or 3 for two-layer strips } d'
n= { . accor mg to
3 or 4 for three-layer stnps
whether the neutral surface lies without or within the strip thickness, and
the Qll' etc. terms are defined as follows:
(1) Lamina fibre-direction parallel to x-axis

- {E~(1 - vhv~d -I when the lamina is in tension.

Qll = E~(1- vhv~d-I when the lamina is in compression.

- {VLTE}(1 - VLTV~L) -I when the lamina is in tension.

QI2 = v~TE~(1 - V~TV~L) -I when the lamina is in compression.
128 G. 1. Turvey

(2) Lamina fibre-direction parallel to y-axis

- {E~(1 - vLTviL) -1 when the lamina is in tension.
Qll = E~(1- vtTv~L)-1 when the lamina is in compression.
N.B. The Q12 terms are identical with those given under (1) above.

4. BASIC EQUATIONS OF THE ANALYSIS

The basic equations of structural analysis consist of: equilibrium,

compatibility and constitutive equations plus an appropriate set of
boundary conditions. These equations, as they apply to bimodular strips,
are set out below:

4.1. Strip Equilibrium Equations

The following two ordinary differential equations govern the large
deflection equilibrium of a strip in cylindrical bending:
N; =0
(2)

4.2. Compatibility Equations

The strip compatibility equations are as follows:

(3)
in which the geometric nonlinearity arises from the second term in the first
of eqns (2).

4.3. Constitutive Equations

The constitutive equations for a bimodular cross-ply strip may be
expressed as:
N x =Alle x +Bllkx
Ny = A 12 e x + B12kx
(4)
Mx = B ll e x + Dllkx
My = B 12 e x + D12kx

N.B. For conventional cross-ply strips the B l2 -terms of eqns (4) are zero.
 Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply Strips 129

4.4. Boundary Conditions

Two types of symmetric, flexural, strip edge boundary conditions are
considered together with a single in-plane edge condition. These conditions
are as follows:
(1) Simply supported edges (x = 0, a)
u=w=Mx=O (5a)
(2) Clamped edges (x = 0, a)
u=w=w (5b)

5. SOME REMARKS ON THE DR SOLUTION PROCEDURE

The DR method has been adopted for the solution of eqns (2}--{5), since it is
known to be an effective method for the solution of highly nonlinear
structural problems. In the present application, the method has been
implemented as an iterative finite-difference procedure in which the
independent variables have been specified at the nodes of two uniform
interlacing meshes.
It was anticipated that the indeterminate nature of the bimodular strip
stiffnesses might lead to instability of the DR iterative procedure. In
practice, no instability problems arose, though there was an increase in the
number of iterations required to achieve solution convergence compared
with that required for a similar strip made of conventional composite
material.

6. DISCUSSION OF THE COMPUTED BIMODULAR STRIP

RESULTS

Alternative large deflection results of bimodular composite strips are not

known to the author and hence the program could only be partially verified
against existing small deflection results. A typical example of such a
comparison is shown in Table 2. The results for different mesh sizes shown
in this table demonstrate that reasonable accuracy may be achieved using a
16-mesh analysis. This mesh size was used to obtain all of the bimodular
strip results of this study.
The computer program has been used to derive results for a bimodular
material with the elastic properties given in Table 1. Only a few of the results
130 G. J. Turvey

TABLE 2
Exact and DR small deflection results for uniformly loaded (q = 1·0), highly
bimodular, cross-ply strips with opposite edges clamped

Mesh intervals NL we( x 10) M~( x 10) M~( x 10)

10 3 0·24145 0·42500 -0,82500

12 3 0·23598 0·42244 -0'82754
16 3 0·23055 0-41991 -0·83008
(co) (3) (0·22356) (0-41667) (-0'83333)

Note: The bracketed values are exact.

obtained will be presented and briefly discussed (it is hoped that a more
detailed study will be the subject of a future paper). A dimensionless
graphical form has been adopted as a convenient mode for the presentation
of the results (see Figs 2-5).
The central deflections of two- and three-layer, simply supported and
clamped strips are shown in Fig. 2 as a function of the lateral pressure. On

2·0

1·5

1·0

-----: CLAMPED EDGES

O:NL-Z} lENSION MODUlUS SOlUTIONS

0·5
. : NL- J

o 50 100 - 150 200 250

'\.
FIG. 2. Strip-centre defiection~lateral pressure curves for simply supported and clamped,
two- and three-layer, cross-ply, bimodular strips.
 Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply Strips 131

5·0
• b

'·0

) ·0
-t
){)
..- ..-
--/ --
/
M. o /
/

""
z.o 1·0

I~/ ;------ ~-7- ----- :

1· 0 ',0 I,,'" Nl -)
t"
*
0<)
O<)L-__- L____L -__- L____L -__ ~

0 100 200 'i )00 500 o

FIG.3. Central stress couple-lateral pressure curves for two- and three-layer, cross-ply,
bimodular strips. Tension modulus solutions: 0, NL = 2; . , NL = 3. (a) M~ versus if (simply
supported edges). (b) M~ versus if (clamped edges).

O~------~~------~~~--~~------~~----~~

-5

-10

.... ....
-15 .... ....
.... ....
o

•
FIG. 4. Edge stress couple-lateral pressure curves for two- and three-layer, cross-ply,
bimodular strips with opposite edges clamped.
132 G. J. Turvey

15 - - : SM>LY SUPPORTED EDG£S

-- - - -: CLAMPED EDGES

10

OLL_ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _ ~~ _ _ _ _J

o 100 200 300

FIG. 5. Stress resultant-lateral pressure curves for simply supported and clamped, two- and
three-layer, cross-ply, bimodular strips.

the same figure selected tension modulus strip results are also shown.
Throughout the pressure range considered, it is evident that for both two-
and three-layer, simply supported strips the bimodular and tension
modulus strip centre deflections do not differ significantly. However, the
difference between the deflections is significant when the strip edges are
clamped, though at higher lateral pressures they tend to converge to the
same value.
The stress couple, M~, at the strip centre is shown in Figs 3( a) and 3(b) for
simply supported and clamped strips respectively. From Fig. 3(a) it is
evident that, at low pressures, the bimodular values are rather smaller than
the tension modulus values. Furthermore, the difference between the two
stress couple values is greater in three-layer than in two-layer strips. At
higher lateral pressures (ij ~ 250) the bimodular and tension modulus stress
couples are virtually indistinguishable. For clamped conditions along the
strip edges it is apparent from Fig. 3(b) that the tension modulus values also
exceed the bimodular values, but by a rather greater amount, i.e. changing
the support condition from simply supported to clamped accentuates the
difference between the two values. In contrast to the situation in simply
supported strips, the bimodular and tension modulus stress couples at the
centre of clamped strips differ significantly even at high lateral pressures.
 Large Deflection Analysis of Bimodular Cross-Ply Strips 133

The edge stress couple, M;, is shown plotted against lateral pressure in
Fig. 4 for the clamped strip (this quantity is, of course, zero in simply
supported strips). Again, the bimodular and tension modulus values differ
significantly throughout the lateral pressure range. It is of interest to
observe that the magnitude of the edge stress couple is very much greater
than the corresponding stress couple at the strip centre (cf. Figs 4 and 3(b ».
The final set of results presented are for the stress resultant, Nx' which, of
course, does not vary over the width of the strip. It is plotted as a function of
the lateral pressure for two- and three-layer simply supported and clamped
strips in Fig. 5. From the figure it is immediately apparent that when the
strip edges are simply supported the bimodular and tension modulus values
for Nx are almost identical, but that when the edges are clamped the tension
modulus values are substantially less than the bimodular values.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

An elastic large deflection analysis of simply supported and clamped

bimodular strips subjected to a uniform lateral pressure has been carried
out using a finite-difference implementation of the DR method. Large
deflection results have been computed for strips fabricated from
unidirectional laminae possessing highly bimodular elastic properties.
These results have been compared with similar results for strips fabricated
from conventional composite material, the elastic properties of which are
identical with the tensile moduli of the bimodular composite material. It has
been demonstrated that the tension modulus solution often provides a good
approximation to the bimodular solution when the strip edges are simply
supported, but that the approximation is often poor when the edges are
clamped.
The results presented lend some support to the contention that in the
large deflection regime the influence of bimodular material behaviour is,
from the standpoint of stiffness, rather less important than might be
inferred from a knowledge of only small deflection behaviour; though, of
course, from the standpoint of strength such a contention remains to be
confirmed.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to record his gratitude to the Department of Engineering

for providing computing facilities, and to his father, Mr George Turvey, for
preparing the tracings of the figures.
134 G. J. Turvey

9. REFERENCES

1. AMBARTSUMYAN, S. A. and KHACHATRYAN, A. A. Basic equations in the theory

of elasticity for materials with different stiffness in tension and compression,
Inzh. Zhur. MTT., 2 (1966) 44-53 (in Russian).
2. JONES, R. M. Stress-strain relations for materials with different moduli in
tension and compression, AIAA J., 15 (1977) 16-23.
3. BERT, C. W. Mathematical modeling and micromechanics of fiber-reinforced
bimodulus composite materials, Report OU-AMNE-79-7, University of
Oklahoma, 1979.
4. JONES, R. M. and MORGAN, H. S. Bending and extension of cross-ply laminates
with different moduli in tension and compression, Computers & Structures, 11
(1980) 181-90.
5. BERT, C. W. Classical analyses of laminated bimodulus composite-material
plates, Report OU-AMNE-79-lOA, University of Oklahoma, 1979.
6. REDDY, J. N. and BERT, C. W. Analysis ofplates constructed offibre-reinforced
bimodulus materials, Report OU-AMNE-79-8, University of Oklahoma, 1979.
7. BERT, C. W., REDDY, J. N., REDDY, V. S. and CHAO, W. C. Analysis of thick
rectangular plates laminated of bimodulus composite materials, Report OU-
AMNE-80-2, University of Oklahoma, 1980.
8. REDDY, J. N. and CHAO, W. C. Finite-element analysis oflaminated bimodulus
composite-material plates, Computers & Structures, 12 (1980) 245-51.
9. KAMIYA, N. Large deflection of a different modulus circular plate, ASME
Trans., J. Engng. Mat. Tech., 97 (1975) 52-6.
10. KAMIYA, N. An energy method applied to large elastic deflections of a thin plate
of bimodulus material, J. Struct. Mech., 3 (1975) 317-29.
 10

Analysis of Thermally Stressed Variable Thickness

Composite Discs-A CAD Technique
D. G. GORMAN

College of Engineering and Science,

National Institute for Higher Education, Limerick, Ireland
and
J. P. HurSSOON
Engineering Science School, Trinity College Dublin,
Dublin, Ireland

ABSTRACT

This chapter details a finite element technique for determining the state of in-
plane stressing in a variable thickness composite disc when subjected to
thermal loading and boundary restraints. By utilising two degrees offreedom
annular finite elements of linearly varying thickness form, the numerical
convergence rate is such that minimum computer storage is required, hence
lending itself as the basis of a computer-aided design optimisation package.
Laminated discs of either isotropic or polar orthotropic materials can be
examined.

INTRODUCTION

Due to the wide range of engineering applications, the in-plane stress

analysis of variable thickness discs has been the subject of much research
this century. With the advent of high speed digital computers and advanced
numerical techniques, Computer Aid Design (CAD) techniques with
respect to this study have been extensively used in both industry and
research establishments; for example, the technique developed by Seireg
and Surana 1 was used to compute the state of stressing over a turbine disc
subjected to centrifugal loading only and consequently to establish an
135
136 D. G. Gorman and J. P. Huissoon

optimum disc shape (axial thickness profile) which would ensure that the
combination of the stress at any point of the disc would not exceed the yield
condition. In the course of research into the free transverse vibration of
thermally stressed discs, Gorman 2 and Kennedy and Gorman 3 extended
the above technique to include the additional effect of thermal loading. In
both these studies, however, only 'solid', isotropic specimens were
considered, by means of subdividing the structure into a series of uniform
annular rings and applying the Lame theory to each ring, ensuring
equilibrium and compatibility between adjoining rings. Using this
technique for isotropic discs, an excellent degree of accuracy was obtained
and, more important from the point of view of being a CAD technique,
convergence was found to be rapid.
In the general analysis of composite discs, however, and in particular the
analyses of polar orthotropic laminated discs, utilisation of the Lame
expressions, which greatly contribute to the fast convergence in the
isotropic case, is no longer viable. In such cases a more generalised
approach is required and in order to maintain a high rate of convergence it
is necessary to pursue the analysis with a series of elements which render a
closer approximation between the modelled and the actual structures than
in the isotropic case, where elements of uniform thickness were used.
The aim of this chapter is therefore to demonstrate the technique
whereby the in-plane stress distribution can be computed for a variable
thickness laminated disc composed of either isotropic or polar orthotropic
materials when subjected to any proposed temperature distribution.
Consequently, for any set oflimiting parameters (i.e. maximum yield stress
of the materials), an optimum disc configuration may be computed.
Additionally, since it is now well established that thermally induced in-
plane stressing can dramatically change the vibratory and stability
characteristics of continuous systems, 4 - 6 in order to predict these changes
it is necessary to establish the form of the in-plane stressing for any specified
temperature distribution acting over the surface of the system.

ANALYSIS
(a) Model Structure
As shown in Figs l(a) and (b), a variable thickness laminated disc may be
modelled by a series of annular finite elements of uniform and linearly
varying thickness form. Furthermore, for the case considered the two
'outer' laminates (material A) may be combined to form one structure with
a common node at each extremity.
 Thermally Stressed Variable Thickness Composite Discs-A CAD Technique 137

(aJ (b)
modelled
disc

act ual
disc
common
node

material A
FIG. I(a) and (b). Actual/finite element modelled structures.

o Rt

FIG. 2. Annular finite element.

(b) Finite Element Analysis

Consider the annular finite elements possessing two degrees of freedom
(u l and u2 ) as shown in Fig. 2. Assuming a radial displacement function of
the form:

(1)

and defining:

and:
U
80 =-
r
138 D. G. Gorman and J. P. Huissoon

we can write:
{8} = [f]{U} (2)
where:

(3)

where:
{&} =j{f:rf:O}T and {U} = {U 1 U 2 }T

Furthermore, from the constitutive relationships we can write:

{O"} = [D]{&} (4)

where:

and:

[D] = E 2
(l-J1)
[1 J1
J1]
1
. . ana1.
for IsotropIc YSlS

[D] = Er [1 J1or] for polar orthotropic

(l - nJ1~r) J10r lin analysis

Hence the stiffness matrix, as defined by the relationship:

{F} = [k]{ U} = {FIF2}T

We can obtain the general expression:

[k] = f VOL
[fV[D][f]dv (5)

In the case of elements exhibiting varying thickness form, the above

equation reduces to:

(6)

Hence solving, we obtain each component of the [k] matrix as listed in the
Appendix.
 Thermally Stressed Variable Thickness Composite Discs-A CAD Technique 139

(c) Thermal Load Vector

For the case of polar orthogonality the initial thermal strain vector {so},
may be written as:
(7)

and in the case of isotropic plates: IXr = lXo = IX.

Therefore the total strain vector {s} for the annular finite element may be
expressed as:
(8)
Or:
(9)
Or:

Or:
{F} = [k]{ U} - {Pt} (II)
wherej{Pt} is the thermal load vector, defined in the Appendix.
Upon computing the elemental stiffness matrix and thermal load vector
for each element in the subdivided structure, the total system stiffness
matrix [K] and the thermal load vector {Pt} are generated using standard
finite element techniques which ensure equilibrium and compability at each
of the nodes. Subsequently, structural displacement vector {A} is computed
from the expression:
{P} + {Pt} = [K]{A} (12)
Upon computing {A} the strains and stresses within each element of the
structure are obtained from eqns (2) and (4), respectively.

RESULTS

A laminated, isotropic linearly varying thickness plate with the dimensions

shown in Fig. 3 is subjected to a relative temperature distribution of the
form:

where: To = 0·) °C, Tl = 2°C.

140 D. G. Gorman and J. P. Huissoon

a.lmm.
b·l00rrm.
h:4mm.
Hmm.
f3·o.3

a
b

FIG. 3. Linearly varying thickness composite disc.

/0

u;. , 8
0".
X/(;/J 6

(N/m~ It ,,--------________ 09
2. ,'#' --------- - - --- ---- .. -----,
\

o -n--=--=----,=-=--r;1-is G- A_--:-"~---:-":--~'::---::-'0·9::',--_\~\, ':. : ' Vb

0,""-_

------
0,' !U 0.& 0.1 0"

-1

-6

-/0

,'_- - -------------- ______cT~ ______________ ,

, _ 0./ 0.2 Gi-i5G-~ 0:& 0...,. 0.' 0., '".0
-2

-4

-6

FIG. 4. In-plane radial and tangential stress distributions.

 Thermally Stressed Variable Thickness Composite Discs-A CAD Technique 141

The outer laminate is of mild steel having the following physical

properties: r:x = 13 x 10- 6 per °C, E = 210 X 10 9 Njm 2 , /l = 0·3. The inner
laminate is of brass having the following physical properties:
r:x = 18·6 x 10- 6 per °C, E = 875 X 10 9 Njm 2 , /l = 0·3.
Figure 4 illustrates the resultant radial and tangential stress distri-
butions, (f, and (fo, respectively, across each laminate when the disc is free at
r = a, and totally restrained (u = 0) at r = b.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

A finite element technique has been developed to analyse thermally induced

in-plane stressing in a variable thickness disc composed of either isotropic
or polar orthotropic laminates. Although the analysis has been extended to
include the case where the laminates are of polar orthotropic materials, the
general case of anisotropic laminates cannot be examined using the finite
elements described since it would be impossible to maintain axial symmetry
under such general conditions.
The effect of centrifugal loadings has not been included in the analysis,
although it could readily be included by way of the technique suggested in
reference 7. If, however, it was required that centrifugal and thermal
loading be analysed simultaneously, the major difficulty would be in
describing the effect of rotation upon the resulting temperature distribution
formed over the disc. A technique analysing this problem has been
described in reference 2 and at present investigations are being carried out
as to how it may be applied to the analysis of laminated discs.

REFERENCES

1. SEIREG, A. and SURANA, K. S., Optimum design of rotating discs, Trans. ASME,
92 (1970), 1-9.
2. GORMAN, D. G., Transverse vibration of thermally stressed stationary and
rotating discs, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Strathc1yde, 1977.
3. KENNEDY, W. and GORMAN, D. G., Vibration analysis of variable thickness discs
subjected to centrifugal and thermal stresses, J. of Sound and Vibration, 53(1),
(1977),83-101.
4. NIEH, L. T. and MOTE, C. D., Vibration and stability in thermally stressed
rotating discs, Experimental Mechanics (July, 1975), 258-64.
5. GORMAN, D. G. and KENNEDY, W., Membrane effects upon the transverse
vibration of linearly varying thickness discs, J. ofSound and Vibration, 62 (1979),
51-64.
142 D. G. Gorman and J. P. Huissoon

6. GORMAN, D. G., Initiation of transverse vibration in rotating discs. J. of Sound

and Vibration, 62 (1979),467-70.
7. ZIENKIEWICZ, O. c., Thejinite element method in engineering science, London,
McGraw-Hill, 1971.

APPENDIX: STIFFNESS MATRIX AND THERMAL LOAD

VECTOR

For the annular finite element as described in Fig. 2, the in-plane stiffness
matrix [k] can be written as:

where:

and:
kll = {In (R2/Rl)[DllR~ao] + R2dD22R~al - 2D 12 R 2aO- 2D 22 R 2aO]
+-t(R~ - Ri)[Dlla O- 2D 12 R 2a l + 2D 12 aO- 2D22R 2ad
+ ~(R~ - Ri)[Dll - 2DuJad
k12 = k21 ={-D22RlR 2a OIn (R 2/R l )
+ R 2l [(R l + R 2)a o(D 22 + D 12 ) - D22RlR2al]
+-t(R~ - Ri[(Rl + R 2)a l (D22 + D 12 ) - aO(Dll + 2D12 + D 22 )]
- ·HR~ - RiHa l (Dll + 2D12 + D 22 )]}
k22 = {In (R 2/R l )[D 22 Ria o] + (R 2l )[D 22 Ria l - 2R l aO(D 22 + D l2 )]
+ -t(R~ - Ri)[ao(D ll + D22 + 2D 2l ) - 2a l R l (Dl2 + D 22 )]
+~(R~ - RiHa l (Dll + 2D12 + D 22 )]}
Where:

[D] = [Dll D12]

Dl2 D22

= E/(1 - 1l2{~ ~] For isotropic analysis

= E,/(1 - nlli,{:o, ii~] For polar orthotropic analysis

Where: n = E,/ Eo and: 1l0,E, = 1l,0Eo·

 Thermally Stressed Variable Thickness Composite Discs-A CAD Technique 143

The thermal load vector {PI} for each element is defined as:
2nT
{PI} = - [P][D]{a o }
R21
where:

[P] = [Pll P12]

P2! P22
where:
PI! = - {a 0/2 (R~ - Ri) + a!/3(R~ - Ri)}
P12 = {R 2[a o(R 21 ) + a!/2(R~ - Ri)]} + Pll
P21 = -PI!
P22 = P2! - Rda oR21 + a!/2(R~ - Ri)}
 11
Optimization of Laminated Shells with Multiple
Loading Conditions and Fabrication Constraintsl*
R. T. BROWN
Atlantic Research Corporation, 5390 Cherokee Avenue,
Alexandria, Virginia 22314, USA

AND

J. A. NACHLAS
Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA

ABSTRACT
A methodology for design of laminated conical shells subject to multiple
loading conditions is described. The most significant feature of the technique
is the ability to tailor the composite structure to specific envelope
specifications and loading conditions within the framework of restrictive
fabrication constraints. The methodology combines conventional field
analysis, a field analysis sampling scheme, and a dynamic program. The
methodology is general with respect to loading conditions, geometry, and
field theory. Application of the method yields a laminated composite shell
with equivalent strength and stiffness to a baseline design with a significant
reduction in weight.

INTRODUCTION

Fabrication of laminated conical shells using composite materials is a

promising approach to construction of conical structures because of the
resulting opportunity to obtain performance behavior equivalent to that of
*This work was sponsored by the US Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright
Patterson AFB, Ohio, USA.
144
 Optimization of Laminated Shells 145

previous designs at reduced weight. An optimized design for a laminated

conical shell is defined as a composite material reinforcement architecture
which most effectively resists both the magnitude and directional nature of
applied loads without over design in either respect. The conical structures
addressed here are subject to multiple time-dependent loading conditions
including a severe thermal-chemical environment, internal pressure, lateral
mechanical loads, and significant bending forces. Thus, there are a variety
of failure modes and the governing modes are known a priori.
Fabrication methods employed for lamination of composite materials
for conical structures (Le. filament winding, braiding, tape wrapping, etc.)
require that the orientation of each lamina changes as a function of
meridional location. Therefore, the conical geometry dictates the
reinforcement trace attainable with the composite material for each
fabrication method.
The methodology developed combines conventional field analysis, a
structural analysis sampling scheme, and a dynamic program. The resulting
technique permits tailoring of shell architecture to performance require-
ments within the framework of the constraints imposed by available
fabrication methods. This ability to tailor the design to performance and
geometry criteria is the most significant feature of the technique developed.
The most serious weakness is the computational difficulty in extending it
from a discrete to a continuous design variable space. Analytical experience
with both discrete and continuous design variables is described.

PROBLEM AND APPROACH

The objective of the analysis is to design a laminated composite conical shell

for a defined geometry and load environment. A generalized cone is
illustrated in Fig. 1. The cone envelope is defined by the throat diameter,
half angle, and exit plane diameter. The task is to evolve a weight efficient
structure meeting these specifications and capable of withstanding
anticipated loads.
The methodology developed includes two components, one to provide an
estimated design performance function and one to perform optimization.
The actual steps of the procedure are (I) to select a material system based on
acceptable invariant stiffness, (2) to partition the structure into sectors for
evaluation ofloading conditions and imposition of fabrication constraints,
(3) to estimate the structural response for all designs using a field theory
analysis of a sampled subset of designs, and (4) to utilize a dynamic
146 R. T. Brown and J. A. Nachlas
TRANSLATING CONE
ATTACH POINT

t.:t
THRUST VECTOR CONTROL
ACTUATOR ATTACH 'OIN == ==_
EXTENOAILE CONE ACTUATOR
ATTACH POINT

FIG. I. Typical conical structure with attachments indicated by dotted outline.

program to solve for the optimum design using a stagewise synthesis of

sector by sector performance estimates subject to fabrication constraints.
The first analytical step is the estimation of composite structure
performance as a function of the choice of design variables. Examination of
the governing constitutive equations for conical shells shows that while
lamina stress is linear with respect to thickness, it is nonlinear and
nonconvex with respect to orientation angle. Using well established
statistical techniques and classical laminate field theory, an estimate of the
nonlinear performance response function is constructed using a minimum
sample size. Subsequent use of this estimated function permits the
decoupling of the stress analysis from the optimization.
The remaining analytical step is the determination of the optimal design
relative to an aggregate performance measure based upon sector specific
nonlinear response functions. Previously employed methods 1,2,3 for
seeking solutions to nonlinear problems combine a constrained minimi-
zation routine with a search procedure. Search techniques are either
derivative based or derivative free. Derivative based methods have a high
probability of terminating at local optima when applied to nonconvex
functions while derivative free methods often bave a reduced propensity for
termination at local optima which is achieved at the expense of sample size.
The composite shell is fabricated by lamination of unidirectional fiber
layers. Specification of layer orientation angles implies material and
 Optimization of Laminated Shells 147

structure performance characteristics. This relationship between orien-

tation angles and performance is defined by the field theory and is the focus
of the statistical sampling approach to construction of the estimated
response function. Aggregation of the sector specific nonlinear response
functions and determination of an optimum design is then pursued in a
stagewise manner using a dynamic program.

FIELD THEORY

Design optimization is concerned with tailoring the stiffness and thermal

expansion characteristics of the composite to achieve maximum strength
consistent with environmental, performance, and fabrication restrictions.
Classical laminate theory provides a convenient method for manipulating
the stiffness and thermal strain tensors. Classical laminate theory assumes
the thin shell approximation which reduces the 6 x 6 stiffness matrix to the
symmetric 3 x 3 matrix [Q] which consists of four constants for orthotropic

l n
lamina and six constants for an angle ply lamina. That is

QII = EI/(I- V12 V21 )

QI2
QI2 = Vl2 Q22 = V21 QII
Q" where (I)
Q= Q~2 QI2
0 Q22 = E 2 /(I - V 12 V 21 )

Q66 = G 12

l :~:: ~
for an orthotropic shell and

sin 2 () 2 sin () cos ()l

[Q] = [T][Q][TV [T] = cos 2 () - 2 sin () cos () (2)
- sin () cos () sin () cos () cos 2 () _ sin 2 ()

for an angle ply lamina. Then, for a balanced ply lamina

[:: 1= Q[:: 1
TI2 YI2
and [::
Tz8
1 1
= Q [::
Yz8
(3)

for an angle ply lamina define the composite architecture in terms of fiber
properties, fiber volume, matrix properties, and lamina fiber orientation.
148 R. T. Brown and J. A. Nachlas

Laminate responses to applied loads and moments are computed for

extension, coupling, and bending in both the structure body and the
material directions. The BOSOR 44 finite difference code is used for the
majority of the cases and the SAAS Ills finite element code is used for the
thick attachment sector which is the forward part of the cone. Both codes
employ the above described elasticity based field theory and both are
limited by the material constitutive laws employed.

STRUCTURAL RESPONSE SURFACES

Any optimization approach for design of a laminated composite structure

will require the evaluation of structural response for some of the candidate
design configurations. In the absence of a closed form definition of
structural performance, an efficient approach to candidate design
evaluation is required.
The design evaluation must provide a measure of performance as a
function of the design variables and specified problem parameters. The
assumed problem parameters for the laminated composite cone are shown
in Fig. 2. Laminate balance is assumed in order to conform to the
restrictions of the field theory. Design variables are the ply orientations and
the stacking sequence. For the discrete case, angle ply orientations are
varied by 15 0 increments and a baseline eight layer stack of balanced angle

ORIENTATION INCREMENT · 15°

LAYER THICKNESS· 20 MILS
NUMBER OF LAYERS· 12 t 8 PLIES PER LAYER)
STACKING SEQUENCE · SYMMETRIC ABOUT CENTERLINE

\" EIGHT BALANCED LAYERS

LAMINATE 160 MILS

-8

EACH LA YER COMPOSED

Of ! 8 PLIES

FIG. 2. Problem parameters.

 Optimization of Laminated Shells 149

plies is optimized. The laminate is symmetric about the midplane.

Consequently, four fiber orientation angles are sufficient to specify eacq
laminate for each sector.
The measure of performance is taken to be strength as expressed by
safety factor. The optimization objective is to maximize the strength for the
most critical failure modes. Composite structure strength is determined
using a three part partitioning of the shell geometry and the corresponding
loading conditions. This approach allows selective tailoring of the laminate
for sections of the cone subjected to different critical loads.
Since four fiber orientation angles specify the laminate in each sector and
since each of the fiber angles may take one of seven values--O° through 90°
in 15 ° increments-there are 74 = 240 I candidate designs for each sector.
Evaluation of even a modest fraction of the total number of candidate
designs is computationally prohibitive. Given the problem parameters,
there exists a composite structure response surface for each sector. In order
to obtain an estimate for this performance function, an efficient method of
sampling from the true re~ponse surface is employed.
A fractional factorial experimental design is used to define candidate
design cases to be evaluated using the field analysis codes. Each of the
selected cases provides one strategically located data point for use in
estimating the response function. As shown in Fig. 3, fewer than 30 such
cases are analyzed for each sector of the cone. Resulting data are included in
a stepwise multiple regression analysis to construct a second order
polynomial function which approximates the true laminate performance
function.

TYPICAL LAMINATE SAMPLE SPACE SAMPLING PLAN

+ 75 } 4 ANGLES SPECIFY EACH CASE • SAMPLE POINTS
- 75 16 OATA POINTS REQUIRED
o ( - 8 MAIN EFFECTS
o \ 7 CANDIDATE ANGLES 8'-4' 8~-4
I
+ 45
0° - 90° IN 15°
') - 45 '1 - 6 INTERACTION EFFECTS
/ + 30 I
INCREMENTS GIVES 8,82 , 82 8•. ETC.
I - 30 / - INTERCEPT AND ERROR
( - 30 \ 74 = 2401 POSSIBLE CASES
1 + 30 ) • FRACTIONAL FACTORIAL DESIGN
/ - 45 \ - 117 4 DR 11343 OF THE SAMPLE
'-I + 45 / SPACE YiElDS 7 DATA POINTS
f 0
( 0 ') - SELECT TWO CASES EACH
') - 75 ( FROM SEVEN EQUIVALENT
( + 75 \ CLASSES PLUS TWO POINTS
AT THE CENTER OF THE
(±75/0z/±45/± 3015 SAMPLE SPACE

FIG. 3. Design variables and experimental plan.

150 R. T. Brown and J. A. Nachlas

The field analysis results for the sample points for each sector are used to
estimate response functions for longitudinal, transverse, and shear factors
of safety in the principal material directions. Two second order functions
are constructed. These functions have the form

I II
4 4 4

y(l) = bo + bjcos 8j + bjkcos 8jcos 8k (4)

j~l j~l k~j

and

(5)

where y(l) and y(2) are estimates of the true response, 8j is the fiber
orientation angle in lamina}, Xj = 8)15 is a surrogate variable, and bj and
bjk are the functional coefficients determined in the regression analysis.
For each of the hypothesized functions, two descriptors of validity are
computed. The coefficient of correlation is a measure of the percentage of
the variation in the true response function that is explained by the
regression model and the F statistic is an indicator of the statistical
significance of the constructed function. The results obtained for the
regression models show that of the 18 models constructed, 15 are
statistically significant. For the significant models, the correlation
coefficients are generally greater than 70 %.
The regression models found to be statistically significant are aggregated
to define a conservative estimate of the structural response function by
taking advantage of the meaningful information provided by each
regression model. For each sector, y*(l) and y*(2) are defined as

y*(l) = min {.Y~l)} and y*(2) = min {.Y~2)} (6)

k k

at each candidate design point. That is, for each valid functional form, the
minimum of the longitudinal, transverse, and shear factors of safety is
taken as the performance estimate. Then, the estimated response, z, is taken
to be
(7)
The values for z are tabulated for each candidate design and serve as the
laminate performance estimates for use in the optimization model.
 Optimization of Laminated Shells 151

A comparison of the resulting estimates of structure response and the

true calculated values shows strong agreement. The approximating
response functions appear to preserve most of the relative ordering of the
designs and are therefore appropriate surrogates for the true surfaces.

OPTIMIZATION

The optimization model is a dynamic program. 6 Structural synthesis is

accomplished within the dynamic program through sector by sector design
variable selection subject to variable choices in other sectors. For each
sector, the decision variables, x, are the angles of fiber orientation in each
layer. The state variables, u, are defined to be the angles of fiber orientation
in the adjacent more forward sectors. This state variable definition is
employed in order to provide a means for imposing fabrication constraints
upon the selection of decision variable values. As shown in Fig. 4, the
available fabrication methods dictate the feasible fiber orientation angle
changes from sector to sector. The state variable definition employed
assures the selection of design variables consistent with the angle change
constraints implied by the fabrication methods.

ea·.t29
GEODESIC PLANAR BRAID

ANGLE AT SURT
OF SECTOR I SECTOR 2 SECTOR 3 f ABllICATEO BY

GORE STRIPS
IS IS PlANAR WRAP
0 GEODESIC
JO 3D JO PlAIWt WRAP
15 0 CEOOESIC
75 90 BRAlO
45 15 0 CEOOESIC
75 90 BRAID
60 15 0 GEODESIC
75 90 BRAIO
15 15 15 GEODESIC
90 90 BllAlD
90 IS 15 GEODESIC
90 90 HOOP WRAP

FIG. 4. Fabrication method imposed design constraints.

152 R. T. Brown and J. A. Nachlas

The variables and functions that define the dynamic program are:

X(i) = the vector of fiber orientation angles selected in sector i;

U(i-I) = the vector of fiber orientation angles for the fibers leaving
sector i - I and entering sector i;
t;(u(i-I), x(i» = the state variable transformation function which defines
u(i) in terms of U(i-I) and x(i);
r;(u(i-I), x(i» = the design response attained in sector i when decision
vector x(i) is selected given input state U(i-I). Equals z(x(i»
for this analysis;
I;(U(i-I» = the optimal structural response obtainable in sectors i
through N given input state U(i-1);
g;(x(i» = any applicable further constraint functions which limit
the selection of a design vector.

Using these definitions, the dynamic program IS a set of recursion

equations:
13(U(Z» = opt {r 3(u(Z), X(3»}
subject to g3(X(3» ;;::: 0
Iz(u(i» = opt {r z(u(1l, x(Z» Ll/3 (t Z (u(1), x(Z»)}
(8)
subject to gz(X(2» ;;::: 0
11 (u(O» = opt {r 1 (u(O), x(1» Ll/2 (t 1 (u(O), x(1»)}
subject to g 1 (x( I» ;;::: 0

As is implied by their form, the equations are solved in a reverse order from
sector three to sector one in a stepwise fashion. An optimal choice ofx(3) is
identified for all possible input state vectors U(2). Then an optimal choice of
x(Z) is determined to optimize the response for sectors two and three for any
given input state vector U(I). Similar arguments are applied successively to
create a nested solution that ultimately depends only upon the initial state
variable u(O). The initial state variable may be defined in terms of design
requirements or may be selected on the basis of an optimization criteria.
This second approach is employed in analyzing the composite cone.
An important feature of the employed form of the generic recursion
equations is that the composed return functions are maximized while the
 Optimization of !.,aminated Shells 153

composition operator, denoted by A, is the selection of the minimum of the

quantities composed. Thus, the general form of the recursion equations is

which corresponds to the selection of a decision vector in sector i which

maximizes the minimum structural factor of safety over the shell from that
sector to the aft end. This form of the recursion is particularly appropriate
for the laminated composite structure because it represents the strength of a
chain of sectors of the cone by the strength of the weakest sector.
The estimated structural response associated with the selection of the
vector of fiber orientation angles X(i) in sector i is ZJX(i)). For the laminated
cone application, the definition of a constraint function gi(X(i)) is necessary
in sector two only. This function reflects the requirement that the structure
withstand specific mechanical loads associated with the activation of the
attached control levers.
Define the sets hi (u(i-1)) to be the design vectors in sector i having a
feasible fiber trace for the state vector u(i-1). Using this form of the
fabrication constraints, the implemented form of the dynamic program is

f3(U(Z)) = max {Z3(X(3))}

X(3)8h 3 (u(Z))

fz(U(1)) = max {min {zz(x(Z)), f3(U(Z))}}

x(Z)8h z (u( 1)) (10)
subject to gz(x(Z)) ~ 0
f1 (u(O)) = max {min {z 1(X(1))'/z(U(1))}}
x(1)8h 1 (u(O))

max {f1 (u(O))}

UfO)

The five best solutions obtained using this model are listed in Table 1. The
estimated factors of safety indicated are based upon the estimated response
functions and are therefore the criteria on which the solutions are selected.
These solutions are next verified by analysis using the field theory codes.
The resulting actual factors of safety are indicated in the table. The fourth
solution is taken as the selected design concept. This design is illustrated in
Fig. 5.
154 R . T . Brown and J. A . Nachlas

TABLE 1
Families of optimal laminations

ESTIMATED COMPUTED
SECTOR ARCHITECTURE SAFETY FACTOR SAFETY FACTOR
I (9010190175)
2. (9010190 2 )s 208 I I
3 (9010/90 2 )S

I (90/15/90175\
2 (90/0/90 2 )s 20 I I
3 (90/0/90 2 )S

I (30/90/0/90 )s
2 ( 30/9010/901, 17 12
3 ( 30/9010/90)s

I ( 30/9010/90)s
2 ( 15/9010/90)s 17 15
3 (0/9010/90)s

I (60/9010/75)s
2 ( 15/9010/90)s 17 12
3 (0/ 90/0/90)s

O'
90'
O'
90' --';J~r;s 90 ' OVERWRAP
O' -::
go' .\. "--'
±: 15-
O'
90'
o· COMPUANCE - 495.000 laS/IN.
90·~=~.
:!: 30· (J'
go' 90'
O' t 15-
90·=l~~
O'

-
90'
±JO·

WEIGHT OElTA E - 37 POUNOS

---------
FIG. 5. Selected optimal design.
 Optimization of Laminated Shells 155

SENSITIVITY

It is appropriate to note that the solutions obtained form a family of similar

designs and are reasonable when considered qualitatively. The frequent
occurrence of hoop fibers (90°) assures resistance to internal pressure and
thermal expansion while the axial fibers (0°) provide stiffness in the
direction of the applied mechanical loads. The absence of 45 ° fibers is
reasonable in view of their propensity for shear failure. Thus, the analytical
solutions conform well to engineering judgements concerning the design of
the laminated composite cone.
Relaxation of the fabrication constraints significantly affects the model
solutions. The fabrication constraints dictate which fiber orientations may
be used in the same ply over more than one sector. Relaxing these
constraints implies that the fibers may be wrapped in any pattern. For this
case, several solutions with higher minimum safety factors than those of the
constrained solutions are found. This suggests that fabrication constraints
strongly influence the problem solution and that improvements in
fabrication methods that result in greater wrapping flexibility may lead to
stronger designs. However, it should be noted that the optimal estimated
safety factor for the unconstrained analysis is only 20 % greater than that
for the constrained solution and that increases in minimum safety factor
beyond 1·5 are of questionable utility. Thus, the constrained solution is a
relatively good design and the value of pursuing improvements in the
solution through the development of new fabrication techniques is not
obvious.

EXTENSION TO CONTINUOUS DESIGN VARIABLES

Intuitively, it is appealing to represent the design problem in terms of

continuous design variables. The generic dynamic programming for-
mulation is unchanged and optimization can presumably be accomplished
in closed form using calculus rather than numerically. However,
maximization of a minimum response is discrete and the choice of wrapping
method is also discrete.
The discrete selection of wrapping method cannot be modified to take a
continuous form. Given! this restriction, a continuous choice of design
vectors can be formulated separately for each combination of wrapping
methods. Gore strip and hoop fiber wrapping can be viewed as specific
planar wrap cases. There are then three wrapping patterns available for
156 R. T. Brown and J. A. Nachlas

each of four laminae. As a result there are 34 = 81 feasible design wrapping

patterns each of which may be optimized in terms of fiber orientation
angles.
For each of the resulting 81 subproblems, an overall structural response
function must be constructed. This is accomplished by using the estimated
response functions to obtain a single aggregate performance estimate over
the entire structure which is defined as the minimum safety factor for each
candidate design. Regression analysis is again applied to construct the 81
response functions each of which has the form given in eqn. (4). State
variable transformation equations are the equations for the fiber traces
under the given wrapping methods. Partial differentiation of the response
function yields

I
4

bi
(y(). = _ sin ())
.[b.)+)
b·· ) (). +
cos) b·)kcos (}k]
)
k=l
>:2 '
u Z 2b . 2 () (11)
fJ(}~ = ii sm j
)

fJ 2i - . .
- - - = b·ksm (}.sm(}k
fJ(}k (y() j ) )

Setting the first partial derivatives equal to, zero yields a set of four
simultaneous nonlinear equations in four unknowns which must be solved
for stationary points. Then the Hessian matrix of second partial derivatives
must be analyzed at each stationary point to select the maxima which are
compared to determine the global maximum. The resulting solutions for
each of the 81 cases are then compared to identify the optimal design.
Obviously, solution of the design problem for continuous design variables
requires considerable computational effort. This work is in progress. It is
significant that for each of the (a) planar, geodesic, planar, braid, (b)
geodesic and three planars, (c) geodesic, two planars and braid, and (d)
three planars and braid, the solutions match those found for the discrete
analysis. This is attributed largely to the aggregate response functions
obtained. Further sampling to construct better aggregate response func-
tions is appropriate and is part of the continuing analysis of the problem.

CONCLUSIONS

An analytical approach to the design of a laminated composite conical shell

has been demonstrated. For the imposed limitations oflaminate symmetry
 Optimization of Laminated Shells 157

and state of the art fabrication methods, the method efficiently locates the
optimal reinforcement pattern. The method permits decoupling of the field
analysis codes and the optimization activity with a modest sacrifice in
accuracy. The solution identified yields a weight saving of 37 pounds when
compared to the baseline design.
Several advantages of the approach are apparent. The procedure is
completely general with respect to the type of field analysis, loading
conditions, and structure geometry considered. Measures of performance
employed are conservative assuring an acceptable design. The stepwise
approach to solution permits the designer complete visibility and control of
the procedure. Finally, accuracy versus expense decisions can be made for
any part of the analysis with recognizable consequences.
The optimized composite design identified is being fabricated to permit
testing of material and structure behavior. The continuous variable model
is being analyzed further and is being extended to consider constraints
based upon wrapping tension and surface friction resulting in nongeodesic
patterns and a greater degree of design flexibility.

REFERENCES

1. POPE, G. G. and SCHMIT, L. A. (eds), Structural design applications of

mathematical programming techniques, AGARDograph, 149 (1971).
2. SCHMIT, L. A., The structural synthesis concept and its potential role in design
with composites, Mechanics of Composite Materials, ONR, May, 1967'.
3. BALDUR, R., Structural optimization by inscribed hyperspheres, J. Engng
Mech., 98 (1972).
4. BUSHNELL, D., Stress, stability, and vibration of complex branched shells of
revolution: Analysis and user's manual for BOSOR4, Lockheed Missiles and
Space Company, Inc., AD748639, March 1972.
5. CROSE, r G. and JONES, R. M., Finite element stress analysis of axisymmetric
and plane solids with different orthotropic, temperature-dependent material
properties in tension and compression, SAMSO-TR-71-103, 1971.
6. SASIENI, M., Y ASPEN, A. and FRIEDMAN, L., Operations research, New York,
John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1959.
 12
Recent Developments in Polyester Matrices and
Reinforcements for Marine Applications, in
Particular Polyester /Kevlar* Composites

L. s. NORWOOD
Scott Bader Co. Ltd, Wollaston, Wellingborough,
Northamptonshire NN9 7RL, England

AND

A. MARCHANT
Anthony Marchant and Associates, Bell House,
32 Bell Street, Romsey S05 8GW, Hampshire, England

ABSTRACT

Since their acceptance into the marine world, reinforced plastics-and, in

particular, glass-reinforced polyester resins-have been used for the
fabrication of1Yoats and other marine structures.
In the early learning days overdesign made it possible to use inexpensive
systems, which were not necessarily the best for the job. However, in recent
years, as composite marine structures have increased in size (the largest, at
present, being the 55 m 'Brecon' class of mine countermeasure vessel) or
where performance is the major criterion (as in power boats and racing
yachts) a move has been made towards the use of improved material for
construction.
On the resin side, isophthalic acid and isophthalic-neopentyl glycol based
unsaturated polyester resins have been developed to give improved water
resistance, blister resistance, toughness and long-term retention of
mechanical properties. These systems also form the basis of many successful
gelcoats, which afford the first barrier to protect the structural laminate. In

* Kevlar is Du Pont's registered trade mark.

158
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 159

recent years it has been recognised that sensible practice would be to use
these types of resin throughout the structure to provide a material with the
best possible performance.
On the reinforcement side there have been developments in size technology
for E-glass to provide improved fibre/ resin bonding. Also, many types of
glass mat have been developed to provide maximum reinforcing action in any
direction. However, glass is rather dense compared with polyester resin and,
for applications where weight and performance are paramount, lightweight
reinforcements are being developed which are currently receiving careful
consideration as alternatives to glass fibre.
In particular, polyaramid fibres are strong contenders to partially or
completely replace glass in such applications because of their low density,
high strength and high stiffness.
Data obtained from composites constructed using Crystic* polyester
resins and Kevlar polyaramid fibres are discussed in detail in this chapter
and the possibility of combining glass and Kevlar fibres to give optimum
laminate and structural performance is investigated.

INTRODUCTION

For more than thirty years thermosetting resins have been developed for
combining with reinforcements to form composite materials. In the early
days the demand was for inexpensive water-resistant materials and the first
generation of polyester resins became available. Since that time, intensive
research and improved processing facilities have resulted in other types of
polyester'resin being produced with improved long-term water resistance,
flexibility and heat distortion temperature. This means improved long-term
performance but, as always, resistance is met on price.
On the reinforcement side, E-glass fibre was developed and various.size
and coating treatments enabled good bonding to be obtained between glass
and polyester resin matrices. Hence, weak matrices could be transformed
into stronger, stiffer materials, and strong fibres could be given rigidity-
the resulting combination being useful composite materials. Development
in glass technology has mainly been restricted to the surface treatment
rather than fundamental changes to the properties of the glass fibres
themselves. The changes and improvements in surface technology have

* Crystic is Scott Bader's registered trade mark.

160 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

provided products which wet-out in a variety of ways, depending on the

fabricator preference, but do not necessarily give any improvements in
performance. However, the introduction of directional fabrics enables
large GRP structures to be manufactured, by allowing the reinforcement in
critical areas to act in the directions of the maximum stresses.
All this is acceptable, provided the lightest possible structure is not
required. Even then, the use of foam sandwich construction does allow
useful reductions to be made in weight, whilst still retaining rigidity, but the
skin-to-core interfacial bond strength and the low core shear stress can
present problems.
In the last few years the introduction of new lightweight fibres has paved
the way for the fabrication of strong, stiff composites without resorting to
sandwich structures. Carbon fibre has never been a contender for marine
use with polyester resins because of its very high cost and low elongation to
failure. However, the use of polyaramid fibres is now receiving considerable
attention, enabling strong, stiff, lightweight reinforced polyester resin
laminates to be produced.
By combining polyaramid and glass fibre fabrics, optimum mechanical
performance can be economically obtained to provide competitive
materials for marine applications.
Glass, polar amid (Kevlar 49) and glass/polyaramid hybrid isophthalic
acid based resin (Crystic 272) systems are discussed in this paper and their
technical performance is examined.
Polyester/polyaramid reinforced composites are shown to have equiva-
lent mechanical performance to vinyl ester/polyaramid reinforced
composites. Long-term retention of properties after immersion in water
has also been examined.

CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR MARINE

APPLICATIONS

Resin System
Careful consideration should be given to the choice of resin system for a
given application, taking into account factors such as location of use, type
of structure and the USe to which it is to be put.
Where continuous immersion occurs, careful thought must be given to
the effect of water absorption on strength retention and appearance. 1 It is
important for applications in warmer water to use better quality resins,
since heat distortion temperature, toughness and water pick-up properties
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 161

all become more significant in demanding environments. Resins based on

isophthalic acid, such as Crystic 272, Crystic 491 PA, Crystic 625, etc., offer
improved performance, showing lower water pick-up in the cast form, than
resins based on orthophthalic acid (Fig. 1) and better property retention at
higher temperatures (Fig. 2).
It is, however, difficult to assess composite performance with reference to
cast resin properties alone. It is better practice to consider the performance
of matrix/reinforcement systems but bearing in mind that importan-t resin

orthophthalic
200

] isophthalic
~
H 100

~
CJ)

0
6 12 18 24
TIME (months)

FIG. I. Water absorption of cast resin at 25°C. (Tested to B.S.2782, Method 502).

characteristics, such as rate of cure, degree of cure, rheology and

handleability, are largely independent of the reinforcement. Such
properties should receive careful consideration to ensure ease of fabrication
and good fibre wet-out and it is worth remembering that:
(i) Rate of cure is a function of resin reactivity and the cure system
used, and can generally be tailored to suit individual requirements
whilst still retaining an acceptable level of cure.
(ii) Degree of cure is very much dependent on the initial cure and,
although room temperature cure is acceptable for many appli-
cations, full cure-and hence optimum environmental resistance-
is only obtainable by using high temperature post-cure treatments.
Barcol hardness measurements give an indication of the degree of
the initial cure; hardnesses of around 35 within a few days at room
temperature are indicative of good initial cure. For Lloyd's
162 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

150 _-------------""'1

125

! 100

I[f.)
15

I 50

25

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 10 80
Control
Dry
rnMERSION TEMPERATURE (oc)

FIG. 2. Flexural strength retention of cast resin after immersion in tap water for 7 days at
various temperatures.

Register of Shipping approval purposes a post cure of 24 h at room

temperature, followed by 16 h at 40°C, is allowed for test
specimens; this is based on empirical evidence that such a cure
equates to a 28-day room temperature cure. Data obtained on cast
Crystic resins, from an independent test house, for Lloyds Register
approval purposes are shown in Table 1. All specimens were post
cured for 24j16h RTj40°C.
Considerable changes in mechanical properties occur when using
higher temperature post cure, giving improvement in some
properties and loss of others (see Table 2). A compromise has to be
struck, when considering post-cure conditions, on the need for best
environmental resistance versus the need for toughness.
(iii) Rheology and handleability have a bearing on the ease with which
reinforcement is wetted, the time of wet-out and resin drainage. The
use of thixotropic resins with the correct base viscosity can solve
these problems.
 "'0
c
1 TABLE ~
Typical cast resin properties of Crystic resins with a post-cure of 24/16 h RT/40°C. MEKP catalyst and cobalt accelerator ,.'"...'"
Resin type Orthophthalic acid based Isophthalic acid based
~
...
;:;.
Resin Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic ~
Property 189LV 196 405PA 406PA 2-406PA * 272 489PA 2-489PA* 491PA 2~49IPA· 625MV s::.
;:s
s::...
Heat distortion ~
temperature (0C) 55 56 56 55 56 56 55 55 56 56 59 '"
~
Barcol hardness 40 40 41 39 42 37 34 34 37 37 40 ...c
Tensile strain to "'3"
failure (%) 5·1 4·1 3·2 3·3 3·0 4·2 5·6 5·6 5·0 5·0 3·5 ;:s
7 days' water (mg) 40 45 45 35 35 39 32 32 40 40 45
'"~
absorption at 'C'
23°C (%) 0·40 0-46 0-46 0·35 0·34 0·39 0·35 0·35 0·39 0·39 0·44
...
Tensile strength ~...
(N/mm2) 55 57 60 60 58 55 54 54 55 55 62 s·
Tensile modulus '"
(N/mm2)
:>..
2500 2800 3200 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 ~
* Low styrene emission versions of base resin system. ~
5'
;:s
'"

0-
w
 ~

TABLE 2
Typical cast resin properties of Crystic resins with a post-cure of 24/3 h RT/80°C. MEKP catalyst and cobalt accelerator

Resin type Orthophthalic acid based Isophthalic acid based

Resin Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic Crystic !:""'
Property 189LV 196 405PA 406PA 2-406PA * 272 489PA 2-489PA* 491PA 2-49IPA* 625MV ~

~
...
Heat distortion ~
temperature (0C) 66 76 71 65 62 78 75 75 75 75 93 c
c
Barcol hardness 45 46 49 46 45 44 43 42 43 43 46 s::...
Tensile strain to ;:
failure (%) 4·0 2·5 2·2 2·3 2·5 3-8 3·5 3·5 3·0 3·0 2·5
's::..."
~
7 days' water (mg) 45 50 50 42 41 45 46 46 45 45 53
absorption at 23°C ~...
(%) 0-46 0·51 0·51 0·42 0·41 0·46 0-46 0·46 0-46 0-46 0·52 g..
Tensile strength ;:
(N/mm2) 72 71 66 69 69 77 75 75 75 75 70 -'"
Tensile modulus
(N/mm2) 3400 3800 3800 3000 3600 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3700

* Low styrene emission versions of base resin system.

 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 165

The Reinforcement System

Glass fibre
Ease of laminate construction is just as much a function of glass
parameters, such as filament diameter, surface coatings and type of fabric,
as it is of resin parameters. In fact, the wetting-out of glass is very much a
surface phenomenon, more under the control of the glass suppliers than the
resin supplier.
Laminate properties can be tailored to meet specific requirements by
correct choice of glass reinforcement, ranging from random mat to uni-
directional rovings. Bi-directional fabrics of various weights are commonly
in use. By careful combination of the numerous types and weights of glass
fabrics available, composites with the desired properties can be produced.
During design, reference can be made to minimum strength and stiffness
values, often found in the standards: 2 typical values are shown in Table 3.
However, such values are of little use unless property predictions can be
made with confidence. The data 3 given in Table 4 for the various glass fibre
constructions shown in Fig. 3, emphasise the good correlation that can be
obtained from experimental and predicted data. Simple rules, such as
adding the expected values of strength and stiffness for all the individual
layers, according to their nominal weights, can be used. The agreement
between predicted and experimental data is expected to be good for stiffness
since these ought to be additive. However, strengths are only strictly
additive if all layers break at the same strain; this is not the case here but,
even so, the calculated data for the constructions under consideration (Fig.
3) are comparable with the measured data, providing a useful guide to
potential performance.

TABLE 3
Minimum strength and stiffness data for glass reiriforcements

Glass type Unit tensile Unit tensile

strength stiffness
(N/mm per kg/m2 (kN/mm per kg/m2
of glass) of glass)

Chopped strand mat

at all angles 200 12·7
Woven rovings at
0° and 90° 300 16·2
Uni-directional
0° 600 32·4
90° o 10·8
 a-
a-

TABLE 4
Predicted and measured laminate properties for the laminates shown in Fig. 3

Laminate No. 2 3 4 5

Direction of test 0° 90° 0° 90° 0° 90° 0° 90° 0° 90°

Measured glass content ~
(% by wt) 41·2 41·0 40·2 35·5 41·3 ~
(kg/m2) 2·96 3·74 3·97 1·08 1·30 ~
..,'"
Property
I:l..
"''""
Predicted tensile strength I:l
;:,
(N/mm width) 1230 510 1260 900 1 140 1140 270 270 540 180 I:l..
Measured tensile strength ?--
(N/mm width) 1270 465 1350 874 1240 1100 269 237 501 141
Measured tensile stress
~
..,
(N/mm2) 256 94 231 144 206 184 105 101 232 66 "I:l;:,-
Predicted tensile stiffness ~
(kN/mm width) 68·7 42·8 77-1 64·1 76·8 76·8 16·3 16·3 30·0 17·1
Measured tensile stiffness
(kN/mm width) 70·7 45·7 72-2 65·5 72-8 68-4 21·6 19·5 31·1 19·8
Measured tensile modulus
(N/mm2) 14200 9200 12300 10800 12100 11400 8400 8300 14300 9200
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcementsfor Marine Applications 167

LAMINATE

* *U *8111111
MOULD SIDE CONSTRUCTION

!
~IIII[I *U
1.

300 300 300 150 600 150 600 300 600 gfm2
M M/WR Mju Mju M/U

2.
* *U *8111111
300
M
300
M/WR
300 150
M/U
600
~IIIIII )1(
150
M/U
600 150
M/U
600
*a
300
M/WR
600 gfm 2

* *illllil
300
M
~IIII[I
150
Mju
600 150
M/U
600
~ ~ *0
150
M/U
600 150
M/U
600 300
M/WR
600 gfm2

**u*300
M
300
M/WR
300 300
M
gfm2

L~
5. ~IIIIII
150 6QO
*t#
300 300 gfm2
M/U M/WR

""III
KEY:-

WR CSM u
FIG. 3. Laminate constructions. MjWR = Combination csmjwoven roving glass reinforce-
ment. MjU = Combination csmjuni-directional glass reinforcement. M = Mat (csm).
168 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

What is undoubtedly more important for composite materials than

ultimate properties is the strain-to-first-noise and/or the limit of
proportionality on the stress and strain.
Invariably, resins are chosen on the basis of their toughness or
extensibility in the cast form. In general, it follows that the tougher or more
flexible the resin, the higher the strain limitations of the laminate 1,4 before
initial damage occurs. It must be noted, however, that very flexible resins,
although desirable because of their high elongation to failure, suffer in
other ways, usually with unacceptably low heat distortion temperatures
and high water pick-up.
Strain-to-first-noise is also dependent on glass fibre type, and the recent
work carried out on the laminates shown in Fig. 3 exhibits a range of
strains-to-first-noise and limit of proportionalities depending on the
construction and direction of applied load-see Table 5. It is well known
that uni-directional material is very weak in the 90 ° direction and
elongation at break is believed to be no more than 0'3-0'4 %;5 this explains
the reduction in strain-to-first-noise in the 90 ° direction for the laminates
containing uni-directional glass. Where the uni-directional material has
been cross-plied, low values of strain-to-first-noise are observed in both
directions examined as a result of the influence of the transverse properties
of each uni-directional ply.
Polyaramid fibre
Advances in fibre technology in recent years have seen the introduction of
. polyaramid fibre in the form of Kevlar 49. Polyaramid fibre is

TABLE 5
Initial damage to laminates shown in Fig. 3

Laminate 2 3 4 5
Direction 0° 90° 0° 90° 0° 90° 0° 90° 0° 90°
Property

Strain-to-first-noise
(%) 0·52 0·34 0·50 0·38 0-45 0·42 0·76 0·70 0·77 0·41
Strain to limit of
proportionality on
the stress-strain
curve (%), 0·73 0·44 0·75 0-48 0·51 0·69 0·58 0·64 0·77 0·38
Ultimate tensile
strain to failure
(%) 2·0 1·7 2·2 1·7 2·1 2·0 1·5 1·4 1·7 1·0
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 169

approximately 55 %the density of glass fibre and is inherently stronger and

stiffer, but its potential in marine applications has barely been realised, for
several reasons:
(i) Its use has predominantly been linked with epoxy and vinyl ester
resins.
(ii) It is reputed to have inferior water resistance, although no evidence
supporting this view has been put forward.
(iii) It is more expensive than glass fibre, although its cost must not be
looked at in isolation as reduced structural weight has obvious
economic benefits.
(iv) Its compression strength is low but careful combination with glass
helps to compensate for this deficiency.
In fact, the most cost-effective polyaramid reinforced laminates are those
incorporating glass fibre reinforcement and using polyester resin matrices.
Over the past three years an intensive programme of research has been
carried out to assess the performance of Kevlar 49/Crystic 272 and Kevlar
49/glass/Crystic 272 systems. Their light weight, high strength and high
stiffness advantages are clearly demonstrated.
The effects of using a fibre treatment incorporating an aqueous epoxy
size on the mechanical performance of the polyester polyaramid composite
have been investigated. The data in Table 6 show improvement in stress-to-
first-noise for the sized Kevlar systems, clearly indicating improvements in
the fibre-resin interfacial bond.

TABLE 6
Mechanical properties of woven Kevlar 49jcsmjpolyester ('Finished'~An aqueous
epoxy size has been applied to the Kev/ar woven roving)

All properties in Unfinished Finished

Njmm 2 Kevlar 49jcsm Kevlar 49jcsm
composites composites

Ultimate tensile strength 355 380

Ratio of stress-to-first-noise to
ultimate tensile stress 0-47 0·72
Tensile modulus 20000 18800
Ultimate compressive strength 120 150
Compressive modulus 14600 18600
Flexural strength 230 300
Flexural modulus 17200 16100
Lap shear strength 7·7 9-4
170 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

TABLE 7
Mechanical properties of woven Kevlar-reinforced/vinyl ester and polyester
composites. (The Kevlar reinforcement is not coated (sized).) (VE = vinyl ester,
P = polyester)

All properties in Kevlar composites Kevlar/csm composites

N/mm2 VE P VE P

Ultimate tensile strength 430 430 300 300

Tensile modulus 26400 26800 17100 17700
Ultimate compressive
strength 90 80 125 ll5
Compressive modulus 23600 25400 17800 16400
Flexural strength 195 200 290 250
Flexural modulus 22000 23000 16600 16100
Lap shear strength 7·2 8·4 8·6 7·5

Kevlar fibre can currently be obtained in uni-directional fabric, bi-

directional woven roving fabric and cloth forms. Hybrid Kevlar/glass bi-
directional products are being developed and uni-directional Kevlar/glass
hybrids are currently being researched. Recent test work has shown that
there is no justification for using expensive vinyl ester matrices instead of
polyester resin matrices with Kevlar reinforcement. Data obtained from
identically reinforced polyester and vinyl ester resins are shown in Table 7.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBRE-REINFORCED

COMPOSITES

Short-term Properties
Improvements in composite weight, stiffness and strength can be
achieved by increasing: (a) the reinforcing fibre properties; (b) the efficiency
of the resin to fibre interface and (c) the resin strength; and by decreasing
the weight of the matrix and reinforcement.
Glass-reinforced composites improve in efficiency in going.from random
glass mats through bi-directional or woven materials to uni-directional
products. Combinations of all three have provided a means of optimising
the mechanical properties relative to the production method.
Table 8 shows the mechanical properties of the more commonly used
glass reinforcement systems in a polyester resin matrix. 6 • 7
As expected, the composite strength and stiffness increase as the
reinforcing material changes from random mat to uni-directional, i.e. more
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 171

TABLE 8
Ultimate design properties of polyester glass-reinforced composites

All properties in A B C D
N/mm2 csm wr/csm wr uni-d/csm

Ultimate tensile strength 108 186 250 460

Tensile modulus 8100 11720 15800 21000
Ultimate compressive strength 150 145 190 240
Compressive modulus 8100 11930 18000
Lap shear strength 7 10 9 12
Flexural strength 190 280 285
Flexural modulus 6700 9500 13400

A. Chopped strand mat (nominal resin-to-glass ratio = 2:1 by weight).

B. Combination product of woven rovings and chopped strand mat (nominal resin-
to-glass ratio = 1· 3: 1 by weight).
C. Woven rovings (nominal resin-to-glass ratio = 1:1 by weight).
D. Combination product of un i-directional reinforcement and chopped strand mat
(nominal resin-to-glass ratio = 1·2:1 by weight).

reinforcement is acting in the direction of the principal stress. What is

important about the change in mechanical properties, as a function of
reinforcement type, is the freedom it allows designers to vary composite
design for given stress situations. The optimum properties of glass-
reinforced polyester resins, still the most commonly used composite in the
marine industry, are obtained by using uni-directional fibres. However,
incorporation of polyaramid fibre, such as Kevlar 49, results in improved
mechanical performance, with the exception of the compressive strength, 8
as shown in Table 9.
The addition of glass chopped strand mat reinforcement, as an interlayer
between Kevlar layers, increases the flexural strength, the compressive
strength and the compressive modulus but causes reductions in flexural
modulus, tensile strength and tensile modulus.
Uni-directional Kevlar/csm has superior tensile strength and modulus
properties compared with uni-directional glass/csm reinforcement (see
Tables 8 and 9).

Immersion Properties
Laboratory immersion tests are usually carried out under accelerated
conditions involving double-sided immersion in distilled or tap water,
without gelcoat protection and at elevated temperatures.
In general, such tests only give an indication of relative performance but
172 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

TABLE 9
Ultimate design properties of Kevlar/polyester composites and Kevlar/glass/
polyester composites

All properties given in E F G

N/mm2 Woven Woven Uni-d
Kevlar/csm Kevlar Kevlar/csm

Tensile strength 380 420 610

Tensile modulus 18800 26000 31000
Compressive strength 150 115 135
Compressive modulus 18600 16300 26800
Lap shear strength 9·4 12·8 7·1
Flexural strength 300 255 320
Flexural modulus 16100 23400 22700

E. Kevlar 49 (woven and treated with aqueous epoxy finish) and glass chopped
strand mat at a resin-to-fibre ratio of 1·04: 1 by weight.
F. Kevlar 49 (woven and treated with aqueous epoxy finish) at a resin-to-fibre ratio
of 0,82:1 by weight.
G. A combination product of Kevlar 49 (untreated) uni-directional fibres and glass
chopped strand mat at a resin-to-fibre ratio of 1·20:1.

it is reasonable to assume that, under the test conditions, if one system out-
performs another it will do so under less severe conditions. For marine
applications where post curing is rarely applied and is generally
unnecessary, accelerated testing is best restricted to a maximum
temperature of 40°C1 in order not to change the mechanism of any
degradation process that might occur. Test periods in excess of two years
may therefore be necessary. van der Beek,9 from his studies of GRP, has
assessed the acceleration factor for single-sided exposure to distilled water
at 40°C as 5-6 times that at ambient temperature. This factor could be
higher for contact with seawater at ambient temperatures. Tests conducted
under double-sided immersion conditions are more accelerated. However,
even after ten years of double-sided immersion testing 1 property retention
more than satisfied the working stress level requirements for normal boat
hull construction, including those constructed using general purpose resins.
Laminates constructed with more resistant systems, such as isophthalic
acid resins and glass fibre containing a minimum of hydrolysable binder,
generally perform better. 1 0.11
Table 10 contains data comparing the performance of two marine Crystic
polyester resins used to construct chopped strand mat, woven roving/
chopped strand mat and uni-directional/chopped strand mat laminates,
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 173

TABLE 10
Mechanical properties of GRP after long-term total immersion in tap water at 30°C

Resin Marine orthophthalic Marine isophthalic

resin resin
Property Immersion Control 100 4 Control 100 4
N/mm2 time days years days years

Construction

Ultimate I 110 95 70 105 85 75

tensile 2 209 175 126203 181 162
strength 3 210 171 138194 174 166
4(0°) 273 230 174267 243 215
4(90°) 77 72
Tensile I 7000 6700 6200 7400 6800 6400
modulus 2 13000 12400 11000 13700 12900 11900
3 12800 11900 9100 12500 12200 11800
4(0°) 14100 13800 13200 14400 14200 13800
4(90°) 9900 9000
Flexural I 187 162 112 175 160 128
strength 2 281 245 141 278 254 190
3 314 273 160 321 286 245
4(0°) 386 341 234 386 345 298
4(90°) 166 142 88 167 151 122
Flexural I 6600 5800 4400 6400 6100 4800
modulus 2 9900 9500 8000 9900 9300 8200
3 10 100 9500 7800 10300 9900 9500
4(0°) 10200 9800 9500 10700 10500 9900
4(90°) 6800 6300 4800 7500 7100 6200

Cure: MEKP+cobalt. Post-cure: 24h RT, then 16h at 40°C.

Construction:
I. Four layers of csm (450 g/m 2 per layer)-30 % glass by wt.
2. csm/wr/csm/wr/csm/wr/csm (csm = 300 g/m 2 , wr = 800 g/ml}--44 % glass by
wt.
3. csm, three layers wr/csm combination mat (csm = 300 g/m 2, wr = 800 g/m2)_
43 % glass by wt.
4. csm, three layers uni-directional/csm combination mat (csm = 300 g/m 2, uni-
directional = 600 g/m2)--42 % glass by wt.

after 100 days' and 4 years' double-sided immersion in tap water at 30°C
without gelcoat or paint protection. Retention of properties is very good
under these harsh test conditions but, as expected, the isophthalic acid
based system shows superior performance. Even so, orthophthalic acid
based systems are perfectly acceptable for many marine applications, as
proved by the countless examples of successful marine vessels and
174 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

TABLE 11
Mechanical properties of Kevlar and Kevlar/csm composites after immersion in tap
water at 30 0 e

All properties given Woven Kevlar/csm Woven Kevlar

in N/mm2 composites composites
Control 100 days Control 100 days 1 year

Ultimate tensile
strength 380 380 420 380 400
Tensile modulus 18800 22200 26000 25400 24700
Flexural strength 300 310 255 270 260
Flexural modulus 16100 18400 23400 21500 23900
Lap shear strength 9-4 7·3 12·8 1\·2 14·3

structures made using them over the past 30 years. However, when
optimum performance is required, isophthalic acid based systems give
improved long-term properties as a result of their chemical make-up,
rendering them less susceptible to chemical degradation.
Immersion tests have been carried out on Kevlar and Kevlar/chopped
strand mat isophthalic (Crystic 272) polyester resin laminates (see
Table 11).
Although the immersion programme on Kevlar composites is only at an
interim stage it is clear that Kevlar-reinforced isophthalic polyester resin
composites retain their properties equally as well as glass-reinforced
isophthalic polyester composites. In fact, there is no significant loss of
properties after the one-year immersion period.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES RELATIVE TO

MARINE STRUCTURES

The advantages oflightweight, high strength, high modulus reinforcements

like polyaramid fibres are summarised in Figs 4 to 7 by comparing the
specific properties of composites made using different reinforcement
systems.
Figures 4 and 5 show that the specific tensile strengths and moduli of
composites are functions of the reinforcement type-increasing when bi-
directional and directional reinforcement are used and exhibiting
significant increases in pro.p.erties whenever Kevlar reinforcement is
incorporated. Figures 6 and 7 show the specific compressive properties of
composites. The specific compressive modulus of Kevlar-reinforced
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 175

7·5 J Chopped strand mat

12 I Woven glass roving/csm

28 J Woven Kevlar/csm

15·5 I Woven glass roving

32·5 J Woven Kevlar

29·5 I Uni-directional glass/csm

44·5 I Uni-directional Kevlar/csm

FIG. 4. Specific tensile strength of fibre-reinforced polyester composites.

material is improved by incorporating chopped strand mat into the

construction. The advantage of using high strength, high stiffness (or
modulus) reinforcements is a reduction in the weight of a structure for a
given set of loading conditions. This can be illustrated by considering the
simple bend conditions of a laminate. By using different reinforcements
having different moduli, retention of stiffness can be achieved with
considerable weight saving (see Fig. 8).
If, however, the laminate deflection or stiffness is not the criterion but
strength is, then the weight comparison, shown in Fig. 9, applies for a
common bending condition.

560 I Chopped strand mat

760 I Woven glass roving/csm

1385 J Woven Kevlar/csm

980 I Woven glass roving

2010 I Woven l(evlar

1350
J Uni-directional glassjcsm
2250
I Uni-directional Kevlarjcsm

FIG. 5. Specific tensile moduli of fibre-reinforced polyester composites.

176 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

10·5 I Chopped strand mat

9·5 I Woven glass roving/csm

11 I Woven Kevlar/csm

12 I Woven glass roving

9
J Woven Kevlar

15·5
I Uni-directional glass/csm

10 J U ni -directional Kevlar /csm

FIG. 6. Specific compressive strength of fibre-reinforced polyester composites.

560
J Chopped strand mat

775 I Woven glass roving/csm

1370 I Woven Kevlar/csm

I 120
I Woven glass roving
1260 I Woven Kevlar

1220*
1 Uni-directional glass/csm
1950 J Uni-directional Kevlar/csm

FIG. 7. Specific compressive moduli of'fibre-reinforced polyester composites. (* Calculated

value.)

100 1 Chopped strand mat

88 I Woven glass roving/csm

66 I Woven Kevlar/csm

83
I Woven glass roving
56 J Woven Kevlar

FIG. 8. Relative weights of fibre-reinforced polyester composites for equal stiffness in bend.
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 177

100
J Chopped strand mat

88 I Woven glass roving/csm

75 J Woven Kevlar/csm

91
J Woven glass roving
78 I Woven Kevlar

FIG. 9. Relative weights of fibre-reinforced polyester composites for equal flexural strength.

The comparisons made in Figs 8 and 9 only apply if the laminate behaves
according to normal bending theory, which breaks down if the laminate
deflection exceeds half its thickness. Beyond this point the laminate will be
subjected to membrane stresses. This is particularly applicable to high
speed vessels where the slamming pressures are such that the external skin is
undergoing large deflections.
The relationship between membrane effects and normal bending theory
are shown in Fig. 10 for a panel subjected to a pressure normal to the
surface, for both membrane and bending conditions.
20

18

16

! 14
\
15 12

1\
H
8
\
0 \
10 Deflection = ~
~
~
8 \ I' /
6
Me brane " \ \
\
//
4 / ~
V ',,-~ ~nding

(1
/ IU
"'-

1
'"
"-~

~O

LAMINATE THICKNESS Cmm)

FIG. 10. Deflection versus thickness for a given loading condition (calculated using
membrane and bending theories).
178 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

The curves show the effect ofa pressure of 0·5 kg/cm 2 on a panel, made of
material with tensile Imoduiusl 11 720 N/mm2, with edges fully restrained
against rotation and translation.
Material properties which contribute to the membrane effect are strength
and modulus. Hence, lighter Kevlar-reinforced composite panels perform
equally as well as heavier glass-reinforced panels for a given loading
condition (see Fig. 11).

100
I Chopped strand mat

90 I Woven glass roving/csm

Woven Kevlar/csm

57 J Woven glass roving

FIG. II. Relative weights of fibre-reinforced polyester panels, designed using membrane
theory, to the ultimate stress, for a pressure of 2·0 kg/cm 2 .

If deflection is the criterion, then again Kevlar-reinforced composites

show improvements compared with glass-reinforced material (see Fig. 12).
All the examples discussed so far give an indication of the advantages to
be gained by using an engineered composite, incorporating high strength,
high modulus reinforcements, such as Kevlar-reinforced polyester
composites. The significance of using this type of material can best be put
into perspective by considering an actual structure. A 30 %weight saving
can be achieved in the manufacture ofa 13 m, 30 knot, patrol vessel byusing
a glass/Kevlar-polyester resin construction instead of the conventional
glass-polyester construction, for identical loading conditions and struc-
tural analysis (see Table 12).

100
J Chopped strand mat

91
I Woven glass roving/csm
67 J Woven Kevlar/csm

85 I Woven glass roving

FIG. 12. Relative weights of fibre-reinforced polyester panels under pressure and membrane.
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 179

TABLE 12
Comparative weights for the hull and deck structure of a 13 m patrol vessel
constructed in: (i) Kevlarjcsmjpolyester resin. (ii) Glass (wrjcsm)/polyester resin

Composite Material weight (kg):

Hull and deck structure
Glass Kevlar Resin Total
inc.
gelcoat

Kevlarjcsm
(480gjm 2 K49) 440 550 1430 2420
(300gjm2 csm)
Glassjwr jcsm
(800 gjm 2 wr) 1510 1940 3450

The weight saving achieved in the Kevlar-reinforced structure means

greater vessel speed and/or greater range for a given power.
The exercise carried out on a 'Spear' class patrol boat by Fairey Allday
Marine Limited enabled a direct performance comparison to be made
between identical 'Spear' patrol vessels constructed in glass-reinforced
polyester resin and Kevlar/csm reinforced polyester resin. The measured
weight savings for each of three mouldings are shown in Table 13.
The Kevlar specification was calculated on an equal strength and stiffness
basis. Chopped strand mat was incorporated in the construction between
la yers of Kevlar woven roving. The resultant structure was 20 %lighter than
the all glass-reinforced version, giving a total weight-saving, on the all-up
weight of the boat, of9·1 %. The boats were tested in the Solent-the Kevlar
version, using the same horsepower as the glass boat, showed a 1·7 knot

TABLE 13
Weight saving achieved for the Kevlarjcsm reinforced 9 m 'Spear' patrol boat
compared with the equivalent all glass-reinforced structure

Mouldings Weight saved (kg)

Hull, with all internal stiffening, girders and

bulkheads 304
Deck structure, including cabin top and part of the
cockpit 101
Wheelhouse and aft bulkhead 25

Total weight saved 430

180 L. S. Norwood and A. Marchant

speed increase and a fuel consumption of 5 gallons per hour less when at full
throttle, which means reduced running costs.
Sound level readings were taken within the boats-the noise level in the
Kevlar version was two points less on the decibel meter.

CONCLUSIONS

(a) Resin systems must be chosen with careful reference to the

proposed application, but for the best long-term property
retention, isophthalic acid based polyesters are a natural choice
because of their improved water resistance and heat resistance
properties.
(b) Polyester resins can be used in conjunction with polyaramid
(Kevlar) reinforcement to produce composites with excellent
mechanical properties.
(c) The mechanical properties of glass-reinforced polyester composites
can, in general, be exceeded by the use of the lighter weight
reinforcements.
(d) Considerable weight saving can be achieved in marine structures by
using polyaramid reinforcements, resulting in improved
performance.
(e) Structural and economic optimisation is best achieved by
combining Kevlar and glass reinforcements which, when used in
conjunction with an isophthalic polyester (Crystic 272) resin,
provide composites with very suitable properties for marine
application.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank Scott Bader Company Limited and Du Pont de
Nemours International SA for their permission to publish the information
used in this paper, and Fairey Allday Marine Limited for their permission
to publish data on the 'Spear' patrol boat.

REFERENCES
l. CLARKE, G. M. and NORWOOD, L. S., Reinforced plastics (November, 1978)
370.
2. B.S.4994: 'Vessels and Tanks in Reinforced Plastics'.
 Polyester Matrices and Reinforcements for Marine Applications 181

3. FAREBROTHER, T., Crystic 272 Laminate Properties, Scott Bader Materials

Science Internal Report, December, 1979.
4. NORWOOD, L. S. and MILLMAN, A. F., Composites (January, 1980) 39.
5. Military Handbook-Plastics for Aerospace Vehicles, Part 1. Reinforced
Plastics, MIL-HDBK-17A, January, 1971.
6. JOHNSON, A. F., Engineering Design Properties ofGRP BPF/NPL.
7. MARCHANT, A., Southampton Boat Show Symposium, 1978, PRI Meeting:
Alternative Materials Reviews.
8. MARCHANT, A. and Associates, Internal Test Reports.
9. VAN DER BEEK, M. H. B., Scott Bader Symposium, March 1979, Creaton Hall,
Northamptonshire.
10. Scott Bader literature-Crystic 489A leaflet.
II. NORWOOD, L. S., EDGELL, D. W. and HANKIN, A. G., 12th Reinforced Plastics
Conference of the BPF, Brighton, November, 1980. Paper 39, p. 185.
 13
The Testing and Analysis of Novel Top-Hat
Stiffener Fabrication Methods for Use in GRP
Ships
A. K. GREEN AND W. H. BOWYER
Fulmer Research Laboratories Limited,
Stoke Poges, Slough SL2 4QD, England

ABSTRACT

Reinforced and unreinforced specimens representative of GRP ship hull/

frame structures have been tested by a slow pull-off method. Changes in
bondline stress distribution and overall test system compliance produced by
the three loading modes used affected bondline crack initiation loads and the
crack propagation behaviour. The loading mode did not influence the
ranking order of the' various fabrication' techniques. As a simulation of the
behaviour of the structure under shock loading, the use of the most severe,
centre clamp, loading method is recommended.
The beneficial effects of incorporating a low modulus acrylic matrix in the
bondline stress concentration under the heel of the stiffener web are
described. The crucial role of the stiffness of the stiffener frame web/flange
corner in determining the failure pattern is discussed. It is suggested that
local reductions in stiffness in the web/flange corner may have a beneficial
effect in inhibiting damage to the frame/ hull connection during overloads.

INTRODUCTION

The use of the familiar hand laid-up glass-fibre/polyester resin GRP for
ship construction is commonplace. The usual reasons for its choice involve
lower tooling and fabrication costs for limited production runs compared
with other materials, the possibility of construction by relatively unskilled
personnel and the ready applicability of laminated products to the
182
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 183

fabrication of the complex curved shapes that occur in hulls. It is rarely the
properties of GRP per se that cause it to be selected. An exception to this is
its use in the 'Hunt' class of naval MCMV's that are just entering service
with the Royal Navy, where the non-magnetic properties of GRP were of
prime importance in dictating its selection. This is a demanding application
and much background work was carried out on the GRP materials, their
fabrication methods and quality control systems, before the 60 m long
vessels were constructed, as described in references 1 and 2.
A fabrication method was chosen that incorporates a single skin hull
constructed with .laminations of woven glass roving fabric. Due to the
inherently low elastic modulus of GRP, top-hat stiffeners are used on the
hull, decks and bulkheads to achieve the required overall stiffness in the hull
structure. Top-hat stiffeners are in widespread use in the GRP shipbuilding
industry since they can be tailored readily to the complex curvature of hulls
and provide built-in buoyancy by the fabrication method of laminating
over rigid polymeric foam cores. The conventional fabrication method
involves the lamination of the hull shell and flat or gently curved deck and
bulkhead panels. Rigid foam cores are bonded to these unstiffened
structures where stiffness is required and GRP laminations are built up
around the cores. When constructing a large hull, it is not uncommon for a
substantial delay to occur between shell lamination and the addition of the
stiffeners. The early exploratory work 1 established that a delay of greater
than 7 days prior to stiffener lamination led to an excessively weak
secondary bond between hun shell and the flanges of the stiffener, if no
special precautions were taken. Surface treatments for the hull immediately
prior to stiffener lamination were evolved, these involving abrasion, wiping
with solvents and the use of peel plies. These precautions enable stiffeners to
be fabricated that perform satisfactorily in most circumstances, with a
secondary bond whose transverse tensile strength equals the interlaminar
tensile strength of the main hull laminate. 3
However, the service requirements for naval minesweepers and
minehunters include resistance to the effects of underwater explosions close
to the hull. Shock testing of stiffened panels representative of hull designs
revealed a tendency for the bond between the stiffener and the underlying
panel to fail, 1 producing a significant stiffness reduction in the structure.
This stiffness loss would be critical to the ship's performance and
mechanical fasteners were introduced into the structure to prevent stiffener
separation and maintain structural integrity. The method adopted was
through-bolting of the stiffener flanges to the hull shell. 2 ,3 The non-
magnetic hull specification, the corrosive marine environment and the
184 A. K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

fatigue and vibration service requirements necessitated the use of, initially,
aluminium-silicon-bronze and, currently, titanium nuts, bolts and
washers. The additional obvious requirement of maintaining the water
tightness of the hull led to an insertion scheme involving boring and
counter boring the hull laminate, the use of sealants and manually torque
tightening the bolts and nuts from both inside and outside the hull
following demoulding. The high costs associated with both the fasteners
and the insertion procedure led to the study of other fabrication methods
that could resist the effects of shock loading and could be implemented
simply and cheaply in the shipyard.
This programme investigated the possibility of a direct replacement by a
relatively inexpensive commercially available mechanical fastener and
insertion scheme for the titanium through bolts. However, all mechanical
fasteners are only a partial solution to the problem, since the bond failure
initiates at the stiffener web/flange corner, remote from the fastener, and all
the fastener can do is act as a crack arrester. To achieve a fundamental
improvement in performance, it is necessary to inhibit the crack initiation
process. Efforts were made to achieve this by altering the lamination
procedure and/or incorporating in selected regions a higher toughness
matrix than the conventional polyester resin. These modified lamination
procedures were aimed at utilising the available potential bond area of the
currently redundant region under the foam core, and reducing the stress
concentration at the stiffener web/flange corner. In addition to testing the
performance of these reinforcement methods by slow pull-off testing of
representative top-hat section specimens, the production practicality of all
methods was assessed. Unreinforced and titanium bolt reinforced
specimens were also tested to provide a basis for comparison of the
suggested substitute reinforcement methods.

FABRICATION METHODS

The fabrication methods for the test specimens used in this study are
described in detail in reference 4. Briefly, five specimen types were
fabricated as stiffened panels, from which 150 mm wide test specimens were
cut, as follows.

(a) Unreinforced
Representative, at approximately ~ scale, of a typical below water-line
hull stiffener with a 71' 0 inclined top-hat side web. The fabrication used
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 185

Fothergill and Harvey Y920 woven roving fabric of 814g/m 2 and BP

Cellobond A2785CV polyester resin for both base panel and stiffener, with
additional 630 g/m 2 unidirectional glass roving tape plies in the stiffener top
and glass roving bundles as an infill at the stiffener flange/web corner.

(b) Titanium Bolt Reinforced

As (a) with an MI0 titanium bolt inserted through the flange and base
panel, torqued to 27·1 Nm, using Bostik 2115.5 polysulphide sealant as an
interlay. The bolt head was counterbored flush to the base panel and bolts
and holes were degreased with styrene monomer prior to assembly. This
bolt size and procedure were adopted, following consultation with Vosper
Thorneycroft, as representative of shipyard production practice.

(c) Stainless Steel Screw Reinforced

As (a) with three 25·4 mm No.8 Type B self-tapping screws inserted into
each flange. The screws were standard commercial 'Supadriv' screws made
of 18Cr/9Ni/3Cu austenitic stainless steel. The screws were pneumatically
driven into holes filled with liquid A2785CV resin, which was then allowed
to cure. Driving torque and speed and pilot hole diameter were optimised as
described in reference 4. The strength of three screws is approximately
equivalent to that of one MIO titanium bolt.

(d) Complex Stitched Cloth

This involved the use of a lightweight 220 g/m 2 plain weave glass cloth
stitched to the Y920 cloth with 1420 denier Kevlar yarn along two parallel
lines, 200 mm apart, this being the width of the stiffener foam core base.
During lamination, the Y920 cloth formed the topmost layer of the base
panel and the lightweight cloth was wrapped completely around the foam
core. This fabrication method is an attempt to utilise the redundant stiffener
base area and reduce the stress concentration in the stiffener web/flange
corner by bridging the acute angle between the stiffener web and the base
panel with Kevlar fibre stitching.

(e) Complex Stitched Cloth/High Toughness Matrix

This method was as described in (d) except that lamination across the
stiffener base and in the critical stiffener web/flange corner was carried out
using a high toughness matrix. A flexibilised acrylic system, Flexon 241,
marketed as a high peel strength adhesive, was used. The cloth was
impregnated by the adhesive initiator dispersed in a solvent, the solvent was
allowed to evaporate and lamination was accomplished by hand-working in
186 A. K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

the gelatinous adhesive. Specimen lamination was completed using the

conventional A2785CV polyester resin, with no problems of incom-
patibility between the two matrix systems being encountered.

SPECIMEN TESTING

The specimens were assessed by slow pull-off testing of the top-hat stiffener,
at a displacement rate of I mmjmin, on a 570 kN Mand servo-hydraulic
testing machine. Three support systems for the specimen base panel were
used. All specimen variants were tested as shown in Fig. I, with the base
panel clamped to the bed of the testing machine using three clamps and a
125 mm wide loading shackle that distributes the load over the stiffener top
area. Unreinforced specimens were similarly tested, but with the omission
of the central clamp on the specimen base, i.e. only the two outer clamps
were used. All specimen variants were further tested using only a single
central base panel clamp, as shown schematically in Fig. 2, comprising a
50 mm square section mild steel bar. For these tests, an additional 38 mm
wide by 6· 3 mm deep steel strip was placed centrally within the 125 mm wide
top-hat loading shackle to concentrate the loading at the top-hat centre.
Triplicate testing was performed in most cases. The stitched cloth panel
using only polyester resin lamination had been manufactured imperfectly,
as described in detail in reference 4, such that the position of one of the lines

FIG. I. Three clamp loading arrangement. Crown copyright.

 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 187

_... - -- - - - _... - _ ... _. --~

-,

FIG. 2. Schematic loading arrangement, centre clamped .

of stitching did not coincide perfectly with the stiffener web/flange corner.
Accordingly, four specimens of this type were tested by three-clamp loading,
one of which was nominally perfect, the other three being variably faulty.
The three such specimens tested in single clamp loading were all nominally
perfect.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The experimental results for unreinforced specimens tested by one, two and
three clamp loading are presented in Table 1. The data for the various
reinforced specimens tested by one and three clamp loading are presented in
Table 2. Figures for work done are calculated from planimeter

T ABLE I
Pull-off test results for unreinforced top-hat specimens
(Displacement rate, I mm/min)

Clamping Maximum Secant Total work Work done

system load stiffness done to first
(kN) (kN mm- I ) (J) load drop
(J)

Centre clamp 14·6 2 ·6 (2- 12 kN) 47·0 47 ·0

21·5 3·0 (5- 20 kN) 80·3 80·3
23-4 2·9 (5- 20 kN) 97·2 97·2
Two clamp 33·1 2-41 (5- 15 kN) 277
32·1 2 ·35 (5- 15 kN) 261
Three clamp 32·2 8·33(10- 25 kN) 176 129
29·2 7 ·14(10- 25 kN) 261 115
31·5 7·50(10- 25 kN) 224 139
 OC>
OC>

TABLE 2
Pull-off test results for reinforced top-hat specimens
(Displacement rate, J mm/min)

Specimen Maximum load Secant stiffness Total work done (J) Work done to first
reinforcement (kN) (kN mm- I ) load drop (J)
Three One Three clamp One clamp Three One Three One
clamp clamp (10-25 kN) (5-20 kN) clamp clamp clamp clamp ;..
?<:
Ti bolts 39·3 36·0 11·5 3·2 1230 640·5 117 68·9 ~
40·4 38·9 10·7 3·2 1150 839·2 81·2 99·1
39·8 38·1 13·1 3·1 1040 > 1 027·0t 86·4 73·5 ~
I:>
Self-tapping screws 41·0 33·5 10·7 H 281 308·1 104 86·7 i
43·0 34·2 10·7 3·1 331 375·3 86·0 97·7 ~
40·4 34·4 9·67 3·1 336 345·5 130 72-4 ::t:
Stitched cloth/ 34·8 24·3 9-4 3·3 158 92·8 59·9 92·8
Polyester resin 32·3 19·9 11·5 3·4* 201 72-6 53·7 57·9 ~
26·3 27·5 10·0 3·2 228 121·0 41·3 121·0 ~
24·0 9·0 121 33·6 '".,
Stitched cloth/ 43·4 31·9 10·00 2·9 237 423·5 116 214·0
Acrylic bonded 41·9 32·9 9·4 2·9 239 303·6 120 230·5
44·5 31·2 10·7 2·9 264 296·8 131 205·3

* Secant extrapolated to 20kN.

t Test terminated when bolt head continued to pull through at constant load.
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 189

measurements of the specimen load/displacement records. Representative

load/displacement records for the five specimen variants tested by centre
clamp loading are given in Fig. 3, and by three clamp loading in Fig. 4.
The records for the unreinforced specimens are repeated in Fig. 5, together
with a representative record of an unreinforced specimen tested by two
clamp loading. In all cases, audible evidence of damage occurred prior to
any visible damage to the specimen during testing.

Unreinforced Specimens
It is obvious from Fig. 5 that the mechanical response of the specimens
during slow pull-off testing is influenced strongly by the manner in which
they are loaded. The loading arrangement also affected the sequence of
failure. It is obvious that the load/displacement history for centre clamped
specimens is essentially linear to failure. During testing, the specimens
assumed the position indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 2. Noise generated
was associated with the development of a network of fine cracks in the
region A in Fig. 2. The top of the top-hat deformed as indicated, but the side
webs of the top-hat remained essentially straight under load. No damage
was visible at, or close to, the secondary bond line prior to catastrophic
failure, which was by complete separation of one stiffener flange from the
base panel along the secondary bond line.
With the two clamp loaded specimen, no visible-and little audible-
damage occurred until the two small load drops at about 15kN. The
stiffener flange/web corner cracked internally through most of its thickness
along interlaminar planes, first on one side of the top-hat, then the other, at
these load drops, but no cracks were produced either in the secondary bond
line or in the base panel. The load increased evenly until catastrophic failure
of the specimen at its maximum load by complete separation of one of the
stiffener flanges from the base panel. No cracks were observed in the
secondary bond line prior to final failure. A small amount of delamination
was apparent in the flange area of the base panel after test, between the
topmost and the adjacent roving ply.
The failure sequence for three clamp loaded specimens was described in
detail in reference 4. Audible evidence of damage occurred prior to any
visible damage to the specimen. This noise was much louder than that
associated with the centre and two clamp tests. The first crack appeared at,
or just before, the point of maximum load, under the heel of the stiffener
side web, in the secondary bond line, and arrested after only a few
millimetres of growth. As displacement increased, the stiffener cracked
internally along interlaminar planes in the web/flange corner and the base
 'C>
0

lb'cWorccd
Bolt ReirrfoIo'c.d
Scr.w Rcinforad
..... Stitdlld Cloth I Polyester
40 SliIchcd Cloth I Acrytic

.. · 1
..
; .. '
,,
30 ~;' .. '" .:.... , ?--
I
.. I
?'::
<:'l
...
'~"
c
'"'-"
~
~
t::tI
•
,.
...,I
'.. ~'"
...'"
' ..
. ..
."
•
'
.. .4'-
10 Ij; 20+t 2S 30,
I ·
3S
Oisploccmcnt mil\.

FIG. 3. Top-hat pull-ofT tests, centre clamp only.

 ~
.....
lk-nWorccO
,- .'~. ~\ ., ..... ....
40 Bolt RmlcrccO
.~. ,'. ,' ..~.~~ ..... ,.,." ........ ,-.....
, . i Screw R"i1tbrc1ld
, .. /;~:....... . ~'
...\ ~
S\ilCMd CleM I Polyak!"

................. ~- Sti\chlld OoUoI Acryic "'"

iii' '\
~
~
30 <!~. \ ..... §
....._........... \.
:i: : ~
....
'"
II ...................._...... ~
<::l-
....
3~ .#• ". 2'
11
lS 20 -.
.oJ
..J .,.'~ ......... ,. §'
...........
'\""
~
;;.
'. c
t:d \ !}
~ ....... s·
10 .~
•.• . .-·. ,1
. -:.. Cl
W , fl • • ~
...
:Or
;., "ll
~
f":.J
... . r. . .-!"~t~,.a'.~:.. ... ~
';:;'
...'. I.
'"
10 30
DisplocClMfll min.

FIG. 4. Top-hat pull-off tests, three clamp loading. Crown copyright.

'"
192 A . K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

_._._. Centre CIoI!Ip

30 ,, 2 Cbnp
,
,, - 3 Clamp
,
,,

20
Lood
leN

10

5 10 15 20 25
DiIpIoccmcnt IN!\.

FIG. 5. Top-hat pull-off tests, unreinforced specimens.

panel started to delaminate under the crack in the secondary bond line. This
base panel delamination grew along the region adjacent to the flange and
extended down three of four plies into the base panel. Final failure was by
rapid crack growth along the secondary bond line leading to separation of a
stiffener flange from the base panel. Following growth of the initial crack,
crack growth in the secondary bond line was minimal prior to final failure.

Reinforced Specimens-Centre Clamp Loaded

The load displacement records were essentially linear in all cases up to a
load in the range 21 ~24kN with noise generation associated with the
growth of a crack network as indicated at A in Fig. 2. The stitched cloth all
polyester resin construction specimens failed at, or shortly after, this point
by complete separation of one stiffener flange from the base panel along the
secondary bond line, with no damage visible at, or close to, the secondary
bond line prior to final failure.
In the mechanically fastened specimens, the small load drops evident in
Fig. 3 at about 24 kN were associated with the formation of a crack in the
secondary bond line under the heel of the stiffener side web that was
arrested at the bolt or just before the line of screws. The second load drop at
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 193

~ 26 kN was associated with a similar crack under the other stiffener flange
of the specimen. The load increased as the crack either grew around the bolt
and the nut or bolt head started to pull through the laminate, or the crack
grew up to, and a few millimetres past, the line of screws. The small load
drops at ~ 32 kN were associated with the formation of gross interlaminar
cracks within the corners of the top-hat, in the position indicated by B in
Fig. 2. Catastrophic failure occurred by pull-through of either the bolt head
or the nut and washer, or by snapping of the screws with separation along
the secondary bond line under one flange.
For the stitched cloth specimen incorporating the acrylic matrix, the loss
of linearity in the load displacement record at ~ 20 kN was associated with
the appearance of a small interlaminar crack, under the heel of the stiffener
side web between the first and second plies of the base panel, i.e. below the
secondary bond line. No load drop occurred and the specimens bore
increasing loads with a marginally reduced stiffness. As the load increased,
the crack grew only slightly until failure occurred by rapid crack growth of
the pre-existing crack in both directions within the base panel and by partial
failure of the secondary bond line under the toe of the stiffener flange, i.e.
remote from the acrylic matrix region, with the load drop to ~ 10 kN. The
further load increases were associated with progressive delamination of the
top ply from the base panel. Final failure was by tearing of both the
heavyweight and lightweight glass cloths. No cracks grew into, or within,
the acrylic matrix region prior to final failure.

Reinforced Specimens-Three-clamp Loaded

The test results obtained with these specimens are described in more
detail in reference 4 and are briefly summarised here. In the specimens
reinforced with mechanical fasteners the first crack always appeared in the
range 29-34kN, corresponding to the peak loads for three-clamp loaded
unreinforced specimens, and a discontinuity was apparent in the load/
displacement records. Interlaminar cracks growing in the base panel
arrested tetpporarily at the fasteners while the load increased. In bolted
specimens, the cracks grew around the bolt until, at maximum load, the
titanium nuts and washers started to pull through the stiffener flange. The
large amount of subsequent deformation increased the degree of pull
through until the flange failed, extensively damaged. In screw-reinforced
specimens, local yielding of the screws near the secondary bond line
apparently occurred at the peak load, and final failure was by a
combination of screw snapping and screw pull out from the specimen base.
For stitched cloth specimens, audible damage usually occurred in the
194 A. K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

20-25 kN load range. The initial visible failure event was delamination
cracking within the base panel, immediately below the stitched ply, under
the heel of the stiffener side web. The four results in Table 2, for specimens
with only polyester resin matrix, show a dependence of peak load on the
stitching position. The highest peak load occurred in the nominally perfect
specimen and the lowest in the most defective specimen. Following
maximum load in these specimens, the load supported fell gradually and a
progressive pattern of interlaminar cracks grew along and below the
secondary bond line. For the specimens incorporating the acrylic matrix,
little visible damage was apparent prior to the peak load at 40-45 kN.
Ultimate failure occurred by snapping of the Kevlar stitching and tearing of
the lightweight cloth across the specimen width. The acrylic impregnated
roving bundle at the stiffener web/flange corner then separated with
increasing displacement, followed by inter laminar cracking along the
secondary bond line and the adjacent base panel ply. At final failure, the
separated surfaces of the stiffener flange and the base panel were still linked
by individual fibres and fibre clumps, these being the remains of the acrylic
impregnated roving bundle.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

It is obvious that significant differences in performance have been produced

both by the specimen fabrication method and testing mode. These
differences may be summarised as follows.
(1) For centre clamp loading, failure or the first visible sign of damage at,
or close to, the secondary bond line occurs in the load range 20-25 kN: For
three clamp loading, the comparable damage occurs in the load range
30-34kN.
(2) For specimens with an acrylic matrix region, the load/displacement
histories are atypical for each loading mode. When centre clamp loaded, no
load drops occur prior to peak load, even though damage is visible prior to
peak load. When three clamp loaded, no damage is visible in these
specimens prior to failure.
(3) For unreinforced specimens, the peak loads attained and the work
done to failure are significantly lower for centre clamp loading than for
either two or three clamp loading.
(4) Similar maiimum loads were achieved by the bolted specimens,
whether centre clamp or three clamp loaded. These peak loads were
associated with large test machine displacements, when either the bolt head
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 195

or the nut started to pull through the GRP, and resulted in the high total
work done to fail bolt-reinforced specimens.
(5) Similar peak loads were achieved by the screw reinforced and acrylic
matrix specimens for both loading modes. For both modes, substantial
damage was visible in the screw reinforced specimens prior to the peak load,
whereas little or no visible damage was apparent in the acrylic matrix
specimens.
(6) When considering total work to failure, the comparative merits of the
reinforcement methods are similar for both clamping modes.
(7) An interesting effect is observed when comparing work done to first
load drop. When three clamp loading is used, the stitched cloth/polyester
resin specimens are markedly inferior to the other four specimen types,
these four types exhibiting similar performance. For centre clamp loading,
the stitched cloth/acrylic matrix specimens are vastly superior to all other
specimen types, the performances of which are similar. However, this latter
distinction does not give a complete picture, since small cracks were visible
in these specimens and this damage occurred without an associated load
drop.

THE EFFECT OF CLAMPING MODE ON STRESS

DISTRIBUTION

1. Centre Clamp Loading

This loading mode is relatively simple, in that the base panel can be
considered as two cantilevers, each rigidly fixed by the centre clamp, and
loaded via the top-hat flange. The energy stored in the system is contained
within the two unclamped regions of the base panel under the top-hat,
and within the side webs and top of the top-hat. The load was con-
centrated at the centre of the top-hat, as illustrated in Fig. 2, and
caused significant deformation of the top of the top-hat and little, if
any, bending of the side webs. This is in contrast to the result predicted
by finite element analysis 5 of significant side web bending for this loading
condition, when the loading is distributed uniformly across the stiffener
top (Loadcase 5, reference 5), as shown in Fig. 6(a). This analysis
further predicts a very high tensile stress across the secondary bond
line under the heel of the side web and a smaller compressive stress
under the root of the stiffener flange. This compressive stress is associated
with bending of the side web as predicted by the analysis, and both
are indicated in Fig. 6. It is likely that in this work, where little side
196 A . K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

t t Web BendIng Stresses· Centrcr Clomp LoadIng

1 t W~b Bendlll<j Str~sses· Two Clomp LoadIng

FIG. 6(a). Stress distribution in stiffener flange region.

- - 3 Clomp. Rill 5, L.oodcose 1

. ····2 .. . • . 6
- - - I 5
I Clomp. Concentrated Load.
"

".

-'- ---
"

FIG . 6(b). Stress distribution in stiffener flange region.

web bending is induced as a result of the concentrated loading of the top-

hat, the predicted compressive stress across the secondary bond line will be
much reduced, or even absent. A suggested stress distribution is shown by
the dotted line in Fig. 6(b), indicating a high stress concentration under the
heel of the side web, initiating failure at a low load. As the crack grows, the
system compliance increases simultaneously with an overall reduction in
load, due to the effective fixed displacement condition, and stored elastic
energy is released to propagate the crack. The balance of these factors will
determine whether the crack propagates to failure or arrests, and rapid
crack propagation has occurred in this loading mode.

2. Two Clamp Loading

In this loading mode, the length of the base panel between the clamps is
free to flex , and energy is stored wi thin this flexed portion of the base panel,
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 197

the stiffener side webs and the flanges that bend in response to the base panel
bending. The loading was distributed evenly across the stiffener top,
bending of which is thus small. The finite element analysis for this mode
(Loadcase 6, reference 5) shown in Fig. 6, predicts a compressive stress
under the heel of the stiffener side web, a similar magnitude tensile stress
under the flange root and pronounced side web bending. This bending is in
the opposite sense to that predicted for centre clamp loading and produces
close to mirror image stress distributions across the bond line for the centre
clamp and two clamp loading modes. The predicted side web bending is
borne out by the observed initial failure event in these specimens, of
cracking within the side web/flange corner, relieving the side web bending
stresses. Relief of this bending stress presumably also reduces the predicted
compressive stress across the secondary bond line under the heel of the side
web, allowing a tensile stress to be built up as displacement increases. If so,
this analysis then predicts the ultimate rapid failure observed, since the
cracked side web/flange corner can effectively act as a compliant hinge and
produce rapid catastrophic failure by a cleavage mechanism, once fracture
initiates under the heel of the side web. However, the displacement required
will be large, as observed, since any remaining tendency for compressive
stress generation under the side web heel must be overcome before the
necessary tensile stress can be built up at this point to initiate secondary
bond line fracture.

3. Three Clamp Loading

This complex loading mode limits bending oft,he base panel to the region
close to the flange. This bending can be substantial, as shown oy Fig. 9 of
reference 4, even though the overall system compliance is relatively low.
Stored energy is contained in a relatively confined region of the specimen
and flexing of the stiffener top is slight due to the distributed loading used.
The stress distribution suggested by the finite element analysis for this
loading mode is shown in Fig. 6(b) (Loadcase I, reference 5). The analysis of
web bending unfortunately does not consider this loading mode explicitly,
but by comparison with the analyses of Loadcases 5 and 6 one can predict
that both faces of the side web will be in tension, i.e. the clamping mode
restricts the tendency for side web bending. The relatively small tensile
stress concentration under the heel of the side web necessitated a high
applied load for crack initiation compared with that for centre clamp
loading. This loading mode has produced a system with an overall low
compliance, and a consequent rapid load drop for an increment of crack
growth. This rapidly falling load becomes insufficient to maintain the high
198 A. K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

force required for crack propagation, due to the relatively small crack tip
stress concentration factor in this case, and the crack arrests. By contrast,
when single clamp loaded, the load drops at a lower rate as a function of
crack length, due to the overall higher initial system compliance. This
behaviour, coupled with the very high geometric; crack tip stress
concentration factor when single clamp loaded, results in the relatively low
force necessary for crack propagation to be maintained. Thus, crack arrest
occurs in three clamp loading, and catastrophic failure occurs in single
clamp loading, even though the stored elastic energy at crack initiation (see
Table 1) is higher in the former case than the latter. This crack initiation and
arrest is a function of system stiffness, and the presence of a mechanical
fastener some distance from the crack initiation site should have little effect
on crack initiation behaviour, as observed. Similarly, the small local change
in stiffness produced by the fibres bridging the secondary bond line in
stitched cloth specimens can be expected to have only a slight effect on crack
initiation. However, the relatively low modulus acrylic matrix region in this
critical area can be expected to produce the dramatic effect observed, since
the relative increase in compliance it confers to this region has the function
of redistributing stresses and reducing the effect of the geometric stress
concentration. The observation of cracking within the base panel following
crack initiation in the secondary bond line suggests that stress
redistribution is occurring with the stiffener web/flange corner acting as a
hinge.

4. Comparison of Loading Modes

In this work we are attempting to gain an insight into the behaviour of
shock loaded stiffeners and which of the loading modes used most closely
represents the service condition is a moot point. It was shown in reference 5
that the magnitude and distribution of tensile stresses across the secondary
bond line are very sensitive to the form of the applied load. In particular,
they are dependent on bending of the stiffener side web, as has been
apparently confirmed in this work. Shock loading in service could produce
complex hull flexure such that it is possible that no two stiffener frames will
experience the same deflection history. Consequently, it seems sensible to
assess candidate fabrication methods by the most severe slow pull-off
testing system, so that the worst service case may perhaps be simulated.
The centre clamp loading mode is apparently the most severe, as
demonstrated by the relatively low crack initiation loads and the
catastrophic ultimate failure along the secondary bond line. This behaviour
is a consequence of the high tensile stress concentration under the heel of
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 199

the stiffener web and the readily available stored energy reservoir as a result
of the relatively compliant test set up. By contrast, the three clamp loading
mode requires higher crack initiation loads resulting from the relatively
small tensile stress concentration under the heel of the side web, and crack
arrest is produced as a result of the relatively stiff test set up providing only a
limited stored energy reservoir available for crack driving.
Further, it is known that shock loading can cause complete separation of
unreinforced stiffener frames from hulls and cracks in the secondary bond
line arrested at through bolts. Both these phenomena occur in the centre
clamped slow pull-off test, suggesting this loading mode to be the most
representative of shock loading. By contrast, cracks in unreinforced
secondary bond lines that arrest after a short propagation length, as
observed in three clamp loading, are not observed in shock tests. However,
it is known that cracks can occur below the secondary bond line in shock
testing, and this phenomenon was mostly observed in this work in three
clamp loaded specimens. Consequently, although centre clamping is
suggested as the most appropriate simulation for the shock loading
condition, it is evidently not completely satisfactory.
It is noteworthy that the stitched cloth/acrylic matrix specimens behaved
in an atypical manner in both loading modes. When specimens are three
clamp loaded, the higher failure strain, lower modulus (compared to
polyester resin) matrix at the critical stress concentration redistributes
stresses away from the stress concentration. This delays crack initiation
until a higher applied load. When centre clamp loading is used, crack
initiation at the secondary bond line under the stiffener side web heel, as
occurs in all other specimens, is suppressed in specimens incorporating the
acrylic matrix. The small performance improvement of the stitched cloth all
polyester resin specimens compared with those unreinforced suggests that
these improvements result from the use of the acrylic matrix rather than the
stitching.
Throughout this work it has become apparent that in the standard
stiffener construction technique, bending of the side web has an important
influence on the stress condition at the secondary bond line. Further, failure
has ·often involved cracking within the web/flange corner, apparently to
relieve web bending stresses. Hence, the stiffness of the web/flange corner
must be important in determining the bond line stress profile. The overall
results suggest that it may be advantageous to make the web/flange corner
more compliant, so that web bending stresses may be more readily
accommodated by the structure as a whole, without damaging the stiffener
to hull connection. Further, the relocation of the damage zone by the
200 A. K. Green and W. H. Bowyer

acrylic matrix into regions laminated using polyester resin suggests that it
could be advantageous to use a more compliant matrix for hull lamination
in the highly stressed regions under tne frame flanges. By using a more
compliant-and also inherently tough-matrix, such as the acrylic, in these
regions, it should be possible to both redistribute the concentrated stresses
under the web heel over a wider region of the structure and inhibit crack
initiation, and so improve resistance to damage caused by overloads.

CONCLUSIONS

The loading mode for slow pull-off testing of top-hat stiffened specimens
determines both the crack initiation load and whether the failure is
progressive or catastrophic. The centre clamped loading mode is
apparently the most representative of shock loading service conditions, by
consideration of both the failure mode of, and the damage pattern in,
specimens. Specimens reinforced with mechanical fasteners do not show
any inhibition of crack initiation, but crack propagation from the initiation
site is hindered by the presence of fasteners through the bond line. The use
of the acrylic matrix around the geometric stress concentration at the heel
of the stiffener web increases the load required for crack initiation. This is a
result of the relatively low modulus of the acrylic matrix, that redistributes
stresses away from the stress concentrator, and the higher failure strain of
the acrylic matrix compared with polyester resin. The stiffener web/flange
corner plays an important role in determining the stress distribution across
the secondary bond line and in defining the failure sequence. Local
increases in compliance of both the stiffener and hull laminate in this region
could have a beneficial effect on performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work described is part of a programme carried out with the support of
the Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence.

REFERENCES

1. DIXON,R. H., RAMSEY, B. W. and USHER, P. J.,Designand build of the GRPhull

ofHMS Wilton, hoc. Symp. on GRP Ship Construction, London,RINA, 1973,
1-32.
 Top-Hat Stiffener Fabrication Methods in GRP Ships 201

2. SMITH, C. S., Structural problems in the design of GRP ships, Proc. Symp. on
GRP Ship Construction, London, RINA, 1973,33-56.
3. SMITH, C. S. and PATTISON, D., Design of structural connections in GRP ship
and boat hulls, Pr.oc. Con! Designing with Fibre Reinforced Materia/s, London,
I. Mech. E., 1977,33-6.
4. GREEN, A. K. and BOWYER, W. H., The development of improved attachment
methods for stiffening frames on large GRP panels, Composites, 12 (1981)
49-55.
5. Unpublished MoD data.
 14

The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for

Ship Hull Construction

J. BIRD AND R. C. ALLAN

Admiralty Marine Technology Establishment, Ministry of Defence,
St. Leonard's Hill, Dunfermline, Fife KYII 5PW, Scotland

ABSTRACT

This paper describes recent research aimed at improving the quality and
efficiency offibre reinforced plastic laminates for use in the construction of
ship hulls. Methods of improving through thickness properties, where delays
in lamination occur, are reported. The results of long term seawater
immersion tests are also presented. The tests, carried out in three point
bending, suggest that high stress levels, 80% offailure load in bending, are
necessary before significant degradation takes place with isophthalic
polyester/,E' glass woven roving laminate combinations.

INTRODUCTION

It was around 1951 when the decision was taken to evaluate glass reinforced
plastic for Naval service. The use of GRP, a radical departure from the
more conventional materials of hull construction, was proposed for
minesweeper hulls because of its unique properties. 1 - 4 The use of GRP for
these hulls was thought most suitable because it had the following
advantages:
(1) It is non-magnetic.
(2) It is resistant to induced eddy currents. Aluminium framed wooden
minesweepers are susceptible to induced eddy currents in the
framing, so creating a magnetic signature.
202
 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 203

(3) It is corrosion-resistant. Both wood and steel eventually degenerate

because of contact with seawater unless the protection system is
extremely efficient and well maintained.
(4) It is resistant to marine organisms.
(5) It has a high strength to weight ratio.
(6) Fabrication of complex shapes in a variety of thicknesses is
achievable at will.
(7) The use of a simple once-built hull mould allows many identical
vessels to be built with a high degree of finish using relatively
unskilled labour.
(8) It is resistant to warping and shrinkage.
(9) It has low thermal conductivity.
The laminates used in minesweeper construction were manufactured
from 'E' glass woven rovings and isophthalic polyester resin. Both were
chosen on their availability and the woven rovings because they produced
adequate strength at reasonable cost. The labour-intensive nature of GRP
hull construction, however, means the total hull cost is significantly more
expensive than the material costs.
A possible means of reducing the cost of mine countermeasures vessel
hull construction in future ships of the class would be to replace the original
shell laminate, i.e. polyester resin reinforced with 820 g/m 2 balanced woven
rovings (WR) having approximately equal distribution of fibres in
longitudinal and transverse directions, with a laminate reinforced by plies
of 600 g/m 2 chopped strand mat (CSM) alternating with plies of 820 g/m 2
WR in which the fibre distribution is biased in the longitudinal direction of
the hull. The advantage of biased WR reinforcement is that it should be
possible to compensate in the longitudinal direction for the lower
mechanical properties of CSM. The basic cost-saving potential of this
configuration lies in the greater thickness per ply of CSM (1·40 mm)
compared with that of WR (0·95 mm): fewer plies are required per unit
thickness and a proportionate saving in labour cost (about 30 %) should
result in the lay-up of shell, deck and bulkhead laminates.
In the manufacture oflarge surface ship hulls in GRP one area stands out
as a particular point of weakness; namely the through thickness properties
of the GRP laminate. The problem can be conveniently considered under
three headings:
(1) The inherent through thickness properties of the laminate which
may be affected by resin type and/or the form of the constituent
fibre (WR or CSM).
204 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

(2) The problem of attaching framing to a hull in order to withstand

shock loading.
(3) The choice of technique for conditioning surfaces on to which
further lamination has to take place following a delay of some kind.
In this instance the surface could be partially or even fully cured
depending on the extent of the delay.
The effectiveness of any production variable on the through thickness
properties of a laminate can only be judged if a reliable test method can be
devised. This paper describes such a method based on some previous work 5
and uses the method to investigate various means of improving the bond
strength where delay during lamination has occurred.
A number of workers have investigated the problem of the mechanical
property degradation of GRP in an aqueous environment. Aveston et al. 6
and SteeP suggest that degradation can be severe in seawater under
statically loaded conditions where failure is by a stress corrosion
mechanism of the glass fibres. Hulls of surface ships are only lightly stressed
and thus this problem may not therefore be encountered. Proposals have
been made for GRP to be used in statically immersed environments, e.g.
dock gates, where for efficiency of design considerably higher stresses could
be used. It is sensible, however, to examine the effect of prolonged
immersion of the type of GRP laminate used in surface ship hulls, under
statically loaded conditions, in order to develop confidence in the use of the
material for future construction. This is particularly relevant for high
performance craft such as fast patrol craft where more highly stressed
laminates will undoubtedly be used because of weight-saving requirements.

USE OF FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS IN SHIP HULLS

When designing surface vessels using conventional materials, assumptions

of nominal load levels, factors of safety, and satisfactory performance of
scantlings from previous design experience, are already built into standard
design procedures. The first design using GRP for a surface vessel with a
large hull was lacking in design experience and no service data were
available. 8 - 11 One important factor in the hull design was deemed to be the
low modulus relative to the strength of GRP. This low modulus would
result in large hull deflections for a stress-based design, giving rise to
buckling problems in large flat panels subject to compressive and shear
loadings.
 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 205

The final hull configuration of H MS Wilton consisted of a single skin hull

composed entirely of 'balanced' 5/4, 815g/m 2 woven rovings at a 50% by
weight glass/resin ratio, transversely stiffened, the stiffeners being attached
by means of metallic fasteners to assist the bonded connections under
explosive load. The fabrication cost of this hull design is significantly more
expensive than the material of construction due to the labour-intensive
nature of production. With the experience gained in the building of H MS
Wilton and looking to future de~igns, it might be possible to reduce
construction costs with no loss in properties with the use of directional
fabrics to fully utilise the advantages of glass reinforced plastic laminates.
Laminates with biased directional properties can be used to build in
strength and stiffness where it is most desirable, i.e. hull longitudinal
strength. Experience has shown that the all-round strength provided by a
balanced reinforcement is not always required and may lead to excess
weight in parts of the finished structure. In hull design it is usual to require
greater longitudinal strength in order to withstand more bending loads. In
the transverse hull direction relatively low membrane stiffness is acceptable
provided that adequate flexural rigidity of the framing is maintained.
The possibility of effectively using directional fabrics and chopped strand
mat was first investigated using a computer program developed by Dr C. S.

TABLE I
Selected mechanical properties for mixed fibre laminates

Mechanical 5/4 WR 4/1 WR 4/1 WR +30%

properties CSM
ooa 90 0b 45° 0° 90° 45° 0° 90° 45°

Theoretical values
Modulus E
(MN/m2 x 104 ) 14·7 16·7 9·5 20·7 10·8 9·3 15·5 10·0 9·6
Poisson ratio j1 0·13 0·11 0·47 0·09 0·17 0·43 0·12 0·18 0·32
Shear modulus G 3·2 3·2 6·8 3·2 3·2 6·2 3·7 3·7 5·2
Afeasuredvalues
Modulus E
(MN/m2 x 104 ) 18·1 18·6 10·9 21·8 14·8 9·2 15·4 9·7 10·1
Poisson ratio j1 0·09 0·20
Shear modulus G 3·1
Strength (MN/m2) 240 270 101 287 145 80 226 121 57
Fibre content 55% 52% 44%

a 0 °== parallel to weft.

b 90 °== parallel to warp.
206 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

Smith 12 and based on work by Tsai,13 Rashin and Rosen 14 and Whitney
and Riley 15 for calculating the moduli of fibre reinforced plastics. The
elastic analysis is based on two assumptions; first that the material is
macroscopically homogeneous, its gross behaviour being governed by
equations of anisotropic elasticity, and secondly that for a specific laminate
configuration the elastic properties of the whole may be determined,
knowing the fibre and matrix moduli, by examining the behaviour of a
representative element of the composite.
Some computed data relating to mixtures of 5/4 woven roving, 4/1 woven
roving and chopped strand mat + 4/1 WR, are given in Figs 1, 2 and 3 for
Young's modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio respectively. Some
experimental data points are also shown at 0, 90 and 4-50 to the weft of the
fabric; these values are also reported in Table l. This data is based on
3

1]--- 514 WOVEN FlOVING

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.... NGLE RELATIVE TO WEFT OIFlECTION

FIG. I. Young's modulus for mixed fibre laminates.

 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 207

...o

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ANGLE RELATIVE TO WEFT OIRECTION

FIG. 2. Shear modulus for mixed fibre laminates.

experimental work whereby 5/4 balanced WR was mixed with various

quantities of unidirectional glass to build up a variety of biased laminates.
The 4/1 ratio fabric and a number of others were eventually chosen for
further study as fabrics in their own right. On the basis of this study it was
concluded that the best compromise was achieved using the 4/1 biased
woven roving which was still easy to handle, was stable, possessed the
correct drape characteristics, readily wetted out and gave a high glass to
resin ratio. Because of the structural requirements of ship building the 4/1
bias was incorporated in the weft, thus enabling the longitudinal strength to
 208 Jo Bird and Ro C. Allan

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 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 209

be built in whilst still allowing the fabric to be laid transversely with existing
equipment. A considerable amount of weft oriented 4/1 fabric has now been
made and used in manufacturing quite large structures, e.g. 20 ft x 20 ft
stiffened panels, with the same ease as would be expected from more
conventional fabric.
Comparing the theoretical and experimental results shows close
agreement in some cases. However, where less agreement is apparent the
cause could be simply due to the effect of the glass to resin ratio. In the case
of the 4/1 laminates an 8 %change in glass content effectively increases the
modulus by some 20 %. However, fibre straightness due to lamination
problems could also be partly responsible for the low values observed.

SECONDARY BONDING AND THROUGH THICKNESS

PROPERTIES OF GRP LAMINATES

During the production of large GRP structures, such as minesweeper hulls,

delays in lay-up may occur ranging from short interruptions of typically
12 h to avoid exotherm build-up, to longer periods of days or even weeks
resulting from holidays or other interruptions. When delays are long
enough for a partial cure of the resin to occur, before lay-up can restart the
surface must be prepared in someway. There are various methods available
for preparing a cured or partially cured resin surface to achieve a bond with
fresh resin and the choice of technique will depend on the delay incurred,
the type of laminate, conditions of working, etc.
The method favoured by shipbuilders for many years has been the use of
vacuum grit blasting, especially in the interests of ship cleanliness. Terylene
tear-off cloth has also been used but confined mainly to localised areas, e.g.
in the frame or bulkhead attachment. Grinding causes a dust problem and
is used only sparingly to remove any residue following the removal of
terylene tear-off cloth.
Recent work at AMTE(S) has investigated the effectiveness of various
techniques used to prepare the surfaces of cured or partially cured
laminates in order to achieve a satisfactory bond with fresh resin. The
effectiveness of the secondary bond preparation can be tested by evaluating
the through thickness interlaminar tensile strength of the finished, fully
cured laminate. The method used at AMTE(S) to measure the interlaminar
tensile strength is based on the work of Kimpara and Takehama 5 and has
been found by experience at AMTE(S) to give reasonably consistent
210 J. Bird and R . C. Allan

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SECONDARY BONO AT
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FIG. 4. Specimen for testing through thickness tensile strength of GRP laminates.

measurements of the interlaminar tensile strength of glass reinforced

composites.
Test panels were fabricated incorporating the various surface prepara-
tions and these will be described later. From these panels, all of which were
IOOOmm x 500mm x 25mm, specimens were manufactured with 'U'
notches ground in two opposite faces in accordance with the details given in
Fig. 4.
Initial attempts to use the through thickness test produced an
unacceptable amount of scatter as a result of premature failure of the test
pieces. In most cases premature failure was associated with a very low
interlaminar tensile stiffness as was evident from the pre-failure slope of the
load displacement curve. Test pieces also often failed outside the gauge
length and the presence of flaws in the laminate was suspected. Using dye
penetrant techniques and microscopical examination, very fine cracks were
detected in the resin matrix of many test pieces, Fig. 5.H wasconcIuded that

FIG. 5. Cracks in through thickness specimen produced by wrong machining technique.

 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 211

these cracks were the cause of the premature failures experienced during
testing giving rise to the unacceptable scatter in the results obtained . The
initiation of the cracks was traced to the machining process used to
manufacture the test pieces and by making changes in tooling and feed rate,
etc. cracking was virtually eliminated.
For testing, the test pieces were axially mounted, using adhesive bonding,
between 25 mm thick, parallel, steel mounting plates using the jig shown in
Fig. 6. The mounted test pieces were left for 3 days at 15 °- 20 °Cto allow the
bond to cure before bolting into the testing machine using holes drilled in
the mounting plates.
Various ways of preparing cured or partially cured resin surfaces prior to
further lay-up have been examined using the through thickness test to
measur\! the strength of the finished laminate. In addition to the standard
shipyard techniques of surface preparation, namely grit blasting and tear-
off cloth, the effectiveness of treating the surface with liquid styrene
monomer was also examined. Two delay periods of 10 days and 21 days
were incorporated in the programme for test panel production, thus
providing resin surfaces at two stages of cure. These periods were seen as
typical of shipyard production delays associated with holidays or other
stoppages. Details of the lay-up programme are given in Table 2; the resin

FIG. 6. Jig for assembling through thickness specimens and mounting plates.
212 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

TABLE 2

Panel Period of cure Surface preparation Final lay-up

no. after initial
lay-up

A 10 days} Vacuum cleaned only

B 21 days
C 10 days} Grit blasted using Dynablast
o 21 days 24-30 grit grade I, followed
by vacuum cleaning
E 10 days} Terylene tear-off cloth rolled After the various
F 21 days into wet resin. After delay surface prepar-
period cloth removed and any ations all panels
residue ground off with No. 24 received a final
sanding disc and vacuum cleaned lay-up of 12 plies
G Fully cured by Styrene wipe using a clean lint
heating at 80°C free cloth followed by a
for 2 h to a generous application of styrene
maximum using a mohair roller so as to
Barcol flood the surface. The surface
hardness of 55 was left for a minimum of 15 min
and at least until dry before
recommencing lay-up

used was Scott Bader's Crystic 625 TV isophthalic polyester and the
reinforcement was Fothergill & Harvey's Y920, 815 g/m 2 woven rovings.
All the panels were laid up to a final thickness of 24 plies and post-cured
at 80°C for 2 h to a minimum Barcol hardness of 55 thus ensuring all were in
a similar condition. After post-curing the panels were carefully sawn into
manageable sections and through thickness test pieces manufactured.
The tests were carried out in a 100 kN servo hydraulic tensile machine
using actuator displacement at a rate of 1 mm per min and a full range load
of 10 kN. Load and actuator displacement were continuously recorded on a
X-Y recorder so that the maximum load reached in each test was clearly
seen.
A statistical examination of the results shown in Table 3 show that,
except for panels A and B, there are apparent differences related to delay
time between the mean values of interlaminar tensile strength for the
various surface treatments.
The observed effects could be regarded as being caused by improved
mechanical keying. After 21 days the resin surface will be more fully cured
and therefore harder than after 10 days and in panel F for example the
 ~
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TABLE 3
Results of delayed lamination tests
~
~
Sample Mean Standard Sample t Remarks Analysis of variance ~
'ti
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failure deviation size test at 95% For 9 days For 21 days c
g
stress value CL delay delay $:).

~
A 9·79 3·00 17 2·042 No effect of F 3 •73 =4·55 F 3 •67 = 13·07 ~

B 11·13 2·15 21 1·606 (k = 30) delay time t'

C 8·26 2·14 18 2·042 Delay time F 3 •60 =3·34 F 3 •60 =3·34 ::1
~.
D 10-44 2·84 19 2·619 (k=30) effective at 95% CL at 95% CL
1;;
E 9·62 2·75 17 2·045 Delay time Treatments Treatments
show ~
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F 11·56 2·71 18 2·372 (k = 29) effective show
G 13-01 1·60 19 differing significantly ~
effects differing 'B'
effects ~
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 214 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

removal of the tear-off cloth will probably result in a better mechanical key
than might be expected with the lesser cured panel C. A similar argument
may be applied to the grit blasted surfaces of panel D.
The best result was obtained from panel G in which a fully cured resin
surface was styrene-treated before recommencing lay-up. Whilst the
mechanism for the use of styrene is not clear and is not the concern of this
paper, it is thought likely to be a combination of cleaning, degreasing,
physical bonding and chemical bonding. The contributions of cleaning and
degreasing are probably the most important, whereas any chemical cross-
linking effect can only be present on partially cured resin surfaces. Styrene
monomer is claimed by some to bring about an 'opening up' of the surfaces
of both partially and fully cured resin leading to an improved physical
bond.
Whatever the mechanisms of the use of styrene monomer the following
conclusions can be reached:
(l) There are differences between the interlaminar tensile strengths of
those laminates where the intermediate surface has been subjected
to the mechanical surface treatment of either grit blasting or
terylene tear-off cloth at either 10 days or 21 days.
(2) Mechanical techniques of surface preparation tend to give better
results on the more fully cured and therefore harder resin. The
harder resin will offer a less yielding surface to grit blasting and will
therefore 'suffer' more damage and provide a better key. Similarly,
terylene tear-off cloth will be more firmly held by the more fully
cured resin and will promote more 'matting' of the surface.
(3) The use of styrene to prepare partially cured resin surfaces for
further lay-up was considered to give the most consistent results
with a higher mean interlaminar tensile strength than the abrasive
methods.
(4) The effectiveness of styrene was found to be as good on a fully cured
as on a partially cured resin surface.

THE EFFECTS OF LONG TERM IMMERSION IN SEAWATER

ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HULL LAMINATES

Many workers have been studying the effects of various environments on

the mechanical properties of reinforced plastics. Much of the evidence so
far produced suggests there may be severe degradation of some reinforced
 The Development 0/ Improved FRP Laminates/or Ship Hull Construction 215

plastics due to absorption of water where immersion is combined with

continuous loading. Of particular interest are the results of those workers
studying the effects of long term exposure to water on polyester resins
reinforced with 'E' glass. 6, 7
Recently the use of GRP for a large dock gate was considered but there
was sufficient lack of confidence in the performance of such a structure
exposed to prolonged levels of static loading and long term immersion in
seawater. With a need for reassurance that large GRP structures are not
seriously at risk of degradation as a consequence of high loading in the
presence of seawater, a series of tests involving typical levels of service stress
coupled with seawater immersion were conducted at AMTE(S).
In order to carry out 24 tests simultaneously a large seawater filled tank
was set up. Flexure specimens in three point loading were chosen for the
current programme and although the interpretation of results may be
complicated by the presence of both non-uniform stress and non-uniform
permeation by water the tests are seen as being representative of the
practical situation. During testing the specimens were supported at a span
of 610 mm and loaded by a simple dead weight system acting directly on to
the centre of each specimen. The tank and loading arrangements are shown
in Figs 7 and 8.

FIG. 7. Facility for environmental testing of reinforced plastics.

216 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

FIG. 8. Detail of arrangement for testing reinforced plastics under load and immersed in
seawater.

TEST PROCEDURE

Because of the direct acting design of the loading system very heavy loads
would be needed to carry out tests on full thickness hull laminates. In order
to limit the size of the dead weights, half thickness laminates were used
made up of 12 plies of Fothergill & Harvey's Y920, 815 g/m 2 woven rovings
and Scott Bader's 625 TV isophthalic polyester resin, to a finished glass
content of approximately 50% by weight and a thickness of 12·5mm.
All the panels were post-cured at 80°C for 2 h to a minimum Barcol
hardness of 55. From the panels were cut strips 50 mm wide and 1 m long,
some being left with sawn edges and others sealed with two coats of the
laminating resin.
Three strips from each panel were tested in three point bend at a span of
610 mm to establish a nominal breaking load (NBL) for the laminate and
this proved to be of the order of 180 kg. Tests were set up in the tank at 15,
20,40,65 and 85 % of the established NBL using both sealed and unsealed
strips. Several strips, some with sealed edges and others unsealed were
placed in the bottom of the tank and left unloaded. These unloaded
specimens were removed at various intervals and their residual strength
measured by three point bend loading.
 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 217

RESULTS

At the beginning of testing the deflection of each test piece was measured
daily but after several days the frequency of readings was gradually
extended to periods of a week. Typical deflection curves are shown in Figs 9
and 10 and these suggest that 'creep' is occurring in three stages as defined
by variation in the increases in rate of deflection. In the primary stage the
increase is quite rapid; a secondary stage is indicated by a marked slowing
down in the rate of increase. In the case of those specimens loaded to 85 %of
NBL a tertiary stage is identified by a dramatic increase in the rate of
deflection leading to eventual failure. The onset of the tertiary stage was
seen to be coupled with the occurrence of obvious damage to the test piece
revealed as an opacity or whitening in the laminate in the area immediately
surrounding the central point of loading.
Those specimens loaded to or below 65 % of NBL would appear from
Fig. 9 to be passing through the secondary stage of 'creep. with no
indications after 500 days to suggest the onset of the tertiary stage and
eventual failure.
Those samples which were subjected to a bending load of greater than
80 % breaking load show evidence of initial failure after quite short test
times, Fig. 10. It is assumed that this failure is due to some breakage of the
individual filaments on the tensile side of the bend. Similar effects have been
reported by Hull and Hogg16 during the testing of GRP pipe in 0·65 N Hel.
There is, however, no suggestion that after the initial failures further
intermediate failures take place before the final break. Nevertheless,
buckling of the surface fibres on the compressive side of the bend is seen as
failure becomes more apparent. A typical example of a failed sample is
shown in Fig. 11. It is not clear at present whether significant buckling
occurs before the initial failure or only towards final failure. The samples
showing early failure are representative of the unsealed test only. It would
appear therefore that early ingress of water may be the cause, with a failure
mechanism similar to that described by Aveston et al., 6 but then only on the
fibres adjacent to the cut surfaces. Sealing effectively slows down the
degrading process until all the fibres are equally affected and failure occurs
by the same mechanism but at a later date.
In all the tests carried out there has been no evidence to suggest specimens
with resin sealed edges perform in the long term any better than the
unsealed specimens. The use of polyester resin to seal sawn edges although a
reflection of shipyard practice appears to offer little benefit and at best only
delays water pick-up by the 'wicking' action of exposed fibres and
 tv
00
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100

. FAIL
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OLI____________________L-__________________-L____________________L-__________________-L__________________--J

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DAYS

FIG. 9. Typical deflection curves for immersed GRP structure.

 The Development of Improved FRP Laminatesfor Ship Hull Construction 219

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220 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

FIG. II. Typical failed specimen with tension face uppermost.

penetration along the fibre-resin interface. If water pick-up is essentially a

resin-controlled mechanism then a more effective sealant is required if
water penetration is to be prevented.
Some specimens, both sealed and unsealed, were immersed in seawater
for up to 500 days but not subjected to any loading. It can be reported that
none of these specimens on removal from the tank and on testing to failure
in three point bend showed any significant change in modulus or departure
in strength when compared with values for the original laminate. It is
interesting to note that tensile tests carried out recently on material taken
from the 10-year-old hull of HMS Wilton revealed no loss in modulus or
ultimate strength when compared with the well-established figures for the
hull laminate. Thus it would seem that similar measurements of the residual
strength of unstressed specimens can only give a rough idea of the factor of
safety for any particular laminate in a given period of immersion and such
measurements are of little use for design purposes . HMS Wilton was
designed to sustain maximum loads with a fatigue limit of 25 % of the
ultimate strength, on the basis that fatigue failure will occur before creep.
The immersion tests carried out so far with a 'Wilton' type of laminate
indicate that very high levels of static stress in excess of 2/3 of the value of
the ultimate strength determined by three point bending, are required to
bring about failure within a seawater immersion period of 500 days.

FUTURE WORK

It is planned to establish more conclusively the levels of static stress

required to bring about failure in laminates exposed to a seawater
environment. In addition to the current 'E' glass/polyester laminate it is
intended to examine a wide range of laminates incorporating aramid and
 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 221

carbon fibres. A further programme is planned to study the effects of water

on sandwich constructions and with these aims in view a further tank has
now been set up to provide a further 24 test positions. Further tests are also
planned where the loading will be purely tensile.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The use of a mixture of biased fabric and chopped strand mat will, assuming
the thicknesses of future construction remains the same as present ship
design, have the following features when incorporated in deck and shell
laminates:
(I) Strength and stiffness of the laminate (and hence the hull) would be
maintained in the longitudinal direction.
(2) Laminate strength and stiffness in the transverse direction would be
reduced by some 50 %; reduction in transverse strength and
stiffness of the stiffened shell, which depends primarily on frame
rigidity, should be generally acceptable.
(3) A saving of 25-30 %in fabrication time and therefore labour cost
for lay-up of deck and shell laminate should result from the reduced
number of plies per unit thickness.
(4) A weight saving of 5-7 % in the deck and shell laminate should
result from the lower specific gravity of the WRjCSM laminate.
When manufacturing thick GRP laminates, it is clearly advantageous to
prepare those surfaces which have been subjected to delays in lamination,
before lamination is continued. The use of mechanical abrasion shows
some immediate improvements in through thickness properties but the use
ofliquid styrene appears to give the best results. The correct application of
styrene alone should be sufficient for all production needs where delays
have occurred. By using styrene alone significant cost savings over the use of
mechanical abrasion can be made.
Immersion of GRP plastics under load in seawater results in a
degradation in mechanical properties. In the tests being carried out by
AMTE(S) it is clear that the degradation is only severe at high load levels,
i.e. at a large percentage of the breaking load.
For ship hulls where the dead loads are very low and where large
superimposed transient service loads only occur infrequently, degradation
leading to premature failure is not to be expected. Although this is
reassuring, the results reported by AMTE(S) contradict the previously
222 J. Bird and R. C. Allan

reported work of Aveston et al. 6 and Steel. 7 Whether the differences are
related to the rate of ingress of water into the laminate (some resins being
better than others in this respect) or whether fibre surface treatment is also a
factor, is not known. In order to ensure that future designs can be made with
confidence it is essential to investigate the reasons for the observed
behavioural differences of apparently similar materials.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the help of colleagues at AMTE

(Dunfermline) for their assistance in the preparation of this paper.
Any views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily
represent those of the Procurement Executive.

© Controller HMSO. London. 1981

REFERENCES

1. HENTON, D. Glass reinforced plastics in the Royal Navy, Trans. of RINA, 109
(1967) 487-510.
2. CHEETHAM, M. A. Naval applications of reinforced plastics, Plastics &
Polymers, 36 (1968) 15-20.
3. BEALE, R. F. Selection of glass reinforced plastic materials for large marine
structures, Brit. Polymer Journal, 3 (1971) 1-8.
4. GIBBS, H. 'Materials for marine structures', Plastics & metals: Competitors &
allies, 4th International TNO Conference (Utrecht, January 1971) pp. 3-9.
5. KIMPARA, I. and TAKEHAMA, M. Static and dynamic interlaminar strength of
glass reinforced plastics thick laminates, Proceedings of Reinforced Plastics
Congress, Brighton, 1976.
6. AVESTON, J., KELLY, A. and SELLWOOD, J. M. 'Long term strength of glass
reinforced plastics in wet environments', Advances in composite materials, 3rd
International Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, August 1980.
7. STEEL, D. J. The creep and stress rupture of reinforced plastics, Trans. J.
Plastics Institute, (1965) 161-7.
8. SMITH, C. S. 'Structural problems in the design of GRP ships', RINA
Symposium of GRP ship construction (London, October 1972) pp. 33-56.
9. DIXON, R. H., RAMSEY, B. W. and USHER, P. J. 'Design and build of the GRP
hull of HMS Wilton', RINA Symposium of GRP ship construction (London,
October 1972) pp. 1-32.
10. SMITH, C. S. Buckling problems in the design of fibreglass reinforced plastic
ships, J. Ship Research, 16 (1972) 174-90.
 The Development of Improved FRP Laminates for Ship Hull Construction 223

Il. LANGFORD, B. W. and ANGERER, J. F. Reinforced plastics developments for

application to minesweeper construction, Naval Engineers Journal, 83 (1971).
12. SMITH, C. S. 'Calculation of elastic properties of GRP laminates for use in ship
design', RfNA Symposium ofGRP ship construction (London, October 1972)
pp.69-84.
13. TSAI, S. W. 'Structural behaviour of composite materials', NASA CR-71 (1964).
14. HASHIN, Z. and ROSEN, B. W. The elastic modulii of fibre reinforced materials,
J. Applied Mechanics, 31 (1964) 223-32.
15. WHITNEY, J. M. and RILEY, M. B. Elastic properties of fibre reinforced
composite materials, A fAA Journal, 4 (1966) 1537-42.
16. HULL, D. and HOGG, P. J. 'Nucleation and propagation of cracks during strain
corrosion of GRP', Advances in composite materials, 3rd International
Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, August 1980.
 15
Development of Cylindrically Orthotropic Model
Material for Transmission Photoelasticity
P. K. SINHA

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Bihar College of Engineering, Patna 800005, India

AND

B. L. DHOOPAR

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Post Office I.l.T.,
Kanpur 208 016, India

ABSTRACT

In the present work, a cylindrically orthotropic model material for

transmission photoelasticity has been developed. Many investigators have
reported some unusual optical and photoelastic properties in the rectilinearly
orthotropic model materials developed by them which are not observed in an
isotropic photoelastic model material. The model material developed in the
present investigation has also beenfound to possess similar properties. These
unusual properties seem to be due to a slight mismatch of the refractive
indices of its constituents. It is interesting to note that the above-mentioned
cause also affects its photoelastic response. Simple experiments have been
devised for detecting the above-mentioned defects. Further, a criterion has
been developedfor quantifying these effects which may be usedfor rating the
relative qualities of available model materials.

INTRODUCTION

The basic requirements of a model material for transmission photo-

orthoelasticity are that it should be transparent, optically birefringent and
mechanically anisotropic. Pih and Knight,l Dally and Prabhakaran 2 and
224
 Cylindrically Orthotropic Model Material for Transmission Photoelasticity 225

Agarwal and Chaturvedi 3 have reported the development of rectilinearly

orthotropic unidirectionally and bidirectionally reinforced photoelastic
model materials, whilst Knight4 has reported the development of a
cylindrically orthotropic model material. However, as Knight himself
reports, his model was not sufficiently transparent and thus he used the
techniques of photography and microdensitometer scanning of photo-
graphic negatives for the collection of photoelastic data. In the present
investigation a cylindrically orthotropic model material with a superior
level of transparency has been developed.
Agarwal and Chaturvedi 3 and Prabhakaran s have observed some
unusual optical and photoelastic properties in the model material they
developed. Similar peculiarities have been also observed in the model
material developed in the present investigation. Simple experiments have
been devised for the measurement of transparency and for observing the
phenomena of light beam distortion and smearing of sharp boundaries.
Further, the distinguishability of isochromatic fringe patterns at different
orientations to the radial direction has been examined and for this purpose
a model similar to that reported on by Prabhakaran s has been used. The
fringe resolution capability has been found to be affected along the radial
direction whereas it is insignificant in the circumferential direction.
Further, an attempt has been made to evolve a quantitative criterion on the
basis of which a model material with a minimum of the undesirable
properties mentioned above may be selected. It has been observed that,
when two light beams, separated by a given centre to centre distance, are
viewed through the model material, the distortion oflight increases with the
increase in the gap between the sources and the model and, at a particular
distance, they merge into each other so that it becomes difficult to
differentiate between the two sources. This limiting distance between the
source oflight and the model has been used as an index for rating the quality
of the material.
A method has also been developed for the determination of the material
fringe values and has been reported on by the present authors elsewhere. 6 It
was also established in reference 6 that the stress optic law suggested by
Sampson 7 is valid for cylindrically orthotropic model materials.

PREPARATION OF MODEL MATERIAL

The refractive index of E-glass (1·548 + 0·003) is quite close to that of

polyester resin 0·520). This resin can be blended with styrene monomer to
226 P. K. Sinha and B. L. Dhoopar

make its refractive index very close to that of E-glass. The matrix thus
obtained can be cured at room temperature by adding a small amount of
methyl ethyl ketone peroxide and cobalt octate. The transparency of the
matrix material appears to deteriorate as the matrix solidifies at the time of
curing. In the present work, the polyester resin was blended with styrene
monomer with different percentages (l0 %to 50 %) and then O· 5 %each of
methyl ethyl ketone peroxide and cobalt octate were mixed with it. The
matrix thus prepared was used for making orthotropic discs of different
compositions. After curing, their transmission ratios (defined by the ratio
of light transmitted through the model to the light incident on the model)
were determined. The technique for the determination of the transmission
ratio is described later. A maximum transmission ratio of 0·512 was found
In a disc with the matrix composition shown in Table 1. With this

TABLE 1
Composition by weight of matrix material usedfor the preparation
of the photoelastic model

Polyester resin 100 g

Styrene monomer 30g
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide O'Sg
Cobalt octate O'Sg

composition, discs of 19 cm diameter were fabricated. While making the

disc, the E-glass fibre, in roving form, was first wound dry in a reel form in
between two glass plates, the gap between which was maintained according
to the thickness of cast sheet desired. The last few turns of the glass fibres
were wound after wetting with CY -230 resin mixed with 9 % of HY -951
hardener. After curing, these served as a retainer ring when the polyester
resin based matrix was poured. After the removal of entrapped air bubbles
by squeezing, the fabricated disc was cured at room temperature under a
constant pressure. The arrangements used for observing and measuring
some unusual properties in the above-mentioned fabricated disc are
discussed in the following section.

ARRANGEMENTS FOR MEASURING AND OBSERVING SOME

PROPERTIES OF THE MODEL MATERIAL

The arrangements used for the measurement of transparency and for

observing the phenomena of light beam distortion and smearing of sharp
boundaries are as follows.
 Cylindrically Ortholropic Model Malerial for Transmission Pholoelaslicily 227

(a) Transparency
The determination of the transmission ratio requires the measurement of
the incident light on the model and the transmitted light through it. The
incident light was measured by keeping a screen with a photocell behind the
lens of the transmission polariscope, as shown in Fig. 1. The density of light
falling on the photocell was measured with a photometer. The transmitted
light was measured by keeping the model in contact with the screen over the
photocell. The transmission ratio was calculated by the ratio of transmitted
light to incident light.

FIG. I. Schematic diagram of the instruments with a polariscope used in the measurement of
the transmission ratio of the model.

(b) Light Beam Distortion

It has been observed that a light beam becomes distorted when it passes
through the model. This was studied by making a simple arrangement, as
shown in Fig. 2. An aluminium disc with a number of holes, 1·75 mm in
diameter, was kept over the source of light, providing a number of light
beams. The model material was then kept at different distances from the
source beam and the distortion of light was observed .

<i> - Observer

~===;=.::=:::::t==~-:- Model malerial

d(Gap Oel,.oon model mal.rlal
ond II hi beom)
~..........,............;-Dlsc ,.IIh holes for IIQhl
beom& Or O,id of lines

Sodium source of IIQhl

FIG. 2. Arrangement used for studying light beam distortion and smearing of sharp
boundaries through the photoelastic model.
228 P. K. Sinha and B. L. Dhoopar

(c) Smearing of Sharp Boundaries

This has been observed through the model by putting a grid of equally
spaced concentric circular and radial lines below it, as shown in Fig. 2. The
distance of the grid from the model was adjustable.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND A CRITERION FOR THE

SELECTION OF A SUITABLE MODEL MATERIAL

Of the various factors which control the selection of a model material,

transparency is one of the basic requirements. In the present work, the
transparency has been quantified by transmission ratio, as described
earlier. The transmission ratio (in the material prepared, Fig. 3) has been
found to vary with radius. The variation, presented in Fig. 4, shows that the
level of transparency decreases towards the centre. It is to be noted that
entrapped air bubbles have been removed at the time of fabrication by the
process of squeezing, using a conical aluminium roller. While rolling, the
velocity of a point on the roller is linearly proportional to its radius. Thus,
at larger radii, the squeezing of entrapped air bubbles is better than at
smaller radii. Uniform velocity is possible with a cylindrical roller, but fibre

FIG. 3. Cured glass polyester disc with retainer ring.

 Cylindrically Grthotropic Model Material for Transmission Photoelasticity 229
0.6

05

.2 04
~
.~ 0.3

E
~ 02
o
t=
0.1

00 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 6.0 70 8.0

r. Radius (em)

FIG. 4. Variation of transmission ratio along the radius in a cylindrically reinforced

photoelastic model.

alignment is disturbed when it is used. Although the transparency level in

terms of transmission ratio is lower towards the centre, it has been found to
be sufficient to observe lines drawn on a piece of paper through this
material.
The transparency also becomes affected due to mismatching of the
refractive indices of the two constituents. Although the refractive indices
have been very carefully matched, some slight mismatch has been found.
Before discussing any basis for quantifying this mismatch, some of its
probable effects are discussed.
A beam of sodium light coming through a circular hole, 1·75 mm in
diameter, is distorted when it passes through the model material. A number
of such light beams are shown in Figs 5(a) and 6(a). When the model
material was kept on the light source, Fig. 5(a), the beams appeared to be
slightly elliptical with the major axis along radial lines, as shown in Fig.
5(b). This distortion increased when the distance between the source oflight
and the model was increased. Figure 5(c) shows the source of light at a
distance of9 mm from the model material. It should be pointed out that the
distortion of the beam is only along the radial direction whereas, in the
circumferential direction, such an effect is absent. Similar effects have also
been observed in the case of the unidirectionally reinforced composite
model and these are shown in Figs 6(b) and 6(c). Here, also, the distortion is
along the transverse direction and the beams appear as parallel thick lines.
Another optical effect is the smearing of sharp boundaries. A photograph
of equally spaced concentric semicircles and radial lines is shown in Fig.
7(a). Both these lines were clearly visible when the model was kept in contact
with them (Fig. 7(b)). When the grid of lines and the model were separated
230 P. K. Sinha and B. L. Dhoopar

(0 1 (b) (c)

FIG. 5. Distortion of a beam of light through cylindrically orthotropic model material and
views of: (a) the source oflight, (b) the source oflight in contact with the model material and (c)
the source of light kept at a distance of 9 mm from the model material.

by a distance, the semicircular lines became less distinguishable from each

other, whereas the radial lines were clearly distinguishable. This effect is
shown in Fig. 7(c). Similar effects have also been observed by Agarwal and
Chaturvedi 3 for the rectilinearly orthotropic model material prepared by
them.
The distinguishability of isochromatic fringe pattern was also studied.
This required the development of a model so that the fringes could be

(0 ) I b) (c)

FIG. 6. Distortion of a beam of light through unidirectionally reinforced rectilinearly

orthotropic model material and views of: (a) the source of light, (b) the source of light in
contact with the model material and (c) the source oflight kept at a distance of9 mm from the
model material.
 Cylindrically Orthotropic Model Material for Transmission Photoelasticily 231

lo ) ! b) (c )
FIG. 7. Line resolution through cylindrically orthotropic model material and views of: (a)
the grid of circumferential and radial lines, (b) the grid when the model material is kept in
contact, (c) the grid when the model material is kept at a distance of 9 mm.

obtained very close to each other. Some of the simple models~a disc, a disc
with a hole and semicircular beams~were examined but it was not possible
to obtain very close fringes when they were loaded on and viewed through a
polariscope. Ultimately, a shape of model, shown in Figs 8(a) and (b) was
found to be suitable for this purpose. When the fibre orientation was
parallel to the load axis, the isochromatic fringe patterns obtained were not
very clear and it was almost impossible to count their fringe orders (see Fig.
8(a)) whereas, for a load perpendicular to the fibre direction, even very
closely spaced fringes were easily distinguishable. In zone 1 of Fig. 8(b) the
fringes are perpendicular to the fibre direction and are thus clearly
distinguishable whereas, in zone 2 of the same Figure, they are inclined at
approximately 80 to the fibres. It is to be noted that this slight change of
0

inclination has led to a deterioration in the fringe resolution capability. This

variation in fringe resolution capability with the fibre direction has also
been observed by Prabhakaran 5 for the case of the rectilinearly orthotropic
composite model.
It is thus observed that the above-mentioned effects are prominent along
the radial direction whereas they are insignificant in the circumferential
direction. These effects are due to the lens effects caused by the mismatch of
the refractive indices of the constituents and the cylindrical shape of the
fibres.
232 P. K. Sinha and B. L. Dhoopar

(0 I (b I
FIG. 8. Isochromatic fringe patterns showing the effect of fibre orientation on fringe
resolution in cylindrically reinforced model for: (a) load approximately parallel to the fibre
direction and (b) load approximately perpendicular to the fibre direction.

Now, given a number of model materials as alternative choices, one needs

a quantitative criterion on the basis of which a model material with a
minimum of the undesirable properties mentioned above may be selected.
In an attempt to evolve one such criterion, it was observed that when two
light beams, separated at a particular distance, were viewed through the
model material, the distortion of light increased with the increase in the gap

:<:

-.
100
~

.
~ 80

·..
:>

~ 60

i
E 40
c:
••
! 20
J

Rad ia l dll 'once be' . . . n '.0 11 9M beoml (e",)

FIG. 9. The limiting gap between sources of light and the model at which images merge
versus the radial distance between two light beams.
 Cylindrically Orthotropic Model Material for Transmission Photoelasticity 233

between the sources of light and the model. Finally, at a particular distance,
they merged into each other and it became difficult to differentiate between
the two sources of light. The variation of this limiting distance with the gap
between the two beams of light is shown in Fig. 9 for the cylindrically
orthotropic 0-4cm thick model material prepared in the present
investigation. This limiting distance between the source of light and the
model can be used as an index for rating the quality of the material at the
time of its selection.

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are drawn from the present investigation.

(1) A cylindrically orthotropic photoelastic glass polyester model
material has been developed.
(2) Simple experiments have been devised for studying the transpar-
ency, distortion of light and smearing of sharp boundaries. These
optical properties seem to be due to the mismatch of the refractive
indices of the reinforcing glass fibre and the matrix polyester.
(3) The fringe resolution capability in this material has been observed
to be prominently affected along the radial direction whereas it has
been found to be insignificant in the circumferential direction. Slight
changes in the inclination of fringes from the radial direction
greatly reduce the fringe resolution capability.
(4) A criterion has been developed for quantifying the unusual optical
and photoelastic properties observed in this material and this may
help in rating the quality of a given model material over other
available ones when selecting it for various applications.

REFERENCES

1. PlH, H. and KNIGHT, C. E., Photoelastic analysis of anisotropic fibre reinforced

composites, J. of Composite Materials, 3(1) (1969) 94-107.
2. DALLY, J. W. and PRABHAKARAN, R., Photo-orthotropic elasticity, Parts I and
II, Experimental Mechanics, 11(8) (1971) 346-56.
3. AGARWAL, B. D. and CHATURVEDl, S. K., Development and characterisation of
optically superior photoelastic composite materials, Int. J. Mech. Sci., 20(7)
(1978) 407-14.
4. KNIGHT, C. E., Orthotropic photoelastic analysis of residual stresses in filament-
wound rings. Paper presented at SESA Fall Meeting, Boston, USA, 1970.
234 P. K. Sinha and B. L. Dhoopar

5. PRABHAKARAN, R., Model materials for photo-orthotropic elasticity, Fibre

Science and Technology, 13(1) (1980) I-II.
6. SINHA, P. K. and DHOOPAR, B. L., Stress-optic law for cylindrically orthotropic
composites. Paper presented at All India Seminar on Experimental Stress
Analysis, Pune, April, 1979.
7. SAMPSON, R. c., A stress-optic law for photoelastic analysis of orthotropic
composites, Experimental Mechanics, 10(5) (1970) 210-15.
 16

Photoelastic Techniques for the

Complete Determination of
Stresses in Composite Structures
R. PRABHAKARAN
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics,
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia 23508, USA

ABSTRACT

Transmission photoelastic analysis of composite models has attracted

increasing attention in recent years. The interpretation of the photoelastic
response in terms of the average (macroscopic) composite stresses is more
involved than for isotropic models. Methods of determining the individual
principal stresses (or strains) which have been suggested so far are not
satisfactory. In this paper, three new methods are examined. The first
method is an extension of the oblique incidence technique in which the model
(or the light beam) is rotated about one of the material symmetry axes. In the
second method, transmission and reflection photoelastic responses are
combined. The third method requires the drilling of small holes and the
determination of the fringe orders at selected points on the hole boundary.
The three methods are applied to an orthotropic circular disk under
diametral compression. Results are compared with strain gage data.

INTRODUCTION

A complete stress analysis and reliable failure criteria are essential for
optimum utilisation of the unique properties of composite materials in
structural applications. The case for micromechanics analysis of
composites is very strong because the materials are heterogenous and
exhibit several modes of failure. However, micromechanics analysis is
235
236 R. Prabhakaran

complicated and the results from such analysis cannot directly be applied to
design. An engineering or macro mechanics analysis of composites is,
therefore, needed and the results from such analysis have been found to
agree well with experimental results. For the design and analysis of
composite structures on a macroscopic scale, for instance in the failure
theories such as the tensor polynomial theory, the individual average
composite stresses are required.
When polarized light is passed through a transparent birefringent
composite, the phenomenon on a microscopic scale is very complicated.
But over-all fringe patterns are observed. Considerable progress has been
achieved in the application of transmission photoelastic techniques to
composite orthotropic models in recent years. The developments in the
subject have been reviewed by the author. 1 The isochromatic fringe order is
a complex function of the principal stresses (or strains), their orientations,
etc. The isoclinic parameter gives the directions of the principal
birefringence components according to a Mohr circle of birefringence.
F or the transmission photoelastic analysis of an orthotropic birefringent
model to yield useful information, methods must be developed to determine
the individual values of the principal stresses or strains. Several methods
have already been proposed, such as shear difference, numerical solution of
the compatibility equation and holography. These methods have been
reviewed by the author. 2 Some of these proposed techniques suffer from the
disadvantage that they use the photoelastic response partially and rely on
analytical procedures which either give rise to error or are involved. The
holographic method of combining isochromatics and isopachics is not
feasible for composites because of the complex nature of both families of
fringes. 3 There is consequently a need for a simple and completely
experimental method of determining the individual values of principal
stresses or strains. Three such methods are proposed and examined in this
paper.

DRILLING SMALL HOLES

In order to determine the magnitudes and directions of the principal

stresses at a given point in the interior of an isotropic photoelastic model,
Tesar 4 suggested making a very small circular hole at the point. Referring to
Fig. I, the stresses at the points A and C on the boundary of the hole of
radius a are determined from the isochromatic fringe orders at these points.
 Photoelastic Techniques for Determination of Stresses in Composite Structures 237

t I
t'r

(12 + - - -eel

....

'1
ffi
~ ~
'! t;

+- - ¢ ~ f ¢- - -+
~ l

• •
~ I
I I

t
FIG. I. Determination of principal stresses from the fringe orders on the boundary of a small
hole .

It can be shown that the principal stress magnitudes, corresponding to the

center of the hole and in the absence of the hole, are given by
aA + 3ac (1)
al = 8

(2)

This procedure has the disadvantage of depending on the precise

determination of the boundary stresses at the edge of a small hole. Durelli
and Murray 5 have overcome this disadvantage by determining the
principal stresses corresponding to the hole center from the principal stress
differences measured at interior points. If these interior points on a circle of
238 R. Prabhakaran

radius 2a beyond A and C are designated as E and F, respectively, then it

can be shown that
7(JE + 15(JF (3)
(Ji= 11

7(JF + 15(JE (4)

(J2= II

where (JE and (JF are the principal stress differences. Compared to Tesar's
method, the improved procedure represented by eqns (3) and (4) has the
disadvantage of larger errors due to stress gradients.
The author 6 has suggested the extension of Tesar's method to
birefringent composites. The state of stress around a circular hole in a
composite plate subjected to a biaxial loading is quite complex in the
general case. Simplifications can be made if the composite plate is
considered to be subjected to stresses which act along the material
symmetry axes, as shown in Fig. 1.
When only the stress parallel to the reinforcement, (J l' is acting, the
tangential stress on the hole boundary is given by

(5)

where

(6)

(7)

In the above equations E is the Young's modulus, G the shear modulus, v

the Poisson's ratio, Land T the material symmetry axes and () the angle
measured from the (J cdirection. At the points A and B «() = 0, n)

(Ji
(J ---
A,B- k (8)

and at the points C and D «() = n12, 3(nI2))

(9)
 Photoelastic Techniques for Determination of Stresses in Composite Structures 239

When the stress perpendicular to the reinforcement, a 2 , is acting alone,

the tangential stress on the hole boundary is given by

aO =a 2 Eo [(k+n)kcos 2 8-ksin 2 8] (10)

EL
At the points A and B
k+n
aA,B = a 2 -k- (11 )

and at the points C and D

(12)

Superposing the stresses a 1 and a 2 and solving for them,

k 2 a A + (k + n)a D
a - (13)
n(n + k + 1)
-~--:--:---
1 -

k(1 +n)aA +a D
a - ------'-''-------=- (14)
2- n(n+k+l)
While the measurement of the isochromatic fringe order is difficult on the
hole boundary and it would be preferable to make the measurement at
interior points, the analytical expressions for stresses at interior points in an
orthotropic plate with a circular hole are not available in a closed form.
Experiments to substantiate this proposed method are described in a later
section.

OBLIQUE INCIDENCE

In orthotropic birefringent models, the isochromatic fringe order under

normal incidence of light is related to the principal stresses by the equation

Nn=h{UL (alcos 2 et+a 2 sin 2 et)- )T (aISin 2 et+a 2 cos 2 et)J

+ ~~T (a l
/2
- (2 )Sin2etJf (15)

where a I' a 2 are the principal stresses, et the angle between a I and L
directions and Iv f~, ILT are the principal stress-fringe values. As the
author 7 has pointed out, rotation of the model about either of the principal
240 R. Prabhakaran

stress directions is not possible because the principal stress angle, IX, is not
given by the optical isoclinic. It is possible to rotate the model about either
of the principal strain directions, if it is assumed that the isoclinic parameter
approximately gives the principal strain directions. The equations resulting
from this approach are involved and the procedure is very complex. It is
also necessary, in this approach, to directly or indirectly determine some
out-of-plane elastic constants.
Instead of trying to determine the principal stresses or strains directly, the
oblique incidence technique can be adapted to composite models by seeking
the stress components (Jv (JT and 'LT' referred to the material symmetry
axes. One of the three equations required for this purpose is eqn. (15), which
can be rewritten as
(JL - (JT)2
N =h {( - - (2'LT)2}1/2
+ - (16)
n fL fT fLT
According to the Mohr circle of birefringence, the optical isoclinic
parameter, <jJ, is related to the stress components by

(17)

The third equation required can be obtained by rotating the model about
the L-axis bye, are shown in Fig. 2. The oblique incidence fringe order is

;;J2 + (~~~~! rr
given by

No = co~ e{(;:!! - /2 (18)

where (Ju, (JT!' 'L!T! are the transformed stress components andfL!' fT!'
fUT! are the transformed stress-fringe values. While the transformed stress
components are given by

(19)

the transformed stress-fringe values, due to transverse isotropy, are given

by
fu=fL
fT! =fT (20)
fUT! =fLT
 Photoelastic Techniques for Determination of Stresses in Composite Structures 241

P
A/4

/~ ~By"
) MODEL (

"'-/ ~/
'\. /
A/4
A

FIG. 2. Chopped prism oblique incidence arrangement.

It is therefore possible to rewrite eqn. (18) as

Ne=_h_{(!a aTcosZ8)Z + (2!LTCOS8)Z}1/Z

L _ (21)
cos 8 JL iT iLT
The three stress components can be obtained by solving eqns (16), (17) and
(21). Experiments verifying the proposed method are described in a later
section.

COMBINED TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION

The author 8 had proposed, without applications, combining the

transmission and reflection photoelastic methods in order to determine the
principal stresses or strains. If the symmetry axes for the composite model
coincide with the material symmetry axes and if the loads are applied along
these directions, then the principal stress and strain directions are the same.
Assuming faithful strain transmission from the composite to the coating,
the reflected isochromatic fringe order can be expressed as

(22)
242 R. Prabhakaran

where the superscripts c and s refer to the coating and the composite
specimen, respectively, and f." is the strain-sensitivity of the coating. The
transmitted isochromatic fringe order, Nt, given by eqn. (16), simplifies to

N = + hi(J~ _ (J~) (23)

t - VL IT
where the positive or negative sign is chosen appropriately to keep the fringe
order positive. The principal stresses (J~ and (J~ can be obtained from eqns
(22) and (23) as

(24)
I + VLT IL I + vTL
EL IT ET

2N hCf.C(1 + vc) _ Nh.iL(1 + VLT)

r EC t E
(J} = L (25)
1 + vLT IL 1 + vTL
EL IT ET
Experiments verifying the proposed method are described in the next
section.

TESTS

To verify the proposed experimental methods, three circular disks of 7·6 cm

diameter were tested in diametral compression. The disks were machined
from a unidirectionally reinforced E-glass-polyester laminate. The elastic
and photoelastic constants for the material were determined by standard
calibration procedures and are given in Table 1.
On one of the disks, circular holes of O· 32 cm diameter were drilled on
radial lines parallel and perpendicular to the reinforcement, at locations
1·27 cm and 2·54cm from the center. Electrical resistance strain gages were
mounted at similar points diametrically across from the holes. The disk was
loaded parallel and perpendicular to the reinforcement and strain gage
readings as well as fringe patterns were recorded. Typical isochromatic
fringe patterns are shown in Fig. 3. The values of principal stresses given by
eqns (13) and (14) were found to differ from the strain gage results by a
maximum of 10%.
 Photoelastic Techniques for Determination of Stresses in Composite Structures 243

TABLE 1
Elastic and photoelastic properties of biref-
ringent composite model

Property Value

EL 28·8 GPa
ET 9-4 GPa
GLT 3·2 GPa
V LT 0·3
fL 156 k Palm/fringe
j~ 78 kPa/m/fringe
j~T 69 kPa/m/fringe

On a second disk, a circular photoelastic coating of slightly smaller

diameter was bonded. The disk was again loaded under diametral
compression, parallel and perpendicular to the reinforcement. The
isochromatic fringe patterns for the coating are shown in Fig. 4. The fringe
patterns for the composite disk in transmitted light were also recorded as a
reflected pattern from the back of the photoelastic coating. Fringe patterns
obtained in this manner are shown in Fig. 5. As birefringent composites
incorporating glass fibres as reinforcement are usually photoelastically
insensitive, this procedure doubles the maximum fringe order. For
comparison, isochromatic fringe patterns for a third composite disk in
transmitted light are shown in Fig. 6. All the fringe patterns shown in Figs 3,
4, 5 and 6 correspond to a diametral compressive load at 1780 N. The values

FIG. 3. Isochromatic fringe patterns for circular composite disk with small holes under
parallel and transverse diametral compression.
244 R. Prabhakaran

FIG. 4. Isochromatic fringe patterns for the photoelastic coating bonded to a circular
composite disk under parallel and transverse diametral compression.

of principal stresses given by eqns (24) and (25) were found to differ from the
strain gage results by a maximum of 5 %.
Oblique incidence measurements were conducted on the third composite
disk for which the angle of oblique incidence with the chopped prism
arrangement was found to be about 30 0 • The oblique incidence fringe order
was combined with the normal incidence fringe order and the isoclinic
parameter by eqns (16), (17) and (21). The results obtained in this manner
differed from the strain gage results by a maximum of 7 %.

FIG. 5. Isochromatic fringe patterns for circular composite disk obtained by reflection from
the back of photoelastic coating.
 Photoelastic Techniques for Determination of Stresses in Composite Structures 245

FIG. 6. Isochromatic fringe patterns for circular composite disk obtained in transmitted
light.

CONCLUSIONS
Three completely experimental procedures have been proposed and
compared. In one of the methods, small circular holes are drilled at the
points of interest and the isochromatic fringe order at selected points on the
hole boundaries is measured. In the second method a photoelastic coating is
bonded to the birefringent composite model and the transmitted and
reflected fringe orders are combined. In the third method, the oblique
incidence fringe order, obtained by rotating the model or the light beam
about the material symmetry axis, is combined with the normal incidence
fringe order. The three methods have been applied to a circular disk under
diametral compression, with the load parallel or transverse to the direction
of reinforcement. Comparison with strain gage results indicates that the
method of drilling holes is the least accurate, due to the difficulty in
determining the fringe order on the boundary of a hole and the stress
gradient from the hole center to the hole boundary; this method also
requires extension to the more general biaxial loading where the material
symmetry axes are not the principal stress directions.
The method of combining transmitted and reflected isochromatic fringe
orders has the added advantage of doubling the transmitted photoelastic
response if it is obtained by reflection from the back of the coating.
However, the method requires several corrections due to the coating.
The oblique incidence method is easily applicable to general biaxial
loading but the method depends on the isoclinic parameter and also yields
the stress components referred to the material symmetry axes. Use of the
chopped prism restricts the angle of oblique incidence to just one value.
246 R. Prabhakaran

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research was supported by an equipment grant, CDP-80-16606, from

the National Science Foundation and a cooperative agreement, NCCI-26
with NASA-LRC. The author would like to thank Dr Howard H. Hines of
NSF and Dr Paul A. Cooper of NASA-LRC for their support and
encouragement.

REFERENCES

1. PRABHAKARAN, R., Developments in photo-orthotropic-elasticity, International

Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Symposium on Optical Methods
in Solid Mechanics, Poitiers, France, Sept. 1979.
2. PRABHAKARAN, R., Applications of transmission photoelasticity to composite
materials. In: Developments in composite materials, Vol. 2, Holister, G. S. (ed.),
Barking, England, Applied Science Publishers, in press.
3. ROWLANPS, R. E., DUDDERAR, T. D., PRABHAKARAN, R. and DANIEL, I. M.,
Holographically determined isopachics and isochromatics in the neigh-
bourhood of a crack in a glass composite, Exp. Mech., 20 (1980) 53-6.
4. TESAR, V., La Photoelasticimetrie et ses applications dans les constructions
aeronautiques, La Science Aerienne, Paris (1932).
5. DURELL!, A. J. and MURRAY, W. M., Stress distribution around a circular
discontinuity in any two-dimensional system of combined stress, 14th Semi-
annual Eastern Photo elasticity Conference, Yale Univ., 1941.
6. PRABHAKARAN, R., Extension of the hole-drilling method to birefringent
composites, 36th Annual Conference of the Society of the Plastics Industry,
Washington, DC, Feb. 1981.
7. PRABHAKARAN, R., Extension of oblique incidence method to photo-orthotropic
elasticity, presented at the Spring Meeting ofthe Society for Experimental Stress
Analysis, Dearborn, Michigan, USA, May 1981.
8. PRABHAKARAN, R., Separation of principal stresses in photo-orthotropic-
elasticity, Fibre Science and Tech., 13 (1980) 245-53.
 17
A Boundary Layer Approach to the Calculation of
Transverse Stresses along the Free Edges of a
Symmetric Laminated Plate of Arbitrary Width
Under In-plane Loading

D. ENGRAND

Office National d' Etudes et de Recherches Aerospatiales,

92320 Chiitillon, France

ABSTRACT

In order to calculate the transverse and normal stresses along afree edge in a
symmetrically laminated plate under in-plane loading, we derive the
boundary layer equations, and then give an approximate solution, using the
complementary energy principle. The method gives a stress field which
satisfies all the equilibrium, continuity, and boundary conditions. Several
examples are given, illustrating the great versatility of the method, which is
applicable regardless of the number of layers and the layer orientations.

NOTATION

Standard notations are used throughout. In Cartesian axes, we denote the

coordinates lin the mid-plane of the plate by x, y, and the coordinate normal
to the mid-plane by z (-h.::;; z.::;; +h). In order to make conspicuous the
influence of the small parameter h (thickness = 2h), we put
z
11=/;(-1'::;;11'::;; +1)

The material is supposed to be heterogeneous in the thickness direction, so

that we can define the matricial compliances bij as functions of 11. In the
usual case of layered plates, these functions are piecewise constant. The
symmetry of the laminate imposes
bij( -11) = bij('1)
247
248 D. Engrand

The non-zero bij coefficients in the 6 x 6 symmetric matrix S are Sll' S 12'
S 13' S 16' S22' S23' S26' S33' S36' S44' S45' S55' S66' and the tangential part of
S is denoted by st

The stress tensor is denoted by a, as usual, and the additional stress tensor
in the boundary layer is denoted by F. The engineering components are
used for the strains.

INTRODUCTION

In the present study, we attempt to give a reasonable approximation to the

free edge shear and normal stresses in arbitrarily wide symmetrically
laminated plates under in-plane loading.
We first recall the main results of the Classical Laminate Theory (CL n,
which can be obtained by means of asymptotic expansions, 1.2.3 taking the
thickness 2h as a small parameter. Then, following Tang's basic ideas, 4 we
derive the boundary layer equations, as was previously done by Friedrichs
and Dressler, 3 or by Reiss and Locke,2 in terms of two coupled partial
differential equations for two stress functions. It can be noted that these
equations are quite different to Tang's ones. In the last part, following
Horvay's method for end problems, we construct a statically admissible
stress field depending on two scalar functions, that are determined by
solving a system of two ordinary differential equations obtained by
minimising the complementary energy functional. It results in an
approximate stress field which satisfies exactly all the equilibrium,
continuity, and boundary conditions. In addition, it can be seen that this
stress field is not perturbed by any singularity.

THE CLT INTERIOR PROBLEM

It is well known that the stresses in the laminate, away from the edges, are
given by the Classical Laminate Theory. This theory can be obtained by
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 249

means of asymptotic expansions. 1 •2 ,3 We only recall here its principal

features. If we consider the asymptotic expansion of the stress tensor

O'(x, y, '1) = L00

.=0
hnO'n(x, y, '1) (1)

the CLT gives for zero order terms the Generalised Plane Stresses
equations, valid for thin plates

(2)

where st and ~o are functions of '1, while the strain eO is independent of '1 (i.e.
constant in the whole thickness).
The associated equilibrium equations (without volumli forces) are given,
in terms of membrane stresses, by

(3)
with

N° = f: 11 LO('1) d'1 (4)

and the stress-strain relation between N° and eO is given by

N0 =Qeo (5)

(6)

It is worth noting that the stress components O';z' O';z' O';z (O';z = 0), are also
known through an integration of the equilibrium equations in '1, together
with stress free conditions for '1 = ± I.
Within the frame of CLT, it is generally not possible to satisfy exactly the
boundary conditions for loaded or free edges. Ifwe consider for instance a
free edge defined by y = 0, the only conditions that can be satisfied are
250 D. Engrand

It is thus necessary to analyse in more detail the stress field near the
boundaries. In the present paper, we restrict ourselves to a straight free edge
problem, though the loaded or curved edge problem can be treated in a
similar way.2,3

BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

As in the study by Reiss and Locke,2 the free edge is defined by y = O. We

suppose that a CLT solution is known, and we focus our attention on this
free edge, where O'~y and O'~y have non-zero values and their mean values N~y
and N2y are zero. This defect in the satisfaction of the boundary conditions
can be removed if we superpose on the CLT solution an additional stress
field FO(x, y, rJ) such that, on the boundary (y = 0)

(8)
and such that it vanishes at a small distance to the edge. As pointed out by
Tang,4,6 this can be achieved by a boundary layer theory. Following Tang's
study, we put

~ = Yh togeth '
er wIth '1 = h
Z
(9)

so that the three-dimensional equilibrium equations become

{
hFXX'X =
+ Fxy,~ + Fxz,~ 0
hFxy,x + Fyy,~ + Fyz,~ - 0

hFxz,x + Fyz,~ + Fzz,~ = 0

Similarly, the compatibility equations expressed in terms of the stresses

through the constitutive equations may be put into the form
(10)
where C(2), C(l), C(O) are partial differential linear operators that are not
explained here because of their lengthy nature. Now, we can observe that in
eqns (9) and (10) the terms of higher order in h are precisely those involving
derivatives in the x-direction. We can simply drop these terms and try to
satisfy all the equations and conditions with a tress field FO independent of
x, or alternatively consider that the total stress field FO + 0'0 we are looking
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 251

for is given by the first term of an asymptotic expansion and then apply the
matching principle of Friedrichs. 2 ,3 Both approaches give the same
equations, but the first is simpler and does not give rise to the question of
existence of an asymptotic expansion.
The boundary layer equilibrium equations are then written
F~Y,~ + F~M = 0
{ F~y.~ + F~z,~ = 0 (11)
F~z,~ + F~z,~ = 0
and the corresponding compatibility equation reads
C(O)(FO) = 0 (12)
These equations are almost the same as those given by Tang. 6
Classically, the equilibrium eqns (11) can be satisfied by the introduction
of two stress functions, ljJ and </1, such that

F~z = -ljJ,~
(13)
F~z = - </1,Yf~

In addition to eqns (11) and (12), we have also to satisfy the boundary
conditions

(14)

and

(15)

As we want to ensure that the influence of the stress field FO does not
extend far away from the edge, we have also to impose
FO --+ 0
~ --+ 00 (16)
(This condition is equivalent to the 'matching condition' at zero order.)
252 D. Engrand

Now it is seen that three equations among the six involved in the C(O)

group, expressed in terms of strain, are

with e~x = Sll F2x + S12F~y + S13F~z + S16 F2y'

From eqn. (14) we immediately deduce that
e~x /3e + Y11 + b
=

but it can be shown that the constants /3, y, b are all zero, for the symmetry
of e~x in '1 impose Y = 0, and eqn. (16) implies /3 = b = 0. Finally, we have
e~x = 0, and we can eliminate F2x from the remaining three compatibility
equations in the C(O) group, which now take the form
11'1 + (A23F~z)' '1'1 + (A 26 F2y), '1'1 + (A23F~y), ee
°
(A22F~y),
+ (A33F~z)' ee + (A 36 F2y)' ee - (A44F~z)' '1e - (A45 F2z), '1e = (17)
Llo,e=O (18(a»
(18(b»
with Ll °given by

(A26F~y), '1 + (A36F~z)' 11 + (A66F~y), 1]- (A45F~z)' e- (A55F~z)' e (19)

and

(20)

From eqns (18(a» and (18(b», we deduce that Llo is a constant, k. But it

°
is easy to see that the symmetry of the problem with respect to the plane
11 = implies

for the coefficients A ij , and the components F~y, F~z' F~y are even functions
of '1, and F~z' F~z are odd functions of '1. The boundary layer compatibility
equations are therefore given by eqn. (17) and
(21)
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 253

We are now able to express these equations in terms of stress functions

+ (A 23¢' ~O, '1'1 + A 23¢' IJIJ~~ + A 33¢' ~~~~

(A 22¢' '1'1), '1'1
+!(A 44 ¢, '10, IJ~ + (A 26t/J, '1), '1'1 + A 36t/J, IJ~~ + (A45t/J, ~), IJ~ = 0 (22)
(A 66t/J, '1), '1 + A 55t/J, ~~ + (A 26¢' '1'1), '1 + (A 36¢' ~~), '1 + A 45 ¢, IJ~~ = 0
(23)

Although the first equation is comparable to one of those given by

Tang,4,6,7 the second is quite different to Laplace's equation introduced by
him for the determination of t/J,

APPROXIMATE SOLUTION FOR THE BOUNDARY LAYER

STRESSES

One of the main difficulties in the solution of eqns (22) and (23), associated
with eqns (14), (15) and (16), is that it is not possible to separate the variables
both in equations and boundary conditions, However, as was done by
Horvay5 for biharmonic problems, we can look for an approximate
solution by taking
(24)
the functions band d being determined by integration of the boundary eqns
(14) and (15) in '1, In fact, it is easy to see that if we take

(25)

b(lJ) = - a/o) fl II O'~y(x,o,r)dr

dlJ' (26)

we are able to satisfy all the boundary conditions at ~ = 0, Furthermore, we

can verify all the remaining boundary conditions by putting
a(o) = c(o) = 1 (27)
a,~(o)=O (28)

and the condition of vanishing stresses as ~ ---> 00, It is worth noting that with
such a definition of ¢ and t/J, it is possible to account for almost any kind of
heterogeneity (provided that symmetry in '1 is ensured), In particular, for the
general case of layered plates, where the Sij are taken as piecewise constants
254 D. Engrand

in 1'/, the CLT stresses (T~y and (T~y are also piecewise constants, and the
continuity conditions at the interfaces for F2z, F~z' F~z are easily satisfied.
Furthermore, it can be seen that in such a case d(1'/) is piecewise linear,
continuous, with zero values at 1'/ = ± 1, and b(1'/) is piecewise quadratic,
continuous, with a continuous derivative, and is zero together with its
derivative at 1'/ = ± 1.
With the functions defined by eqns (25), (26), (27) and (28), we can now
construct a statically admissible stress field, and obtain a system of ordinary
differential equations for c(~) and a(~) by invoking the principle of
minimum complementary energy8 which is the weak form of the
compatibility equations. After a few calculations, this system can be put
into the matrix form:
MX(~) + NX(~) + PX(~) = 0 (29)
with

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

together with the edge condition

X(o) ={H d(o) =0 (34)

For sake of brevity, in all these expressions the superscriptdot(·) is used for
a ~-derivative, and the prime (') for 1'/-derivatives.
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 255

The general solution of eqn. (29) depends on the roots of the

characteristic equation
(35)
It can be seen by elementary algebra that this is a bicubic equation which
can be written
(36)
Our problem can be solved if X(O vanishes as ~ tends to infinity, i.e. if the
roots of eqn. (36) are positive whenever they are real numbers, or if they
have a non-zero real part whenever they are complex. In all the numerical
calculations made for typical ~raphite-epoxy or glass-epoxy laminates, the
three roots of eqn. (36) appeared to be real and positive, thus leading to a
solution of the following type
(37)

Xl' X 2 , X3 being the eigen vectors associated with the eigen values AI' A2 , A3,
and lXI' IX2' IX3 being determined in order to satisfy eqn (34) (which is always
possible due to the linear independence of Xl' X 2 , X 3, if Al f- A2 f- A3)'

NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS

The applications are very easy, due to the simplicity of the method. In
particular, it must be emphasised that there is no limitation on the number
of layers nor on their orientation. The applications shown here were made
by means of a small Fortran program containing about 600 instructions,
but we could have used a microcomputer (e.g. HP 85) with a Basic program.
Certain applications with a small number oflayers have even been made by
using a TI 59 pocket calculator. It can be shown (by the calculation of
(J'~y(x, 0, 1]) and (J'~/x, 0,1])) that all theF3
appear in the form
Fi~ = tijN2xCx, 0)
and depend on the CLT solution only through N2x(x, 0). Therefore, the
structure of the boundary layer stresses may be obtained independently of
this solution, in terms of the amplification factors t ii , which are functions
only of the layers' elastic characteristics and stacking sequence. Though all
the six components of the stress tensor can be determined, we only show
here the numerical results for the transverse shear and normal stresses, t xz ,
t yz ' tzz for various types of laminates.
It can be seen in Figs 1-7 that these stresses are perfectly continuous. For
256 D. Engrand
a b
z z
h-+------------ h

+45°

2~~------~.------------- 2~
3

_45°

h h
3"~---------~~---
3"
0°
~~____________
tyz
__x-r__~
tY~Z_mB
0°
t
o

•
0

antisymmetric:

FIG. I. Glass-epoxy [+45°, -45°,0°],. Typical variation of 10, across the thickness, near
the edge. (a): finite width strip (width = 5h) (after Pipes! ); (b): present study.

a b

z
h-~~---------------- h-lor--------------------

2 ~ 4-------------~_--
3

h h
3" 3
0°

t
txz
txz mBX
antisymmetric
o o
t
FIG. 2. Glass-epoxy [+45°, -45°,0°],. Typical variation of Ixz across the thickness, near
the edge. (a): finite width strip (width = 5h);(b): present study y = O. ly = 0'033h; 2y = 0·066h;
3y=0·lh.
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 257
a

FIG. 3. Glass-epoxy [+45°, _45°, _45°, +45°],. Typical variation of Ixz across the
thickness near the edge. (a): finite width strip (width = 4h) y = 0 (after Pipes 10); (b): present
study.

z
h

0°

h
2'
C/l
-<
3: 90°
3:
m
-i
::!! tzz
() tzz max

FIG. 4. Graphite-epoxy [0 ,90

0 0
Typical normal stress distribution across the thickness.
],.

(a): finite width strip (width = 4h) Y = 0 (after Spilker and Chou 12); (b): present study y = O.
258 D. Engrand

0 0

I
+450 I
h
2
_450 I
I tyz

900
,,
0.1
FIG. 5. Graphite--epoxy [0°,45°, -45°,90 ]s' Stress factors I zz max at y=O,
0
l yZ max at
y = 0·534h (I zz is symmetric, and Iyz antisymmetric).

----~F---------------------------------------h

txz------------------

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

FIG. 6. Graphite--epoxy [0°,45°, -45°,90 ]s' Stress factors0

Ixz max at y=O (txz IS
antisymmetric).

typical graphite-epoxy laminae, the elastic characteristics used III the

calculations are:
E22 = 1· 5238 X lO4 MPa

V 12 = V 23 = V13 = 0·21
In Figs 1-3, we have plotted the results obtained with six and four layers for
glass-epoxy. The stacking sequences and typical elastic characteristics are
taken from Pipes. 10
Ell =4·137x lO4 MPa E22 = 1·0342 X lO4 MPa E33 = E22

G 12 = 5·516x 10 3 MPa G 23 = 4·137 X lO3 MPa G13 = G 12

V 12 = 0·25
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 259

0.5

h 2h

0.1

tzz (z = 0)

h 2h 3h y

-0.02 h
tyz (z = 4)

FIG. 7. Variations of stress factors in y-direction at interfaces of maximum values. Eight

layers graphite--epoxy [0°,45°, -45°,90°],.

Though the results of Pipes 10 are not directly comparable to ours, since he
dealt with a finite width strip problem, it is interesting to see that the
thickness distribution of stresses is qualitatively quite similar in the two
cases.

CONCLUSION AND FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS

While it gives an exact representation of the stress functions and their 1]-
derivatives on the free edge, our approximate solution does not guarantee
such an accuracy for the stresses depending on ~-derivatives. It is probable
that the less accurate stress in our approximation is I zz which is
proportional to ¢,~~. Though the results are not quite comparable, itcan be
seen in Fig. 4 that the thickness distribution of I zz on the edge is not the same
in the present case as in the finite width case. 12
260 D. Engrand

A generalised method, that is expected to give an improved accuracy, can

be outlined in the following way. As the stress functions are piecewise
polynominals for ~ = 0, it seems natural to introduce a finite element
discretisation in the I]-direction, for, in such a way, it is always possible to
match exactly the values of ¢ and t/J on the edge by choosing appropriate
finite elements.
As a typical finite element, we can take
¢ = LHi (I] )qi(~)
t/J = L Li(I])Pi(O
where Hi(I]) and L;(I]) are polynomials, and qi' Pi unknown functions. The
boundary and continuity conditions, suggest taking the first degree
Lagrange polynomials for L i , and third degree Hermite polynomials for Hi'
As in the present study, the principle of complementary energy would
lead to a new eigen value problem, the eigen vectors of which could be
combined in order to verify exactly the conditions at ~ = O. For instance, by
taking one element by layer, the eigen value problem to be solved would be
of dimension 3N - 2 for a 2N-Iayers laminate. However, though
substantial improvements are expected from this method, the real nature of
eigen values to be found does not seem mathematically evident, and the
numerical solution of this problem still needs a little more work.
However, the boundary layer method, as presented in this study, can be
very useful for predicting the stress distributions and risks of delamination
in almost every current case oflaminate and stacking sequence. Since all the
six stresses are available at any point near the edge, it is easy to apply a
failure criterion, as was done for example by Herakovich. 9 This can be
achieved by means of a small program, and involves only minimum manual
work.
Finally, it can be emphasised that this method can be used also for curved
edges (e.g. a circular hole in a plate 4 ) provided that the ~-direction is taken
as the direction normal to the edge, and the equations are expressed in local
tangential and normal coordinates.

REFERENCES
I. DESTUYNDER, P., Sur une justification des modeles de plaques et de coques par
les methodes asymptotiques, These de Doctorat d'Etat des sciences mathema-
tiques, Universite Paris VI. Paris 1980.
2. REISS, E. L. and LOCKE, S., On the theory of plane stress, Quar. Appl. Math., 19,
1961, 195.
 Calculation of Transverse Stresses in a Symmetric Laminated Plate 261

3. FRIEDRICHS, K. O. and DRESSLER, R. F., A boundary layer theory for elastic

plates, Comm. Pure and Appl. Math., 14, 1961, 1-33.
4. TANG, S., A variational approach to edge stresses of circular cutouts in
composites, AIAAjASMEjASCEjAHS 20th Structures, Structural Dynamics
and Materials Conference, St Louis, April 4-6, 1979.
5. HORVAY, G., The end problem of rectangular strips, Ja/. Appl. Mech., 20,1953,
87-94.
6. TANG, S., A boundary layer theory-Part 1: Laminated composites in plane
stress, Jal. Compos. Mat., 9, Jan. 1975, 33-41.
7. TANG, S., Interlaminar stresses around circular cutouts in composite plates
under tension, AIAA Jal., 15, 1977, 1631.
8. VALID, R., La mecanique des milieux continus et Ie calcul des structures, Paris
Eyrolles, 1977. English version to appear March 81, North Holland Pub!. Co.
9. HERAKOVICH, C. T., On failure modes in finite width angle ply laminates. In:
Advances in composite materials. Proceedings of ICCM 3, Paris, Aug. 1980.
Pergamon Press.
10. PIPES, R. B., Boundary layer effects in composite laminates, Fibre Science and
Technology, 13, No.1, 1980,49.
11. PAGANO, N. J., Stress fields in composites laminates, Int. Jal Solids and
Structures, 14, 1978, 385-400.
12. SPILKER, R. L. and CHOU, S. c., Edge effects in symmetric composite laminates:
Importance of satisfying the traction-free edge condition, Jal. Compos. Mat.,
14, 1980, 2.
 18

On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber

Composite

A. P. s. SELVADURAI

Department of Civil Engineering, Carleton University,

Ottawa, Ontario KIS 5B6, Canada

AND

N. MOUTAFIS
Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Aston in Birmingham, Birmingham B4 7ET, England

ABSTRACT

This chapter outlines theoretical and experimental studies pertaining to the

stress analysis of a rubber composite. In particular, the problems examined
relate to the plane-strain edge loading of the rubber composite. The
theoretical analysis of the edge loading problems is developed by assuming
that the laminated rubber composite can be idealized as an orthotropic
elastic solid. Using a Fourier integral approach, solutions are developedfor
the problems related to uniform loading and uniform indentation of a
halfplane region. An extension of these solutions to the analysis ofa quarter-
plane region is also briefly reviewed. The theoretical results derived for the
half plane region are compared with experimental results obtained for an
edge loaded rubber composite solid which consists ofalternate layers ofhard
and soft rubber-like materials.

INTRODUCTION

Composites constructed of rubber-like materials have a variety of

engineering applications which include their use in load bearing elements of
structural systems, energy absorbing devices and in inflatable structures.
Although the term 'composite' can refer to a variety offabricated materials,
262
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 263

in this chapter we are primarily concerned with the class of rubber-like

laminates which is constructed by bonding together layers of rubber-like
materials with differing elastic properties. In the micro scale these laminates
display prominent discontinuous non-homogeneous elastic characteristics.
On the macroscale, which involves a large assemblage of separate layers,
the composite can be visualized as an elastic material whose properties are
predominantly orthotropic. The theory of orthotropic elasticity has found
extensive application in the stress analysis of natural and artificial
structural materials such as wood, laminated geological strata, fibre-
reinforced solids and other laminated composites. Extensive accounts of
the various developments in the application of orthotropic elasticity to the
stress analysis of such materials are given in the texts and articles by Green
and Taylor,t Green and Zerna,2 LekhnitskV Holister and Thomas,4
Wendt et al., 5 Tsai et al., 6 Spencer,7 Broutman and Krock,8 Garg et al.,9
Christensen I 0 and Selvadurai. II The orthotropic elastic behaviour of the
composite is governed by the elastic characteristics of the constituent
materials, their shapes, bond characteristics and volume distributions. The
theoretical bulk orthotropic elastic properties of the composite can be
estimated by appeal to a theory of mixtures. Such theoretical estimates are
given by Hashin,12 Hill,13 and in references 4 to 10.
This chapter describes a programme of theoretical and experimental
studies which was conducted in order to establish how closely the elastic
behaviour of a laminated rubber-like composite corresponds to the
orthotropic elastic idealization. The composites were constructed by
bonding together, in alternate fashion, two sheets of rubber-like isotropic
elastic materials with equal thickness but differing elastic moduli (modular
ratio, approximately 2,5). The theoretical estimates for the bulk
orthotropic elastic properties of the composite were compared with
equivalent experimental results. The correlation was found to be
satisfactory. The second phase of the experimental programme was devoted
to the measurement of the plane-strain strain fields induced in a rubber
composite block region which is subjected to a uniform stress or a uniform
displacement on a part of the boundary. These strain fields are computed
from the induced displacement fields which are measured by optical means.
The experimental strain fields are then compared with theoretical results
derived for the surface loading of an orthotropic elastic halfplane. The
material constants derived previously are used in the theoretical analysis.
Finally, both theoretical and experimental results derived for the edge
loading of the rubber-like composite quarterplane are presented in
summary form.
264 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

THEORETICAL RESULTS

We consider the plane-strain deformations of a transversely isotropic

elastic material in which the principal axes coincide with the rectangular
Cartesian co-ordinate system (x, y, z). The elastic material exhibits
isotropic characteristics in the x-z plane. We further restrict our attention
to a state of plane strain in the transversely isotropic elastic solid where U x
and uy are independent of z and U z = O. Here, ux ' u y and U z are the Cartesian
components of the displacement vector. The resulting elastic stress-strain
relations for the transversely isotropic solid can be written as:

(1)

where:

(2)

In eqn. (1) Bij follows the usual definitions of the linearized strain tensor, (Jij
is the Cauchy stress tensor and, by virtue of the existence of a strain energy
function and the associated reciprocity relationships, lij = Iji. By employing
an Airy stress function <I>(x, y) such that:

(3)

it can be shown that the differential equation governing the plane-strain

problem is:

(4)

In eqn. (4):

(5)
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 265

Solutions of eqn. (4) are subject to appropriate displacement and/or

traction boundary conditions applicable to the problem. The constants, k 1
and k2' may be real or imaginary (see, for example, references 1 and 3). For
the present purposes we shall assume that they are real and positive as is the
case for the materials used in this investigation.

Stress Analysis of the Orthotropic Elastic Halfplane

The idealization of an elastic medium as a halfplane region serves, in
general, as a useful analogue for the determination of stress distributions in
finite elastic regions which are subjected to localized loads (i.e. the
dimensions of the localized loaded area are small in relation to the
dimensions of the elastic medium).14,15 The earlier applications of the
isotropic elastic halfplane idealization to the analysis of surface loadine
problems are given by Flamant,16 Michell 17 and Carothers. 18 Similar
solutions are obtained by Green and Taylor,1 LekhnitskV Conway, 19
Brilla,20 Akoz and Tauchert 21 for the orthotropic case. Also, Saha et al. 22
developed a generalized solution for the anisotropic case. Several results
pertaining to the indentation of the surface of an orthotropic elastic
halfplane by a rigid indentor are also given by Brilla,20 Okubo, 23 Sen 24 and
Conway.25 In the following we shall list salient results pertaining to the
surface loading or surface indentation of an orthotropic elastic halfplane.
It may be verified that the stress function:

(6)

satisfies the governing differential equation (eqn. (4». The functions C 1(IX)
and C 2(IX) are determined by satisfying the traction boundary conditions on
the plane y = O. In the particular case where the surface of the orthotropic
elastic halfplane is subjected to a concentrated normal line load, P, at the
origin (Fig. l(a» the state of stress within the medium takes the form:

[ . . _ P(k 1 + k z) z . 3. Z
CTXX,CTyy,CTXY]-1t(kixz+y2)(k~X2+y2)[X y,y ,xy] (7)

When the halfplane is subjected to a distributed normal load of stress

intensity, p, and width, 21 (Fig. l(b» the state of stress in the orthotropic
elastic region is given by:
266 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

where:

Ti = tan -1 {ki(X+/)} - tan _l{ki(X-/)} (. = 12)

, I
y y

(i= 1,2) (9)

The problem related to the frictionless indentation of the surface of an

orthotropic elastic halfplane by a plane rigid indentor (of width 2/; see Fig.
l(c)) has been examined by Conway,25 who reduced it to the solution of a
single integral equation of the type:

f, (Ty/O In Ix ~ (I d( = constant (10)

where a is a constant.
Alternative formulations which involve either complex variable or
integral transform techniques are given by Sneddon 26 and Gladwell. 27

. -x p

y y

CONCENTRATED LINE LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED UDAD

(a) (b)

. -x
p
RIGID PUNCH

y
INDENTATION BY A RIGID PUNCH
(r\

FIG. I. Edge loading problems for the orthotropic elastic halfplane.

 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 267

These analyses indicate that the contact stress distribution at the

frictionless interface takes the form:

(11)

where P is the resultant line load acting on the rigid punch. This result is
uninfluenced by the degree of orthotropy of the halfplane and is in
agreement with the equivalent result obtained by Sadowsky28 for the
isotropic case. With the aid of the results shown in eqns (7) and (11) it is
possible to determine the distribution of stress within the halfplane region.
F or example, the stress, (J xx' is given by:

Stress Analysis of the Orthotropic Elastic Quarterplane

The quarterplane is a special case of a wedge shaped region. The stress
analysis of wedge shaped regions which are subjected to localized or
distributed surface loads has been investigated by several authors including
Sternberg and Koiter, 29 Benthem,30 Bogy3! and Harrington and Ting 32
who make extensive use of Mellin transform techniques. References to
further studies are also given by Gladwell. 27 With the stress analysis of a
quarterplane region, however, it is convenient to utilize a successive
superposition scheme (Schwartzian reflection principle) which makes use of
a fundamental solution related to the normal loading of a halfplane region.
For example, the solution to the problem of the concentrated normal
surface loading of an orthotropic elastic quarterplane can be approached
via a combined Flamant!6 solution which consists of an elastic halfplane
subjected to concentrated forces located equidistant from the origin (see,
for example, Fig. 2(a)). This is the basic state of stress (J~J). By virtue of the
symmetry of (J~J) the shear stresses are zero on x = O. The plane, x = 0, is
subjected to only a purely normal stress, Fo(l]) (the variables ~ = x/a and
I] = y/a refer to distances measured on the axes considered and a is a length
parameter). If an additional state of stress can be found such that, in
relation to a quarterplane occupying the first quadrant (Fig. 2(b)): (i) the
shear tractions are zero on x = 0; y = 0 and (ii) the normal tractions on the
plane x = 0 and y = 0 are - Fo(l]) and zero, respectively, then this corrective
state of stress, «(J~j), together with (J~J>, constitutes a solution of the
quarterplane problem. The successive superposition procedure used to
268 A . P.S. Selvadurai and N . Moutafis

x x

y y
(0) (D)

x x

y y

(t l (dl

FIG. 2. Successive superposition scheme for the stress analysis of the orthotropic elastic
quarterplane.

develop a\i) is usually referred to as the Schwartzian reflection principle and

its application to isotropic and orthotropic quarterplane problems is
documented by Hetenyi 33 and Selvadurai and Moutafis,34 respectively.
The basis of the superposition scheme can be summarized as follows. For
the basic state of stress a\J) (Fig. 2(a)) the stresses on the axis of symmetry,
x = 0, are:
(13)

Now consider the problem of an orthotropic elastic halfplane, occupying

the region x :2: 0, which is subjected to a symmetric stress distribution a xx =
- F0 (11) on the plane x = 0 (step I). The resulting stress field, aU), can be
obtained by superposition of the state of stress of the type shown in eqn. (7)
(except for change in the frame of reference). The resulting stress field, aU),
can be obtained in the following form:

(1)_
a ij -
k 1k z(k 1 +k z ) 100 F (11 )J (11 )d 11
0 ij (14)
n 0
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 269

where:

and:
[.J!x; Fyy; .J!y] =R[X 3 ;X(Y±1/)2;X2(Y±1/)] (15)
R = {[kiX 2 + (Y ± 1/)2][QX2 + (Y ± 1/)2]}-1
The normalized spatial variables, X = x/a, Y = y/a, refer to a general
location (x, y) whereas ~ = x/a, 1/ = y/a refer to the normalized distance
along the co-ordinate axes.
Thus, combining aD) with a\J) renders the plane x = 0 free of traction but
gives rise to a non-zero normal traction, FI (~), on the plane y = o. To
eliminate FI (~) we consider a symmetric external stress - FI (~), on y = 0
for the halfplane region y;:::: 0 (Fig. 2(c». The stresses due to this loading
(step 2) are given by:

a\p= (k l +k2)
n
fro FI(~)Kij(Od~
0
(16)

where:

and:
[K;x; ~y; K;y] = S[(X ± e)2y; y 3 ; (X ± ~)y2] (17)
S = {[ki(X ± ~f + y2][k~(X ± ~)2 + y2]}-1
Again, the combination of alP and aD) leaves the plane y = 0 traction free
but gives rise to a normal stress a xx = F 2 (1/) on x = 0 (Fig. 2(d». The
procedures outlined in steps I and 2 have to be repeated to eliminate
superfluous stress generated on the planes of symmetry. The successive
superposition of halfplane solutions leads to a convergent corrective state
of stress of the form:
270 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

where:

(19)

and:
(20)
The complete solution for the orthotropic quarterplane problem is given
by:
(21)

This procedure was used to examine the state of stress in the rubber-like
composite block which was subjected to loads located near the corner.

THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

The experimental study was organised in order to establish how closely the
mechanical behaviour of a rubber-like composite (which was fabricated by
adhesive bonding of soft and hard rubber) could be characterized by the
theory of orthotropic linear elasticity. The experimental programme
essentially consisted of three phases. The first phase involved the
determination of the elastic properties of the individual layers constituting
the composite solid. The second part of the investigation consisted of the
determination of the bulk orthotropic properties of the fabricated
composite. The third phase of the experimental programme involved the
plane-strain testing of a composite block by edge and corner loading. Due
to the lack of space, all aspects of the experimental programme cannot be
given complete coverage. For further details the reader is referred to
Moutafis. 35

Elastic Properties of the Constituent Materials

The following materials were used in the fabrication of the rubber
composite: a soft rubber (subscript's') (Shotblast, 70 % natural rubber,
Shore hardness (40 to 45 %), a hard rubber (subscript 'h') (Vinyl, trade name
Velbex, Shore hardness 80 %) and an adhesive (Dunlop rubber adhesive
S 738). (All the materials were supplied by Rubber and Plastics Industries,
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 271

Birmingham, UK). The two types of rubber were supplied in

3·5m x 150mm x 3mm strips. Laboratory tests were conducted on both
soft and hard rubber specimens subjected to uniaxial tension and
compression. These tests indicated that the rubbers were essentially
isotropic in their elastic characteristics. There were no visible creep effects in
the stress ranges used in the experimental programme. Both the soft and
hard rubbers exhibited linear elastic responses (in tension and compression)
for strains of the order of 6 %. The results of these experiments are
summarized in Table I.

TABLE 1
Properties of the constituent rubber materials

Type of Tension tests Compression tests

rubber n E SD n E SD v G

Hard 6 7·5 0·11 4 7·2 0·10 0-48 2-44

Soft 6 3·2 0·08 4 2·9 0·06 0-48 1·01

n = Number of tests. SD = Standard deviation. E = Young's modulus.

v = Poisson's ratio. G = Shear modulus. (All dimensional quantities are in N/mm2.)

Orthotropic Elastic Properties of the Composite material

Four of the five elastic constants required for the complete description of
the elastic behaviour of the transversely isotropic rubber block were
determined experimentally. The fifth constant (G Xy) was estimated using
the properties of the constituent materials and the theory of mixtures.
Specially manufactured rubber composite samples (45 mm x 45 mm x
27 mm) identical to the large composite block used in the plane-strain test
(to be described later) were tested in compression at a constant strain rate of
0·1524 mm/min along one of the principal directions. The elastic moduli
(Ex, Ey) and the Poisson's ratios (V Xy , vyx ' vxz ) were determined by a
measurement of the applied loads and the longitudinal and lateral strains.
The results of these experiments are summarized in Table 2.
Theoretical estimates for the bulk orthotropic elastic properties of the
laminated rubber-like composite can be established by making use of the
elastic properties of the hard and soft materials (Eb , Es, Vb' vs) and their
respective volume fractions (Vb' Vs). There are a number of theoretical
estimates that can be employed for this purpose. Detailed accounts of these
developments are given in references 4 to 10. For laminated materials the
effective elastic constants for the orthotropic idealization can be established
272 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

TABLE 2
Orthotropic elastic constants for the transversely isotropic rubber composite

Theory Experiment n SD

Ex 5·05 4·60 8 ±0'06

E). 4·14 3-90 11 ±0'1O
VX)' 0·48 0·48 4
v)'x 0-40 0·41 11 ±0'01
Vxz 0-48 0·48 4 ±0'01
GXY 1·43 1·30

n = Number of tests. SD = Standard deviation.

111 = O· 1673, 1\2 = -0· 1544, 122 = 0,2277, 166 = 0,7692, kl = 1·332, k2 = 0·6760.
(Ex, E y , etc., are expressed in N/mm2; 111 , /22 , etc., are expressed in mm 2/N.)

by employing an elementary theory of mixtures. The relationships

employed are as follows:

(22)

A comparison between the theoretical and experimental values of Ex. Ey.

etc. is given in Table 2. The constants. Ill' 122 , etc., associated with the
transversely isotropic idealization are also given in Table 2.

Plane-strain Testing of the Rubber Composite

A rubber block measuring approximately 535mm x 820mm x 150mm
was constructed by using the soft and hard rubber strips. These strips were
cleaned with trichloroethylene and neutralized with ammonia. The 'basic
unit' used in the construction of the rubber block consisted offive strips of
hard and soft rubber (820 mm long) glued together in alternating sequence
with the rubber adhesive. These 'basic units' were later glued together in
pairs and the process repeated until the thickness (l50mm) was attained.
This technique of building up the block in steps was followed in order to
avoid excessive self weight loading of the lower layers of the block. Such
loading would induce undue straining of the soft rubber layers at the early
stages when the adhesive is unhardened. In the final form the composite
consisted of83 layers of hard rubber and 82 layers of soft rubber. The large
surfaces of the rubber block were machined with abrasive paper to remove
irregularities and then covered with approximately 0·5 mm of Latex to
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 273

obtain a smooth flat surface. A grid 10 mm square was drawn on one of the
large surfaces of the block with white rubber paint (see Fig. 3).
The apparatus for plane-strain testing consisted of a steel container to
accommodate the rubber block, a 20 mm thick glass plate and a set of
loading devices capable of applying concentrated line loads, a distributed
load and a rigid punch type load. The steel tank was constructed of 10 mm
thick mild steel plates. The front face of the tank consisted of a rectangular
frame containing a groove which accommodated the glass plate. The rear of
the tank was stiffened with four 25-mm square steel bars to minimize the
displacements which would occur in the z-direction. The inside surface of
this plate was covered with a layer of formica to minimize the frictional
effects.
The loads were applied to the composite block through the following
loading devices: a cylinder (20 mm diameter and 150 mm long) to simulate
the concentrated line loading and a rigid plate (100 mm x 150 mm x
20 mm) to simulate the rigid punch type of load. In both cases aT-beam
lever (4: 1 ratio) was used to apply the static loads (see Fig. 3). The uniformly
distributed load was applied through a specially designed pressure cell
which transmitted the load without any interference from the membrane.

Testing Procedure
The surfaces of the rubber block and the internal surfaces ofthe steel tank
were lubricated with silicone grease to minimize the friction between the
rubber composite and the glass and formica surfaces. The composite was
placed inside the tank and the glass plate was slid into position and secured
with the fixing screws. Two I-beams (38 mm x 76 mm) were placed at the
front of the steel tank to reduce the lateral deflection of the glass plate
during loading. (This is a necessary requirement to ensure that plane-strain
conditions are achieved in the tests.) The actual testing under any of the
three loading systems was accomplished in the following steps. (i) The
appropriate loading device was fixed into position (at the centre of the
rubber composite for halfplane problems or near the corner for
quarterplane problems) and the thickness of the rubber block was
measured with a large micrometer. (ii) Two dial gauges were positioned, one
at the front and one at the rear of the steel tank, to record any lateral
deformations and the initial readings were recorded. (iii) A camera
(Hasselblad 500C) was fixed 500 mm from the steel tank and a photograph
of the grid was taken. (iv) The load was then applied in steps and for each
step a photograph of the deforming grid was taken and the dial gauge
readings recorded. For further details the reader is referred to Moutafis. 35
274 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

FIG. 3. Experimental set up for the plane strain testing of the rubber composite.
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 275

Analysis of Test Data

In each test, the strains induced in the rubber block were determined from
the photographic record of the grid deformation. The co-ordinates of the
nodes for each load increment were determined by using a 'Universal Wild
Plotter'. From the results, the lengths of each grid element were calculated
and plotted against the applied load. The ratios of strain/load were
determined from the slopes of these curves.

Accuracy and Errors

Several factors which could influence the accuracy of the experimental
results were given due consideration. These include the measurement of
loads (accuracy of the lever system, frictional effects, accuracy of
measurement of the uniform pressure) and the measurement of lengths
(accuracy of the Universal Wild Plotter, refraction effects of the glass plate,
deformation of the reference points, displacements in the z-direction) and
temperature effects. A detailed discussion of these effects is given by
Moutafis. 35 In summary, the experimental data given in the paper are either
uninfluenced or corrected to eliminate the potential errors.

COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

RESULTS

The series of plane-strain tests were carried out to determine the strain fields
induced in a halfplane or a quarterplane by the action of externally applied
loading systems with a view to providing a basis for comparison with the
theoretical results. For all the tests the results are presented as a variation of
the strains Gxx/load, and En/load with the dimensionless co-ordinates x and
y (where x and yare defined in terms of a characteristic length parameter of
the problem). The dimensional quantities (i.e. strain/load) are expressed in
mm 2IN or mm 2N - 1. Owing to the logarithmically divergent nature of the
displacement field associated with the theoretical formulation of the two-
dimensional halfplane or quarterplane problems, it is not possible to use the
measured grid displacements as a basis for comparison (compressive strains
are considered to be positive).

Concentrated Line Loading

Experimental investigation of concentrated force problems presents
difficulties owing to the singular behaviour at the point of application of the
force. Furthermore, knife edge type of loads would induce large strains in
276 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. MoU/ajis

the rubber-like material which would invalidate the desired linear elastic
response. To alleviate this problem, the line load was applied through a
20 mm diameter cylinder. The contact region between the cylinder and the
rubber composite was measured at each stage; its average value was in the
region of 12·5 mm. Figures 4 to 7 show the experimental and theoretical
results obtained for Cxx and Cyy for both the halfplane and the quarterplane
regions. As a first approximation the load is assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the length, 2/. The correlation between the theoretical and
experimental results is found to be satisfactory at all locations except in the
vicinity of the concentrated load .

Distributed Loads
In both cases (the halfplane and the quarterplane) the halfwidth of the
uniformly distributed load (l = 60 mm) was assumed to be the characteristic
length of the problem.
Figures 8 to II illustrate variations of Cxx and tyy within the ru bber
composite. The load in the ratio 'strain/load' is the applied uniform stress,
p, and for consistency of units it must be given in N /mm2.

N
's? -1
)(

Z
........
Ne -2 vlf
E
2.16
Il.
........ -3 3.76
"-
N
)( 6.96
" -4 10.00
14.88

-5 THEORY

-6

FIG. 4. Distribution of 6 xx -concentrated line loading of halfplane.

 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 277
9 ",------------------------------ ,

SYMBOL y/f
8
1.36
"
0 2 .96
7 0 6.16
9.28
6 • 15.68
THEORY

N 5
.$!

Z 4
"
........
N
E
E
3
Q.

....N",2
........

,J'

2 4 6 x/f 8 10 12 14

FIG. 5. Distribution of Byy-concentrated line loading of halfplane.

Rigid Punch Problem

For this particular loading attention was restricted to the experimental
study of the halfplane problem. The quarterplane problem associated with
the rigid punch loading cannot be analysed by using the superposition
scheme since the basic solution is not available in a compact form. (It can,
however, be obtained by using complex variable techniques. 27 - 36) The
stresses for the halfplane problem were obtained by numerical integration
of results of the type of eqn. (12). Since the applied contact stress exhibits
singular behaviour at x = ±I, the numerical integration technique had to
be modified. The applied stress was treated as a series of uniform load
elements of finite width. The spacing of the elements (and their width) was
278 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

0.2 OA 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

-I
'"'S?
x
~ -2
Ne
E
0.. - 3
~
e
.
.....
x_4

-5

_6L-__________________________________________ ~

FIG. 6. Distribution of 8 xx -concentrated line loading of quarterplane.

o -~
-l no
6
fip x SYM60L Y!o

lEx 026
5
0 . 54
'"'s? Ey
0 0 .91
4 n·0.125
z y 1.20
"'.....E
E THEORY

a.. 3
0-
c:
>-
>-
2
'"

0 .2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

X/o

FIG. 7. Distribution of 8 yy-concentrated line loading of quarterplane.

 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 279
6 r---------70--------------------------------------~
2,

2
N
's?
>(

z
"-
N

~ ·2

~
)(·4
)( SY MBOL yle
0.41
0.90
1.40
·8 THEORY

-10~--~----~--~----~--~----~--~----~--~----~--~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 xl f 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

FIG. 8. Distribution of oxx·uniform distributed loading of halfplane.

14

12
x
10
N
's? 8

-
)( SYMBOL
Y
Z 6
N
E
E 4

.....
Q.
THEORY
~2
'"
a
·2

-4

0.2 0.4 0 .6 0 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

xle
FIG. 9. Distribution of oyy-uniform distributed loading of halfplane.
280 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis
A/O
2
OA 0.6 0.8 1.0 t2

0
SYMBOl. Y/o
-2 0.07
0.18
-4 0.34
'"'S< 0.68
-6 THEORY
z
;:;.
~ -8
0-
x
x
-10
'"
-12

-14 n • 0.5
Y

FIG. 10. Distribution of Exx-uniform distributed loading of quarterplane.

20

16

'"'S<
• 12 SYMBOL Y/a
~
'"E 0.09
E
[] 0·31
• 0.65
THEORY

O~~==~~----~----~------~----~------~~

0.2 OA 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

FIG. II. Distribution of Eyy-uniform distributed loading of quarterplane.

 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 281

N'0 o~------ ____ ____________

~ ~~ __ ~L- __ -,~ __________ ~ ____________ ~

--
N
z
E -1
E
a.
><
><, 2

. 4L-________ ~L__ _ _ _ _ _~~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~

0 .5 2 .0
xle
FIG. 12. Distribution of "xx·loading of the halfplane region by a rigid punch.

N 6
'$2

- z
'EE 4
0.3
5

..,
......
J2

-1

-2
0.5 10 15 2.0
xlt

FIG. 13. Distribution of "yy-Ioading of the halfplane region by a rigid punch.

282 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutajis

ordered on a logarithmic scale such that the magnitude ofthe stress for each
load element was given by:
p
p(x)= ~
1T.y I-x
where x = I - (, for - 00 < In ( ::; O. In this way, it was possible to consider
load elements as close as possible to x = ± I as necessary.
It was found that the best correlation between theory and experiment for
the halfplane problem was obtained for a minimum of ( = - 2·5 and a
spacing of the elements based on d( = 0·1 (i.e. 25 elements). The
comparisons between theoretical and experimental results for Exx and Eyy are
given in Figs 12 and 13.

CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have examined the elastic response of a bonded rubber-like
composite which is composed of alternate layers of hard and soft rubber.
The mechanical properties of the hard and soft rubber phases, as well as
those for the composite, were determined experimentally. It was found that
the orthotropic elastic properties of the composite can be accurately
predicted via an elementary theory of mixtures which utilizes the elastic
properties of the individual phases and their volume fractions. A series of
experiments was also carried out to determine the plane-strain response of a
rubber composite block which is subjected to edge and corner loads which
act in a concentrated or distributed fashion. Theoretical solutions for these
plane-strain problems were developed by using the theory of orthotropic
elasticity. In particular, the solutions for the orthotropic elastic
quarterplane were obtained via a successive superposition scheme. The
results for the strain fields determined experimentally compare very
favourably with equivalent theoretical results. The study concludes that the
elasticIbehaviour oflaminated materials which display periodicity in their
non-homogeneity can be conventiently analysed by employing the classical
theory of orthotropic elasticity. Such modelling would prove to be effective
only in situations where the dimensions of the loaded area are large when
compared with the dimensions of individual laminations.

REFERENCES
1. GREEN, A. E. and TAYLOR, G. I., Stress systems in ae1otropic plates-I, Proc.
Roy. Soc. Ser. A, 173 (1939) 162-84.
2. GREEN, A. E. and ZERNA, W., Theoretical elasticity, London, Oxford
University Press, 1968.
 On the Orthotropic Elastic Behaviour of a Rubber Composite 283

3. LEKHNITSKI, S. G., Theory of elasticity of an anisotropic elastic body, San

Francisco, Holden Day, 1963.
4. HOLISTER, G. S. and THOMAS, R., Fibre reinforced materials, Amsterdam,
Elsevier, 1966.
5. WENDT, F. W., LEIBOWITZ, H. and PERRONE, N. (Eds), Mechanics of composite
materials, Proc. 5th Symp. Naval Struct. Mech., New York, Pergamon, 1970.
6. TSAI, S. W., HALPIN, J. C. and PAGANO, N. J. (Eds), Composite Materials
Workshop, Conn., Technomic Pub!. Co., 1968.
7. SPENCER, A. J. M., Deformations offibre reinforced materials, Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 1972.
8. BROUTMAN, L. J. and KROCK, R. H. (Eds), Composite materials, Vols 1-8, New
York, Academic Press, 1974.
9. GARG, S. K., SVALBONt\S, V. and GURTMAN, G. A., Analysis of structural
composite materials, New York, Marcel Dekker, 1973.
10. CHRISTENSEN, R. M., Mechanics of composite materials, New York, John
Wiley, 1979.
II. SELVADURAI, A. P. S. (Ed.), Mechanics of structured media, Vols I and II, Proc.
Int. Symp., Ottawa. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1981.
12. HASHIN, Z., Theory of mechanical behaviour of heterogeneous media, Appl.
Mech. Rev., 17 (1964) 1-9.
13. HILL, R., A self consistent mechanics of composite materials. J. Mech. Phys.
Solids, 13 (1965) 213-22.
14. TIMOSHENKO, S. and GOODIER, J. N., Theory of elasticity, New York, McGraw-
Hill, 1970.
15. LITTLE, R. W., Elasticity, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1973.
16. SELVADURAI, A. P. S., Elastic analysis of soil-foundation interaction,
Developments in Geotechnical Engineering Vo!' 17, Amsterdam, Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Co., 1979.
17. MICHELL, J. H., The stress distribution in an aelotropic solid with an infinte
plane boundary. Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 32 (1900) 247-58.
18. CAROTHERS, S. D., Plane strain in a wedge, with application to masonry dams.
Roy. [nst. Naval Arch., 33 (1913) 292-306.
19. CONWAY, H. D., Some problems of orthotropic plane stress. J. Appl. Mech., 20
(1953) 72-6.
20. BRILLA, J., Contact problems of an elastic anisotropic halfplane. Rev. Mech.
Appl., 7 (1962) 3.
21. AKOZ, A. Y. and TAUCHERT, T. R., Plane deformation of an orthotropic elastic
semi-space subjected to distributed surface loads. J. Appl. Mech., 95 (1973)
1135-6.
22. SAHA, S., MUKHERJEE, S. and CHAO, C. c., Concentrated forces in semi-infinite
anisotropic media. J. Compo Mat., 6 (1972) 403-8.
23. OKUBO, H., Stress systems in an aelotropic rectangular plate. Z. Angew. Math.
Mech., 21 (1941) 383-4.
24. SEN, B., Note on two dimensional indentation problems of a non-isotropic
semi-infinite elastic medium. Z. Angew. Math. Phys., 5 (1954) 83-6.
25. CONWAY, H. D., The indentation of an orthotropic halfplane. Z. Angew. Math.
Phys., 6 (1955) 402-5.
26. SNEDDON, 1. N. (Ed.), Application of integral transforms in the theory of
elasticity, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1975.
284 A. P. S. Selvadurai and N. Moutafis

27. GLADWELL, G. M. L., Contact problems in the classical theory of elasticity,

Alphen aar den Rijn, Sijthoff and Noordhoff Int. Pub!., 1980.
28. SADOWSKY, M. A., Stress concentrations caused by multiple punches and
cracks. J. Appl. Mech., 23 (1956) 80-4.
29. STERNBERG, E. and KOlTER, W. T., The wedge under a concentrated couple: A
paradox in the two-dimensional theory of elasticity. J. Appl. Mech., 25 (1958)
575-81.
30. BENTHEM, J. P., On the stress distribution in anisotropic infinite wedges. Q.
ApRI. Math., 21 (1963) 189-98.
31. BOGY, D. B., Two edge-bonded elastic wedges of different materials and wedge
angles under surface tractions. J. Appl. Mech., 38 (1971) 377-86.
32. HARRINGTON,J. W. and TING, T. W., The existence and uniqueness of solutions
to certain wedge problems. J. Elasticity, 1 (1971) 65-81.
33. HETENYI, M., A method of solution ofthe elastic quarter-plane. J. Appl. Mech.,
27 (1960) 289-96.
34. SELVADURAI, A. P. S. and MOUTAFIS, N., Some generalized results for an
orthotropic elastic quarterplane. Appl. Sci. Res., 30 (1975) 433-52.
35. MOUTftiFIS, N., Problems in orthotropic elasticity, Ph.D. Thesis, The University
of Aston in Birmingham, 1975.
36. MUSKHELISHVILI, N. I., Some basic problems in the mathematical theory of
elasticity, (3rd edn). English Trans!. Radok, J. R. M. (ed.), Groningen,
Noordhoff, 1953.
 19
The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy
Laminate

H. F. BRINSON, D. H. MORRIS, W. I. GRIFFITHI* AND D. DILLARDt

Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA

ABSTRACT

An accelerated characterization method for resin matrix composites is

reviewed. Methods for determining compliance master curves are given.
Creep rupture analytical models are discussed as applied to polymer-matrix
composites. Comparisons between creep and rupture experiments and
phenomenological models are presented.

INTRODUCTION

Matrix dominated moduli and strength properties of polymer based

composite laminates are time dependent or viscoelastic and are sensitive to
environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity. Because of
this fact, the long-term integrity of a composite structural component is an
important consideration in the initial design process. Therefore, how
viscoelastic matrix dominated modulus (compliance) and strength
properties vary with time over the design life time is a necessary input to the
initial design process. As many structural components are designed for
years of service, property variations over years are often needed. Obviously,
long-term testing equivalent to the lifetime of a structure is impractical and
undesirable. The alternative is to develop analytical and experimental
methods which can be successfully used for extrapolation.
* Now associated with Michelin Corp., Greenville, South Carolina, USA.
t Now Assistant Professor, University of Missouri, Rolla, USA.
285
286 H. F. Brinson et al.

An accelerated characterization procedure to satisfy the above goal for

composite laminates has been proposed by Brinston et al. I The objective, to
be described herein, is to discuss the accelerated characterization procedure
and to provide documentation for its implementation using nonlinear
viscoelastic procedures for the representation of lamina compliances and
strengths.

ACCELERATED CHARACTERIZATION PLAN

The accelerated characterization procedure which was developed for

polymer based composite laminates several years ago is based upon the well
known time-temperature superposition principle (TTSP) for polymers and
the widely used lamination theory for composite materials. A block
diagram illustrating the basic details of the plan is shown in Fig. 1. The
generic idea was to develop a method by which the time dependent
deterioration of laminate moduli (compliances) and strength could be
calculated from the results of a minimum number of tests. Hopefully, the
amount of testing would only be minimally greater than that required for
normal quality control and/or basic property determination procedures. 2
Advanced composite laminates are most frequently designed using
lamination theory. This theory allows the calculation of the properties of a
general laminate from the knowledge of the behavior of a single lamina or
ply. The stress-strain properties of a single ply may be found from constant
strain-rate tests on unidirectional laminates and are normally routinely
obtained when a general laminate is made. Thus, our accelerated
characterization plan assumes that lamina stress-strain properties from
zero load to failure are known as indicated by item A of Fig. I.
The transformation equation for the moduli of orthotropic materials has
been shown to be valid for unidirectional laminates. I ,3 Also, various
orthotropic failure theories have been shown to be valid for unidirectional
laminates. 4 Therefore, from item A modulus and strength properties as a
function of fiber angle are known as indicated in items Band C.
Before time dependent properties of a general laminate can be predicted,
the time dependent behavior of a single ply is necessary. For this reason, the
constant strain-rate behavior known from routine tests as given in items A,
Band C was known to be insufficient for viscoelastic predictions. Further,
to perform long-term creep or relaxation tests to determine the necessary
lifetime information would be impractical and would not satisfy the
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 287

TESTS TO DETERMINE
LAMINA PROPERTIES
EI,E2,Vl2,GI2
ITI )" 0"2 )" <:12 ),
A

TESTS TO DETERMINE
Ego· OR E2 MASTER
CURVE aSHIFT FUNC-
TION VS. TEMPERATURE
0
PREDICTED LAMINA PREDICTED LAMINA
MODUWS VS. FIBER STRENGTH VS. FIBER
ANGLE (from Trans- ANGLE (from Failure

B
formation Equations)[18]
.. THEORy)05]

ESTABLISH ED SH I FT
FUNCTION RELATION-
SHIP WITH FIBER ANGLE
AND TEMPERATURE FOR
I~OMPOSITE (in WLF Sense)

MODULUS MASTER
CURVE FOR ARBITRARY
TEMPERATURE AND
I l STRENGTH MASTER
CURVE FOR ARBITRARY
TEMPERATURE AND
FIBER ANGLE FIBER ANGLE
F G
INCREMENTAL LAMINA-
TION THEORY BASED ON
MASTER CURVES USED
TO PREDICT LONG-TERM
H LAMINATE RESPONSE

LONG TERM LAMINATE

TESTS TO VERIFY LONG-
TERM PREDICTIONS
I

FIG. 1. Flow chart for proposed laminate accelerated characterization and failure
predictions procedures.

objective of making long-term predictions from a minimum number of tests

conducted in a short time.
The fundamental concept employed to overcome the above obstacle was
to use the well known TTSP principle to produce a modulus (compliance)
master curve for a single fiber orientation as typified by item D of Fig. I. To
do so would require the conduction of short-term creep tests on a
unidirectional laminate at various temperatures. These could likely be
performed in a single day. The hope was held that either an Arrhenius or
WLF type equation could be modified to predict the variation of shift
function with fiber angle for a single lamina without further testing as
represented by item E. If such could be done, then the results of D and E
288 H. F. Brinson et al.

combined with the information of A and B could produce the modulus

(compliance) master curves of item F by simple scaling procedures without
additional testing.
Of course a knowledge of time dependent strength properties was
needed. Such properties often require large amounts of testing over a
prolonged period of time. In our opinion, manufacturers would be
reluctant to include an extensive testing program for routine quality control
and property determination procedures. We therefore attempted to avoid
an extensive creep rupture testing program. A means to do so was found
quite simply by making the assumption that strength master curves were of
the same shape as modulus (compliance) master curves for any particular
fiber angle. From this assumption the lamina strength master curves as a
function of fiber angle and temperature of item G could be determined from
items C and F again by simple scaling procedures.
Given the master curves of F and G, an incremental lamination theory
was to be developed to predict the long-term modulus and strength
properties of a general laminate. The results were to be compared with
experiments as specified by item I.
Our initial efforts were based upon concepts oflinear viscoelasticity and a
traditional TTSP procedure coupled with an incremental lamination
theory. Various aspects of the plan have been documented and reported
elsewhere. 1 ,3,5,6 However, comparisons between creep rupture predictions
and measurements for [± 45]4s and [90/ ± 60/90lz s laminates were not very
successful. 7 The use of a linear viscoelasticity method to model failure as
well as the lack of a reliable anisotropic failure criteria was thought to be
responsible for discrepancies between predictions and measurements. Our
recent efforts center around modifications to the plan of Fig. I to include
nonlinear viscoelastic concepts and the development of a better time
dependent failure criteria:

TIME-TEMPERATURE-STRESS SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

(TTSSP)

In essence, the time-temperature-stress superposItIon principle is a

simultaneous application of the well known TTSP and an analogous time-
stress superposition principle (TSSP). In the former, an increase in
temperature is assumed to accelerate a sequence of deformation events and
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 289

in the latter an increase in stress is assumed to accelerate a sequence of

deformation events. Mechanisms, of course, are assumed to remain
unchanged in both cases. The combined TTSS P was first used by Daugste 7
to predict the nonlinear viscoelastic behavior of a 45 0 glass reinforced
unidirectional composite.
A distinct advantage ofthis approach is that the effects of moisture can be
studied through an analogous time-temperature-stress-moisture super-
position principle. 8
For illustrative purposes hypothetical transient creep compliance versus

0
~r------------------' ~ r -T-:-T- - - - - - < 1 ' - 4 - - - - ,
1
Z <1': <1'1
r <t SIMILAR CURVES r <t SIMILAR
t5 ~ FOR 0"2, <1'3 , <1'4 Z::::i CURVE FOR <1'3
V5 ~ T2, T3, T4 ...

~~ ~~;
lJ..J ~TI
ZO
<tU
1l::Q.
r t::l
~<1'2
-::::::--- <1'1
Il::
u'----------~
LOG TIME
5'-----------.
LOG TIME
...
(0) (C)
lJ..J lJ..J T4
U U
Z Z

/b;;
r~ r<t
Z...J z::::i
lJ..JQ. lJ..JQ.
-::!:

i~
Ul O
~U
1l::Q.
rlJ..J
lJ..J
Il::
U'--_ _ _ _ _ _--' U L--_ _ _ _ _--'

LOG (TIME x aT) LOG (TIMEx 0<1')

(b) (d)
~r---------.
Z UNIFIED CURVE
~~ REDUCED TO <1'1
lJ..JQ.
V;::!:
ZO
<tU
1l::Q.
rlJ..J
lJ..J

5'-------------'
LOG (TIME x x aT 00" )

(e)

FIG. 2. Schematic diagram to illustrate the time-stress-temperature superposition principle.

290 H. F. Brinson et 01.

log time is shown in Fig. 2 for several stress and temperature levels. The data
from Fig. 2(a) for each temperature level may be shifted to obtain the (11
master curve shown in Fig. 2(b) using the TTSP. Similarly, master curves
may be formed for stress levels (12' (13 and (14. An outcome of this procedure
will be the temperature shift factor, log aT' and its corresponding stress
dependence. The data from Fig. 2(c) for each stress level may be shifted to
obtain the T 1 master curve shown in Fig. 2(d) using the TSSP. Similarly,
master curves may be formed for temperature levels of T 2' T 3 and T 4. This
procedure will yield the stress shift factor, log au, and its associated
temperature dependence. The master curves in Fig. 2(b) or the master
curves in Fig. 2(d) may now be shifted to obtain the unified master curve for
a stress (11' and a temperature T l' as shown in Fig. 2(e). This unified master
curve can now be shifted to determine a unified master curve for any
temperature and/or stress level within the range of data.

EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED TTSSP MASTER

CURVES

S22 and SI00 master curves for the creep compliances were produced by the
method described in the previous section. The individual SI00 creep
compliance curves for 290 OF (143 0c), 320 OF (160 0c), 350 OF (177 0c) and
380 OF (193°C) are given in Figs 3-6, respectively. The resulting master
curve is shown in Fig. 7 and the associated temperature and stress
dependent shift function surface is shown in Fig. 8. Also shown in Fig. 7 is a
comparison between our SI00 master curve and the results of a long-term
creep test in excess of 150 hours. It appears that at extremely long times the
master curves may tend to over predict the compliance. The reason for this
may be due to additional curing or more likely some other form of aging of
the material. Nevertheless, the agreement between predictions and
experiment is reasonable. More details about postcuring and aging may be
found in references 9 and 10.
An S66 master curve was generated using the orthotropic transformation
equation modified to incorporate time dependence. 9 Further, the S22 and
S66 stress dependent master curves were used in conjunction with the

transformation equation to predict the long-term compliance of [30 °]85 and

[60°]85 specimens at 320°F (160°C). Predictions for the [60°]85 laminate is
compared with long-term test results in Fig. 9. Agreement is seen to be fair
to good.
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 291
II

, 0
a..
CJ)
1.5 ~
~

~
0
'"'0
1.0
"0 ,,'28.5 kSI o
o
~ (195 MPo) 1.4
en en
95
w w
u '" 23.8 kSI u
z (167 MPo) z
~ ~
.90 ,,'190ksl 1.3 ....J
....J
a.. (131 MPo) a..
~ ~
~
"'143kSI
0 ;:= = o
'"
u (99 MPo) u
.85
:=~::::=::::=::::=~~~==~""~== 9 5 kSI
"-.,,'4.8 kSI (65 MPo) 12
(33MPo)
.80
0.5 2 4 7 10 16

TIME ON A LOG SCALE (min)

FIG. 3. S,o compliance at 290 of (143°C) as a function of stress level for T300/934 graphite/
epoxy laminate.

,,'28.5 kSI (195

MPo) 15
II

,,'238 kSI
o
(167 MPo)
o 10 o
o Q
en Cfl
,,'190kol 14
w (131 MPo) w
u u
z ,,'143 kSI
z
~ ~
(99 MPo) :J
....J
a..
~ 0.9 ,,'9.5 kSI ~
o ~~~(65MPO) o
u
:::::::::::=--=-----_ """~4~.';8 ~
~
kSI
(33MPo)
u

1.2

0.8 L -_ _ _ _ _---''--_----'_ _----'_ _----'_ _' - - - - ' - _ - - ' -_ _ ~

0.5 I 2 4 7 10 16
TIME ON A LOG SCALE (min)

FIG. 4. S,o· compliance at 320°F (l60°C) as a function of stress level for T300/934
graphite/epoxy laminate.
292 H. F. Brinson et at.

fT: 23.8 kSi

(167 MPo) T
-;- 14 c
20 Q.
en ~
-'"
13 on
1 '0
0 1.8
12 fT: 19.0 ksi 0
0
0 (131 MPo) 0
en en
II 1.6
w fT: 14.3 ksi w
U (99 MPo) U
z Z
<X fT :9.5 ksi <X
::i 10
~(65MPO) ::i
Q.
~ ~7kSI(33MPO) 1.4 Q.
::z;
0 0
U 09 U

1.2
08
0.5 I 2 4 7 10 16
TIME ON A LOG SCALE (min)

FIG. 5. SIO' compliance at 350 OF (177°C) as a function of stress level for T300/934
graphite/epoxy laminate.

2.2 3.2
T
c
-;- Q.
en 2.0 ~
-'"
2.8 'f'
""b 0
1.8
0
0 0
0
en 2.4 en
1.6 w
w u
u
z Z
<X
<X
...J 1.4 2.0 ::i
Q. Q.
::z; ::z;
0 0
u 1.2
U

1.6
1.0 L-_ _ _ _ _. l - _ - - 1_ _-L_ _.L-_.l-....I.._...L-_---l
0.5 2 4 7 10 16
TIME ON A LOG SCALE (min)

FIG. 6. SIO° compliance at 380°F (193°C) as a function of stress level for T300/934
graphite/epoxy laminate.
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 293

14
2.00
0
0..
U ;::;:
.-
.,
<II
.:J<
175 'I'
Q
1.2
2
0
" 2
(f)
2 1.1 (f)

LL.I
1.50 U
w Z
U 1.0
Z - S,o. MASTER CURVE <I
<I ...J
::; o LONG TERM TEST 0..
0..
09
;::;:
::;; 0
0 12 5 u
u
0.8
0 2 3 4

LOG TI ME (minutes)

FIG. 7. Comparison of SIO" master curve for T300/934 graphite/epoxy laminate with a long-
term test at 320 °F (160 °C) and (J = 19500 psi.

STRESS, ksi (MPo)

0"0' 4 .8 (33)
0", ' 9 .5 (65)
CT2 "4. 3 (99)
0"3 ' 19 .0 (131)
0". '23.8 (167)
0"5'285 (195)

RELATIVE STRESS

FIG. 8. Shift surface for combined shift factor, aT., for S,o ' for T300/934 graphite/epoxy
laminate.
294 H. F. Brinson et al.

;-
0

en
1.1 o [SOO]a.LONG -TERM AT 320°F (ISOOC) c
Q..
-'" ~
- PREDICTION USING S22. S66 MASTER CURVES 150
If' 10 <D
0 (,
"0 "00
0 0.9 <D
<D
CIl 125 CIl

UJ 0.8 UJ
u U
Z Z
<l <l
::i 0.7 ::i
100 Q..
Q..
~ 0 ~
0 0
U O.S u

75
0.5
-I o I 2 3 4
LOG TIME (min)

FIG. 9. Comparison of predicted and measured S60" compliance at 320°F (160°C).

DELAYED FAILURE MODEL

Most creep rupture criteria for homogeneous isotropic materials are based
on a linearly decreasing logarithm of the time to rupture with increasing
stress. This form, as exemplified by the Zhurkov, Larson and Miller, and
Dorn methods, is given by
log tr = A - BO" (1)
where tr is the time to rupture for a constant creep load of 0" and A and Bare
material constants for a given temperature.! 1 Landel and Fedors 12 have
noted that in some circles, the form
log tr = A - B log 0" (2)
is viewed more favorably. Because of data scatter and the small range of
stresses involved with our creep rupture data, however, the preference for
one form over another becomes academic and eqn. (1) provides an adequate
representation for the present analysis.
Experimentally, the creep stress level is the independent variable and the
time to rupture at that stress level is the dependent variable. For the
analysis, however, it is convenient to rearrange eqn. (1) to express the creep
rupture strength, O"r' as a function of the time to rupture
O"r = (A -log tr)/B (3)
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 295

Of the numerous orthotropic static failure theories available,4 the Tsai-

Hill criteria was chosen for the current analysis. If the Tsai-Hill criteria is
modified to account for time dependent creep rupture strengths, the
following form results 13
(Ji (J1(J2 (J~ Ti2_ 1 (4)
[X(tr)]2 - [X(tr)F + [Y(tr)F + [S(tr)]2 -

Here, time independent strengths have been replaced by creep rupture

strengths which result in failure at t = t r. X(tr) represents the creep rupture
strength for a uniaxial creep load parallel to the fiber direction. For the
current material the assumption was made that delayed failures do not
occur for 0 ° specimens and that X(tr) = x. Y(tr) represents the functional
relation with time of the creep rupture strength for a uniaxial creep load
perpendicular to the fiber direction. S(tr) is a similar shear creep rupture
strength. Theoretically, S( t r) can be determined from uniaxial creep rupture
of off-axis specimens and prior knowledge of X and Y( tJ Such a procedure,
though straight forward, proved unsatisfactory for the available data. As a
result, the shear creep rupture strength was assumed to be of the form
(5)
Thus, all that must be determined from the data is the value of the
proportionality constant, rJ., as the functional form of S(tr) has been
established a priori. There is no rigorous justification to assume that the
shear strength is proportional to the 90 ° strength, but this appears to be
quite reasonable from an intuitive standpoint. Primarily, this procedure
reduces the degrees of freedom to a more manageable level.

EXPERIMENTAL CREEP RUPTURE RESULTS

Griffith 14 obtained creep rupture data for 90 0, 60 0, and 45 ° off-axis

specimens at several temperatures. His data for 320°F (160°C) has been
replotted with the results for the three orientations and best fit lines have
been drawn through the data points. The results are given in Fig. 10 and
generally conform to the analytical model given by eqn. (3). The points
denoted as 'Postcured 60 off-axis' were obtained during the present work to
determine the effect of postcuring on creep rupture. While the magnitude
remained about the same, there did seem to be a smaller decrease in the
creep rupture strength with increasing rupture time. Because of the
considerable data scatter, however, it is not known if this observation is
296 H. F. Brinson el al.

50
7
---------~--~ ---6,
6 o ---p-,-_
--.- •
40

5 0
OFF- AXIS UNIDIRECTIONAL Cl.
'iii CREEP RUPTURE AT 320°F(l60"C ) 30 :::i:
x
4
(J') <Jl
(J') - 0 9 0 0 OFF-AXIS (J')
W 3 20 w
Q: ---0 60° OFF-AXIS Q:
I- I-
(J') ----6 45 0 Off- AXIS (J')
2
• POSTCUREO 60° OfF- AXIS
10

0 0
0 2 3 4
LOG RUPTURE TIME (min)
FIG. 10. Creep rupture of off-axis unidirectional specimens at 320 °F (160 °C).

justified. These postcured data points were not used for the best fit lines.
Assuming that the creep rupture strengths may be represented by eqn.
(3), determination of the slope and intercept for each best fit line in Fig. 10
allows the determination of the constants A and B. Thus the 90 °data of Fig.
10 yields an appropriate expression for Y(t r ) in eqn. (4).
To determine the appropriate value of a in eqn . (5), the unidirectional
creep rupture data of Griffith 14 was again employed. A specific rupture
time, t, was selected within the range of the available data. Values of the
creep rupture strengths for this particular rupture time were taken as the
intercept values of the tr = t line and the best fit lines. These represent the
values of creep stress, for the 90 °,60 °, and 45 ° specimens, which would
result in rupture at time i. The 60 °and 45 °creep rupture strengths may be
normalized with respect to the 90 °value at that particular rupture time and
temperature.
These normalized creep rupture strengths have been plotted in Fig. 11 for
several times and temperatures. Superimposed upon this data are
normalized parametric curves representing the modified Tsai-Hill-
Zhurkov predictions for various values of a. It should be noted that these
curves will shift slightly depending on the ratio of the 90 °strength to the 0 °
strength. For our material, this ratio is always very small, and this effect is
completely negligible.
The data points shown in Fig. 11 indicate the change in the normalized
strengths at a particular orientation with respect to temperature. The
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 297

0-
0
en
b 1.4
"-
CD 0100 min 290°F
o
~

I min} 3200F
b o 100min
6100min 350°F
•
en
en IOmin 380°F
W
a:: - TSAI Hill FAlL-
I- 1.2 URE CURVES
en
w
a::
:::l
-.J
~
lJ...

0
w 1.0
N
-.J
«
::E
a::
0
z DATA BASED ON BEST FIT LINES
0.8

e
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

(ang Ie 10 degrees)

FIG. II. Normalized creep rupture versus fiber angle with parametric Tsai-Hill curves.

tendency of the strengths at a particular time and temperature to fall along

a line of constant r:t. indicates the appropriateness of the Tsai-Hill-Zhurkov
criteria. A tendency for the points at different rupture times to fall along the
same curve indicates the accuracy of the assumption that the time
dependent shear strength is a constant proportion of the 90 0 strength.
Presentation of information in this form provides a concise yet complete
interpretation of the data. The results for the case of interest, 320 of,
indicate that the 45 °and 60 °creep rupture strengths for tr = I and tr = 100
minutes are closely clustered around an r:t. = 0·65 curve. For this reason, the
formulation S(t r ) = 0·65Y(tr) has been used for the failure model of eqn. (4)
in the preceding section.

PREDICTION OF LAMINATE CREEP RUPTURES

The results of the compliance master curve formulations and the Tsai-Hill-
Zhurkov failure criteria have been incorporated into a nonlinearly
viscoelastic incremental lamination theory as specified by item F of Fig. 1.
298 H. F. Brinson et al.

10 r-------------------------------------,
60

o
a.
40 ~
V> V>
V> CREEP RUPTURE WITH PREDICTIONS V>
w w
I!:V> 4
[90/60/-60/90]21 AT 320 0 F(1600C) a::
l-
V>
- PROGRAM FAILURE PREDICTIONS
20

o ~----~----~----~----~------~----~O
-I 0 I 2 3 4 5
LOG RUPTURE TIME (min)

FIG. 12. Creep rupture data with predictions for T300/934 graphite/epoxy laminate.

Details of this analysis may be found in reference 13 and are being reported
elsewhere. 15 Comparison between predictions of the analysis and creep
rupture test results for a [90/60/ - 60/90hs laminate is shown in Fig. 12. As
may be observed, reasonable correlation between prediction and
experiment was obtained for short times but the model tends to be quite
conservative for long times. Correlation for other laminates showed similar
trends. 13

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A description of an accelerated characterization procedure for time

dependent compliances and strengths of a viscoelastic composite laminate
has been presented. A time-temperature-stress superposition principle has
been described and applied to a T300/934 graphite/epoxy laminate. A
modified time dependent Tsai-Hill-Zhurkov type failure theory has been
described and experimental verification has been given. Compliance master
curves and the time dependent failure criteria have been incorporated into
an incremental nonlinearly viscoelastic lamination theory. Laminate creep
rupture predictions have been compared to experimental test results.
 The Viscoelastic Response of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate 299

Obviously, additional refinements to our accelerated characterization

plan are needed. These might take the form of a better nonlinear
viscoelastic analytical model, a better time dependent failure criteria, use of
a finite element approach, etc. We do feel that viscoelastic failures in
polymer based composite materials are quite important and that eventually
a simple plan such as ours to predict long term failures will be needed.

ACKN OWLEDGEMENTS

The financial support provided for this work by NASA Grant NSG 2038
from the Materials and Physical Sciences Branch of NASA-Ames is
gratefully acknowledged. Further, sincere appreciation is extended to
Dr H. G. Nelspn of NASA-Ames for his encouragement and helpful
discussions.

REFERENCES

1. BRINSON, H. F., MORRIS, D. H. and YEOW, T. Y., A new experimental method

for the accelerated characterization and prediction of the failure of polymer-
based composite laminates, 6th International Conference for Experimental
Stress Analysis, Munich, West Germany, Sept. 1978. Also, VPI-E-78-3, Feb.
1978.
2. YEOW, Y. T. and BRINSON, H. F., A comparison of simple shear
characterization method for composite laminates, Composites (Jan. 1978),
49-55.
3. YEOW, Y. T., MORRIS, D. H. and BRINSON, H. F., The time-temperature
behavior of a unidirectional graphite/epoxy laminate, Composite materials:
Testing and design (5th Conference), STP 674, ASTM, Phil., 1979,263-81.
Also, VPI-E-78-4, Feb. 1978.
4. SANDHU, R. S., A survey of failure theories of isotropic and anisotropic
materials, Tech. Rep. AFFDL-TR-72-71, Air Force Flight Dynamics Lab.,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, USA.
5. MORRIS, D. H., BRINSON, H. F. and YEOW, Y. T., The viscoelastic behavior of
the principal compliance matrix of a unidirectional graphite/epoxy composite,
Polymer Composites, 1 No. I (Sept. 1980), 32-6. Also, VPI-E-79-9, Feb. 1979.
6. MORRIS, D. H., BRINSON, H. F., GRIFFITH, W. I. and YEOw, Y. T., The
viscoelastic behavior of a composite in a thermal environment, In: Severe
environments (Hasselman, D. P. H. and Heller, R. A. (eds), NY, Plenum Press,
1980, pp. 693-707. Also, VPI-E-79-40, Sept. 1979.
7. DAUGSTE, C. L., Joint application of time-temperature and time-stress
analogies to constructing unified curves, Polymer Mechanics, 10 No.3 (\ 974),
359-62.
300 H. F. Brinson et af.

8. CROSSMAN, F. W. and FLAGGS, D. L., LMSC-D33086, Lockheed Palo Alto

Research Laboratory, November 1978.
9. GRIFFITH, W. I., MORRIS, D. H. and BRINSON, H. F., The accelerated
characterization of viscoelastic com posi te materials, V PI -E-80-15, April 1980.
10. GRIFFITH, W. I., MORR'IS, D. H. and BRINSON, H. F., Accelerated
characterization of graphite/epoxy composites, Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Composite Materials, Palais des Congres, Paris,
Franctl, Aug. 25-30, 1980 (in press). Also, VPI-E-80-27, Sept. 1980.
II. CONWAY, J. B., Stress-rupture parameters: Origin calculation and use, NY,
Gordon and Breach, 1969.
12. LANDEL, R. F. and FEDORS, R. F., Rupture of amorphous unfilled polymers,
Fracture processes in polymeric solids, Rosen, B. (ed.), NY, Interscience
Publishers, 1964.
13. DILLARD, D. A., Creep and creep rupture of laminated graphite/epoxy
composites, Ph.D. Thesis, March 1981. Also, VPI-E-81-3.
14. GRIFFITH, W. I., The accelerated characterization of viscoelastic composite
materials, Ph.D. Thesis, May 1979. Also VPI-E-80-15, April 1980.
15. DILLARD, D. A., MORRIS, D. H. and BRINSON, H. F., Predicting viscoelastic
response and delayed failures in general laminated composites, 6th Conference
on Composite Materials Testing and Design, Phoenix, Arizona, USA, May
12-13, 1981.
 20

Viscoelastic Properties of Composite Materials

A. CARDON AND CL. HIEL

Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Department of Continuum Mechanics, Pleinlaan, 2, B-]050,
Brussels, Belgium

ABSTRACT

Complex modulus components of carbon-epoxy matrix laminated laminae,

are frequency dependent. This effect becomes more pronounced at higher
temperatures.
The dynamic elastic moduli and damping coefficients of laminates are
measured over afrequency of 0,] to 10 Hz and a temperature range of 25°C
to 200°C by means of a forced non-resonance method.
Corrections were introduced in order to eliminate the influence of the
stiffness effects of elements of the test column.
A combination of micro- and macro-mechanics methods, suggested by
Sims and Halpin, which requires the measurement of only one viscoelastic
property, was used.
The predicted results were compared with the experimental results.

1. Experimental results on carbon-epoxy laminates indicate that matrix

dominated laminae, such as angle plies, have a complex moduli frequency
function. At higher temperatures this frequency dependence becomes more
pronounced. The matrix in a composite material must not only organise the
stress transfer between fibers, but must present a good environmental
stability under normal service conditions.
Temperature is one of the most important environmental parameters
influencing the viscoelastic characterization of a composite matrix.
301
302 A. Cardon, ct. Hie!

In this research, the viscoelastic behaviour of a composite matrix is

studied over a frequency range from 0·1 to 10 Hz* and a temperature range
from 25°C to 200°C.
2. In order to apply classical continuum mechanics methods to
structural problems with composites, it is necessary to have some general
method of calculating the moduli of the constitutive equations of the
composite, starting from the mechanical properties of fibers and matrix,
and some information on the fiber density, the fiber distribution and the
fiber form.
A general method for predicting such moduli exactly would require a
very considerable amount of information about the details of the fiber
geometry, the fiber distribution, the fiber density, matrix homogeneity,
adhesion, etc.
Two simplified methods-boundary methods and modelling methods-
are generally proposed in order to develop some combining rules based on
a partial schematic description of the microstructure. Bounding methods
have the advantage that the calculated bounds are always valid, no matter
what the unknown part of the structural information may be, but also the
important disadvantage that this unknown (or inaccessible) information
has generally so much influence that the difference between the obtained
bounds may be very important.
Modelling methods start from a schematic construction of the
composite, with the disadvantage that an important gap can exist between
the model and the real composite, but with the advantage of a rapid
computational procedure for the estimation of the ply properties, like the
interpolation procedure proposed by Halpin and Tsai. 1
3. We start from the general relations:

(1)

(2)

E22 = Em E/l + ~1 Vf) + ~IEm(1- Vf) (3)

E/l - Vf) + ~IEm(1 + Vf/~I)

G - G G/l + ~2Vf) + ~2Gm(1- Vf)

(4)
12 - m G/1 - Vf) + ~2Gm(1 + Vf/~2)

* The available laboratory equipment could extend the frequency range to 100 Hz
but with different measuring devices. In a first stage we actually limit ourselves to
10Hz.
 Viscoelastic Properties of Composite Materials 303

where Ell = elastic modulus in the fiber direction (1), E22 = longitudinal
modulus in the transverse~direction.(2), G 12 = shear modulus in the 1-2
plane, V 12 = Poisson ratio, EI , Em = elastic moduli of fiber and matrix,
GI' Gm = shear moduli of fiber and matrix, vI' vm = Poisson's ratios of fiber
and matrix, VI = fiber volume fraction, ~ = is an empirical factor which
indicates the improvement of the material from its lower performance limit
(Reuss bound) to its upper performance limit (Voigt bound) and ~1' ~2 =
factors depending on fiber geometry, fiber distribution and loading
conditions.
If, in eqn (4), ~2 = 1, this relation reduces to an equation given by Hashin
and Rosen, 2 based on the analysis of the composite cylinder assemblage
model. A more detailed analysis of complex moduli of viscoelastic
composites was given by Hashin. 3.4 ~2 +- I in eqn (4) does not correspond
to a known model (Hashin, private communication, March, 1981), but this
is not a restriction on the applicability lof our starting equations.
4. We use a combination of macro- and micromechanics, an alternative
to the method suggested by Sims and Halpin. 5 This method requires the
measurement of only one viscoelastic characteristic function, E 22 (f, (J),
where f = frequency and (J = temperature. The data obtained on a
transverse specimen are used in order to calculate Fm(f, (J) and Gm(f, (J) by
means of the Halpin-Tsai equations.
This procedure is useful because of the following practical
considerations.
(a) The simple unidirectional composite is generally supplied by the
manufacturer in tape form.
(b) The effect of stress concentrations around the fibers is implicitly
taken into account.
(c) The connection between the mechanical properties of the resin in
the matrix and the resin in bulk form is not easy because of the
influence of chemical composition, curing procedure and
dimensions.

5. EXPERIMENTAL PROBLEMS

5.1. The samples we studied contain Hyfil-Torayca high strength, low loss
carbon fibers. They were produced in a compression moulded plate by Hyfil
Limited. 6 The fibers are continuous and uniaxially aligned in Shell R 7B-
resin. Cutting of the samples from the plates was done with a diamond saw.
304 A. Cardon, ct. Hie!
5.2. The measuring method was the forced non-resonance method. This
classical method in experimental viscoelasticity (see, for example,
Murayama 7) consists in the application of time harmonic stresses:
(J = (J 0 cos wt = (J 0 cos (2nft) (5)

Under steady state conditions the strain will alternate sinusoidally but
out of phase with the stress:
c = cocos(wt - b) (6)

The complex modulus, E, may be expressed as:

(7)

E1 is the storage modulus and E2 is the loss modulus.

Generally the measured data are:
E2
and tgb=- (8)
El
The instrumentation we used is commercially available from IMASS (see
Fig. I).
5.3. A transformation of the normal equipment gives us a direct output
connection to an HP-lOOO computer and a direct utilization of our data
analysis programs. This transformation permits us the possibility of
obtaining very rapidly a complete analysis of the different characteristic
functions of the sample.

FIG. 1.
 Viscoelastic Properties of Composite Materials 305

5.4. The equipment is generally used for the characterization of rubber-

like materials and for that purpose the compliance of the test column is
relatively low

(K=~"'5.106N!m ) (F= Ku)

Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of the various components

along the test column. The test specimen is only a part of the total chain and
the total measured stiffness, K m , is a combination of the stiffness of the
different elements and the sample.
It is easy to show that we have the following relationship:

(9)

Simple measurements give us the amount of:

I I I
~+~+-=A (10)
Kc, KC2 Kft
and eqn 9 gives us the correction formula.

Kft force transducer

Kcl connection 1

~ sample

KC2 connection 2

Ivdt-transducer
shaker

FIG. 2.
306 A. Cardon, ct. Hie/

~~________~~________~~~~.h

L
FIG.3.
5.5. A very current deformation mode is three-point bending (see Fig. 3).
Generally it is assumed that measurements in bending are inherently
accurate and easy to carry out on a simple standard apparatus. This is not
so and Bonnin et ai., 8 whose work was the basis of our experimental device,
give results accurate to I % but only with very sophisticated experimental
precautions.
The basic idea of the Bonnin apparatus is that the deflections, Ll, should
be small enough so that none of the conditions of eqn (8) is violated, i.e. so
that geometrical and physical linearity are preserved.
I PL 3
E= - - (11)
48 III
5.6. In three-point bending there is an additional shear deformation, as
pointed out by Timoshenko and Goodier. 9 As a consequence, the modulus
measured is only an apparent one and some shear correction is necessary.
Figure 4 shows the ratio of the normalized apparent modulus as a
function of span to thickness ratio for different values of E/G .

.S

I !==l==-=! 'I•
0.

~ ____ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _L -___ ~

W ~» •
FIG. 4.
20

10

(a)

o
!IO 100 l!1O 200

- ....0Cf0lll
• 'm
2O .t------.~

10

(b)

O ~------~--------~.-------~---r---------¥--r-~~~'~I
110

FIG. 5.
308 A. Cardon, Cl. Hiel

6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

6.1. A first series of experiments was made for Ell (/,fJ) with a [0]8
laminate, and E 22 (/, 8) with a [90]8 laminate. 1o
Using a spline function program, the surface E 22 (/, 8) was smoothed out
and the surface, E m (/, 8), was calculated by means of eqn (3).
A laminated plate analysis program was connected to predict E xx (/, 8),
flexural modulus for any general laminate, and Figs. 5(a) and (b) present the
results for f = I Hz and f = 10Hz on a matrix dominated lamina
[+45 -45 +45 -45]s.
A very good agreement is observed between predicted and experimental
results.
6.2. Another series of experiments was made on [90]8 laminate in
tension-compression for seven temperatures and twenty-eight frequencies.
The results obtained, after correction (see paragraph 5.4) give us the
values of El and E2 and, finally, a complete expression of the damping
characteristic, tg b, as a function of f and 8 (Fig. 6).
Figure 7 shows the sections f = cte in the temperature function.
6.3. For the same specimen, measurements of the damping characteris-
tic, tg b, obtained by the three-point bending method, are given in Fig. 8.
6.4. On comparing the results from the tension test (Fig. 7) with those
from the three-point bending test (Fig. 8), some discrepancies appear. It

FIG. 6.
 Viscoelastic Properties of Composite Materials 309

tg 0

.s

.3

0.0
------~ ... -- -
o o
(J
o
<:> <:0
N "7

FIG. 7.

t go
. 50~ ____________ ~ ____________ ~ ____________ ~

.25~ ____________ +-____________+-______ ~~~

0. 0~L-------------~~L-------------~~~~----------~~~---(J

~ ~ S
N ~ N

FIG. 8.
310 A. Cardon, C/. Hiel

'J •

. 50~------------~---------------r--------~~--'

. 25 ~-------------+---------------r----~--------i

is)
is)
is)
--- is)
is)
is)
IS)

is) rsi is) ISl

C\J t' C\J t'

FIG. 9.

must be observed that the tension test was entirely in tension oscillation
between two levels, and in the three-point bending test there is a change
from tension to compression. The composites do not behave in the same
way in tension and compression. In order to investigate this, we also carried
out a full compression test, the results being given in Fig. 9.
Actually we try to explain the combined interpretation of the results of
Figs. 7 and 9 in order to explain the results given in Fig. 8.

7. CONCLUSIONS

A prediction method for the viscoelastic behaviour of composite materials

has been presented. It is based on a forced non-resonance micromechanics
method. The experimental results and comparison with predictions show
good agreement and we can conclude that this method is very usefuL
Extension to more complex laminates has also been studied.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research is partially sponsored by the Belgian National Science

Foundation (N.F.W.O.-F.K.F.O.).
The collaboration ofF. Boulpaep (technical work), A. Vrijdag (Figures
and photographs) and M. Bourlau (typing) is greatly appreciated.
 Viscoelastic Properties of Composite Materials 311

REFERENCES

1. ASHTON, J. E., HALPIN, J. C. and PETIT, P. H., Primer on composite material,

Technomic, 1969. (Chapter 5, p. 77).
2. HASHIN, Z. and ROSEN, B. W., The elastic moduli of fiber reinforced materials,
Journal of Appl. Mechs., 31 (1964) 223.
3. HASHIN, Z., Complex moduli of viscoelastic composites-I, Int. J. Solids &
Structures, 6 (1970) 539-52.
4. HASHIN, Z., Complex moduli of viscoelastic composites-II, Int. J. Solids &
Structures, 6 (1970) 797-807.
5. SIMS, D. F. and HALPIN, J. c., Methods for Determining the Elastic and
Viscoelastic Response of Composite Materials: Testing and Design (3rd
Conference), ASTM-STP 546.
6. HYFIL LIMITED, Technical Data Sheets on Hyfil-Torayca Carbon Fiber.
7. MURAYAMA, T., Dynamic mechanical analysis ofpolymeric materials, Elsevier,
1978.
8. BONNIN et al., A comparison of torsional and flexural deformations in plastics,
Plast. Polym., 37 (1969) 517.
9. TIMOSHENKO, S. and GOODIER, J., Theory of elasticity (2nd edn.), New York,
McGraw-Hill,1959.
10. CARDON, A. and HIEL, CL., Forced non-resonance methodfor the determination
of viscoelastic behaviour of composite materials. Paper presented to
International Symposium on the Mechanical Behaviour of Structural Media,
Ottawa, Canada, 18-21 May, 1981.
 21
Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Postbuckling
Studies on Composite Plates
ARTHUR w. LEISSA

Department of Engineering Mechanics, The Ohio State University,

Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA

ABSTRACT

Advances in the understanding of vibration and buckling behavior of

laminated plates made offilamentary composite material are summarized in
this survey paper. Depending upon the number of laminae and their
orientation, vibration and buckling analyses of composite plates may be
treated with: (1) orthotropic theory, (2) anisotropic theory, or (3) more
complicated, general theory involving coupling between bending and
stretching of the plate. The emphasis of the present overview is upon the last.
Special consideration is given to the complicating effects of inplane initial
stresses, large amplitude (nonlinear) transverse displacements, shear
deformation, rotary inertia, effects of surrounding media, inplane
nonhomogeneity and variable thickness. Nonclassical buckling considera-
tions such as initial imperfections are included, as well as post buckling
behavior.

1. INTRODUCTION

The term 'composite plate' has various meanings in the literature. It is

occasionally used in connection with plates having step-wise thickness
variation. It is often used also to denote layered plates, where each layer is
made of an isotropic material. 'Sandwich plate' typically is used to describe
a plate having a core material which separates two relatively thin face sheets
of higher modulus material.
312
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Postbuckling Studies on Composite Plates 313

In the present paper a 'composite plate' will be made up of layers (or

laminae), each lamina being composed of straight, parallel fibers (e.g.,
glass, boron, graphite) embedded in a matrix material (e.g., epoxy resin).
Each lamina can be considered as a homogeneous, orthotropic material
having a value of Young's modulus (E) considerably greater in the
longitudinal direction (EJ than in the transverse direction (ET)' Adjacent
laminae will have longitudinal axes generally not parallel. Cross-ply
laminated plates arise in the special case when the longitudinal axes of
adjacent laminae are perpendicular, whereas angle-ply laminates occur
when adjacent layers are alternately oriented at angles of + eand - ewith
respect to the coordinates of the plate.
The thicknesses and orientation of laminae will generally result in an
unsymmetric geometry with respect to the midplane of the plate, causing
coupling between bending and stretching. For tpe special case of symmetric
laminates the coupling vanishes, and the composite plate can be
represented by homogeneous, orthotropic or anisotropic plate theory.
Finally, in this short description it should also be noted that a plate is
considered perfectly flat. 'Curved plates', which are actually shells, will be
beyond the scope of the present paper.
Approximately 14 years ago the writer completed a monograph which
summarized the world literature dealing with free vibrations of plates. 1 The
literature search was quite thorough, resulting in approximately 500
references that appeared in 1965 being found and summarized; however,
none of them dealt specifically with composite plates. Although composite
plates were clearly in use at the time, it is clear that the best analyses
available treated them as orthotropic, homogeneous plates for purposes of
large-scale phenomena, such as vibrations and buckling.
The coupling between bending and stretching in general composite plates
had been observed experimentally and in application, and in 1961 Reissner
and Stavsky 2 published a paper based upon the latter's dissertation 3 which
provided the theoretical groundwork for the study of vibrations and
buckling of composite plates. But it was not until the end of that decade that
considerable further progress began. Since 1969 literally scores of
published papers have appeared dealing with vibrations and buckling of
composite plates, as well as excellent books by Ashton and Whitney 4 and
by Jones. 5 Many of these references have been described in the outstanding
literature surveys of Bert,6 - 9 by himself, and together with Francis. 1 0
The purpose of the present paper is to provide an overview of advances
made in the understanding of vibration and buckling of composite plates.
Because of the ability of plates to carry significant additional load beyond
314 Arthur W. Leissa

their buckling loads, special attention will also be devoted to postbuckling

behavior.
This overview is by no means intended to be complete. The writer is
currently in the early stages of a three-year research effort which will
culminate in a monograph providing a thorough summarization of current
knowledge on the subjects of buckling and post buckling of flat plates and
curved panels made of composite materials. That research will also result in
a comprehensive survey of the free vibrations of flat and curved composite
panels.

2. VIBRA TI ONS

As an aid in organizing the discussion of vibration problems arising with

composite plates, an outline similar to that of Ref. I will be followed. That
is, the discussion will begin with 'classical theory', and will subsequently be
supplemented by 'complicating effects' which may also arise. Only free,
undamped vibrations will be considered, and the principal concern is to
determine the frequencies (eigenvalues) and mode shapes (eigenfunctions)
of free vibration.

2.1 Classical Theory

For a composite plate the most simple theory is for the cross-ply,
symmetrically laminated, thin plate. In this case the differential equation of
transverse motion can be written as
84w 84w 84w 8 2w
D!! 8x4 + 2(D!2 + D 66 ) 8x28y2 + D22 8y4 + P 8t2 = 0 (I)

where the Dij are the customary bending stiffness coefficients involving the
elastic constants and thicknesses of the laminae (cf. Refs. 4-6), w is the
transverse displacement, a function of the x, y coordinates and of time (t),
and p is the mass density per unit of surface area of the entire plate. It is
observed that eqn. (I) has exactly the same form as for homogeneous,
orthotropic plates (cf. Ref. I, p. 250), and therefore all the numerous results
for the free vibration of classical orthotropic plates are applicable to this
type of composite plate. Reference I, for example, identified 21
publications dealing with the vibrations of orthotropic plates having
rectangular orthotropy which appeared up to the year 1965. But research in
this topic area increases at an increasing rate. For example, a more recent
survey!! identified 17 references published between 1973 and 1976.
A particularly useful piece of work in this area was presented by Bert,!2
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Postbuckling Studies on Composite Plates 315

who derived a formula for the approximate values of fundamental

frequency of orthotropic plates of arbitrary shape and boundary
conditions, if the frequencies of the corresponding isotropic plates are
known.
Symmetrically laminated angle-ply plates yield an equation of motion
more complicated than eqn. (1) by the addition of terms 4D 16 o4 wjox 3oy
and 4D 26 o4 wjox oy3 to its left-hand side. This is due to the coupling
between inplane stretching and shear that exists in each lamina when the
principal stresses (due to vibration, in this case) are not coincident with the
axes of orthotropy of the lamina. The resulting equation is now identical to
that of the classical, anisotropic plate. But the equation has no exact
solutions; its variables cannot be separated. Solutions can be found by
approximate methods such as Ritz-Galerkin, but they will be algebraically
quite complicated, generally requiring the use of digital computers. Indeed,
no solutions for generally anisotropic plate vibration problems were
available to be reported in Ref. 1.
However, the importance of composite materials has served to spur
anisotropic plate analysis. A particularly early and notable effort in this
direction was made by Ashton and Waddoups13 who demonstrated how
the Ritz method and vibrating beam eigenfunctions can be used to analyze
the vibrations of rectangular, anisotropic plates. Whitney l4,IS subse-
quently showed how a generalized Fourier series solution, which leads to an
infinite frequency determinant different than that of the Ritz approach, can
yield more rapidly convergent numerical results. This was demonstrated for
square plates having clamped 14 and simply supported t 5 boundaries.
Bert 16 derived a formula for the frequencies of a generally anisotropic
rectangular plate having arbitrary boundary conditions, provided the
frequencies of the corresponding rectangular isotropic plate are known. He
then used this result to derive an optimal design procedure to maximize the
fundamental frequencies of such plates. 16 ,17
Rajamani and Prabhakaran 18.19 investigated the effect of square cutouts
on the frequencies of square, anisotropic plates and presented extensive
numerical results for plates simply supported 18 and clamped 19 all around.
But unsymmetrical laminated composite plates introduce a more serious
complexity into the problem; namely, coupling between bending and
stretching. The resulting set of equations for a thin plate is of eighth order
(cf. Refs. 20 and 21), involving the tangential displacements u and v of the
plate, as well as w, and requiring four boundary conditions to be stated per
edge, instead of merely two. In this way the plate behaves like a shell, having
coupling between bending and stretching.
316 Arthur W. Leissa

Closed form, exact solutions for the free vibration frequencies and mode
shapes were presented in some relatively early works by Whitney and
Leissa 20 •21 for certain cases of rectangular composite plates having
antisymmetric layering and simply supported boundary conditions. Two
types of problems were found to yield closed form, exact solutions. One was
the antisymmetric, cross-ply plate having the boundary conditions
(2)
along all edges, where Mo is the normal bending moment, U t is the inplane
displacement tangent to the edge, and No is the normal inplane force (see
Fig. I). The simple displacement functions
u(x,y, t) = Amncos (J(mX sin fJnY sin wmnt
v(x,y, t) = Bmnsin (J(mxcos fJnYsin wmnt
w(x,y, t) = Cmnsin (J(mxsin fJnYsin wmnt (3)
were chosen, where A mn , Bmn and C mn are undetermined amplitude
coefficients, and Wmn is the circular natural frequency. Letting (J(m = mrr.ja
and fJn = nnj b, where m and n are integers, satisfies the boundary condition
equations, eqns. (2), exactly. Substituting eqns. (3) into the coupled
equations of motion yields a closed form expression for the frequencies.

FIG. 1. Rectangular composite plate. showing posItive directions of displacements,

moments and inplane forces.
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Post buckling Studies on Composite Plates 317

The analogy with vibrations of a shell is further reinforced by eqns. (2)

and (3). The former are the classical shear diaphragm boundary conditions
for a shell (cf. Ref. 22, p. 43), whereas the latter are the displacement forms
yielding exact solutions for the frequencies of closed, circular cylindrical
shells (cf. Ref. 22, p. 44) or of shallow shells having arbitrary curvature and
shear diaphragm supports along rectangular edges. 23
Other closed form, exact solutions for frequencies were presented in
Refs. 20 and 21 for unsymmetrically laminated angle-ply plates having the
boundary conditions.

W = Mn = un = N nt = 0 (4)
which also represents a simply supported edge, but having different inplane
constraints than those of eqns. (2).
But the most important contribution of Refs. 20 and 21 is that they
demonstrated clearly the decrease in natural frequencies, compared with
uncoupled orthotropic plate theory, due to the coupling between bending
and stretching. Frequencies of the order of 100 %too large can be predicted
by the orthotropic theory. Because the solutions presented were exact, no
questions of their accuracy or convergence can be raised. The results for
unsymmetrically laminated, simply supported, cross-ply plates were
subsequently further extended by Jones. 24
Still another extension was made by Lin and King 25 to show how exact
solutions can be obtained for classes of unsymmetrically laminated plates
having two opposite sides simply supported, with arbitrary edge conditions
on the other two sides. One assumes the following generalizations of
eqns. (3)
U(X,y, t) = Fmn(Y) cos IXmxsin w mn !
v(x,y, t) = Gmn(y) sin IXmxsin w mn !
w(x,y, t) = Hmn(Y) sin IXmxsin wmnt (5)
where F, G and H are functions of y arising from the solution of an eighth
order set of coupled ordinary differential equations. Again, the analogy to
solutions for circular cylindrical :>hells having two opposite sides supported
by shear diaphragms (cf. Ref. 21, p. 83) is evident. This generalization is also
analogous to Voigt's26 extension of the earlier Navier solution for simply
supported isotropic plates and is applicable to cross-ply plates. A similar
generalization is possible for angle-ply plates. Numerical results were
presented in Ref. 25 for plates having two opposite sides clamped or free.
For symmetrically laminated plates which, as described previously, can
318 Arthur W. Leissa

be represented as orthotropic or anisotropic homogeneous plates, thereby

permitting uncoupling of the flexural equations from the in plane stretching
equations, the classical types of boundary conditions (clamped, simply
supported or free) which can exist on each edge can yield a total of 21
independent problems for rectangular shapes. For unsymmetrically
laminated plates the number is far greater. Indeed, there exist 16 different
possibilities for each edge, of which eqns. (2) and (4) identify only two.
Approximate methods have been used to treat a few of these cases. The
important case of the rectangular plate having all sides clamped was
examined by a number of people using various theoretical and experimental
methods.25.27-29 The case of a plate resting freely upon simple supports
(N nt = 0, rather than U t = 0, in eqns.2) was analyzed by Whitney and
Leissa 30 using generalized Fourier series. Minich and Chamis 31 used a
finite element method to obtain frequencies and nodal patterns for
cantilevered plates.

2.2 Complicating Effects

I t has been seen previously that the 'classical theory' of composite plates
is already considerably more complicated than that of isotropic plates,
partly because the laminae are themselves orthotropic, and partly because
of additional elastic coupling that exists in each lamina and across the
laminae in typical situations. However, just as in the case of isotropic plates
(cf. Ref. 1), there exist several other effects which serve to complicate further
the analysis and understanding of plate vibrational behavior. These
include:
(a) inplane initial stresses
(b) large amplitude (nonlinear) transverse displacements
(c) shear deformation
(d) rotary inertia
(e) effects of surrounding media
(f) inplane nonhomogeneity
(g) variable thickness
From the lack of information available, it would appear that there is so far
no interest in variable thickness composites.
Initial inplane stresses are caused by static forces applied in the plane of
the plate. The forces may act along the edges of the plate or as body forces
arising internally due to gravitational, acceleration or thermal fields. In
general they cause internal stresses which vary in the plane of the plate (i.e.
as functions of x and y). These stresses are superimposed. Tensile stresses
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Post buckling Studies on Composite Plates 319

tend to increase the free vibration frequencies, compressive stresses to

decrease them, and shear stresses to decrease them to a lesser extent.
Generalization of the equations of motion to include the effects of initial
stresses is relatively easy, resulting in terms

(6)

being added to the right-hand side of the equation of motion for the
transverse displacement, w. Here N x, Ny and N xy are the initial stress
resultants (forces per unit length) and are shown in Fig. I. Closed form,
exact solutions were obtained by Whitney 15 and Jones 24 for symmetrically
and unsymmetrically laminated plates, respectively.
It is generally known for isotropic plates that the effect of significant
displacements (on the order of the plate thickness) serves to increase the
effective stiffness of the plate, thereby increasing the free vibration
frequencies as well. The resulting equations of motion are the dynamic
generalizations of those of von Karman,32 they exhibit coupling between
bending and stretching and, moreover, are nonlinear. The dominant
nonlinear terms are of the 'hard spring' type, thereby causing the stiffness
increase.
Generalizations of the dynamic von Karman equations to composite
plates of the most general (i.e. unsymmetrically laminated) type were
presented in the previously mentioned works by Whitney and Leissa. 20 .21
The first known solutions to the nonlinear, coupled equations were
obtained by Bennett 33 for angle-ply, rectangular, composite plates having
simply supported edges restrained against inplane displacement. He
showed that the bending-stretching coupling does not directly enter the
nonlinear term in the frequency equation; rather, the coupling appears only
in the linear terms, thereby affecting the nonlinearity only indirectly. A
more simple, approximate solution was subsequently obtained. 34
Other results for the nonlinear vibrations of composite plates have been
obtained by various researchers. Mayberry and Bert 35 conducted an
experimental investigation on unsymmetrically laminated cross-ply and
angle-ply plates having all edges clamped. Attempts were also made 35 .36 to
obtain satisfactory theoretical solutions to correlate with the experimental
data. Chandra and Basava Raju 37 used the Galerkin method to make a
study of angle-ply laminated plates. Numerical results were given for plates
simply supported or clamped all around, having movable or immovable
edges. Their work was extended further to cross-ply plates having the same
320 Arthur W. Leissa

boundary condition 38 and to ones having two opposite sides simply

supported and the others clamped. 39 Chia and Prabhakara 40 showed that
modal coupling in the solutions for large amplitude vibrations is more
important for composite plates than for isotropic ones. Numerical results
were presented for simply supported and clamped plates having movable
edges.
The effects of shear deformation and rotary inertia both become
significant for plates which are relatively thick compared with their in plane
dimensions. For example, for isotropic plates classical theory is typically
employed for ratios of thickness to minimum plate dimension of 1/20 or
less. The addition of rotary inertia to the translational inertia, and the shear
flexibility to the bending flexibility, both serve to decrease the frequencies of
the plate.
Considerable research has taken place to develop theories suitable for
moderately thick composite plates, including the effects of shear
deformation and rotary inertia. Because of their complexity, discussion of
these theories and the assumption made will not be considered in the
present paper.
An early application of thick plate theory to the vibrations of composite
plates was made by Whitney and Pagan0 41 for the case of simply supported
boundaries. Although the inclusion of shear deformation raises the
differential order of the set of governing equations of motion to ten, an
exact solution for simply supported edge conditions is still possible for
antisymmetrical cross-ply and angle-ply plates by generalizations of
eqns. (3) for the assumed displacements. Numerical results were obtained
for the fundamental frequencies of anti symmetrical angle-ply (± 45°)
plates made of four layers, each having the modulus ratio EL/ET = 40. It
was seen that the effect of shear deformation can be considerably greater in
a laminated plate than in homogeneous, isotropic plates.
Noor 42 also considered simply supported cross-ply plates having
symmetric or antisymmetric lamination. He found the effect of rotary
inertia to be relatively insignificant, compared with the shear flexibility. Siu
and Bert 43 made an interesting study of the forced, damped response of
completely free rectangular plates and, in the process, used the Ritz method
to obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes for parallel-ply plates
having various angles of fiber orientation. Numerical results were
compared with the experimental ones obtained earlier by Clary,44 and good
agreement was found. Other early work on vibrations of thick laminated
plates was reported by Srinivas and Rao. 45 .46 Bert and Chen 47 presented
results for simply supported plates having anti symmetric, angle-ply layups.
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Postbuckling Studies on Composite Plates 321

Results from a study using various thick plate theories were recently given
by Hirashima. 48
A finite element analysis of the vibration of thick, composite plates was
undertaken by Mau et al. 49 using a hybrid stress element. Numerical
comparison was made for the thin, two-layered, clamped, cross-ply plate
studied earlier by Whitney.29 A large number of degrees of freedom was
used (405), but the finite element results did not converge monotonically,
nor in good agreement.
Applications of finite elements to thick, composite plates were recently
made by Reddy. 50- 52 In Ref. 50 a rectangular finite element was developed
having 40 degrees of freedom. Extensive numerical results were obtained
for simply supported, anti symmetrically layered, angle-ply plates and were
compared with the continuous function solutions of Ref. 47. In Ref. 51 a
finite element based upon penalty functions was developed and also applied
to the problems of Ref. 47, as well as those of Ref. 41. Further results using
this element were reported in Ref. 52.
The inclusion of bimodulus effects (different elastic properties,
depending upon whether the strain in the fiber direction is tensile or
compressive) into a thick, laminated plate theory was made by Reddy53 for
application to vibration problems. Subsequent generalization of the finite
element method to include these effects was then carried out. 54
The combined effects of large amplitude (nonlinear) displacements and
shear deformation and rotary inertia were studied in an early paper by Wu
and Vinson. 55 Reddy and Chao 56 also developed a finite element method
including all these effects, and applied it to a series of vibration problems for
symmetrically laminated, cross-ply and angle-ply plates having simply
supported and clamped edges.
For the free vibration problem, coupling with the surrounding media can
enter in at least two ways: (I) an elastic foundation and/or (2) a
surrounding fluid. Traditionally, the former is treated as linear, elastic
coupling, while the latter coupling enters because of the mass of the fluid
being moved during vibratory motion. For thin, homogeneous, isotropic
plates the accommodation necessary in the analysis to include the elastic
foundation stiffness is a minor one (cf. Ref. I, p. 1). However, for composite
plates the change is more significant, because of the presence of additional
cross-inertia terms. Theoretical analyses are based upon vibration in a
vacuum, and applications and experiments generally take place in air (or,
worse yet, a liquid such as water). The effects of the surrounding fluid are to
decrease the frequencies, and these effects can be significant, especially for
thin plates of less dense material (cf. Ref. I, pp. 299-306). It appears that
322 Arthur W. Leissa

neither the effects of elastic foundations nor of surrounding fluids have yet
been considered for composite plates.
Finally, "the author cannot resist pointing out the optimization of
vibration frequencies (and of buckling loads) which may be possible by
arranging fibers in a nonuniform manner in the laminae, yielding plates
which are nonhomogeneous in their planar (x and y) directions, as well as in
the z direction. The resulting problem is one of designing the material to
provide the desired optimization. Such a procedure has been shown by
Leissa and Vagins 57 . 58 to be possible for optimization of stresses by
suitable spacewise variation in material properties.

3. BUCKLING

The subject of buckling is a complicated one. Indeed, even for the relatively
simple isotropic plate a definition of what is meant by the word is not an
easy one to make. Other words and phrases such as 'instability', 'collapse'
and 'limit load' mayor may not have the same meaning, depending on the
particular problem being studied. The writer is currently preparing a
general monograph on the buckling of plates, and it seems that the subject
can be divided into three parts with reasonable clarity:
(a) classical buckling analysis
(b) classical complicating effects
(c) nonclassical phenomena

Classical buckling is described by the path I-III shown in Fig. 2. There the
inplane load (indicated as P) is plotted versus the transverse (w)
displacement of a typical point on the plate. Assuming that the load acts
perfectly in the midplane of the plate, its application causes no transverse
displacement and, under conditions of perfect symmetry, the load could be
increased to the compressive failure point of the material as shown by the
path I-II in Fig. 2. But above a certain critical load (Per) this path is
unstable. At P = Per a bifurcation point exists. That is, the load-
displacement curve IV can also be followed, which is a stable one. At or
slightly above the load Per the slightest disturbance will result in a transverse
displacement. The classical linear analysis, which is a generalization of the
Euler buckling analysis for columns, would indicate that, at P = Per' w
increases without bound (curve III). In actuality, nonlinear effects enter the
problem and, after a finite initial displacement, P increases with further w,
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Postbuckling Studies on Composite Plates 323

ill

w
FIG. 2. Load-displacement curves for classical buckling and post buckling, with (V) and
without (IV) initial imperfection.

and the plate is able to carry loads greater than P cr in this postbuckling
condition (curve IV).
The complicating effects in classical plate buckling analysis are some of
those already mentioned earlier in connection with vibration analysis; viz.,
shear deformation, elastic foundations, nonhomogeneity and variable
thickness. Nonclassical buckling involves considerations such as imperfec-
tions, inelastic material behavior, dynamic (including parametric) load
excitation and follower forces (P not remaining directed in the original
plane of the plate).

3.1 Classical Buckling Analysis

The classical buckling analysis of laminated composite plates has an
order of difficulty the same as discussed previously for vibration problems,
depending upon the arrangement of laminae. That is, depending upon the
relative angular orientations of the laminae and their stacking sequence,
theoretical solutions are required for differential equations of equilibrium
which, in increasing order of complexity, can be represented by
(a) uncoupled orthotropic plate theory
(b) uncoupled anisotropic plate theory
(c) coupled theory, involving both bending and stretching.
324 Arthur W. Leissa

Thus, for example, eqn. (1) for the vibrations of cross-ply, symmetrically
laminated, thin plates would be replaced by

for the classical buckling analysis. A mathematical eigenvalue problem

then results from requiring the solution for w to satisfy eqn. (7) and the
boundary conditions, where the eigenvalues are the nondimensional
critical load parameters. Or the solution can be found from the somewhat
more complicated free vibration problem including inplane forces, by
determining at what values of force the frequencies become zero.
Some progress has been made in determining critical loads for composite
plates, although the availability of results is still quite small when compared
with those for isotropic, homogeneous plates. The year 1969 marks the
beginning of a large rate of progress in composite plate buckling analysis. In
that year the closed form, exact solutions for antisymmetric cross-ply and
angle-ply plates having simply supported rectangular boundaries were
presented by Whitney and Leissa,21 based upon the former's dissertation. 20
Whi tney 59 also solved the problem for unsymmetrically laminated, cross-
ply plates loaded in shear. Simultaneously, Ashton and Waddoupsl3
showed the results of applying the Ritz method for rectangular plates
loaded in biaxial compression and shear and compared the theoretical
results with experimental ones obtained by Ashton and Love. 60.61 Another
important contribution in 1969 was made by Chamis 62 who used the
Galerkin method to analyze orthotropic laminates of rectangular shape
having their axes of orthotropy not parallel to the plate edges. The
equilibrium equation then takes the more general anisotropic form.
Numerical results were obtained for simply supported edges subjected to
various combinations of constant inplane loads, and compared with
experiment.
Prior to this time Sarkisyan and Movsisyan 63 had proposed a
perturbation method for the buckling analysis of generally anisotropic
plates having simply supported edges. Theoretical and experimental results
for buckling were also obtained as a small part of a major research effort 64
devoted to carbon composite materials.
Immediately after 1969 considerable further results from buckling
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Post buckling Studies on Composite Plates 325

studies on composite plates were presented by Whitney, together with

Leissa,30 and by himself. 14,15,65,66 - These additional results were both
symmetricallyI4,15,66 and'unsymmetrically3o,65 laminated plates having
various combinations of edge conditions and loadings, In these and the
earlier investigations 2o ,21 the decrease in effective stiffness in the problems
involving coupling between bending and stretching was clearly seen, The
buckling load for a small number of antisymmetrically oriented laminae is
significantly decreased due to strong coupling,
Extensive experimental results were obtained by Kicher and Mandel 67 ,68
for simply supported plates subjected to uniformly distributed compressive
load in one direction, and compared with existing theory. Experimental
results were also presented by Viswanathan et ai, 69, 70 for symmetrically
and unsymmetrically laminated plates having their loaded opposite edges
clamped and the others either free or simply supported. Jones 24 showed
that the effects of unsymmetric laminating can be more severe in reducing
the buckling load than exist for the antisymmetric case. Housner and
Stein 71 made parametric studies and gave extensive numerical results for
orthotropic representations of simply supported and clamped composite
plates loaded axially and in shear. Their work showed the relative buckling
efficiency of composite plates over those made of aluminium. Rotational
elastic edge constraints were also treated. 71 Chailleux et al. 72 used the
Southwell plot static method, and a procedure based upon change in free
vibration frequencies, to determine experimental critical loads of
composite plates made of boron or glass fibers in an epoxy or aluminium
matrix. Results were given for two opposite sides simply supported and the
others clamped or simply supported. Additional theoretical results for
inplane normal and shear critical loads for simply supported plates were
presented by Sawyer. 73
Optimization studies based upon buckling criteria for composite panels
were undertaken by several researchers. Chao et al. 74 developed a
procedure for optimizing the orientation angle of simply supported, angle-
ply, symmetrically laminated plates so as to maximize the critical load.
Hayashi 75 and Bert 17 performed similar analyses. The problem was also
investigated by Schmit and Farshi. 76 Tsai 77 proved the following theorem:
'A laminated plate has a stable natural state even though its constituent
laminae do not have any stable natural state.'
A number of publications treat the buckling of stiffened pla-
tes. 69 ,70,78-82 Both analytical and test results for critical loads were
determined. Because of the complexity of the geometrical description
required, no further comments will be made here about this work.
326 Arthur W. Leissa

3.2 Complicating Effects and Nonclassical Phenomena

The etTect of transverse shear deformation on buckling loads was
investigated relatively early by Whitney 83 for symmetrically laminated
plates tractable by orthotropic plate theory, for the case of simply
supported edges. This case, along with three others having two opposite
sides simply supported, was also studied by Vinson and Smith. 84 They also
showed that shear deformation can be significant, not only in altering the
magnitudes of the buckling loads, but in changing their mode shapes.
Turvey 85 demonstrated how the reduced stitTness concept may be used with
shear deformation theory to deal with unsymmetrically laminated plates.
Extensive numerical results were presented for simply supported plates.
One buckling analysis for variable thickness composite plates is known.
Ashton 86 obtained results for linearly tapered plates subjected to uniaxial
loading.
Nonlinear stress-strain relationships were recently incorporated into
buckling analysis by Morgan and Jones. 87 Numerical results were obtained
for simply supported plates of symmetric or unsymmetric cross-ply
layering. It was found that the buckling loads so determined were
significantly less than the elastic buckling loads for boron-aluminium
composites, although the etTect for boron-epoxy and graphite-epoxy
composites was nearly insignificant. Furthermore, the nonlinear stress-
strain behavior was seen to accentuate the coupling etTects.
Hygrothermal etTects due to moisture ditTusion and heating on one or
both surfaces of composite plates were analyzed in a recent study by Flaggs
and Vinson. 88 An elevated hygrothermal environment serves to decrease
the critical loads. A theory was formulated which accounts for
hygrothermal etTects, transverse shear deformation, normal deformation
and bending-stretching coupling. Parametric studies were performed for a
symmetrically laminated graphite-epoxy plate having either simply
supported or clamped boundary conditions.
Initial imperfections can be caused by, for example, a very slight
variation from flatness, material imperfections or load eccentricity. In such
cases buckling cannot be established by a distinct bifurcation point at the
critical load. Rather, a representative load-displacement curve followed
may be like that designated as V in Fig. 2. A recent analysis by Bauld and
Satyamurthy 89 can be applied to such problems. The etTect of initial
imperfections was also considered by MetTert et al.,90 for both short
duration and long duration (creep buckling) situations. Stroud et al. 91
made studies of the etTects of initial curvature as an imperfection upon the
buckling characteristics of stitTened composite panels.
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Post buckling Studies on Composite Plates 327

4. POSTBUCKLING

The post buckling behavior of plates has already been partially de-
monstrated by the load-displacement curves shown in Fig. 2. There curve
IV is seen to characterize the behavior according to classical theory after the
bifurcation point at the critical load (Pcr) is reached, whereas curve V
shows how the presence of imperfections eliminates the clearly defined
bifurcation point. In either case it is well known for a classical, isotropic
plate that loads considerably greater than P cr can typically be applied
before the plate collapses. The additional loading is generally assumed to
occur in the elastic stress-strain range of the material, and is due to
stretching of the middle surface of the plate, a nonlinear phenomenon. In
addition to the load versus transverse displacement plot illustrated by
Fig. 2, another very useful plot is that of 'load-shortening' where, for
example, the axial load (or stress) is plotted versus axial displacement (or
strain). These curves are typically linear (i.e. constant slope) to the
birfurcation point (P cr)' where a marked decrease in the slope occurs.
Some rather extensive, early studies 64 .92 - 96 of post buckling behavior of
laminated composite plates took place a decade ago. A finite element
analysis capable of dealing with the geometrical nonlinearities present was
developed by Schmit and Monforton. 92 ,93 Load-displacement curves were
plotted for uniaxially loaded, simply supported plates having cross-ply,
symmetric layering (graphite-epoxy) and angle-ply, anti symmetric layer-
ing (boron-epoxy) and compared with experiment,92 showing good
agreement. Islam 95 and Nara 96 developed an analysis using the Ritz
method and compared theoretical results for simply supported plates with
experiment. Symmetric cross-ply and angle-ply specimens of glass-epoxy
were used.
Turvey and Wittrick 97 ,98 made a postbuckling study of both
symmetrically and unsymmetrically laminated plates. For the unsymmetric
case it was found that, although coupling between bending and stretching
caused the (now) well-known decrease in buckling load, the slope of the
load-shortening curves in the post buckling range was the same as for a
symmetric layup, indicating no difference in post buckling stiffness. A
subsequent analysis by Harris 99 for different boundary conditions showed
that the stiffness change after buckling was mainly due to a change in the
mode shape of deformation. Chandra 100 found that the post buckling load-
displacement curves of simply supported, cross-ply square plates were only
slightly affected by bending-stretching coupling, but that for rectangular
plates of aspect ratio (alb) of 2, considerable difference could be seen.
328 Arthur W. Leissa

Chi a and Prabhakara 101 presented extensive results for the postbuckling
behavior of clamped and simply supported, unsymmetrical, angle-ply
plates and clamped, unsymmetrical, cross-ply plates using a series
approach. Another solution procedure for cross-ply plates was also
proposed, I 02 utilizing beam functions to represent the inplane effects.
Noor et al. 103 examined the symmetries of deformation possible in
postbuckling analysis, with the aid of reducing the computational size of
the problem where possible. They also developed a finite element method of
analysis based upon nonlinear, von Karman plate theory, including the
effects of shear deformation. The method was used to produce load-
displacement and load-shortening curves for various biaxially loaded
square plates. The load-shortening curves showed very large decrease in
axial stiffness after buckling.
The post buckling behavior of a square, symmetrically laminated
composite plate having an internal square cutout was studied by Ter-
Emmanuil'yan. l04 Uniaxial load was distributed along two opposite,
hinged edges, the other two edges being free.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The vibration, buckling and post buckling behavior of composite plates is a

very complicated subject. All the complexities for classical, isotropic,
homogeneous plates are present, but further complicated by the
complexities of laminate description and bending-stretching coupling
phenomena. Yet, the efficiency of composites for high performance design
applications is being more widely demonstrated, and thus the need for
accurate theoretical and experimental information becomes increasingly
important.
The rational analysis of laminated composite plates is still a relatively
new subject, having only begun in earnest little over a decade ago. Although
some noteworthy progress has been made, it is still very small in
comparison with what has been done with ordinary plates, where on the
order of 2000 references dealing with vibration, buckling and post buckling
are available.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was performed with the support of the Aeronautical Systems
Division of the US Air Force, Wright Patterson Air Force Base under
contract F33615-81-K-3203.
 Advances in Vibration, Buckling and Post buckling Studies on Composite Plates 329

The author wishes to thank Mr Chandru Kalro, Graduate Research

Associate, for his help in searching the literature and procuring
publications.

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 22
On the Use of the Effective Width Concept for
Composite Plates

1. RHODES
Senior Lecturer, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow Gi iXJ, Scotland
AND

I. H. MARSHALL

Lecturer, Paisley College of Technology,

Paisley P Ai 2BE, Scotland

ABSTRACT

An examination of the effective width of orthotropic plates in the post-local-

buckling range is presented. Three types of boundary conditions are
considered as those most suitablefor use in design, and results are givenfor
each type.
it is found that for any specified buckle half-wavelength there can be a
substantial degree ofdifference between the behaviour ofplates with different
properties. However, if infinite plates are examined then all the plates have
similar post-buckling behaviour. it is postulated, on this basis, that effective
width evaluated for isotropic plates can be used for the design analysis of
orthotropic plates.

NOTATION

A magnitude of local buckling deflection

buckle half-wavelength
plate width
plate flexural rigidity factor: Dii = Eiit3j12(l- V 12 V 21 )
twisting rigidity of plate about x and y axes given by D33 =
G 12 t 3j12
335
336 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

D3 defined as D3 = G 12 t 3 /6 + v 12 /D 22
E II ,E22 plate moduli of elasticity in x and y directions respectively
E* ratio of plate compressional stiffness after buckling to that
E before buckling
F stress function
G I2 elastic shear modulus in x-y plane
H defined as (l/G 12 - 2V I2 /E 11 )

K buckling coefficient, K = O"CR/1t2~11

b t
P end load on plate
plate thickness
x,Y co-ordinates
e average strain in direction of loading
membrane stresses in x and y directions and shear stress in
x-y plane respectively
Poisson's ratio in the x and y directions respectively
1] ratio of E22 to Ell
PCR' eCR ' O"CR values of P, 0" x and e at local buckling
FJ non-dimensional forms of P and e defined as
- Pb
P=-2--
1t D11

INTRODUCTION

The behaviour of thin-walled structural members is well-known to be highly

influenced by local buckling and its effect on member strength and stiffness.
Because of the high strength to stiffness ratios obtainable from the use of
composite materials thin-walled members of such materials are particularly
prone to local buckling, and a great deal of research has been carried out
into the buckling and post-buckling behaviour of composite plates and
shells.
The mechanics of local buckling of orthotropic plates is well-known, 1,2
and a number of analyses of particular post-buckling problems have been
obtained. 3 - 6
While detailed and rigorous analysis of particular problems is invaluable
and necessary to the understanding of the subject, it is also very important
that simplified analytical methods be available to the designer enabling him
to design plates in the post-buckling range with confidence. In the case of
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 337

metal structures there are various design codes in use, 7.8 which permit
evaluation of plate behaviour at loads far beyond buckling using the
concept of 'effective width' or similar such devices.
A number of researchers in the past have obtained effective width curves
for particular orthotropic plates. It is a worthwhile goal, however, in the
authors' opinion, to attempt to obtain generally applicable formulae
suitable, perhaps with modifications, for all plates. This is the aim of this
paper.
There are two quite distinct aspects of plate behaviour which require
investigation in the post-buckling range; (a) strength, and (b) stiffness. The
necessity for examining the strength aspect is obvious. The stiffness aspect is
also of great importance because (I) deflection limitations often govern
design, (2) in multiredundant structures strength is often greatly affected by
the stiffness of individual members, and (3) a wide variety of column and
beam column type structures can fail elastically, often dynamically due to
the sudden loss of stiffness caused by local buckling.
The investigation presented here is confined to the examination of the
stiffness aspect of post-buckling behaviour. While for metal plate elements
the same effective widths for strength and stiffness are often used in design,
it is recognised that the strength aspect is more complex in the case of
composite materials, and that such approximations can not be justified
without extreme caution.
The most important requirements for generally applicable effective width
formulae are that they should be simple to use, have a reasonable degree of
accuracy and be conservative and applicable even under the most adverse
conditions which they could reasonably be expected to deal with. It is also
important that the range of applicability be large if possible and any
restrictions be specified.
There are three main types of plate boundary conditions examined in
design, and these will be investigated in this paper. These are, with reference
to Fig. I:
(a) Simply supported plates, uniformly compressed in one direction,
with the unloaded edges kept straight due to the presence of a self-
equilibrating normal stress system, Fig. I(a).
(b) Simply supported plates, uniformly compressed as in (a), but with
the unloaded edges free from normal and shear stresses, Fig. I(b).
(c) Uniformly compressed plates which have one unloaded edge simply
supported and the other edge free to deflect, Fig. I(c).
In all cases the loaded edges are assumed to be simply supported.
338 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

EDGES KEPT STRA IGHT EDGES FREE TO WAVE I N PLANE

(0) (bl (c)

SIMPLY SUPPORTED 51 MPL Y SUPPORTED SIM PLY SUPPORTED
PLATE WITH UNLOADED PLATE WITH UNLOADED FREE PLATE
EDGES KEPT STRAIGHT EDGES STRESS - FREE

FIG. 1. Plate types investigated.

In this paper the investigation will be limited to the examination of

specially orthotropic plates which have flexural and membrane stiffnesses
defined as in the notation.

GOVERNING PLATE EQUATIONS

For a specially orthotropic plate the strain energy of bending is given by the
expression 3

(I)

The strain energy of membrane actions is

+ _1_
G12
( aF)2 + _1_
2

ax ay
(a 2F)JdXdY
E22 ax2
(2)

where F is a stress function such that

a2 F
axay = -'x),
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 339

The membrane actions are related to the out-of plane deflections by the
compatibility equation
I o4F o4F 1 o4F (02W)2 02W0 2W
(3)
E22 OX 4 +H OX 20y2 + Ell oy4 = oxoy - ox 2 oy2
The general method of analysis is to postulate a deflected form w, obtain
a suitable stress function F, using eqn. (3), and henceforth evaluate the total
strain energy of the system and apply the Principle of Minimum Potential
Energy to furnish the required solution.

SIMPLY SUPPORTED PLATE WITH UNLOADED EDGES

RESTRAINED IN-PLANE

Consider the half-wavelength of the plate shown in Fig. I(a) loaded in

compression with uniform end displacement u causing an average strain e in
the direction of loading.
It is well-known that the deflected form at buckling is sinusoidal in the x
and y directions. Therefore if the buckled form is taken as
. rey . rex
w=Asm - .sm- (4)
b a
substitution into the compatibility equation, eqn. (3), and satisfaction of
the boundary conditions results in the following expressions for the
stresses:

' 2 -re y ]
(J
x
= E
11
[ -au - -4I (re)2
-
a
A 2sm
b (5)

(Jy = E22 [ 8"I (n)2 2rex]

b A 2 cos--;;- (6)

'xy =0 (7)
Using these expressions for deflections and stresses in the energy
equations, applying the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy and non-
dimensionalising gives the following results:

e-K
(8)
340 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

where K is the non-dimensional buckling coefficient, given by

K= (~)2 + 2 ~ + (~)2 rJ (9)

a Dll b
and e is the non-dimensional average strain defined in the notation.
- E*
P=K+Jf(e- K) (10)

where E* / E is the reduced stiffness in the post-buckling range and is given

by
E* 2
E~ 1-3H(~)'
(II)

The expression for K, eqn. (9), is known to be exact. The expression for
E* / Ewas derived by Benthem 9 for isotropic plates, in which case rJ = I, and
by Harris 4 for the more general case. From this equation it can be seen that
the maximum possible value for E* / E is unity and the minimum possible
value is t which occurs when (a/b) tends to zero regardless of the value of rJ.
For an unbuckled plate of width be (rather than b) the load required to
cause an average longitudinal strain e is
P = GlEbe (12)
or, in non-dimensional form

Pb eb 2 tEll . be
(13)
n 2Dll n 2Dll b
I.e.

(14)

Equating P from eqn. (10) with that from eqn. (14) and rearranging gives
the relevant expression for be

be=E*
bEE e
E*) K +(1- (15)

As e tends to infinity the ratio of effective width to full width tends to

E* / E with a minimum value of t.
While the results obtained from this
analysis are exact at the point of buckling and very accurate at loads not
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 341

greatly in excess of buckling (i.e. P- 2PCR) it is known that far into the post-
buckling range the effective width can be very much less than one-third of
the full width. To obtain accuracy at strains far beyond buckling the
effective width should tend to zero at very high strains. This arises because
of changes in the buckled form after buckling.
To perform a rigorous analysis at loads very far beyond buckling
becomes extremely laborious and to avoid the labour and complexity a
relatively simple analysis is used, as follows. It has been shown 1 0 that the
major factors affecting the behaviour far into the post-buckling range are
(1) a reduction in the natural half-wavelength of the buckle (if this is
possible), and (2) a flattening of the buckled form across the plate.
Reduction in buckle half-wavelength can be taken into account by
allowing the ratio (a/b) in eqn. (11) to vary. However, this equation cannot
describe the flattening across the plate. In order to describe this flattening
the deflected form indicated in Fig. 2 may be used. This was first postulated
by Cox 11 in an early analysis of isotropic plates and may be specified thus:
ab
for O<Y<T
. ny . nx

(I _a:) <
w= A Sill - Sill - (16)
ab a
and y<b

. nx
w=A Sill T (17)

Suitable stresses which satisfy the membrane boundary conditions and

overall equilibrium are

[-au- -4I (n)2 naby ]

(I _a:) < <
(J = E - A 2Sill
' 2 -
(18)
x 11 a
and y b

for ~ < < (I _a:)

y (19)

'xy =0 (20)

It is of note that the functions for w introduce moment discontinuity at

y = a(b/2). This was investigated by Koiter lO who found that it had little
effect on the solution.
342 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

FIG. 2. Assumed deflected form.

The stresses postulated do not satisfy the compatibility equation exactly

except in the case IX = I and therefore the solution resulting cannot be
termed a strict upper bound, although it is unlikely that the slight violation
of compatibility involved should lead to significant discrepancies.
Performing the analysis as before yields the modified equations

(~)2 = £(2 -IX)

31'/ (a)4J
- [(

t (1-V I2 V21 ) -;; (b)2 [6- 415 1X+ 41X2 b (21)

- [(2 - (b)2
K=
a
+ -2 -D3 + (a)2
IX) - -
b
D22 JI (2 -
IXDll
- 3-
IXDll
IX) (22)

E* (2 - 1X)2
- = I - - -""""'----'------,-...,...--:- (23)
E 4_ ~ IX + -.!L (~)4
2 21X2 b
Equations (10) and (15) should also be generalised by replacing K by K
For IX = 1 all equations reduce to those obtained previously.
Examination of eqn. (22) shows that for a given value of (a/ b) a reduction in
IX increases K Also from eqn. (23) it can be seen that as IX and (a/b)
tend
towards zero E* / E also tends toward zero.
An indication of the predictions of the approach is given in Fig. 3 which
compares the load-end shortening curves obtained using this method with
those of Chandra and Raju. 5 Results for three plates are shown: one
isotropic, one very stiff in the direction of loading and the third very stiff in
the direction perpendicular to loading. The properties used for the two
orthotropic plates were those of Ref. 7 which had greatest directionality.
The results are in good agreement. The buckle half-wavelength used here
was equal to the plate width, and it can be seen that for this set value of half-
wavelength the post-buckling stiffness is very highly dependent on the
degree of orthotropy, with stiffness increasing as E22/EII increases. This of
course can be seen from eqn. (23). However, the use of an arbitrary fixed
value of (a/b) can result in misleading information. For alb = I the
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 343

----- REF. 5
PRESENT ANALYS I S
CD E 22 = 13 . 736
Ell
G,e. : 0 '4 065
Ell
Vl2. = 0.021S4

CD ISOTROPIC PLATE

CD E2.2:
Ell
0 '0757

o L----"*2----"f-----!:6,.--------:!.e

FIG. 3. Load--end displacement curves for plates with al b = 1.

isotropic plate in Fig. 3 has its natural wavelength for minimum buckling
load, whereas plate 3 has a natural wavelength almost twice this value.
Furthermore plate I would naturally buckle into two waves in a square
plate, so that this plate would require physical constraint to induce buckling
into this wavelength.
For purposes of design it is desirable that the need to take wavelength
into account be eliminated and that any overestimation of stiffness due to
artifically fixed wavelength be avoided. Therefore it is advisable to be able to
evaluate the minimum load for any value of end displacement, i.e. the
minimum effective width. This can be done by allowing the buckle half-
wavelength to take its natural half-wavelength at buckling and thereafter to
change in the post-buckling range. This always results in a shortening of the
half-wavelength after buckling, and assumes that the plate is infinitely long
so that continuous change in the wavelength can occur.
At the point of initial buckling the natural buckle half-wavelength
can be obtained by differentiating eqn. (9) for K with respect to alb
and equating to zero, to obtain
a
(24)
b 11°'25
Substitution into eqns. (9) and (II) gives

K=2 [11 + D3 ] (25)

Dll
E*
(26)
E 2
344 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

It may be noted that these results are exact at buckling. The result for E* IE
indicates the important fact that when an orthotropic plate of this type
buckles into its natural half-wavelength then the compressional stiffness
reduces by half irrespective of the degree of orthotropy. Furthermore, if this
wavelength is maintained after buckling then the degree of orthotropy does
not affect the stiffness as the deflected form across the plate changes.
To permit evaluation of the minimum stiffness in the post-buckling range
the half-wavelength must be allowed to shorten after buckling to give the
minimum load for a given displacement. This can be done either by
numerical minimisation of eqn. (10) using eqns. (22) and (23), or graphically
by drawing curves for a variety of values of CJ. and alb and obtaining the
curve of minimum load from these. In this investigation a numerical
minimisation was used with the aid of a microcomputer.
Figure 4 shows the minimum load versus end displacement curves
obtained for a variety of orthotropic plates, using properties given in Ref. 5,
together with the curve obtained, applicable to all plates, for the half-
wavelength fixed at alb = '10,25.
Two main points are worthy of note: (1) shortening of the wavelength
after buckling has a substantial effect on stiffness, and (2) the degree of
orthotropy does not have a substantial effect even when the wavelength and

CONSTANT BUCKLE
HALF WAVE LENGTH
4 OF °/b = 'I ~ 0·25

3
£
PCR.
CD ,,=13'736 AND 13'~36
2 rv
\.!/
'\= 3 · 229 AND
1
3-219
o\.!.It
110= 1·975 ANO_l_
1. 975
o ISOTROPIC PLATE

FOR FULL SPECI FICATIONS OF ORTHOTROPIC PLATES SEE REF. 5

o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
EIEc ..

FIG. 4. Load-end displacement curves for infinite plates.

 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 345

cross-sectional buckle shape are allowed to vary far into the post-buckling
range.
It should be pointed out here that although the results of this
investigation are in agreement with those of Chandra and Raju 5 for plates
with fixed half-wavelengths, they are in strong disagreement with the results
of those authors for infinite plates. In Ref. 5 it is concluded that the degree
of orthotropy has a great deal of effect on the post-buckling behaviour of an
infinitely long plate. The equations given in that paper are lengthy, complex
and difficult to check. However, there are various points of considerable
uncertainty regarding the load-shortening graph presented; for example,
the plate which is consistently stiffest for any stated constant half-
wavelength is by far the most flexible if the wavelength is allowed to change.
This and other points of doubtful veracity cause the writers to disregard the
results of Ref. 5 pertaining to infinite plates.
A further point of note from Fig. 4 is that the curve obtained for the
isotropic plate forms a lower estimate of post-buckling stiffness for all
orthotropic plates shown. This is to some extent due to the fact that there is
slightly more resistance to change in wavelength of the orthotropic plates
after buckling. It can be shown that if D3/Dll < j;:, there will be a slight
reduction in the relative stiffness after buckling from the isotropic case. as

0·8

1 -SEE FIG.4

0'4

0·2 CURVES FOR PLATES CD AND CD LIE BETWEEN THE

TWO CURVES SHOWN

o 12 16
4 6 10 14

FIG. 5. Effective widths for infinite plates.

346 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

occurs in Fig. 4. Indeed the quantity (D3/D ll).j;, completely specifies the
variation in orthotropic curves from the isotropic case. Note that this value
is the same whether the plate is loaded in its direction of maximum or
minimum stiffness. This results in identical curves being obtained for the
same orthotropic plate loaded in either direction, as shown in Fig.4.
Figure 5 shows the variation in effective width with variation in f,fBcR'
indicating that the isotropic case gives a close lower estimate to the
orthotropic case.

SIMPLY SUPPORTED PLATE WITH UNLOADED EDGES FREE

TO WAVE IN-PLANE

In this case the buckling situation is identical to that for the previous case.
The post-buckling behaviour is slightly more difficult to analyse rigorously
and using rigorous analysis does not result in a simple expression for E* / E
as in the previous case. It is of note, however, that a lower bound to the
initial post-buckling stiffness can be obtained by omitting the term Yf(a/ b)4
from eqn. (II), which amounts to neglecting transverse and shearing
stresses, to obtain E* / E = t regardless of the degree of orthotropy. This is a
true lower bound at the instant of buckling.
A better approximation can be obtained by postulating a form for the
stress function which satisfies all boundary conditions, using Galerkin's
method to obtain approximate satisfaction of the compatibility equation
and henceforth using the Energy method to complete the solution.
A stress function which satisfies all boundary conditions is

F=Ell
2 a
(u
- y 2 - -A2
- (n)2)
8 a
- - A2 (b)2
+Ell
32
-
a
2ny
cos-
b
2nx. 2 -ny
+ C COS-Sill
a b
(27)
Applying the analysis as outlined gives the following results:
A2Ell
(28)

and

E*
(29)
E
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 347

ISOTROPIC PLATE 2
0' 6
- - - REF. 12
- PRESENT
GRP PLATE
0'5 REF. 3
.eP
CR

~. 1
E
~ SEE FIG.4
0'4

(}5 1·5 z 4
~
b

FIG. 6. Variation of E* jE with buckle half-wave- FIG. 7. Load-end displacement

length. curves for plates with stress-free
unloaded edges.

The accuracy of this equation in predicting the value of the initial post-
buckling reduction in stiffness is examined in Fig. 6. For the isotropic case
comparison is made with Rhodes' results of rigorous analysis l2 and a
maximum error of about 2 %is observed in this case. Agreement with the
rigorous analysis ofBanks 3 for the case of an orthotropic GRP plate is even
better as indicated in the figure . This inspires confidence in eqn. (29).
Setting alb = l /Yfo ·25 to obtain the minimum buckling load and
substituting into eqn. (29) results in the curves of PIPCR against e/ eCR as
shown in Fig. 7 in the initial post-buckling range. In this range the value of
E* I E is obtained from
E* 6+HJE 11 E 22
(30)
E 14+HJE 11 E 22
As can be observed from this equation and Fig. 7 there is a slight variation
in initial post-buckling behaviour for different plate properties. This is
influenced by the quantity HJE 11 E 22 . If this quantity is equal to 2, the
isotropic case results, regardless of the value of Yf. Variation in HJ EIIE22
does not have a great deal of effect; if this quantity is zero then
E*IE = 6/14 = 0,428, and if it is infinite then E*IE = 1/3. For the plates
examined a slight degree of relative loss in stiffness compared to the
isotropic plate may be observed. Although the analysis was not continued
into the far post-buckling range, it is evident that for the plates considered
this slight initial increase in E* I E wilI offset the slightly higher relative
stiffness at loads welI beyond buckling to make the isotropic and
orthotropic curves very close.
348 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

SIMPLY SUPPORTED FREE PLATE

For these plates it is known that neglect of shear stresses and transverse
stresses have very little effect on post-buckling stiffness. This was shown for
isotropic plates in Ref. 12 and the results confirmed for orthotropic plates in
Ref. 3.
Assuming the deflected form is approximated to by
y . nx
w=A -sm- (31)
b a
for the plate of Fig. l(c), and analysing as for the previous cases, in this
instance considering only the effects of (J x gives the results

K= (~)2 + l~ D33 (32)

a n Dll
E* 4
(33)
E 9
Therefore in this case the ratio of post-buckling stiffness to pre-buckling
stiffness does not depend on the degree of orthotropy. The buckling
coefficient reduces with increase in half-wavelength, tending to a value of
(12/n2)(D33/ D l l ). The deflections for such plates are very much larger than
for the other plates examined and it is known that the expression for post-
buckling stiffness extends, with accuracy, further than the other plates.
Therefore there is no need to carry out an analysis taking into account
change in the buckled form as in general the expression given will be
adequate until gross deflections become unacceptable.
It may also be mentioned that eqn. (33) gives a lower estimate for the
initial post-buckling stiffness of a plate with one free edge and the other
supported and fixed against rotation, either fully or partially. In such a case
the buckling coefficient corresponding to the condition under examination
should be used.

EFFECTS OF IMPERFECTIONS

The effects of imperfections on plate post-buckling behaviour are well

known in the case of isotropic plates. It is known that the maximum adverse
effects on plate strength and stiffness are obtained for a given imperfection
magnitude if the form of the imperfections is the same as the locally buckled
form of the plate.
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 349

Analysis of this type of imperfection using the methods of Refs . 13 or 14

can be carried out without untoward difficulty. Because of space restrictions
such an analysis is not included in this paper. However the results of an
investigation of this type indicate that while there is some degree of
dependency of imperfection effects on the orthotropy of a plate this is not
very substantial. To incorporate a generalised imperfection magnitude into
any design analysis requires, for accuracy, a knowledge of the typical
magnitudes encountered in practice. In the case of cold-formed steel plates,
Walker 14 derived a suitable magnitude of maximum imperfection which
applied to commercial products. Whether this value also applies to
composite plates is a matter for conjecture.

SUITABLE EFFECTIVE WIDTH CURVES FOR DESIGN USE

The effective width curves obtained for various types of plates are shown in
Fig. 8. Those for plates of the second type investigated have only been
drawn for uju CR < 6 since they were computed on the basis of unchanging
buckled form and wavelength and have reached their limit of reasonable
accuracy when uju CR has this value.

CD S.S. PLATES-UNLOADED EDGES STRAIGHT

0·8
CD S.S. PLATES - UNLOADED EOGES STRESS FREE

CD s.s~ FREE PLATES

0'6
be
b

0'4

- ----
0·2

o 2 4 6 10 12 14 16

FIG. 8. Comparison of effective widths. - - - (Koiter) be/b = 0·785 (eCR/e)'/~- ' -

(von Karman) be/b = J(eCR/e); ---- - (AISI) be/b = J(ecR/e)(1 - 0·22J(eCR/e».
350 J. Rhodes, I. H. Marshall

It may be observed that, as discussed previously, the differences between

plates of different orthotropy are not substantial if the minimum effective
width is plotted to a base of u/UCR where UCR is derived using orthotropic
theory. On this basis it may be suggested that effective width curves derived
for isotropic plates may also be applied within engineering accuracy to
orthotropic plates.
Three well-known isotropic plate curves of long standing are also shown
in Fig. 8. The curve due to Koiter was given as being accurate at strains far
beyond buckling, and it is noticeable that this curve becomes almost
coincident with that obtained for isotropic plates in this paper at high
strains. The curve due to von Karman was possibly the first theoretically
derived effective width curve. As the analysis involved completely neglected
the effects of bending, etc. in the ineffective part of the plate this curve
becomes somewhat conservative at high strains.
The AISI curve is an empirical modification of von Karman's curve,
taking initial imperfections into account, and has been used in the USA and
in a number of other countries for many years as a conservative estimate of
effective width for use in the design of metal plates. The indications of the
results of this paper are that the AISI effective width expression may also be
used with confidence as a conservative estimate of the stiffness after
buckling of orthotropic plates. There are other effective width expressions
which may be employed with a similar degree of confidence, and these may
well be worth investigation. However for the purposes of this paper the
AISI approach provides the required simplicity and conservatism to be
worthy of design use.
It should also be mentioned that Turvey and Wittrick 15 found that for
particular types oflaminated plates coupling behaviour, while affecting the
local buckling stresses, has little effect on post-buckling behaviour. In view
of this it may be that the results obtained here have a wider applicability
than has been investigated in this paper.

CONCLUSIONS

The stiffness after buckling of orthotropic plates with three different

boundary conditions commonly used in design has been investigated. It has
been found that the stiffnesses are in most cases highly dependent on degree
of orthotropy and buckle half-wavelength. However, if the post-buckling
behaviour of infinite plates is considered, in which case the minimum load
for any given strain is required in the post-buckling range, then the buckle
 On the Use of Effective Width Concept for Composite Plates 351

half-wavelength which naturally occurs is such that post-buckling stiffness

is virtually independent of the degree of orthotropy.
This is the condition which is of greatest importance to designers. In view
of this it is suggested that the effective width formulae produced in the past
for isotropic plates can be safely used to obtain suitable values, with
engineering accuracy, for use with orthotropic plates. It is important,
however, that the buckling coefficients used should be obtained from the
relevant orthotropic plate formulae.

REFERENCES

1. LEKHNITSKII, S. G., Anisotropic plates, Gordon and Breach, 1968.

2. WITTRICK, W. H., Correlation between some stability problems for orthotropic
and isotropic plates under bi-axial and uniaxial direct stress, Aero Quarterly, IV
(August, 1952) 83-92.
3. BANKS, W. M., 'A contribution to the geometrical nonlinear behaviour of
orthotropic plates', Ph.D. Thesis, University of Strathclyde, 1977.
4. HARRIS, G. Z., Instability of laminated composite plates, AGARD Conf Proc
No. 112, Paper 14, 1973.
5. CHANDRA, R. and RAJU, B. B., Post buckling analysis of rectangular
orthotropic plates, Int. J. Mech. Sci., 15 (1973) 81-97.
6. MARSHALL, I. H., The non-linear behaviour ofthin-initially curved orthotropic
plates', Ph.D. Thesis, University of Strathclyde, 1976.
7. B.S. 449: Addendum No. I (1975). Specification for the use of cold-formed steel
sections in building.
8. American Iron and Steel Institute: 'Specification for the design of cold-formed
steel structural members', 1968 Edition.
9. BENTHEM, J. P., The reduction in stiffness of combinations of rectangular plates
in compression after exceeding the buckling load', Nat Aero Research Inst.,
Amsterdam, NLL-TRS 539, 1959.
10. KOlTER, W. T., Introduction to the post-buckling behaviour of fiat plates,
Colloquium on the Post-Buckling Behaviour of Plates used in Metal
Structures, University of Liege, Belgium, 1963.
II. Cox, H. L., 'Buckling of thin-plates in compression' Aero Research Council
R&M No. 1554, 1934.
12. RHODES, J., The post-buckling behaviour of thin-walled beams', Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Strathclyde, 1969.
13. RHODES, J. and HARVEY, J. M., Examination of plate post-buckling behaviour,
J. Eng. Mech. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs, 103, EM3 (June, 1977),461-78.
14. WALKER, A. C, Post buckling behaviour of simply-supported square plates,
Aero. Quarterly, XX (August 1969) 203-22.
IS. TURVEY, G. J. and WITTRICK, W. H., The large deflection and post-buckling
behaviour of some laminated plates, Aero Quarterly, XXIV (1973) 77-86.
 23
Unsymmetrical Buckling of Laterally Loaded,
Thin, Initially Imperfect, Orthotropic Plates

I. H. MARSHALL

Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering,

Paisley College of Technology, High Street, Paisley PAl 2BE, Scotland

ABSTRACT

A theoretical analysis is presentedfor the phenomenon of unsymmetrical or

bifurcation buckling of thin, initially imperfect, orthotropic plates when
loaded laterally on the convex face. In the cases analysed herein,
unsymmetrical buckling is shown to be a function of the plate initial
geometry and to greatly reduce the effective load-carrying capacity of such
structural members when it occurs. For a range of plate geometries it is
shown that design criteria based on symmetrical buckling considerations can
be greatly in error.

NOTATION

all wll/h non-dimensional plate central deflection

aOll woll/h non-dimensional plate initial symmetrical deflection
component
a02 • wo2.1h non-dimensional plate initial unsymmetrical deflection
component
a, b plate length/breadth
Dl plate flexural rigidity in the major direction
D2 plate flexural rigidity in the minor direction
D3 plate twisting rigidity
Ex Young's modulus of elasticity for x direction
Ey Young's modulus of elasticity for y direction
352
 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 353

Airy stress function

modulus of rigidity
plate thickness
oa'mg- -q-
4
· . l id zb
non- d ImenSlOna pressure 4
Eyh
bending energy
load potential energy
mid-plane energy
total energy of the system
Cartesian coordinates
Ey _ 2v
G y

E .
- Y stI ffness ratIO
'
f3 Ex
plate aspect ratio = a/ b
Poisson's ratio with respect to the major direction
symmetrical plate deflection coefficient
unsymmetrical deflection coefficient

INTRODUCTION

When thin plates are loaded laterally, irrespective of the edge boundary
conditions or the form of lateral loading, stable equilibrium conditions will
prevail throughout the range of useful loading. If the maximum lateral
deflection is limited to approximately half the plate thickness a linear
relationship between load and lateral deflection can be reasonably
assumed, i.e. 'small deflection theory'. At larger magnitudes of lateral
deflection non-linear load/deflection tendencies become increasingly
apparent. These are directly attributable to the increasing significance of
membrane or mid-surface strains over the strains induced by flexural
effects, i.e. 'large deflection theory' must be employed. Such structural
members have been the subject of a vast number of previous theoretical and
experimental studies from which has resulted a wealth of useful design
information.
The presence of geometrical imperfections or 'imperfections in shape' in
plates has also received considerably attention in the past. 1.2.3.4 However,
by and large, previous investigations have been concerned with isotropic
material characteristics with the equivalent problem for orthotropic or
anisotropic material properties receiving comparatively little attention.
354 I. H. Marshall

Certain general characteristics are apparent in imperfect plate analysis,

irrespective of the particular material of construction. Iflateral deflections,
subsequent to applied loading, are of the same sense as the initially deflected
shape, i.e. the magnitude of the initial mode shape increases, a loss in plate
stiffness will generally result. In the case of in-plane compression the
imperfection or 'lack of flatness' induces a stable equilibrium configuration
thereby negating the possibility of buckling. A comprehensive study of the
effects of such imperfections in isotropic plates is contained in references 5,
6 and 7.
Also, when such plates are loaded laterally on the concave surface a
stable equilibrium state results. However, on loading on the convex face an
unstable equilibrium state may result depending on the plate initial
geometrical conditions, e.g. aspect ratio, thickness, form and magnitude of
imperfection. This phenomenon of snap-buckling is well understood and
has been extensively analysed for, amongst other structural members,
circular arches,8.9 imperfect plates 10 .11 and initially curves plates. 1Z . 13
These references are by no means complete and are cited purely as examples
of past work. Again, relatively speaking, previous investigations have
concentrated on isotropic material characteristics. Snap-buckling of
initially curved orthotropic plates has been the subject of a number of
theoretical and experimental investigations. 14.15.1 7
Again previous studies on the phenomenon of unsymmetrical or
bifurcation buckling have been largely confined to isotropic structural
members and in particular arch-type structures. In a previous paper the
parameters affecting the onset of unsymmetrical buckling of rectangular
planform reinforced plastic shells were investigated by the author. 18
Consequently in view of the increasing significance of reinforced plastics as
structural members, particularly as plate-type structural members, a study
of the effects of geometrical imperfections would seem appropriate. Bearing
in mind the inevitability of shape imperfections in a predominantly labour
intensive fabricating operation, their effects are clearly of significance in the
design of platework structures. Before going any further it may be
advantageous to consider, in a general sense, the phenomenon of snap-
buckling.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SNAP-BUCKLING EFFECT

The type of load-deflection relationship typical of curved plates, laterally
loaded on the convex face, is shown in Fig. 1. In this figure it is assumed that
the plate will deform symmetrically. The extent of the non-linearity of the
above relationship depends on a number of factors, viz. type of lateral
 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 355

o
~
.J

FIG. I. Typicalload-<ieflection relationship.

loading, edge boundary conditions, plate initial curvature, plate thiel.ness,

material properties, etc.
On incremental application of the load, the load-deflection curve
(equilibrium path) will follow the stable portion of the curve from 0 to B. At
point B (the critical point), any increase in load will cause the panel to snap-
buckle to point D. If the load is further increased, the panel stiffness will
increase as indicated.
On reduction of the load, the curve will again pass through point D but
this time it will continue to point C. Further reduction of the load will cause
a second snap from point C to point A.
Thus for any value of load in region PA::2: P::2: PB there will be three
possible values of equilibrium displacement. It should be noted that if
unsymmetrical behaviour occurs during the 'snapping' process it will have
the effect of causing bifurcation at (say) point E.

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
Governing Equations
The von Karman-type large deflection compatibility equation for the
case of an orthotropic plate with initial imperfections can be written as:
a4 F a4F a4F
ax4 + a axl ayl + f3 ay4

= Ey
[(axalway )1 - alw alw alwo alw
ax 2 . ay2 + 2 ax ay . ax ay

a2wo a 2w alwo alw] (1)

+ axl . ayl + ayl . ax2
356 I. H. Marshall

An equation similar to eqn (1) can be formed from equilibrium

considerations. However, as an alternative to solving the equilibrium
equation, the total energy of the system will be minimised according to the
Ritz technique. The total energy of the system comprises the energy of mid-
plane straining Us, the bending energy UB and the load potential energy Up.
Thus:
(2)
where

U =~2 fa fb [~ (a 2F)2 _ 22 (a 2F)(a

2
2F)
s o 0 E x
ay2 E x
ax ay2
-2-
+-I (a
G axay
F +- )2
1 (a- 2F)2J dxdy
2 Ey ax
(3)

UB
1 r
a b
=2JoJo r
[(a 2
Dl axw)2
2 + 2D 3 ( axay
2w)2J
a2w ) +D2 (aay2 dxdy (4)

Up = - f J; w. qzdxdy (5)

where d, e,f and g are the limits of integration and q z is the transverse load
on the plate per unit area.
The plate lateral deflection and membrane stresses can be stated as
general Fourier series of the form:

w(x,y) = II
m n
wmnm(x)n(y) (6)

F(x,y) = II FjJ(x)k(y) (7)

The plate edge boundary conditions will be considered as those

consistent with 'simple supports'. With reference to Fig.2 these can be
written as:
along x =O,a along y =0, b
Flexural bcs
w=O w=O
aw
2 aw
2 a2 w a2 w
ax2 + VY ay 2=0 ay2 +v x ax2 =0 (8)
 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 357

o~_~
I
I
I

~~
FIG. 2. Coordinate axes.

Membrane bcs
82 F 82 F
-=0 8x 2 =0
8y2
(9)
82 F 82 F
--=0 --=0
8x8y 8x8y
It will be noted that the boundary conditions of stress-free plate edges as
stated in eqn (9) will allow tangential edge displacements to occur.
Equation (8) can be satisfied by stating eqn(6) in the form:
00 00

~~ . mnx . nny
W = LL Wmn SIn -a- sm b m,n = 1,2,3 (10)
m n

Also, eqn (9) can be satisfied by stating eqn (7) as:

00 00

j, k = 1,2,3 (11)

The plate initial deflections can be similarly considered as Fourier series

of the type:
00 00

~~ . pnx . qny
Wo = LL Wpq sm ----;;- sm b p,q= 1,2,3 (12)
p q

It will be noted that eqn (12) allows symmetrical and unsymmetrical

forms of initial plate deflections to be considered.
358 I. H. Marshall

In previous work 14 it has been shown that the use of relatively few terms
in the aforementioned Fourier series yields acceptable accuracy in the final
analysis. Thus, since the present analysis is not really concerned with loads
appreciably greater than the snap-buckling or critical load the following
series will be deemed suitable.

II
2 1

W = Wmn sin m;x sin n~y (13)

m=I.=1

II .
2 1
pnx . qny
Wo = Wo sm - - sm - (14)
pq a b
p=1 q=1

(15)

For this case, the boundary eqns (8) and (9) cannot be satisfied by any
finite solution of eqn (1). Hence a solution to the compatibility eqn (1) will
be sought using the Galerkin integration technique. A full explanation of
this method is contained in reference 19.
The Galerkin method requires satisfaction of the following series of
equations.

= r rb[(8x8 8yw )2 _ 88xw 88y22w _ 2 8x82w8y 8x8 8yw

a

Jo Jo
2 2

2
o. 2

(16)

where l(x)t(y) is the differential of the stress function with respect to each
chosen coefficient in turn. Solution of eqn (16) yields a relationship between
stress function coefficients Fjk and deflection function coefficients W m • and
wOp' Thus, by substituting eqns (13), (14) and (15) into energy eqns (3), (4)

and (5) and noting the results of eqn (16) the total energy of the system can
 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 359

be written in terms of deflection function coefficients only. For the case of

uniform pressure loading this can be written as:

Minimising the resulting expression for the total energy (UT ) of the
system with respect to each of the chosen deflection function coefficients
yields a set of simultaneous non-linear algebraic equations equal in number
to the chosen number of terms in the deflection function series, i.e. in the
present analysis two such equations are formed. A solution to these
equations was found by utilising iterative techniques involving successive
approximations. In the final analysis all parameters were non-
dimensionalised to preserve generality.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Symmetrical Initial Deformations (a o" +- 0, a 02 ! = 0)

In order to illustrate the effects of increasing magnitudes of symmetrical
modes of initial deflection on the stability characteristics of rectangular
plates a typical aspect ratio, A. = I· 5, was considered (Fig. 3). From this
figure it is apparent that stable equilibrium conditions will prevail at values
of a o" ~ 3, i.e. a continuous load/displacement relationship is predicted.
As the imperfection magnitude increases, ao! ! ? : 4, snap-buckling
conditions become increasingly possible, i.e. dynamic changes of shape are
theoretically predicted. Also at ao" ?: 6 the plate would retain its buckled
360 I. H. Marshall

o s '0 15 C[N' OCl' Q zs

"
FIG. 3. Symmetrical buckling (). = 1·5).

form after unloading, i.e. permanent deformation would result and could
only be removed by lateral loading in the opposite direction. Although the
foregoing results are only applicable to aspect ratio A= 1·5, certain general
characteristics are apparent. Conceivably plates of this nature, subjected to
lateral loading on the convex face, could be designed using the present
analysis with appropriate factors of safety employed to negate the
possibility of unstable behaviour. However, an initially improbable
phenomenon, i.e. a symmetrical structure, loaded symmetrically, buckling
unsymmetrically, can greatly undermine any such design criteria. Figure 4
shows the same plate with bifurcation of the equilibrium path,
corresponding to unsymmetrical buckling, shown by the superpositioned
linear relationships. Clearly as the magnitude of symmetrical initial
deformation increases the possibility of unsymmetrical bifurcation
similarly increases. Consequently if unacceptably high plate deflections are
to be avoided any design criteria must take cognizance of the bifurcation
load.

Unsymmetrical Initial Deformations (a 011 =1= 0, a 021 =I 0)

The presence of an unsymmetrical component of initial deformation can
substantially alter the results found in the previous section. Consider again
plate aspect ratio A= 1·5 and a typical symmetrical initial deflection
 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 361

o 5 10 IS C[tlll 0('- Q II 25

FIG. 4. Unsymmetrical buckling (A = I·S).

a 011 = 6. Figure 5 illustrates the effect of superpositioning an unsym-

metrical mode of initial deflection a021 on this plate. In the case of a021 = o· 5,
i.e. approximately 8 % of the symmetrical coefficient, little change in the
stability of characteristics is predicted. However, at a 021 ~ 3 (50 % of the
symmetrical coefficient) a stable equilibrium path results where previously
snap-buckling characteristics were predicted. In the case of higher aspect
ratio plates, e.g. A = 2·0, essentially similar characteristics prevail (Fig. 6).
_
LOAD U r-----_---_-....-r-_--
L ... ~A .. ' 50
-,...------,

FIG. S.
362 l. H. Marshall

o 5 10 lS

FIG. 6.

The results shown in Figs 5 and 6 are entirely consistent with earlier
theoretical and experimental work in which initially curved orthotropic
plates were considered. I B

PLATEWORK DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

The inevitability of geometrical imperfections, i.e. deviations from flatness,

in manually laminated platework structures is undeniable. Consequently, a
technique which allows such imperfections to be accounted for in the design

1500

IJ"
"
i<

/
a 1000

'\
/
~
...J
/

...J SYMMETRICAL
<
'"'
I- 500
THf.OI'l.Y

a:
v
-,
S,TAe.L£ I UN5YMMf.TI'J(AL
&HAvIOUA. I THlOIW
I
-'
0 5 10 a.
Oq

FIG. 7. Symmetrical Initial Deflection (). = 1·0).

 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 363

t:
I:)~ 900
0
<
0
oJ
oJ 600
<
\oJ
j:
&
u
300

SoTA8!.E
..,
I
8f.HAVICUR
..J

0 5 10 a. o.
FIG. 8. Symmetrical Initial Deflection (.ic = 1·5).

or post-design of such structural members has considerable practical

importance. Although the present analysis is capable of analysing such
members subjected to lateral loading on the concave face the dynamic
changes of shape associated with similar loading on the convex face clearly
has more significance.
The parameters governing the onset of symmetrical or unsymmetrical
buckling are outlined herein. However, in order to illustrate the importance
of unsymmetrical buckling as a design criteria consider Figs 7,8 and 9. In
each case the critical load is defined as the load necessary to initiate
unacceptably large lateral deflections. From these figures it is apparent
that, in the case of a symmetrical initial imperfection, snap-buckling as a

300
SYMMETRICAL

~ '" 5.TAIILE
&EHAIIIOIIR

o s 10 a. Oq
FIG. 9. Symmetrical Initial Deflection (A = 2·0).
364 I. H. Marshall

TABLE 1

Imperfection Plate aspect ratio (A.)

magnitude
GOII 1·0 1·5 2·0

o
1 Stable behaviour
2
3
4
5 Symmetrical
6 snap-buckling
7 I
8 Unsymmetrical buckling
9
10

design criteria has limited usefulness particularly as the plate aspect ratio
increases. The results of these figures can be usefully summarised in
Table I.

CONCLUSIONS

The present theoretical analysis is capable of analysing thin, orthotropic

plates with symmetrical or unsymmetrical forms of initial imperfection
when loaded laterally-. The relative magnitude and form of imperfection
has been shown to govern the stability characteristics of such structural
members. In particular the presence of an unsymmetrical component in the
plate initially deflected form has a marked effect on its load/deflection
characteristics. Since a wide spectrum of initially deflected shapes can be
reasonably modelled using a Fourier series con taining one symmetrical and
one unsymmetrical term the versatility of the present analysis is self evident.

REFERENCES

1. LEVY, S., Bending of rectangular plates with large deflections, NACA Tech.
note No. 846, 1942.
2. COAN, 1. M., Large-deflection theory for plates with small initial curvature
loaded in edge compression, Trans. ASME, 73, 1951, 143~51.
3. Hu, P. C. et al., Effect of small deviations from flatness on effective width and
buckling of plates in compression, NACA Tech. note No. 1124, 1951.
 Unsymmetrical Buckling of Orthotropic Plates 365

4. DAWSON, R. G. and WALKER, A. c., Post-buckling behavior of geometrically

imperfect plates, Proc. ASCE, Jan. 1972,75-94.
5. YAMAKI, N., Post-buckling behavior of rectangular plates with small initial
curvature loaded in edge compression, J. Appl. Mech., 26, 1959,407-14.
6. YAMAKI, N., ibid. (continued) J. Appl. Mech., 1960, 335-42.
7. YAMAKI, N., Experiments in the post-buckling behavior of square plates loaded
in edge compression, J. Appl. Mech., 1961,238-44.
8. FUNG, Y. C. and KAPLAN, A., Buckling of low arches or beams of small
curvature, NACA Tech. note No. 2840, Nov. 1952.
9. KERR, A. D. and EL-BAYOUMY, L., On the nonunique equilibrium states of a
shallow arch subjected to a uniform lateral load, Quarterly of Applied
Mathematics, Oct. 1970, 399-409.
10. RUSHTON, K. R., Large deflection of plates with initial curvature, Int. J. M echo
Sci., 12, 1970, 1037-51.
11. RUSHTON, K. R., Buckling of laterally loaded plates having initial curvature,
Int. J. Mech. Sci., 14, 1972, 667-80.
12. MARSHALL, I. H. and RHODES, J., Snap-buckling of thin shells of rectangular
planform, Proc. Stability Problem in Eng. Structures and Component Conj,
Cardiff, Sept. 1978, pp. 249-64.
13. RHODES, J., TOOTH, A. S. and MARSHALL, I. H., Snap-out buckling of
imperfections in cylindrical panels used in storage vessels, ibid., pp. 199-216.
14. MARSHALL, I. H., RHODES, J. and BANKS, W. M., The nonlinear behaviour of
thin, orthotropic, curved panels under lateral loading, J. Mech. Eng. Sci., 19
No.1, Feb. 1977, 30-7.
15. MARSHALL, I. H., RHODES, J. and BANKS, W. M., Experimental snap-buckling
behaviour of thin GRP curves panels under lateral loading, Composites, April
1977, 81-6.
16. BURMISTROV, E. F., Calculation of flat orthotropic shells with allowance for
final strains, Inzh. Sb., 22, 1955 (in Russian).
17. MARSHALL, 1. H., RHODES, J. and BANKS, W. M., General investigation of
snap-through buckling of shallow orthotropic shells, Acta Technica
Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 87, 1978, 69-86.
18. RHODES, J. and MARSHALL, I. H., Unsymmetrical buckling of laterally loaded
reinforced plastic shells, Proceedings I.CC.Mj2, Toronto, 1978, 303-15.
19. DUNCAN, W. J., The principles of the Galerkin method, ARC Tech. report,
1938.
 24
The Effect of Mode Interaction in Orthotropic
Fibre Reinforced Composite Plain Channel Section
Columns

A. R. UPADHYA
Structures Division, National Aeronautical Laboratory,
Bangalore-5600 17, India

AND

J. LOUGH LAN
Cranfield Institute of Technology, College of Aeronautics,
Department of Aircraft Design, Cranfield, Bedford MK43 OAL, England

ABSTRACT

A theoretical investigation into the interactive buckling behaviour of thin-

walled orthotropic plain channel section columns is presented. A semi-energy
method of analysis is used and the effects of local buckling in all elements of
the section are taken into consideration. Changes in the locally buckledform
after buckling are taken into account in an approximate manner and the
effects of local and overall imperfections are also considered.
In the paper particular attention is paid to the analysis of columns with
coincident local and Euler buckling loads, since these columns exhibit
unstable post-buckling equilibrium behaviour and due to this are highly
sensitive to geometrical imperfections.
Results are presented for orthotropic glass fibre reinforced composite
columns in the form of non-dimensional graphs. The graphs depict such
aspects as flexural stiffness variation at buckling with change in cross-
sectional geometry, post-buckling equilibrium behaviour for concentrically
and eccentrically loaded columns and the effect of imperfections on the
maximum carrying capacity of coincident mode designs.
366
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 367

NOTATION

A,Ao magnitude coefficients for local deflection and local

imperfection, respectively
elements of in-plane stiffness matrix [A j for orthot-
ropic plate
all' a 12 , a 22 , a 66 elements of matrix [aj = [Ar I
a 33 (2a 12 + a 66 )
DIU D 12 , D 22 , D66 elements of bending stiffness matrix [Dj for orthot-
ropic plate
D33 (D12 + 2D 66)
e non-dimensional load eccentricity = ejd
N x, Ny, N xy in-plane stress resultants
PM maximum load
R, Ro radius of curvature of overall deflected form, and
overall imperfection, respectively
ii web compression
W, Wo local deflection and local imperfection, respectively
We' WOe amplitude of wand Wo respectively at web mid-point
X co-ordinate along length of column
rx compression eccentricity
e web compressive strain = 2iij A
b, bo overall deflection and imperfection respectively
be' boe amplitude of band bo respectively at column centre
suffix relating to particular plate element of section
(i = 1 for web, = 2, 3 for flanges)
CR suffix relating to local buckling condition

INTRODUCTION

Thin-walled columns under compression can exhibit local buckling of the

plate elements comprising the cross-section or flexural buckling of the
whole column. Although these two types of buckling are in themselves
essentially stable, coupling of the modes can result in either stable or
unstable post-buckling behaviour.
If a column is designed such that the critical loads of the individual modes
are coincident, or relatively close, non-linear coupling of the modes can
result in failure at buckling due to the inherent unstable state of the
equilibrium of such columns when buckling occurs. Further, it has been
368 A. R. Upadhya and J. Lough/an

observed during experiment that the nature of the failure or collapse of near
simultaneous mode designs is explosive, resulting in a sudden snap or bang
of the structure followed by severe destruction. These designs are very
imperfection-sensitive and their maximum loads are very quickly eroded by
the effects of both local and overall imperfections.
The interaction behaviour of thin-walled isotropic structural elements in
compression has received a great deal of attention in past years by many
researchers. Neut 1 and Thompson and Lewis 2 studied the phenomena of
interactive buckling using a simplified two flange column model. Fok et
al. 3,4 examined the behaviour of integrally stiffened panels with plain flat
outstands. Rhodes and Harvey5 considered the interaction characteristics
of plain channel section columns and the behaviour of lipped channel
columns was analysed by Loughlan 6 and Loughlan and Rhodes. 7 ,s
With the increasing use of composite materials in structural design,
especially in the aircraft and aerospace industries, a study of the post-
buckling and interactive buckling behaviour of structural elements made of
fibre reinforced composites becomes relevant.
The initial compressive buckling stresses and associated buckling modes
for a fairly wide range of structural elements manufactured from
orthotropic carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) have been obtained by
Turvey and Wittrick. 9 Some local instability results for thin-walled
orthotropic sections have also been obtained by Lee 10 and Lee and
Hewson. 11 The post-buckling behaviour of composite box sections is being
considered at this conference by Banks and Rhodes. 12 To the authors'
knowledge, however, little or no information exists in the literature on the
post-buckling interactive behaviour of thin-walled composite structural
elements and the aim of this paper is to make a contribution in this respect.
In this paper results are presented which describe the post-local-buckling
interactive behaviour of pin-ended plain channel section columns
manufactured from glass reinforced plastic (GRP). In the analysis it is
assumed that the material of the column is orthotropic with its maximum
stiffness along the length of the column. For the case of locally perfect
columns, the effect of allowing the locally buckled form to change in the
post-buckling range, is considered in an approximate manner.

LOCAL BUCKLING

Consider the plane channel column shown in Fig. 1, loaded eccentrically

towards the flange free edges by an amount, e, and which has just developed
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 369

l FLANGE

!l~,
I
6 +ve
,i 6;;ve 2. Cross-section of plain channel.

I
FIG .

PIl",d]

W~b
Buckles
i

FIG. 1. Central portion of column showing FIG. 3. Compression system at nodes of

local buckles. central buckle.

local buckles along its length. It is assumed, as is shown in Fig. I, that a local
buckle at the centre of the column has a sinusoidal form in the longitudinal
direction with a half-wavelength equal to A. The column length is L and its
geometrical cross-sectional parameters are as indicated in Fig. 2. The ends
of the column are pinned and it is assumed that the column contains an
overall geometrical imperfection described by the expression

(1)

The analysis considers the central buckle as being a representative section

of the column and treats this as a short strut of length Awhich has its ends
displaced according to the displacement system shown in Fig. 3. It will be
noted that for positive column deflection b as indicated in Fig. I, the factor
r:J. in the compression system will be negative. The analysis of the local
buckling and post-buckling behaviour of a short orthotropic plain channel
section strut is given in detail by U padhya 13 and only a brief outline of this
work is given in the paper. The Rayleigh-Ritz method of analysis is used to
370 A. R. Upadhya and J. Loughlan

:LJJ'
I I
:
! ____ L ___ :wr
I

tW1 2
~Y1
FIG. 4. Co-ordinate system for local deflections and buckled form.

determine initial local buckling and in this the local deflections Wi of each
plate element of the section are assumed to be of the form
nx
Wi = Y/yJcosT (2)
where

I
N

Yi(yJ = BnYin(yJ (3)

n=l

The locally deflected form Yi(yJ is shown in Fig. 4 as well as the co-ordinate
system used for the local deflections. The functions Yin(yJ are postulated in
terms of algebraic polynomials, each polynomial set satisfying the
compatibility and equilibrium conditions at the flange-web junction and at
the flange free edges. The total potential energy change at buckling is then
minimised with respect to the deflection coefficients Bn and using four terms
in the solution the required critical web strain eCR to cause buckling and the
corresponding locally deflected form at buckling are obtained with very
good accuracy.
This analysis of the column is carried out for different values of A or in
other words, for different numbers of buckles along the column length, to
obtain that value of A which induces the lowest buckling strain eCR' In the
column solution an iterative procedure is used to obtain the values of rx, e
and hence A at buckling such that the corresponding internal stress system
provides overall axial and moment equilibrium for the column.

POST-LOCAL-BUCKLING
In the post-local-buckling analysis the local buckling deflections are
approximated by the following expression

(4)

where the deflected form Yi(yJ is assumed to be the same as that obtained at
local buckling as described by eqn. (3).
After local buckling the changes of the stress system within the section are
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 371

determined by satisfying von Karman's compatibility equation for a

specially orthotropic plate, given by
a4p. a4p. a 4p. ( a 2w.)2 a 2w. a 2w.
(a 22 )i-;-"i+(a 33 )ia 2a'2+(a ll )i---;---i= ~ --;;--f----;;-f (5)
uX x Yi uYi uX uY; uX UYi

where F; is a middle surface force function for the ith plate such that
a 2F a 2p. a 2F
(N x ); = ay?' (NY)i = ax2' (Nxy ); = - aX a;; (6)

Substituting for Wi from eqn. (4) into eqn. (5) and satisfying the relevant in-
plane boundary conditions at the plate junctions and the flange free edges
along with the conditions of in-plane movement at the nodes of the central
buckle (i.e. at the ends of the short strut) yields the middle surface stresses in
terms of ii, rx and the magnitude coefficient A of the locally deflected form.
The principle of minimum strain energy is now used to obtain the final
relationships between end displacements, out-of-plane deflections and
middle surface forces. The strain energy stored in the short strut due to in-
plane forces and plate bending is expressed in terms of the functions F; and
Wi and minimised with respect to the deflection coefficient A to obtain A as
follows:
1
A2 = 2C [iC I - (irx)C 2 - C 4 ] (7)
3
The coefficients C I to C 4 in eqn. (7) are given by the following expressions:

L(a: f
3

1t
CI = 4 J,22 I ); y i2 dYi
i= 1

;=2

=~ \ ' (D
C
4 4 L ).{
II, Jo(b, [(~)4
A
y,2 + 2(~)2 (D33); (y~)2
' A (D l l ); ,
;= I

+ (D 22 )i (Y~/)2Jd . _ 2 (D 12 ); (~)2 [YT]b,} (8)

(D)
II ;
' y, (D )'
II i A
" 0
372 A . R. Upadhya and J. Loughlan

The function cPi(yJ in the expression for C 3 is obtained from the solution of
eqn. (5). The complementary function part of this solution contains four
unknown constants for each plate element of the section and these are
determined from the in-plane boundary conditions prevailing at the edges
of each plate.
Integration of the longitudinal membrane forces around the cross-
section and of the moments of these forces about an axis through the web
mid-surface gives the axial load P on the section and the moment M about
the web mid-surface in terms of e, (J. and A as follows:

(9)

(10)

where Xc is given by

(11)

The average axial stress distribution around the section after the
occurrence of local buckling is shown in Fig. 5. The loss in load in the web
and flanges due to local buckling, indicated in the figure by the departure
from linearity of the stress system, is accounted for in eqn. (9) by the term
A 2 C!.

FIG. 5. Average stress system after local buckling.

 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 373

POST-LOCAL-BUCKLING INTERACTION

For a locally un buckled orthotropic column the relationship between P and

M can be obtained by setting A = 0 in eqns (9) and (10), evaluatingein terms
of P and erx from eqn. (9), and substituting in eqn. (10) to obtain

Pb~ erx { b~
M = (all)lXc - b 1 (all)l
(23 - b1
(all)zXc
)}
(12)

It can easily be shown that the coefficient of Pin eqn. (12) defines the
distance d of the section neutral axis from the web and that the coefficient of
erx/ b 1 is E1, the section stiffness against bending about its neutral axis. Also,
from geometrical considerations, assuming that plane sections remain
plane after bending, the change of curvature of an element in the
longitudinal direction due to bending is given by

(13)

For a pin-ended column, the condition of equilibrium of internal and

external moments is given by
(14)
Substituting eqn. (12) in eqn. (14) and then utilising eqn. (13) results in the
expression
d1(iJ - iJ )
EI 0 +Pb = -Pe (15)
dx 1
This is the differential equation for the lateral equilibrium of an
eccentrically loaded column with an initial overall geometrical
imperfection.
In the post-local-buckling range, the validity of the geometrical
relationship, eqn. (13), is only true at the buckle nodes. However, by
assuming that the relationships evolved so far apply to an infinitesimally
small length of the column, it is possible to express the equilibrium
behaviour of a locally buckled column by means of an expression similar in
form to eqn. (15).
Substituting for A from eqn. (7) into eqns (9) and (10) and manipulating
these as for the nonlocally buckled column yields the following expression:

M = Pd* - :rx (E1)* + P CRuC<d - d*) (16)

1
374 A. R. Upadhya and J. Lough/an

In this equation d* defines the effective position of the neutral axis of the
section in the post-buckling range and EI* is a reduced value of the bending
stiffness of the section which takes local buckling into account. The final
term in eqn. (16) is an internal moment caused by the effects of local
buckling and in this, the parameter P CRUC is the critical load to cause local
buckling of a uniformly compressed column according to the current
locally deflected form.
Expressions for d*, (EI)* and P CRUC for an orthotropic column are as
follows:

(17)

(18)

(19)

Substitution of f.rx/b 2 and M from eqns (13) and (14) respectively in eqn.
(16) gives the differential equation for the lateral equilibrium of a locally
buckled column as follows:

With the initial overall geometrical imperfection as specified by eqn. (1), the
column central deflection Dc is obtained from the solution of eqn. (20) in the

+
form

b, + (d- d'{I- Pc;uc)I secI(~r -I] + (I ~'~) (21)

where P~ is the reduced Euler load for the column given by

n 2 (El)*
P*E -- ----,;--
L2 (22)
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 375

In the pre-local-buckling range, the corresponding central deflection is

given by the solution of eqn. (15) as

o.+=I(:,r -1 J+ (1 ~o;.) (23)

where P E is the true Euler load of the column. Equilibrium of the internal
stress system, caused by a given compression system represented by ii and rx
is obtained by equating the internal moment due to these stresses to the
external moment caused by the applied load P on the column. This
condition is written as
M-- P[e +d + bel =0 (24)
Using eqns (7), (9), (10) and (21), equilibrium eqn. (24) can be expressed
as a function of e and rx in the form
f(e,rx) =0 (25)
Equation (25) is then solved numerically to obtain the equilibrium values of
rx for different values of e> ECR • Having solved eqn. (25) for any given e, eqns
(7), (9), (10) and (21) then give the corresponding values of local deflection
coefficient A, load P, moment M and central deflection be. Following this
procedure the complete post-buckling load-deflection equilibrium path for
the column can be established.

VARIATION IN LOCALLY BUCKLED FORM AFTER

BUCKLING

So far in the analysis the buckled form has been assumed to remain constant
in the post-local-buckling range and consequently the values of d*, (EI)*,
P: and P CRUC remain unaltered from those obtained at local buckling. In
reality, however, changes in load and in load eccentricity due to overall
deflections, cause the buckled form to change and hence the values of W:,
d* and P CRUC are variable after local buckling. To take this into account in
an approximate manner the buckling modes and initial post-buckling paths
are first obtained for eccentrically compressed struts corresponding to a
range of compression eccentricities. It is now possible to obtain several
solutions to a column's complete load-deflection equilibrium path, each
based on a different buckled form and hence on different values of P:, d*
376 A. R. Upadhya and J. Lough/an

and P CRUC- The lowest envelope of all such curves is considered to be the
most accurate solution, the justification being that for any given column
deflection be' the solution which gives the lowest axial load P is the most
accurate since it prescribes approximately the least value of strain energy of
the system.

INITIAL LOCAL IMPERFECTIONS

It is known that the effects of local imperfections are most marked at or

around the local buckling load and are most detrimental to the load-
carrying capacity if they are similar in form to the local buckling mode. The
local imperfections in the present work are therefore assumed to be of the
same form as the locally buckled shape of the perfect column and are given
by
nx
WOi =AoYJyJcosT (26)

where Ao specifies the magnitude of the initial imperfection and Yi(yJ is

defined by egn. (3).
The compatibility equation of von Karman, eqn. (5), now takes the form

= [( OZWi )Z _ ozwi . OZWi] _ [(OZWOi)Z _ OZWOi . OZWOi] (27)

ax OYi ox z oy; ax OYi oxz oY;
and a semi-energy analysis similar to that for a locally perfect column gives
the final relationships. For reasons of space the local imperfection analysis
has only been outlined here. Results are presented, however, illustrating the
effects of these imperfections, in particular, on column designs with
simultaneous buckling modes.

TYPICAL RESULTS

The results presented here are for orthotropic columns made from glass
reinforced plastic with typical material properties of
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 377

and tensile strengths in the 1 and 2 directions (see Fig. 1) equal to

1000 MN/m2 and 20 MN/m2 respectively. Theweband flanges are assumed
to have the same thickness and stiffness properties and the material is
assumed to be homogeneous across the thickness.
Figure 6 shows, for centroidally loaded columns, the change in flexural
stiffness (PVP E ) and the new position of the neutral axis (d*/b r) at the
instant of local buckling, as well as the neutral axis position (d/ br) for the
locally unbuckled column for different values of flange-web ratio (brl bw )'
The variations shown are similar in form to those obtained by Rhodes and
Harvey5 for isotropic columns. For columns with narrow flanges local
buckling of the section is initiated by the web and the neutral axis moves
further away from the web resulting in overall column deflections in the
negative direction (see Fig. I) at local buckling. For columns with wide
flanges local buckling of the section is initiated by the flanges and
consequently the neutral axis approaches the web at local buckling
resulting in overall deflections in the positive sense. The reduction in
flexural stiffness for flange-initiated buckling is seen to be much greater
than that for web-initiated buckling. Of particular interest is the cross-
sectional shape (brl bw ) ~ O' 33, the neutral axis position and flexural
stiffness of which remains unaltered at buckling. This suggests that for this
section the buckling behaviour of a simultaneous mode design would in
effect be essentially stable. In reality, however, change in the locally
deflected form due to overall bending in the immediate post-buckling range
would result in a shift of the neutral axis and unstable buckling behaviour.
Also for this section it would appear that for a design whose local buckling
load is considerably less than its Euler buckling load the behaviour of the
column would be such as to remain straight after local buckling, as in the

1·0
(}8
ft*" 0,6
p.
E 0.4

0'2
o I I I
o 02 (}4 0·6 0·8 lO o 02 0'4 0'6 O'S lO
bf
~
bw bw
FIG. 6. Change offiexural stiffness and position of neutral axis for orthotropic GRPcolumn.
378 A. R. Upadhya and J. Lough/an

case of a centroidally loaded box section of similar design. Again in reality,

however, change in the locally deflected form in the immediate post-local-
buckling range would result in a shift of the neutral axis and in overall
deflections of the column after local buckling. A solution therefore which
does not consider change in the locally deflected form after buckling would
not be sufficient to account for the actual behaviour of the column whose
cross-sectional shape factor is (brl bw ) ~ O· 33. A direct method of allowing
for change in the locally deflected form after buckling has been outlined by
Loughlan 6 and Loughlan and Rhodes 7.8 for isotropic lipped channel
columns.
Figure 7 presents load- deflection equilibrium paths for centroidally
loaded columns with a flange-web ratio of 0·4 and various values of L I bw '
The results shown take into consideration in the approximate manner
described earlier the change in locally deflected shape after buckling. From
Fig. 6 it can be seen that the immediate change of flexural stiffness for this
section at local buckling is given by (PV PE) ~ o· 78. If post-local-buckling
behaviour is now based on the deflected shape obtained at buckling, i.e. if
the deflected shape is not allowed to change after buckling, then the curves
of Fig. 7 would tend asymptotically towards the PIPE value of O· 78 for

lO
40{)2

0·8

0'6
.E.
~
0·4
./'
./'
./' 15·66
0·2

0
0 '2 4 6 8 10
6c
-I
FIG. 7. Load-deflection paths for centroidally loaded GRP channel columns (br/b w = 004,
bwlt = 100, e = 0, OOc = 0, WOc = 0). - - - -Constrained locally deflected form after buckling; -
deflected form allowed to change after buckling.
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 379

critical local buckling loads PCR::; P E as indicated schematically by the

dotted curves in the figure. The actual behaviour is seen, however, to be
quite different from this due solely to the high sensitivity of this particular
cross-sectional geometry to changes in the locally deflected shape after
buckling. It will be noted from Fig. 7 that the curves signifying an
unchanging locally deflected form after buckling, i.e. the dotted curves,
suggest that for column designs with (P CR/ P E) < O· 78, stable post-Iocal-
buckling interaction behaviour will ensue. The curves which allow for local
form change, however, i.e. the full curves, show that the behaviour is
initially stable after local buckling and for loads not much in excess of the
local buckling load the behaviour changes from being stable to unstable.
For designs with 0·78 < (P CR/ Pd < I unstable behaviour follows after local
buckling, whereas for designs with (P CR/ P E) > I essentially stable
behaviour exists until overall deflections are such as to cause local buckling
after which unstable behaviour occurs.
Figure 8 shows the load-deflection equilibrium paths of some of the
columns of Fig. 7 when loaded eccentrically towards the flange free edges,
thus causing positive overall deflections from the onset of loading. In this
case overall bending causes higher compression towards the flange free

1·0

0·8

p 0·6

~
0·4

1S'66
0·2

0
0 2 4 0 6 8 10
_c
t
FIG. 8. Load-deflection paths for GRP channel columns loaded eccentrically towards the
flanges (brlbw=OA, bw/t= 100, e= +0,1, c5Oc =O, wOc=O).
380 A. R. Upadhya and J. Loughlan

edges and due to this the local buckling loads are lower, to a varying degree,
depending on column length, than those due to centroidal loading. The
curves shown take change in locally deflected form into account. The
columns with L/ bw ratios of 26·1 and 29· 58, which exhibited initially stable
and essentially stable behaviour after local buckling respectively under
centroidalloading conditions, are seen to experience unstable behaviour at
buckling for the eccentrically loaded case.
Figure 9 shows some imperfection sensitivity curves for a coincident
mode design with (br/ bw ) = O· 75. From Fig. 6 it is seen that the immediate
change of flexural stiffness for this section at local buckling is given by
(Pt! P E) ~ 0·12 and hence the sensitivity to changes in the locally deflected
shape after buckling for this section, will be quite small, i.e. a post-buckling
analysis based on the locally deflected form at buckling would probably be
adequate for column designs using this section. The sensitivity to
geometrical imperfections of a simultaneous mode design is seen from Fig.
9 to be quite high. For overall and local imperfection amplitudes of
({jo el t ) = I and (wo el t) = 0·1 the maximum load is seen to be reduced by as
much as 60 %. This high imperfection sensitivity is due of course to the
unstable nature of the equilibrium of these designs at buckling.

10.--------------------------,

0·2

o
o 0·04 0·08 0 ,12 0·16 0·20
Woe
T
FIG. 9. Reduction in maximum load due to imperfections in GRP channel column with
coincident modes (b r/ bw = 0·75, hw/r = 40, L/bw = 41'19, e = 0, PCR/ PE= I).
 Mode Interaction in Orthotropic Plain Channel Section Columns 381

CONCLUDING REMARKS

A theoretical analysis of the interactive buckling behaviour of orthotropic

fibre reinforced composite, plain channel section columns has been
presented.
For certain cross-sectional geometries it has been shown that the
asymptotic approach to a reduced Euler load, based on an unchanging
locally deflected form after buckling, is a severe approximation. For these
geometries the behaviour after local buckling is accounted for in the
analysis by allowing the locally deflected form to change in an approximate
manner after local buckling.
The analysis includes the effects of initial local and overall imperfections
and columns with coincident local and Euler buckling modes are shown to
possess a high degree of imperfection sensitivity.

REFERENCES

1. NEUT, A. VAN DER. The interaction of local buckling and column failure of thin
walled compression members. Proceedings of the Twelfth International
Congress of Applied Mechanics (Stanford University, 26-31 August, 1968),
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1969.
2. THOMPSON, J. M. T. and LEWIS, G. M. On the optimum design of thin walled
compression members, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 20 (May 1972) 101-9.
3. FOK, W. C., RHODES, J. and WALKER, A. C. Local buckling of outstands in
stiffened plates, Aeronautical Quarterly, XXVII (May 1976).
4. FOK, W. c., WALKER, A. C. and RHODES, J. Buckling of locally imperfect
stiffeners in plates, Proceedings of the ASCE, 103(EM5) (October 1977)
895-911.
5. RHODES, J. and HARVEY, J. M. Interaction behaviour of plain channel columns
under concentric or eccentric loading, Second International Colloquium on the
Stability of Steel Structures (Liege, 13-15 April, 1977) pp. 439-44.
6. LOUGHLAN, J. Mode interaction in lipped channel columns under concentric or
eccentric loading, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Strathclyde, December 1979.
7. LOUGHLAN, J. and RHODES, J. Interaction buckling oflipped channel columns,
In Stability Problems in Engineering Structures and Components, Richards,
T. H. and Stanley, P. (Eds), London, Applied Science Publishers Ltd,
179-98, 1979.
8. LOUGHLAN, J. and RHODES, J. The interactive buckling of lipped channel
columns under concentric or eccentric loading, International Conference on
Thin Walled Structures, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland,
3-6 April 1979.
9. TURVEY, G. J. and WITTRICK, W. H. The influence of orthotropy on the
stability of some multi-plate structures in compression, Aeronautical
Quarterly, XXIV (Feb. 1973).
382 A. R. Upadhya and J. Loughlan

10. LEE, D. J. The local buckling coefficient for orthotropic structural sections,
Aeronautical Journal,' 82(811) (July 1978) 313-20.
11. LEE, D. J. and HEWSON, P. J. The use of fibre reinforced plastics in thin walled
structures, In Stability Problems in Engineering Structures and Components,
Richards, T. H. and Stanley, P. (Eds), London, Applied Science Publishers
Ltd, 23-55, 1979.
12. BANKS, W. M. and RHODES, J. The post-buckling behaviour of composite box
sections, International Conference on Composite Structures, Paisley College of
Technology, Paisley, Scotland, 16-18 September 1981. (Chapter 26 of this
volume.)
13. UPADHYA, A. R. A study of the buckling behaviour of composite reinforced
metal panels and composite plain channel section columns in compression,
Ph.D. Thesis, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, Bedford, England,
Sept. 1980.
 25
The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal
Fibre Matrix System

V. G. ISHAKIAN AND L. HOLLA WAY

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Surrey,

Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH, England

ABSTRACT

A single unit ofa composite Vee section construction was manufacturedfrom

glass reinforced polyester and has been analysed analytically and
experimentally to first buckling. The composite construction was madefrom
two components, one of which was a skeletal system and the other a
continuum one. The pultruded skeletal component had a glassfibre/polyester
resin matrix ratio of 65-35 % weight and the hand lay-up continuum
component had a glass fibre/polyester resin matrix of 30-70 % by weight.
The analytical analysis was undertaken by thefinite element method using
rectangular plate elements in combination with line elements, as proposed by
Scordelis, and included buckling of the continuum and its effect on the post-
buckling behaviour of the structure. The buckling mode is expressed by
determining the corresponding eigen-vector.
It was found that provided the analytical modelling of the practical
structure is carefully performed, good correlation is achieved between the
experimental and analytical structures. In the stability analysis small
displacements were assumed and it was found that the bifurcation behaviour
was totally dependent upon the level of the axial stresses on the structure.

INTRODUCTION

Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) structures are generally manufactured as

continuum systems from the hand lay-up methods using chopped strand
383
384 V. G. Ishakian and L. HoI/away

mat and polyester resin; the composite has a fibre/matrix %ratio by weight
of approximately 30/70. Stiffness of the overall system is developed by
folding the composites. Another conventional method is provided by grid
systems and as their members require unidirectional strength and stiffness a
suitable manufacturing technique for their production is the puitrusion one
using continuous unidirectional rovings and polyester resin; the fibre
volume fraction in this case is about 65/70 wt %. By combining the above
two systems into a structural form, which in this paper will be called a
composite skeletal/continuum space structure, a method of providing very
much greater stiffness than that from the two individual components is
achieved.
The paper will demonstrate a theoretical approach to analysing the
stability behaviour of a composite GRP structure and the results will be
compared with an experimental investigation of a large model.

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

Basic Concepts and Types of Elements

For the analysis of continuum/skeletal systems it is desirable to use the
finite element discretisation in combination with the direct stiffness
method. This procedure provides a systematic approach to the solution
which is applicable to any shape, configuration and boundary condition. In
addition it enables optimisation to be made of the configuration, the
proportion and the cross-sectional properties of both the components
which form the composite.
To analyse the composite structure, it is necessary to combine the line
and plate types of elements. The plate element used in this paper is a four
noded rectangular one and the skeletal members are represented by a two
noded line element.
No discussion will be made of the necessary steps for the stiffness matrix
derivation of the elements with an assumed displacement function across
the element; these steps have been described elsewhere. 1- 6
However, an important consideration arises regarding the degrees of
freedom per node for the two types of elements whcn combined in one
overall stiffness matrix. For the system of equations to have a solution,
compatibility should exist for each degree of freedom per node. The line
element used in this paper is that of a two ended member in space, having six
degrees of freedom per node (three translational and three rotational, as
shown in Fig. la). It is derived from an assumed linear polynomial for the
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 385

FIG. lao Degrees of freedom for a skeletal member in space in local coordinates.

axial and torsional displacements and a cubic polynomial for the transverse
bending displacement, consistent with skeletal structural theory. 2, 7,8
Consequently, the plate element in space should have six degrees offreedom
per node, and this is achieved by the uncoupled combination of inplane
degrees of freedom (u, v, ez ) and the out-of-plane bending action (w, ex, e)
shown in Fig. lb.
However, most thin plate finite element formulations include only two
translational degrees of freedom for the inplane stress analysis (u and v) and

Lmeor func tion

a , I

~
beam rototlO('1 f unc tion

b . a •

.~~~~========~j X ~
Bending action beam displacement
func tion

FIG. lb. Degrees of freedom for plate elements.

386 V. G. Ishak ian and L. Hollaway

neglect the inplane rotation 8z (Fig. I b), since it is necessarily arbitrary,

because there is no unique value of such rotation (apart from a rigid body
movement) at a point in a two dimensional continuum. The moment which
corresponds to it is not fully tractable to physical explanation and hence
combining such formulations (u and v) with the bending action (It', 8x ' 8y)
results in an element with only five degrees of freedom per node.
A method is proposed by Zienkiewicz l which overcomes the singularity
of the stiffness matrix because of the omission of the inplane rotation in
plate elements. This method inserts a fictitious set of inplane rotational
stiffnesses, based on the fact that the real rotational stiffness is very high in
comparison with the plate bending stiffness. This method has been
discussed in reference 9. However, this approach lacks one important
aspect, i.e. the inplane displacement field has two degrees of freedom
whereas the bending displacement field has three. This makes it difficult to
use the same shape functions for both the inplane stress and plate bending
analysis.
The difference between the functional variations of the inplane
displacement field and the transverse displacement field leads to gross
violation of conformity between adjacent elements which do not lie in the
same plane. lo
The utilisation of the inplane rotation 8z as an additional degree of
freedom enables the same shape functions to be employed for both inplane
stress and plate bending analysis. Such a formulation which achieves six
degrees of freedom, is ideally suited to the analysis of three dimensional
plate assemblies forming folded plate structures combined with skeletal
systems.
Some formulations which include the inplane rotation 8z as a degree of
freedom have been developed by Macleod, I I Tocher and Hartz, 12 Pole and
Felippa l3 and Scordelis.14
The formulation which is used in this investigation is that of Scordelis 14
which was initially developed for the analysis of box-girder bridges. The
element used is a rectangular one of four nodes each having six degrees of
freedom formed by the uncoupled combination of inplane degrees of
freedom (u, v, 8z ) and out of plane bending degrees of freedom (w, 8x , 8y).1t
is important to mention here that the same shape functions are used in
setting the displacement functions for both inplane and out of plane
deformations. These functions combine a linear function, a beam rotation
(i.e. a beam clamped at one end and a unit rotation applied at the other, as
shown in Fig. 1b) and a beam displacement function (i.e. a beam clamped at
both ends but with a relative displacement of unity between them). At each
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 387

of the four nodes the inplane rotation {)z is defined as the average of the
rotations of the two adjacent sides of the element at any particular node, i.e.

Finite Element Formulations Considering Non-linear Behaviour

A general method for non-linear analysis is given by Zienkiewicz 1 in
which he introduces a 'tangent stiffness matrix' for the element which
includes all the sources of non-linearities as:
KT = Ko + K" + KL
where Ko = linear elastic stiffness matrix; K" = symmetric matrix de-
pendent on the axial stress level and is called the 'initial stress matrix' or
'geometric matrix' (defined in reference IS) and KL = 'initial displacement
matrix' or 'large deformation matrix' and contains only terms which are
linear and quadratic in the displacement (defined in reference 15).
In situations such as perfectly straight struts, plates, shells, 'V' and 'box'
sectioned members, etc., under in plane stresses only, the 'large deforma tion
matrix', K L , is identically zero because of the absence of the coupling effect
of bending stresses with the axial stresses. In these situations the non-linear
behaviour initiates as a distinct bifurcation point followed by a non-linear
post-buckling path in the deflections and the stresses. The distinct
bifurcation load can be found by solving the typical eigen-value problem
for the equation:
(I)
where A = the load factor. The buckling mode is expressed by determining
the corresponding eigen-vector.
Theoretically, folded plate structures interconnected to skeletal systems
have very small bending stresses and these arise from the rigid connections
under a loading system applied at the nodal joints. The start of non-linear
behaviour, therefore, can be reasonably predicted by the assumption of a
linear load-deflection relation up to a distinct bifurcation point which is a
function of the axial stresses only.
A computer program has been written in Fortran 4 for a linear elastic
analysis and the prediction of the first critical load by the reformulation of
the global stiffness matrix at every load increment, according to eqn. (I),
followed by the triangular decomposition; the critical load is reached as the
number of negative pivots of the decomposed stiffness matrix changes from
o to 1. A flow chart of the program is given in Fig. 2.
388 V. G. Ishakian and L. Hollaway

.-
Triangular deCOlJllO- Ntmber of negative pivots = N
sition of stiffness N > 0 reduce L.F.
rmtrix N = 0 increase L.F.

l~ U

Fb:nnulation of the IIDdified If N = 0 and previous N > 0

stiffness rmtrix of the I = 1+ 1
structure using:

,.
K.r=Ko +K cr
Plate and line elements

d 1 = (L.F.) d
I
I - NO

1
I If 1=2
I
I 1= 0 I •• YE)

Linear analysis for the Solution for eigen vector

initial input loads. (buckling IOOde)
Load factor (L.F.) = 1.0
di&'Placement vector = d
"
~l

FIG. 2. Flow chart of the computer program for determining the buckling load and the
corresponding buckling mode of the composite space structure.
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 389

THE COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL MODEL

The low modulus of elasticity of GRP manufactured from the hand lay-up
or semi-mechanical process to form a quasi-isotropic material is well
known. Consequently, the buckling of compression members which are
made from this material is a critical factor in the design of a GRP structural
system. The main reason for using a folded plate system manufactured
from materials of low modulus of elasticity is to overcome the buckling
aspect. If GRP, carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) or a hybrid of
carbon and glass reinforced plastic composites are manufactured by the
puitrusion technique and used in the skeletal system, the buckling criterion is
still likely to be the critical factor in design but it does show an improvement
over the former system because of the preferred fibre orientation and the
increased glass: resin ratio. Further, in a composite construction consisting
of a continuum/skeletal configuration the stiffness of the overall unit or
structure is again increased above the former two cases, although buckling
of the structural elements is still a critical factor.
The composite structure in question consisted of a continuum made from
Vee sectioned members together with bars jointed to one another and to the
folded plates at the nodes. The width of the structure is a function of the
number of Vee sections; a photograph of a perspex model showing the
system is given in Fig. 3.
The single GRP Vee unit had a width of 1076 mm and a vertical depth of
702 mm, tested over a span of 4580 mm. Figure 4 shows the dimensions and
the support conditions of the structure and Fig. 5 shows a photograph of
the structure.
The 4mm continuum was manufactured from a chopped strand mat,
polyester resin composite with a fibre/matrix %by weight of 30/70 and the
skeletal system was fabricated from pultruded tubes of 25 mm external
diameter and 2 mm thickness. The nodal points were made by forming parts
of hollow spheres in the continuum at the time offabrication, and when the
various parts of the latter were assembled, these part spheres were then
developed into full ones. The pultruded tubes passed through holes drilled
in the spheres and the whole was filled with epoxy resin; thus the skeletal
members were bonded to the continuum and the node was complete.
Although this method of manufacturing nodal points is not ideal for
prototype structures from an economics viewpoint, it proved extremely
efficient for the experimental test model, with buckling and/or failure of the
members of the composite structure occurring before fracture of the nodal
point or pull out of the skeletal member from the joint.
390 V. G. Ishakian and L. Hollaway

FIG. 3. Photograph of a Perspex model showing Vee system.

SPHUI!C:Al JOI'-Jrs fC.lfO Wrnt

('OI(y IRE~

G.1l,. PU.ll1tWEO SKfLElAl Me~nAILU..5KIIONSOf2.iA. 2lAIftIIDtAMSJ

=SNCilf STIt .... .., GAl..JCEs

1.. STJ.... 1J'o,j ~ ON THf Pu.TE ff ACH ~AU I

c.....P pu.nl.uo MfMIIJIS FtXEO TO THE ~ f!\Jn.(tOI-:ifCIIClH$(lf 30.30.. 3_1

GJlt'" C S,M PUJt" OF ... .0 ......... TNCK~

FIG. 4. Plan and section of the GRP prototype structure showing the dimensions and the
positions of strain gauges.
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 391

FIG. 5. A top view of the prototype GRP composite structure composed of a Vee shaped
CSM laminate continuum connected to a skeletal system fabricated from pultruded glass
fibre/polyester resin.

Diaphragm plates manufactured from chopped strand mat laminates of

4 mm thickness were attached to the Vee component at both sides. Thejoint
was made by bolting to both parts GRP pultruded angles which ran the full
length of the joint and were stiffened at intervals by steel angle pieces.
Steel members were bonded to the base of the diaphragms and these
rested on reaction beams through 18 mm ball bearings; these are shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 4. Both the steel members at the base of the
diaphragms had Vee grooves in which the ball bearings were seated. At one
end of the structure the reactions for the ball bearings were provided by
similar Vee grooves and at the other end by flat plates. This allowed the
system to have both translation and rotation at one end and rotation only at
the other end.
392 V. G. Ishakian and L. Hollaway

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

The load was applied to the structure by hydraulic jacks; only the top nodes
of the system were loaded. Electrical resistance strain gauges were
employed to measure strain and hence stresses at selected positions on the
structure. Linear strain gauges were bonded diametrically opposite each
other on the skeletal members and rosette strain gauges were bonded on
either side of the continuum plate to predict bending moments. Deflections
of the structure were measured by electrical transducers. The positions of
the strain gauges and displacement transducers are shown in Fig. 4.
During preliminary testing of the single Vee unit structure in the linear
region it was found necessary to erect a set of lateral supports along its
length at joints 8, 6, 7, 10,5,9 as shown in Fig. 4 to avoid the possibility of
torsional buckling. This was achieved by placing, on both sides of the
structure, horizontal steel frames on which were bolted vertical steel
members so that vertical movement only could take place.
The structure was loaded in increments of 50 kg and at a load of218·8 kg
per bay (corresponding to a total load of 1094·0 kg) buckling occurred in
the panels of the continuum adjacent to the diaphragms. The deformation
of the buckled zone increased as the external load increased with further
buckling in the continuum at different positions; the final form was a wavy
contour throughout the length of the structure. The test was stopped at a
total load of 2780 kg as the capacity of the reaction-beam to which the
hydraulic jacks were connected had been reached. At this external load no
buckling or crushing of the pultruded skeletal members had occurred.

THEORETICAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

The computer program of the composite structural model, described

earlier, was used to predict the buckling as a distinct bifurcation point in the
GRP structure. The results from a previous investigation 9 using similar
configuration perspex models to the current GRP structure showed that, by
considering two mesh divisions representing a coarse mesh and a fine mesh
size, only a small difference in the general behaviour of the structure
resulted. It was therefore decided to choose a mesh division between the
above two which would be adequate for the analysis. Figures 6a and 6b
show the mesh division of 102 plate elements and the joint numbering
system for one quarter of the structure.
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 393

FIG. 6a. Mesh division and joint numbering system for one quarter of the GRP prototype
structure. T : Joints introduced in the skeletal members; members 7-9(.), 45- 46(.) and
82-83(.) are perpendicular to the plane of the page.

~
' ~~__- .__~__,
~ m,

\
FIG . 6b. The support plate.

The analytical predicted load was 194·4 kg on each bay. The eigen-
vector, which represented the relative values of displacements at buckling,
is given in Fig. 7 for one quarter of the structure. The wavy mode of
buckling is basically similar to that obtained in the experimental solution
resulting from gradual increase of load increments.

Comparison Between the Experimental and the Theoretical Results

Axial stresses in the continuum component
From Fig. 8 and Table I it may be seen that the values of the longitudinal
axial stresses expressed as force per unit width at positions C and D (Fig. 4)
are within lO and 15 % of the theoretical solution respectively ; the
394 V. G. Ishakian and L. HoI/away

\'l'l. ~, /~
\ .,....
,. ,/
X.'
\
\
\
\
\

FIG. 7. Finite element idealisation of the buckling mode (eigen-vector) in the continuum
component of the GRP prototype structure (Fig. 4) at the buckling load of 194-4 kg on each
bay.

____ theoretical
500
• position A .positionC
opositionB oposition 0

400

""-
""
""
""-
""
"""
""
" ""
-14 -12 -10 - 8 -6 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 3 4 36

FIG. 8. Experimental and theoretical axial stresses (given by the abscissa) in the continuum
at the midspan of the GRP prototype structure expressed as force per unit width (N/mm). 'X'
marks the point of theoretical buckling.
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 395

TABLE 1
Axial stresses at positions in the continuum (expressed as force per unit width)

Position Experimental Theoretical Theoretical> <

(N/mm) (N/mm) Experimental

C +7-63 +8-37 >9-7%

D +7-29 +8-37 >14-8%
A -3-65 -6-75 >84-9%
B -1-0 -6-75 >575%

percentage difference between the two experimental values is within 5 %_

The experimental value of the force per unit width at positions A and B
varies greatly from that of the theoretical but this is not surprising as the
modelling of the theoretical solution at this point is not accurate_ The
spherical nodal joint is represented in the theoretical analyses as a unique
rigid joint where the line and plate elements meet the centroidal axis of the
skeletal members coinciding with the neutral axis of the continuum_ In
reality, however, the skeletal members are eccentric to the continuum and
when the structure is under load a different stress field is created around the
hemispherical area of the joint. Consequently strain gauges which are
situated under the spherical joints (as is the case at positions A and B) will
give different results to those obtained from the theoretical analysis_

TABLE 2
Bending moments at mid length of the skeletal members at a load of 113-2 kg

Member Experimental (N/mm) Theoretical (N/mm)

1-2 +292-5 -26-1

1-3 +326-8 -26-1
11-12 + 1 738-0 -26-1
11-13 -43-3 -26-1
4-6 +35-11 +39-4
4-5 -51-0 +39-4
6-8 +258-6 +269-2
6-7 +79-2 +269-2
5-10 +250-6 +269-2
5-9 +275-3 +269-2
4-14 +94-0 0-0
15-16 +882-2 0-0
4-15 +189-0 0-0
5-6 -189-5 0-0
396 V. G. [shakian and L. Hollaway

TABLE 3
Bending stresses at positions in the continuum (expressed as BM per unit width)

Position Experimental (N/mm) Theoretical (N/mm)

C -0,67 -0'024
D +0·1 -0'024
A -0,33 -0,01
B -1·45 -0·01

Bending moments in the skeletal members and in the continuum

Tables 2 and 3 show the theoretical and experimental bending moments
at mid length of the skeletal members and the bending stresses in the
continuum expressed as bending moment per unit width. It can be seen
from the tables that there is poor agreement between the two methods of
measurements. The non-symmetric values of bending moments can be
clearly seen in the members. Members 4-14, 15-16,4-5 and 5-6 should
have zero values as they lie in the plane of symmetry. Discussion of these
results is made in the next section.

DISCUSSION

The Buckling Behaviour of the Structure

The theoretical buckling load of the continuum (as a bifurcation point)
was 194·4kg compared with the experimental value of 218·8kg. As the
applied load increased beyond this value the buckling deformations became
excessive near the supports.
It is seen that the experimental buckling is 12·5 % greater than that
predicted by the analytical analysis. This is an acceptable variation when
the imperfections in the structure and the difficulty of accurately idealising
the experimental model are realised.
More specifically the discrepancy between the theoretical and the
experimental buckling load is due to two factors:
(i) the differences in the axial forces in the skeletal members and the
axial stress distribution in the continuum; the buckling is a direct
function of the axial stresses;
(ii) the existence of secondary bending moments in the real model,
coupled with the axial stresses, affects the value of the buckling
load; in the program used no account is taken of the non-linear
 The Stabilily Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 397

coupling effect of the bending moments with the axial stresses and
hence the resulting geometric and stress matrices of the line and
plate elements are functions of axial stresses only.
It can be seen from Figs 8, 9 and 10 that the tensile stresses in the continuum
and the tensile axial forces in the skeletal members 4--15, 4--14 and 15-16
retain the same linear relationship with the external load before and after
buckling of the continuum. This can be explained by the fact that when the
continuum buckled, redistribution of stresses took place between the
continuum and the compressive skeletal members at the top of the
structure.

500

---- theoretical
• experimental
400

a.
~
A.

1
.5l

I
200

.1000 .2000 .. 3000 . 5000

FIG. 9. Experimental and theoretical axial force (given by the abscissa in N) in member 4-15
of the GRP prototype structure. 'X' marks the point of theoretical buckling.

To improve the resistance to buckling a rigid joint was introduced at the

mid length of all the skeletal members connecting them to the continuum at
this point. This condition resulted in a higher analytical buckling load (of
value 280·8 kg), compared with the previous case (of value 194-4 kg) before
the rigid joint was introduced, and a less severe buckling condition. The
equivalent value for the experimental results were 310·0 and 218·8 kg
respectively. The buckling mode for this case is represented diagrammati-
cally in Fig. 11.
398 V. G. Ishak ian and L. HoI/away

500
_._- theoretical

400
o member 15. 16

]>
Cl. 300
"tI
to
.2

~ 200

.."
§

100

\~1\1 mno {\.l

..1000 +2000 .3000 +4000 +5000

FIG. 10. Experimental and theoretical axial forces (given by the abscissa in N) in skeletal
members in the GRP prototype structure. X ' ' marks the point of theoretical buckling.

Gc..\ / Gc..
/'X .
./ \.
\
--...-.:----
./
\
\
\
'-

FIG. 11 . Finite element idealisation of the buckling mode (eigen-vector) in the continuum
component of the GRP structure (Fig. 4) in which additional rigid joints connect the skeletal
members to the continuum at the midlength of all the skeletal members.
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 399

The Behaviour of the Structure at Low Load Levels

The experimental and theoretical solutions to the tensile and compressive
forces in the bottom and top members of the skeletal component of the
models agree to within 10 %; the forces in the diagonal members however,
show poor agreement, with variations as great as 50 % between the two
solutions.
Certain criticisms may be levelled at the experimental model and because
of these errors may have crept into the experimental procedure.
The beam was a single Vee section virtually unsupported laterally, and as
the system was symmetric it was possible in the analytical model to consider
one quarter of the structure only. However, in the experimental model it
was possible for the structure to rotate, thus causing a torsional couple in
the cross-section and hence producing unequal forces in symmetrical
members.
Both the pultruded tubes (the skeletal members) and the hand lay-up
composite (the continuum plate) were manufactured as normal factory
made units. During fabrication of the composite structure it was necessary,
on occasions, to force members into position, and this undoubtedly caused
some stresses to be built into the system.
In the experimental model the external loads were applied at the nodal
points of the skeletal component which were eccentric to the continuum
component. In the theoretical analysis, however, the external loads were
applied at a common nodal point of the continuum/skeletal components;
the centroid of the skeletal nodal points and the centre line of the
continuum were coincident. Consequently the theoretical structure did not
model the experimental one exactly and because of this, the comparison of
the solutions for both structures and the symmetry of the results for the
experimental one were affected to some degree.

OBSERVATIONS

In the present analysis the sixth degree of freedom (viz. (}z) at each nodal
point of a rectangular finite element has been considered. Both the linear
and the stability analysis have produced good agreement between the
analytical and experimental models. The high order formulation of the
element and the use of the same shape function for both inplane stress and
plate bending analysis assured the continuity at the folds and consequently
relatively coarse mesh divisions were able to be used.
From previous investigations it has been found that the relative stiffness
400 V. G. Ishak ian and L. Hollaway

of the two component parts of the composite structure did influence the
degree of correlation between the analytical and experimental solutions.
The present composite structure had thin continuum components and this
gave greater diversity between the two techniques than a similar perspex
structure gave when the continuum components were thick in relation to
the skeletal ones.
It has also been established that the analytical modelling of the practical
structure should be undertaken as carefully as possible. For instance, it is
unusual for the centre lines of skeletal members to meet at the centre of the
nodal points and if this eccentricity is not considered in the analytical model
discrepancies can be expected. Also, it is most unlikely that the centre lines
of the skeletal and the continuum members in double layer grid systems will
coincide and the present structure clearly shows this. Unless this
eccentricity is considered, inaccuracies will occur in the analytical solution
and particularly in the buckling analysis. In the present work the theoretical
combination of the line and plate elements was effected by introducing a
short stiff member connecting the continuum to the skeletal members at
node points.
In the stability analysis, small displacements were assumed, i.e. linear
behaviour up to the bifurcation point, and the bifurcation behaviour was
totally dependent upon the level of axial stresses in the structure. This
analysis has been shown to be reliable and adequate for design and
optimisation purposes. The reason for this is that the stresses in the
prototype model are mainly axial as is typical for most continuum/skeletal
systems loaded at nodal joints.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the Science Research

Council, UK who are sponsoring the work described.

REFERENCES

1. ZIENKIEWICZ,O. C. The Finite Element Method in Engineering Science,

McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.
2. NATH, B. Fundamentals o/the Finite Element Method, Athlone, London, 1974.
3. ROCKY, K. C., EVANS, H. R., GRIFFITHS, D. V. and NETHERCOT, D. A. The
Finite Element Method, Crosby Lockwood, London, 1975.
 The Stability Analysis of a Continuum/Skeletal Fibre Matrix System 401

4. BREBBIA, C. A. and CONNER, J. J. Fundamentals of Finite Element Technique:,

for Structural Engineers, Butterworths, London, 1973.
5. FENVES, S. J. et al. Numerical and Computer Methods in Structural Mechanics,
Academic Press, London, 1973.
6. GALLAGHER, R. H. Finite Element Analysis Fundamentals, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1975.
7. LIVESLEY, R. K. Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1975.
8. GERE, J. M. and WEAVER, W. JR. Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand,
London, 1965.
9. ISHAKIAN, V. G. and HOLLAWAY, L. Application of the finite element method to
the analysis of a skeletal/continuum GRP space structure, Composites, 10,
1979, April, 2, 81-8.
10. WILLIAM, K. T. Finite element analysis of cellular structures, Ph.D. Thesis,
University of California, Berkeley, 1969.
II. MACLEOD, I. A. New rectangular finite element for shear wall analysis, Journal
of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), 95, 1969, March.
12. TOCHER, H. L. and HARTZ, B. J. Higher-order finite element for plane stress,
Journal of the Engineering Mechanics, Proceedings of the American Society of
Civil Engineers (ASCE), 93, 1967, August.
13. POLE, G. M. and FELIPPA, C. A. Discussions on new rectangular finite element
for shear wall analysis, Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 96, 1970, January.
14. SCORDELIS, A. C. Analysis of continuous box girder bridges, Struct. Engng and
Struct. Mech. Report No. SESM 67-25, University of California, Berkeley,
USA, November 1967.
15. ISHAKIAN, V. G. Stability analysis of continuum/skeletal fibre matrix systems,
University of Surrey, UK, 1980.
 26
The Postbuckling Behaviour of Composite Box
Sections

W. M. BANKS AND J. RHODES

Department of Mechanics of Materials,

University of Strathclyde, 75, Montrose Street,
Glasgow GI IX], Scotland

ABSTRACT

The authors have already examined the buckling and post buckling behaviour
of reinforced plastic panels fabricated as orthotropic plates and subject to
unidirectional in-plane loadingl as well as an extension of that work to
examine theoretically the buckling behaviour of orthotropic sections. 2 The
present contribution extends this workfurther to examine the postbuckling
behaviour. The sections are considered as a series of linked plates with
rotationally restrained unloaded edges. These conditions have been
consideredfor the plates alone. The linking procedure enables the instability
of the sections to be evaluated.
After buckling the section is given a common end displacement. The
moments and slopes at each edge are related to this and combined in such a
way as to ensure that equilibrium and compatibility are satisfied at the plate
edges using an iterative procedure. Thereafter the relevant postbuckling
behaviour is evaluated.
The results are applied to a typical reinforced plastic box section
fabricated from unidirectional composites. Sections of this nature are
already being considered for structural applications and further markets
should be found as the material potential is appreciated.

NOTATION

a, b plate dimensions in x and y directions respectively

D 1U D22 flexural rigidity of plate per unit width for bending about the y
and x axes respectively, given by
Dll = Ell t 3 / I 2(1- V 12 V21 ), D22 = Dll E22/ Ell
402
 The Postbuckling Behaviour of Composite Box Sections 403

EI l' E22 modulus of elasticity in the x and y directions respectively

e ratio of buckle half wavelength to plate width
G I2 elastic shear modulus in x-y plane
K elastic buckling coefficient for orthotropic plates
t plate thickness
Y(y) deflections across buckled plate
Poisson's ratio in the x and y directions respectively
critical buckling stress
out-of-plane deflections of the plate

Other symbols used in the text are defined when they appear.

INTRODUCTION

The increasing use of reinforced plastics in structural applications has led to

the need to examine their behaviour when sUbjected to compressive
loading. Their low elastic modulus coupled with a high strength makes
instability a major problem area. To increase and exploit applications to
composite structures, this problem will need to be understood and
appropriate steps taken at the design stage.
The purpose of the present paper is to make a contribution in this
direction and to permit an understanding of the initial postbuckling
behaviour of composite sections. The sections considered are fabricated
from glass reinforced plastic (GRP) with unidirectional orientation.
However, provided the properties of the composite are known, the method
could be applied to other materials.

PLATE ANALYSIS

The method of analysis is firstly to examine the behaviour of single

composite plates and obtain simple expressions governing their buckling
and postbuckling behaviour. Thereafter the plates are linked together to
form a section and using an iterative procedure the buckling and
postbuckling behaviour of the section is obtained.

The Buckling of Reinforced Plastic Plates

The fundamental problem being addressed is shown in Fig. I. The plate is
uniformly compressed on the loaded ends which are considered to be simply
404 W. M. Banks and J. Rhodes

FIG. 1. Coordinate axes and sign convention.

supported. The unloaded edges are elastically restrained against rotation to

an equal degree, although these can be altered to give unequal rotational
restraints if required. Also, the unloaded edges are considered to be stress
free while on the loaded ends the shear stress is considered to be zero.
The detailed analysis of this plate using a semi-energy approach is given
in reference 1. The results for the buckling of plates with various rotational
restraints varying from the simply supported case to the fixed case were
obtained and comparison with existing solutions for particular values
showed excellent agreement and gave confidence in the results.
At buckling, the deflection for the plate shown in Fig. 1 can be taken in
the form
nx
w = Y(y) cos eb (1)

where e is a measure of the buckle half wavelength in the x direction and is

introduced to enable the effect of changing the buckle wavelength to be
studied. The function Y(y) are polynomials satisfying the boundary
conditions on the unloaded edges.
The critical buckling stress for the plate can be written in the form

(2)

where K is defined as the elastic buckling coefficient and is a function of the

rotational restraint on the plate unloaded edges and the buckle half
wavelength.
It has been shown 1 that the coefficient of restraint at the plate edge can be
written as
IY.b
R=- (3)
D22
 The Postbuckling Behaviour of Composite Box Sections 405

where a is an elastic constant and for the general case may be different at
each edge. For positive restraint on rotation Ro on the edge y = 0 is positive
and Rb on the edge y = b is negative.
Using the above approach, it is possible to obtain the buckling
coefficients for a large number of different plates, i.e. with different aspect
ratios and different restraints on the unloaded edges. Relatively simple
expressions governing the plate buckling problem can then be obtained.
The variation of K with e for a range of different R values is shown in Fig.
2 for a typical unidirectional GRP plate. When Ro = Rb = 0 the plate is

R
35r--------------------,----~

- - COMPUTER RESULTS
30~----~~~~~~--_+--~~
o EQUATION (4)

K 25 R ~Ro= - Rb

20~---~--_+----_r+7'--~
4

10 I--'~-+-------:/

-5~----_+------r_----~,,~~

-10 ~----_+------r_----_+----- -4

-15 L---~--~-----L---~

FIG. 2. Comparison of eqn. (4) with computer results.

simply supported, while for high positive values of R o, the plate can be
considered as fully fixed. Note that for negative values of Ro the plate
buckling is being assisted and hence the buckling coefficient is lower than
that for a simply supported plate.
The variation of K with e was obtained, as indicated in reference 2, in the
form

(4)
406 W. M. Banks and J. Rhodes

where Ko is the coefficient for a simply supported orthotropic plate and is

given by
2·236
Ko = 1·753 + 0-447le 2 + - 2 - (5)
e
and Kn is the coefficient for a clamped plate and is given by
2·098
K 00 =2·204+2·270e 2 + e-2 - (6)

and QI is a function of e given by

QI = 1 + 5·902e
(7)
22·01 + 55·2ge
Thus, knowing the value of e, the value of K could be obtained from eqn.
(4) for any particular value of R. Figure 2 also gives a comparison of results
obtained using eqn. (4) with those obtained directly from the computer. The
agreement is seen to be excellent and eqn. (4) can therefore be claimed to
describe accurately the buckling coefficient for this type of plate.

The Postbuckling of Reinforced Plastic Plates

It is necessary in the postbuckling range to obtain expressions for both
relative stiffness at buckling and the edge slope coefficient.

Relative stiffness at buckling

Expressions for the ratio of post buckling to prebuckling stiffness E* / E
were obtained in a similar fashion to that described above for the buckling
coefficients. The variation of E* / Ewith e for a range of R is given in Fig. 3.
The full lines given on this graph are those obtained from the derived
equations. Values from the computer output are given at selected points.
The form of the expression for the simply supported plate, i.e. R = 0 was
taken as
E* 2
~ = 1 - ----,--- (8)
E Ae 3
3+--
e3 +B
By a curve fitting process, A was found to be 1· 87 and B to be 13·47. For the
fixed plate the form of the expression was altered slightly and was found to
be of the form
E* 2
~ = 1 - ---------::- (9)
E 4·885e 3
3-448 + e3 + 10.22
 The Post buckling Behaviour of Composite Box Sections 407

',0 ,---,------r--,----, 10,---,---,-----,----,1

E * - EQUAllON (10)
E 0 COMPUTER RESULTS
(}8 R 8
'00
20 e
06~--4-~~~~._-=~ a
4 6
()
4
4

0·2 '1
20
100
o "0 2·0 3.0 4.0 e 0 10 20 30 40 e

FIG. 3. Variation of relative stiffness with R FIG. 4. VariationofedgeslopewithRande

and e showing both computer results and showing both computer results and those
those from eqn. (10). from eqn. (16).

To take account of its variation with R the general form

E* E*
~+QR~
E* E 2 E
(10)
E I +Q2R
was used. To obtain the results shown in Fig. 4, Q2 was taken in the form
Q2 = 0·08 + O'Ole (11)

Edge slope coefficient

To satisfy compatibility conditions between linked plates it is necessary
to know how the edge slope varies after buckling. It has been shown, 3,4 that
by suitable manipulation of the theoretical equations an expression relating
maximum deflection, load and applied end displacement can be obtained in
the form
w= H(u - K)I /2 (12)
where H is a constant and w is the nondimensional
maximum deflection
which occurs at the plate centre. This equation assumes that the deflected
form at buckling does not vary. Also the deflection may be related to the
edge slope by
b
w=G8 - (13)
t
408 W. M. Banks and J. Rhodes

where G is a constant. Hence, the edge slope can be written in the general
form

e~ = lJ(ii - K)1/2 (14)

t

where lJ is the edge slope coefficient and depends on e and R. As before the
values of lJ were plotted for various e and R values. The results are shown in
Fig. 4.
For the simply supported case curve fitting produced an equation for lJo
of the form
_ 0·21
eo = 0·5 + 1·06e - -e-+-0-'2-2 (15)

As the restraint increases, the value of lJo reduces. This led to an equation
for the general expression of the form

lJ = lJo (16)
1 +Q3R
with Q3 given as
0·1835e
Q3 = 1.474 +e (17)

A comparison of the computer and derived results are given in Fig. 4.

SECT! ON ANALYSIS

A reinforced plastic section such as that shown in Fig. 5 can be considered

as a series of long fiat plates connected at the edges. If these plates were
fabricated using unidirectionally oriented glass fibre, for example, then
they could be treated as orthotropic plates and the above plate analysis
could be used as a basis for evaluating the section behaviour.
Short lengths of such sections can suffer local instability when the plate
elements buckle. When this happens the common edges of the component
plates normally remain straight and the original angle between the plates is
maintained during buckling. In addition the wavelength of the buckles
which occur in all plates simultaneously are the same.
The method of analysis can be indicated by considering two adjacent
 The Post buckling Behaviour of Composite Box Sections 409

[-p
COMMON EDGES REM A IN
STRAIGHT

1 l

ANGLE BETWEEN PLATES

UNCHANGED
FIG. 5. Concepts involved in buckling of sections.

plate elements as shown in Fig. 6. Due to buckling the plates have out-of-
plane deflections as indicated. The compatibility and equilibrium
conditions for the plate edges require that
8 j =8 2 and M =M 2
j ( 18)
In addition the buckle wavelength for each plate is the same, i.e.
e j b j =e 2 b 2 (19)
Introducing the coefficient of restraint defined earlier III eqn. (3) and
remembering that IY. is given by
M
IY.=@ (20)

gives the ratio of restraint on plates I and 2 using eqn. (18) as

R = -R b 2 (~)3 (21 )
2 j bj t2

The difference in signs of R j and R2 arise because moment M j tends to

reduce the rotation 0 1 while moment M2 tends to increase the rotation 02'

~(\K4'

--lfS
FIG. 6. Moments and deflections on adjacent plate elements.
410 W. M. Banks and J. Rhodes

Buckling Analysis of Sections

Assuming that the plates buckle simultaneously and that the critical
stresses for each plate are thus equal, gives the relation between the buckling
coefficients as

(22)

Thus, the stability of two plates with a common edge can be written in terms
of the stability of one plate. It has already been shown that a general
expression for K exists (eqn. (4)) in terms of the rotational restraint and the
buckle wavelength. Substituting from eqns (4) and (21) into eqn. (22) gives
the modified equation

For any value of buckle half wavelength, e, this equation can be solved to
obtain the value of Rl and hence Kl at the buckling of the section. To
obtain the minimum value of Kl it is necessary to examine a range of buckle
lengths. Once Kl has been obtained the critical buckling stress for the
section can be evaluated from eqn. (2).

Postbuckling Analysis of Sections

In the post buckling analysis an additional restraint is that each plate in
the section is compressed by the same amount, i.e.
(24)
The nondimensional end displacement is given by
_ ub 2
U=- (25)
at 2

Substituting in eqn. (24) gives the relationship between the nondimensional

end displacements as

(26)
 The Post buckling Behaviour of Composite Box Sections 411

In addition, using the compatibility condition as given in eqn. (18) and

substituting from eqn. (14) gives

(171 - KI)8f = G~~:Y 8~(uz - Kz) (27)

Substituting for Uz this equation can be written as

_
U -
KI - (~:YG:~:Y K1
------'------'--=--'-==--;;'--- (28)
I - 1-(81 /8 1 )1
The values of K I , K z, RI and R1 are thus related to the nondimensional end
compression 17 I' As 17 I is increased from its critical value, R will alter and the
K values corresponding to these R values will also change. If an arbitrary
value of RI is then chosen, K I , K1 , 81 and 81 can be evaluated and
substituted into eqn. (28) to obtain the corresponding value of 17 1 , The
procedure can be repeated to obtain the complete variation for the section.
The load corresponding to this value of 171 can be obtained as follows.
The values of E* / E and K can be obtained for each plate, from eqns (10)
and (4) for a given end compression knowing the values of Rand e. The load
on each plate can then be obtained from

- [ + (Et)
P2 = E - Kz
]bzt z
(u l - K 1 ) bill (29)

The total nondimensional load on the given rectangular box section

considered is then
(30)
The post buckling load/end displacement graphs can thus be obtained.

APPLICATION TO A SPECIFIC CASE

The above equations were derived for a glass reinforced plastic section with
the following general properties.
412 W. M. Banks and J. Rhodes

The results of course could be derived for any reinforced plastic composite
provided the fundamental mechanical properties of the material were
known.

Buckling of Connected Plates or Sections

The application of the buckling analysis permitted Fig. 7 to be drawn.
This shows the variation in the minimum buckling coefficient with b 2 / b I for
various thickness ratios.
It is seen that as b2 increases with the other dimensions held constant, the
buckling stress of the section reduces as expected. For the lower values of
the t d t 2 ratio (i.e. t 2 thicker) the buckling stress remains fairly constant for
increasing b2 . Alternatively as t2 reduces in thickness the buckling stress for
the section again reduces as expected.
7

(Kl\IIN
4

t1/t2
3
0·5
rT,l
,'lG] 0·6

0·6
1·0
1· 6
0
0·4 0·6 1·2 2·4

FIG. 7. Minimum buckling coefficient for GRP sections.

Postbuckling of Connected Plates or Sections

The post buckling analysis was applied in the first case to a square box
section with length equal to wall width. The results for a thickness ratio of
t 2/ t I = 2 are shown in Figs 8 and 9. In Fig. 8 the variation of end
displacement with load is given. Figure 9 shows the variation of I1P I and
I1P 2 with increasing load. I1P is the reduction in load of the plate compared
with that for an unbuckled plate with the same deflection. It can be seen
 1'0 ~
100, ,7 '"
~
;.
0:
801f---- ·8
~
E*
P E ~
-t=1 ·6
601-1- -
!i.2 !!2=1 ~1:1
t, b,
i'"c·
·4 ....0:
l!g 1·5 .2 ~
peri: rl!;Jb t1 g
l b~
201 ~-.iJ. ·2 .§
, I 'D ~
~.
I+brl
o 4 8 12 _ 16 2 3 4 ~
10 20 U 30 AP PlPcrit ~
FIG. 8. Load end displacement curve for FIG. 9. Reduction in plate loads after FIG. 10. "
Variation of post buckling stiffness ~.
GRP section. buckling. for square box section.

~
""'
414 W. M. Banks and J. Rhodes

from this figure as expected, that plate 1 buckles first with a corresponding
reduction in load. At first the load reduction in plate 2 is small but with
increasing load the effects of buckling in plate 2 become apparent.
The variation in post buckling stiffness for the section was obtained from
Fig. 8 and is plotted in Fig. 10. It can be seen from this figure that after a
sudden reduction in stiffness, there is a more gradual fall off. For
comparison this figure also shows the postbuckling stiffness for a thickness
ratio of t 2 /t 1 = 1·5, 2·5 and 3. The values become asymptotic to that for a
simply supported plate at this aspect ratio viz. 0·361. Application to other
sections was not given because of space limitations.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The paper extends earlier work on glass reinforced plastic plates to examine
theoretically the buckling and postbuckling behaviour of GRP sections.
The sections are considered as a series of linked orthotropic plates.
Application is made to a box section in particular and the critical loads and
postcritical behaviour predicted for particular geometries. The earlier work
covered additional boundary conditions to those considered here and it is
anticipated that the work will be extended to cover alternative section
geometries, e.g. channels.
The market for reinforced plastic products is continually expanding.
This is leading to the structural application of composites in, for example,
the aircraft industry. This in turn means that problems solved earlier for
isotropic systems need to be re-examined and analysed for the new
materials. The work presented in this paper is a contribution in that
direction.

REFERENCES

1. BANKS, W. M., HARVEY, J. M. and RHODES, J. The non-linear behaviour of

composite panels with alternative membrane boundary conditions on the
unloaded edges, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf on Composite Materials, Toronto, April
1978, 316-36.
2. BANKS, W. M. and RHODES, J., The buckling behaviour of reinforced plastic box
sections, The Reinforced Plastics Congress '80, Brighton, November 1980, 85~8.
3. HAMID, A. B. A., The examination of the behaviour of connected plates, MSc
Thesis, University of Strathclyde, 1979.
4. RHODES, J., Secondary local buckling in thin-walled sections, Hungarian
Academy of Science, 87(1~2), 1978, 143~53.
 27
The Effect of Thermal Strains on the
Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of
GRP
F. R. JONES, A. R. WHEATLEY AND J. E. BAILEY
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Technology,
University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH, England

ABSTRACT

The tensile mechanical properties of two polyester/glass crossply laminates

cured under different conditions have been investigated. Large thermal
strains are generated which severely reduce the strain at which the cracking
of the plies is initiated. The two chemically similar resins produced laminates
which behaved differently.
The rapid stress corrosion failure of the outer 0 plies of a crossply
0

laminate is shown to be associated with transverse cracks in the 90 ply.0

INTRODUCTION

The design of many GRP structures is limited by the loss in integrity which
occurs with the onset of microcracking at low composite strains, occurring
particularly in those areas where the principal fibre direction is
perpendicular to the direction of an applied stress. Loss of composite
integrity may be important in applications such as containers and pipes
where any flaws or microcracks may give rise to weepage or expose the fibres
to corrosive attack.
This microcracking phenomenon is most readily studied in model
crossply composites where fibres are laid up at right angles to each other.
Sandwiched between the two outer 0 plies (y direction) is a transverse 90
0 0

layer designed to give strength and stiffness in the z direction. Tensile

loading is applied parallel to the outer 0 fibres. On cooling down from the
0

415
416 F. R. Jones et al.

postcure temperature the inner transverse ply is prevented from contracting

in the y direction by the high modulus 0 plies. Similarly the outer 0 plies
0 0

are prevented from contracting in the z direction by the inner transverse ply.
This results in tensile stresses being built into each lamina in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of its fibres. It has been shown that the failure
strain of the transverse ply can be drastically reduced by the existence of
these large thermal strains. In a previous paper! it was suggested that the
large thermal strains in polyester laminates were responsible for the absence
of the 'whitening' effect seen in epoxy laminates made with the same glass
fibres. We wish to report further examination of the microcracking
behaviour of laminates made from two similar polyester resins with and
without formal postcure. The effect of microcracking and transverse
cracking on the stress corrosion failure of the longitudinal plies is also
reported.
Under tensile loading, the Poisson's shrinkage of the 0 plies in the z
0

direction is restricted by the transverse ply. Splitting of the 0 laminae in the

0

fibre direction occurs under the influence of an applied stress. It has been
shown that the applied stress necessary to induce longitudinal splitting of
the 0 0 plies is strongly dependent upon the magnitude ofthe inbuilt thermal
strains.

EXPERIMENTAL

Crossply laminates have been prepared from isophthalic polyester resins

reinforced with Silenka 1200 tex 'E' glass fibres with a silane finish
compatible with polyester and epoxy resins. The resins used were Crystic
272 and 03061 (Scott-Bader and Co. Ltd) which differ mainly in the
chemistry of their formation. Crystic 272 is an isophthalic/fumaric acid
based resin whereas Crystic 03061 is based on maleic anhydride. The resins
are similar in that isomerisation of the maleate to fumarate links occurs
during polyesterification.
Laminates were made by machine winding individual plies of glass
rovings onto metal frames, followed by impregnation of the fibres with
resin. In order to maintain a relatively long working time and prevent
excessive temperature build-up a relatively small quantity of accelerator
was used. The curing system was 2 %of a 50 %methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
solution (catalyst M) and 0·25 %cobalt naphthenate solution (accelerator
E) (Scott-Bader Co. Ltd).
In the preparation of 0 0 /90 0 /0 0 and 0 0 /90 0 cross ply laminates the 90 0
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 417

ply was laid up first and allowed to gel for 24 h prior to the laying on of the
outer 0 °plies. This method of laminate preparation has proved extremely
successful in the production of high quality laminates with volume fractions
of glass in the range Vr = 0·35 ± 0·03. Attempts to fabricate crossply
laminates in a single process proved much less successful due to a tendency
of the laminates to be of a much poorer finished quality with a large degree
of cracking becoming evident on curing. Figure I compares edge damage in
0°/90° coupon samples prepared by both methods. Sample (a) was
prepared in the conventional manner by laying the 0° ply onto the pre-
gelled 90 0 ply. Sample (b) was prepared in a single process with both plies
being wetted-out simultaneously. Sample damage in the former is
considerably lessened.
Figure I also illustrates the method by which thermal strains are
measured. Asymmetric 0 °/90 ° beams have been prepared which behave like
'bimetallic strips' whereby the contraction of the 90 0 ply on cooling from
the postcure temperature produces a strip of a fixed radius of curvature.
Measurement of this radius of curvature may be used to determine the

FIG. 1. 0°/90°coupon specimens prepared (a) by a two-stage process and (b) by a one-stage
process.
418 F. R. Jones et al.

magnitudes of thermal strains built into the plies of a crossply laminate on

postcuring. 2
The tensile mechanical properties of 0 °/90 °/0 ° laminates were
determined on INSTRON 1195 and 1196 tensile testing machines. Coupon
specimens were tested at a strain rate of 0·005 min - 1. The values of stress
and strain required to produce the first transverse crack (O"tlu, etl u ) and
Poisson-type splitting of the longitudinal plies (O"lIs' ell.) have been recorded.
The Young's modulus (Eel) and ultimate tensile strength (O"uc) of the
laminates were also determined.
Optical and scanning electron microscope studies have been carried out
in conjunction with a mechanical straining stage in order to study the
cracking characteristics of strained laminates.
The stress corrosion behaviour of 0 °/90 °/0 ° laminates in four-point
bending has been investigated. The force-extension and cracking
characteristics of each laminate in four-point bending were determined by
Instron testing. Tests in a four-point bending jig were then carried out on
coupon specimens (15 mm wide, 3,2-4,0 mm thick) immersed in I M
aqueous sulphuric acid. Loads both above and below the first transverse
cracking force, F tlu , were applied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mechanical properties of laminates prepared from Crystic 272 and

03061 are presented in Table I. The data refer to laminates prepared such
that the thickness of the inner ply is twice that of the outer plies. Under these
circumstances the thermal strain in the transverse ply in the longitudinal
direction e:~ is equal to the thermal strain in the longitudinal ply in the
transverse direction e:~.
It may be seen from Table I that considerable internal stresses are
developed in the transverse ply due to postcuring at elevated temperatures.
F or instance, the values of tensile strain, e:~, developed in the transverse ply
on cooling from a postcure temperature of 80°C in laminates prepared
from Crystic 272 and 03061 are 0·40 %and 0-47 %respectively. This in built
thermal strain reduces the strain at which the first transverse crack appears
etl u (representing failure of the inner ply) from 0·6 %to 0·17 %and 0·13 %
respectively. The transverse cracking strains oflaminates postcured at 50 °C
are also reduced, though to a lesser extent.
Similarly an equivalent transverse thermal strain is established in the
longitudinal plies and this is responsible for a reduction in the strain at
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 419

TABLE 1
Effect of curing conditions on the tensile properties of crossply (b = d) glass fibre
laminates from two polyester resins

Postcuring B·.1h Gtlu B:~ + Btlu Bns Eel

schedule (%) (%) (%) ( %) (GPa)

Crystic 272
170h at 18°e 0 0·59tO·03 0'59tO'03 1·77 to·1 16·0
15 hat 50 0e 0·34tO·01 0·24tO·03 0·58tO·04 0·84tO·1 16·8
3 hat 80 0e OAOtO·OI 0·\7 to·03 0·57tO·04 O·64tO·1 17·5
1·5 hat l300e OA5tO·01 0'l3tO'03 0'58tO'04 0·66tO·1 IH
Crystic D3061
170hat200e 0 0·32tO·04 0·32tO·04 1·62tO·1 14·1
15 hat 50 0e OA2tO'02 0·15tO·02 0·57tO·04 0·72 to·1 14·8
3hat.80oe 0'47tO'02 0'13tO'03 0'60tO'05 0·56tO·1 14·7

b = outer ply thickness

d = semi-inner ply thickness
B:~ = thermal strain (calculated from the curvature of 0/90 laminates) in the
longitudinal direction of the transverse ply. The cold-cured specimens have not
experienced a temperature excursion and are considered to have zero thermal strain
although a slight curvature is observed.
Btlu = experimental transverse ply cracking strain.
Bns = longitudinal splitting strain.
Eel = Young's modulus of the 0 °/90 °/0 ° cross ply laminate.

which Poisson's splitting of the longitudinal plies occurs. For Crystic 272
and D30611aminates postcured at 80°C, ells falls from 1·77 to 0·64% and
from 1·62 to 0·56 % respectively.
Therefore the failure strain of the transverse ply can be computed from
the measured thermal strain e:r
and the experimental transverse cracking
strain etlu (Fig. 2). Figure 3 shows the variation of the transverse failure
strain with inner ply thickness for laminates postcured at different
temperatures. The outer ply thickness was kept constant at 1·0 mm (Crystic
272) and 1·1 mm (Crystic D3061). The volume fraction of glass fibres, Vr ,
was kept constant at O· 35 ± O· 3.
We have also consistently observed that 0 0 /90 0 laminates which have not
experienced formal postcuring have a slight curvature. The curing
conditions are such that the laminate temperature has remained constant
and therefore we consider that strains can be built into the plies during
gelation. The measured curing strains e~l in the transverse plies of Crystic
272 crossply laminates are given in Fig. 3. When this component is
 420 F. R. Jones et al.

OSO'C
(}6 0·6 £,:ystoc D 3061
esO'C

0 .2 (}2
'-:..~. -. - ...()
'-''V=- - - ....
o o
o 2 4 o 2 4
Inner ply thickness, mm

FIG. 2. The effect of transverse ply thickness (2d) on e:~ and e,lu developing in 0 °/90 % °
GR P laminates from Crystic 272 and D3061 under different postcure temperatures (see Table
I for definitions).

included, the transverse ply failure strain for the cold-cured laminates is
increased, with the result that etu for the Crystic 272 laminates is apparently
independent of variations in thickness or postcuring schedule. This result is
in contrast to Crystic 03061 laminates in which etu increases with
postcuring and is larger for the thinner transverse plies.
The transverse cracking behaviour of epoxy/glass laminates has been
studied. 3 With inner ply thicknesses less than 0·4 mm transverse cracking

.'.
o BO·C

O' B crystie 272 e SO'C

Q er rs t ie 0 306 '
.. eC) 20'C
,'.
, '.
',~.
,D ·-.~
• __'-'0
- ..
0 ·2
c
~tl
o o
o 2 4 o 3

i nner ply thickness, mm

FIG. 3. The effect of transverse ply thickness (2d) on the 90 °ply failure strain (e,u) of crossply
lamina tes with different postcure temperatures. For 0 • (), e,u = (e:~ + e'lu)' ~ are internal
strains in gelled laminates e~l' e
e,u = ( e ~l + e'lu) ' e ~l is the curing strain in cold-cured laminates .
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 421

was found to be constrained. Thus crack opening is restrained by the non-

cracking phase so that a greater energy is required to propagate a crack.
Therefore the cracks run in a controlled manner at higher strains.
Examinations of the transverse ply of epoxy/glass laminates during loading
have been made and have shown that the mechanism of crack initiation
occurs by debonding of the resin/glass interface.! Both Crystic 272 and
03061 have similar properties; the latter has a slightly lower modulus and
increased strain to failure, as expected of resins identical except that the
latter relies on isomerisation of the maleate to fumarate unsaturations.
Thus Crystic 03061 is slightly less reactive and forms a slightly more
flexible resin. However, Fig. 3 shows that the crossply laminates behave
differently and that transverse cracking is constrained in Crystic 03061
laminates, Gtu increases markedly with decreasing inner ply thickness even
when this is as large as 2 mm. This is absent in Crystic 272 laminates and Gtu
appears to be independent of inner ply thickness down to 1 mm (Fig. 3). The
failure strain of the transverse plies in these laminates are dependent on the
interfacial glass/resin bond. Therefore, since postcuring increases the value
of Gtu for laminates from Crystic 03061 and not for Crystic 272 we conclude
that the molecular variations in the resin have affected the interfacial bond
and the resin in the locality of the fibres. More important however are the
larger thermal strains in the former which more than offset the
improvement in Gtu • The need for formal postcuring of Crystic 272
laminates is therefore brought into question.
Recent 4 measurements of the expansion coefficients ofCrystic 272 resins
and laminates have indicated an anomalous behaviour of the resin matrix
within the laminate. This result, together with the high thermal strains
reported here, suggests that the resin structure is modified by the glass fibres
and therefore the interfacial resin properties may vary. These results are the
subject of a further study and will be reported elsewhere.

MICROCRACKING IN POLYESTER/GLASS COMPOSITES

Transverse cracking in these model composites has been observed when the
applied strain is as low as 0·13 %. The appearance of the first transverse
crack under loading represents the first total failure of the 90 0 ply. Further
systematic cracking of the 90 0 ply is observed as the applied composite
strain is increased such that shear transfer between the plies allows the
strain elsewhere in the transverse ply to reach Gtu' This effect has been
described previously.5 Considerable sample damage may, however, arise
prior to ply failure.
422 F. R. Jones et al.

As indicated above debonding has been observed in constrained

transverse plies because the crack forms by the coalescence of debonds.
Therefore in the stressed Crystic 272 laminates which we have studied,
microcracks form. Laminates with and without formal postcure have been
tensile loaded on the straining stage within a scanning electron microscope.
Microcracks (Fig. 4) can also be seen by optical microscopy in postcured
laminates in which a thermal strain has developed. These microcracks are
absent in laminates prepared without formal postcure (Fig. 4). On cooling
from the postcure temperature microcracking of the 90 ° ply takes place
spontaneously (Fig. 4). The extent of the microcracking is dependent upon
the postcure temperature, which in turn determines the level of thermal
strain. These microcracks are absent in laminates with internal strains less
than O·} %and appear when the thermal strains reach approximately O· 3 %.
Microcracking occurs invariably in regions of high volume fractions of
glass. The growth of the cracks across the 90 ° ply is inhibited by the resin
rich areas both within the transverse ply and at the 0 °/90 ° interface (Fig. 4).
Cracks may be blunted by the 0 ° fibres at the 0 °/90 ° interface and continue
to propagate along this interface, but at applied strains of magnitude about
0·6 % for an 80°C postcured Crystic 272 laminate the transverse cracks
penetrate the longitudinal plies (Fig. 5).
Figure 5 shows the transverse cracks produced under tensile loading and
in four-point bend loading. It is seen that the latter only span the tensile
loaded region of the 90 ° ply and that the first transverse cracks also
penetrate the longitudinal 0 0 • This difference is further shown in the stress
corrosion results reported below.

THE APPLICATION OF MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDIES TO

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

One area in which the cracking and microcracking characteristics of

polyester/glass laminates are of paramount importance is in the field of
stress corrosion. Failure of the load bearing elements of GRP structures
su~jected to stress and a corrosive environment proceeds via attack on the
principal load-bearing elements themselves, e.g. the fibres. Loss of integrity
of structures through microcracking and transverse cracking provides a
route through which corrosive attack of the fibres may proceed. Recent
work has shown that a direct link exists between rapid stress corrosion
failure of GRP laminates under a four-point bend and the appearance of
transverse cracking in the system.
A comparison of Figs 6(a) and (b) shows that at the same applied loads
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 423

a.

b.

c.

FIG. 4. Microcracking in the transverse ply of crossply laminates with differing levels of
internal strain developed from curing at (a) 20°C, (b) 50 °C and (c) 80 °C.
424 F. R. Jones el at.

a.

b.

c.

FIG. 5. Transverse cracks produced in tension under (a) low strain, (b) high strain and (c)
four-point bend.
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 425

the postcured laminate is more susceptible to stress corrosion attack.

Furthermore none of those samples loaded below the transverse cracking
force Fuu failed, even though loads ofO·9Ftlu have been employed. Loading
above Fuu resulted in stress corrosion failure of all but one sample within
12 h. Examination of the failed specimens showed that transverse cracking
had occurred in all cases and that the characteristic smooth stress corrosion
cracks had been formed in the tensile 0 0 ply immediately adjacent to a
transverse crack. This is illustrated in Fig. 7. Failure is not always caused by
the growth of a particular stress corrosion crack. Several stress corrosion
cracks have been observed in the longitudinal ply, all of which are
associated with a transverse crack in the 90 ply, and are usually initiated in
0

the middle of the longitudinal ply face.

Figure 6(c) confirms that the stress corrosion failure is linked to
transverse cracking since unidirectional 0 0 laminates loaded over the same
strain range have not failed within the time scale of the experiment. Also, no
significant reduction in mechanical properties of the unidirectional samples
was observed after six weeks immersion in the acid. Recently, 6 however,
notched longitudinal specimens have been seen to crack readily under the
influence of stress corrosion.
The transverse ply of cut-coupons from crossply laminates has exposed
fibre ends in contact with the corrodant. In order to overcome this problem,
the edges of laminates gelled at 20°C have been coated with the same resin
and allowed to gel for a further 24 h. Specimens with and without an edge
coating were subjected to the same four-point bending loads whilst
immersed in I M aqueous sulphuric acid. Figure 6(d) shows that, as before,
failure only occurred in samples loaded above Ft1u , and within 12 h. The
quoted value of Ft1u is an average value and in those cases where samples
which appear to be loaded above Fuu have not failed, subsequent
examination showed that no transverse cracking was present. No
differences between the failure characteristics of the edge-coated and non-
edge-coated samples were observed. Transverse failure of the 90 0 ply was
accompanied by failure of the edge coating. However, differences in the
microcracking behaviour in acid were observed. No transverse cracking
was apparent but samples without edge coatings had developed diffuse edge
cracks. This type of damage 7 did not cause catastrophic failure of the 0 0
plies but is much reduced by edge coating.
The probable explanation as to why no stress corrosion failure of
extensively edge-cracked specimens has occurred is that no path to the
outer 0 0 plies is created by edge cracking through the transverse layer. A
true transverse crack traverses the whole thickness of the inner ply and
426 F. R. Jones et al.

400 I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ftt u
Z
QJ
u
t-
o
300
u..
(a)
"'0
QJ
200
-a
a.
<!
100

o
1 10 100
Time to failure [days]

400
z
QJ

~
o
300 (b)
u.. x- denotes failure
"'0
QJ 200
a.
a.
< - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
~

Fttu
100

o I

1 10 100
Time to failure [days]
FIG. 6. Stress corrosion ofCrystic 272 GRP laminates in I M aqueous sulphuric acid in four-
point bend. (a) 0°/90°/0° cured at 20°C, (b) 0°/90°/0 ° postcured at 80°C, (c) unidirectional 0°
postcured at 80°C, (d) 0°/90°/0° cured at 20°C with and without an edge coating.
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 427

500

z 400
UI
u
a: (c)
0
u... 300

-
0
UI
-'
0..
0..
« 200

100

0
10 100
TIM~ TO FAr LURE [ DAYS I

500
)( denotes failure

Z 400
UI
u
a:
~= :..:..:~-: --:. :. -.:.::': :.: :. . -.:. - :.::.:.-:..= -..:.-:.::.: ~:.::..
Ftlu
- --
o
u... 300
Cl - -------------------------- - - -- -----------------
UJ
(d)
-'
0..
9( 200 ~ non-edge-coated sampl es
--- ------ edge-coated samples
100

o
1 10 100
TIME TO FAILURE [DAYS I
FIG. 6-contd.
428 F. R. Jones et al.

(a)

(b)

FIG. 7. Stress corrosion cracks in the tensile 0° ply of 0°/90%° laminate adjacent to
transverse cracks (see Fig. 6). (a) Failed specimen and (b) the delaminated 0° ply.

under circumstances described above can extend slightly into the outer 0 0
plies, hence providing a direct, stress enhanced, route into the main load-
bearing lamina. In no cases to date has a stress corrosion failure been
observed in the compressive face of the laminate.
Figure 5(c) indicates that in bend the transverse crack penetrates the
longitudinal ply, whereas in tension penetration only occurs at higher
strains. This has a large influence on the stress corrosion cracking since
tensile loaded specimens have not failed catastrophically at strains just
above ctIu when transverse cracks are present,7 in contrast to the results in
Fig. 6.

CONCLUSIONS

The appearance of large thermal strains in crossply laminates reduces the

transverse cracking strain. Since the strain at which stress corrosion
cracking of the longitudinal plies occurs is strongly dependent on the
 Microcracking and Stress Corrosion Behaviour of GRP 429

formation of a transverse crack which penetrates the longitudinal ply, the

knowledge of the inherent strain levels and the careful control of the
lamination procedure are of prime importance to the design strains for
these materials. It is also insufficient to rely on the ultimate failure strains of
resins and composites, so that a detailed knowledge of the microstructural
behaviour of the laminates is required.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the Polymer Engineering Directorate for a research

award (ARW), the Science Research Council for an equipment grant and
Scott-Bader and Co. Ltd for the resins.

REFERENCES

I. BAILEY, J. E. and PARVIZI, A., On fibre debonding effects and the mechanism of
transverse ply failure in cross-ply laminates of glass fibre/thermosets composites,
J. Mat. Sci., 16 (1981) 649-59.
2. BAILEY, J. E., CURTIS, P. T. and PARVIZI, A., On the transverselcracking and
longitudinal splitting behaviour of glass and carbon fibre reinforced epoxy cross-
ply laminates and the effect of Poisson and thermally generated strain, Proc. R.
Soc. Lond. A., 366 (1979) 599-623.
3. PARVIZI, A., GARRETT, K. W. and BAILEY, J. E., Constrained cracking in glass
fibre-reinforced epoxy cross-ply laminates, J. Mat. Sci., 13 (1978) 195-201.
4. (a) JONES, F. R., MULHERON, M. J., WHEATLEY, A. R. and BAILEY, J. E., The
effect of curing conditions on the properties of the matrix and interfacial bond in
glass fibre reinforced polyesters, Interfaces in composites materials, PRI
meeting, Liverpool 1981, paper 6.
(b) JONES, F. R. and MULHERON, M. J., unpublished results.
5. PARVIZI, A. and BAILEY, J. E., On multiple transverse cracking in glass fibre
epoxy cross-ply laminates, J. Mat. Sci., 13 (1978) 2131-6.
6. JONES, F. R. and WHEATLEY, A. R., in preparation.
7. BAILEY, J. E., FRYER, T. M. W. and JONES, F. R., Environmental stress-corrosion
edge cracking of glass reinforced polyesters. In: Advances in composite materials
(ICCM 3), Vol. I, Bunsell, A. R. et al. (eds), Paris, Pergamon Press, 1980,
514-28.
 28
Electrically Conductive Prepreg Systems
GARY L. PATZ

Hexcel Corporation, 11711 Dublin Boulevard,

Dublin, California 94566, USA

ABSTRACT

In efforts to reduce weight and potentially reduce costs of aircraft, airframe

manufacturers have been increasing their use of composite materials. A
major problem with composite structures is that they lack the electrical and
thermal characteristics of the metal structures they are replacing. Low cost,
structural conductive prepreg materials are now being developed by Hexcel
to offer solutions to these very difficult problems. These materials, which are
being marketed under the Thorstrand tm trade mark, are based on
M BAssociate's aluminum coated E-glass fiber.
This paper will provide the background on the basic fiber, and detail how
this fiber has been designed into systems that provide an airframe structure
with the electrical and thermal conductivity that is necessary for the
satisfactory electrical and thermal performance of the structure.

INTRODUCTION

Because of their weight, stiffness and strength characteristics and potential

cost savings, composite materials are quickly replacing metal structures in
aircraft design and construction. A main problem in the use of composite
materials has been in achieving even a portion of the electrical and thermal
conductivities of the metals required for functional purposes such as
lightning strike protection, static dissipation, etc. Several methods are now
being employed to provide surface conductivity to composite structures.
430
 Electrically Conductive Prepreg Systems 431

These include conductive paints, encapsulated wire screens and metal foils,
and flame-sprayed aluminum. Unfortunately, the methods are difficult to
employ as they require special processing by highly skilled operators.
Furthermore, they add weight to the composite structure without any
appreciable increase in strength.
To help solve some of these problems Hexcel has developed a family of
thermally and electrically conductive prepreg systems with drapability and
processability very similar to standard fiberglass prepregs. These systems
are now being marketed by Hexcel under the Thorstrand tm trademark.

BACKGROUND ON THE THORSTRAND SYSTEMS

The Thorstrand family of prep reg systems is based on a unique aluminum

coated E-glass fiber produced by MBAssociates of San Ramon, California.
MBAs fiber, Metafil® G, possesses a continuous, uniform coating of pure
aluminum that is chemically bonded to an E-glass filament (Fig. 1).
Presently all Thorstrand systems use the half (surface)-coated fiber.

.8 mil Glass Filament Diameter ~

. 1 mil Aluminum Coating Thickness

FIG. I. The two types of aluminum coated glass fibers. V/O glass 0'60; aluminum 0-40.

Photomicrographs of Thorstrand composites after tensile and compression

failure have shown that the aluminum and glass behave as a single fiber
(Fig. 2). Separation of the aluminum from the glass has never been
observed.
Pure aluminum has very predictable electrical and thermal properties.
Each Thorstrand system was designed to meet requirements of specific
applications based on these very predictable properties. If so desired, E-
glass, S-glass or Kevlar® can be combined with the Metafil yarns to provide
increased structural properties.
432 Gary L. Patz

Hexcel presently has three Thorstrand fabrics in full production. These

are TEF7, TEFA and TSFI81. Two other systems TEF5 and TKF7 are
being produced in prototype quantities. The physical properties of these
fabrics are found in Table I.
TEF7 was designed specifically to provide protection to the composite
substructure from the direct effects of a 200000 amp lightning strike.

FIG. 2. Photomicrograph of the Metafil® G fiber.

TEF A, originally developed for replacing flame spray in composite

parabolic antennas, is also being used in aerospace applications to replace
flame-sprayed aluminum for use as an antenna ground plane and for zone 2
lightning protection. 1
TSF 181 is being used for static electricity dissipation on fiberglass
structures. It replaces a structural ply of 1581 fiberglass as well as the
conductive paint.
TEF5 is a tightly woven fabric of about the same weight as TEFA. It
allows for improved cure part surface characteristics.
TKF7 is a Thorstrand/Kevlar hybrid that incorporates the light weight
and good tensile and modulus properties of Kevlar with the conductive and
good compressive properties of Metafil G.
 TABLE I t>"J
~
~
...
;:;.
TEF7 TEFA TSFI81 TEF5 TKF7
!:..
~
Oz/sq yard 7·0 5·4 7-8 4·9 6·8 g
CJrams/sq meter 237 183 265 166 230 ::.
Weave 5HS plain 8HS 5HS 5HS It
~
Construction 32 x 30 24 x 20 57 x 54 40x40 30 x 28 ~.

warp 2(45/45)/150-1/0 2(45/45)/150-1/0 (22/45)/150-1/0 (45/45)/900-1/0 2(45/45)/Kevlar 195 '"tI

...
fill 2(45/45)/450-1/0 2(45/45)/450-1/0 (22/45)/150-1/0 (45/45)/900-1/0 2(45/45)/Kevlar 195 ~
...
Number of ~
Metafil ~
fibers/inch 2880 x 2700 2160 x 1800 1254 x 1188 1800 x 1800 2700 x 2520 '"
::!
"'"

e.....
434 Gary L. Patz

DEVELOPING THORSTRAND SYSTEMS TO SATISFY

ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

Each individual Metafil G fiber is capable of conducting electricity up to

that point where the aluminum melts and separates, thus halting the current
flow. The Metafil G fiber has a nominal resistance of2 ohm/cm length. Each
fiber has an electrical current carrying capability as a function of duration
and environment as follows:
Duration Environment I max
1 Ilsec aIr 50 amps
10 Ilsec plastic 25 amps
1 msec air 0·5 amps
constant mr 0·3 amps
constant plastic 0·6 amps
The fibers have an extraordinary current carrying capability in the region
of 10 Ilsec to 1 msec because of the excellent coupling ofthe aluminum to the
glass. The glass serves as a heat sink with a heat capacity of twice that of
aluminum up to the melting point of aluminum.
A worst-case zone 1 (the primary lightning attachment zone on an
aircraft) lightning strike is characterized by a peak amplitude of
200000 amps and an action integral of 2 x 10 6 amp2 sec. The zone 1
structure will then need to carry these high currents for about 10 Ilsec. For
durations of approximately IOllsec each Thorstrand fiber can conduct a
maximum of 25 amps. Since 200000 amps need to be dissipated, then
200000/25 or 8000 fibers are required in the area of direct attachment. On a
painted structure the area of attachment is estimated to be slightly less than
two square inches. Using these simple calculations, the TEF7 fabric
construction was developed.
Lightning Technologies, Inc. of Pittsfield, Massachusetts performed a
series of tests on two separate sets of panels manufactured by Vought
Corporation and Northrop Aircraft. The panels were both sandwich and
laminate structures of fiberglass, Kevlar and graphite reinforced epoxy.
TEF7 and flame-sprayed aluminum were the two protection systems
employed. Lightning Technologies followed the testing parameters
prescribed in the SAE report Lightning Test Waveforms and Techniquesfor
Aerospace Vehicles and Hardware (June 1978).
The tests confirmed the results of earlier tests which demonstrated that a
single ply of Thorstrand TEF7 aluminized glass-fabric will protect
graphite/E and Kevlar/E laminates or sandwich skins typical of aircraft
 Electrically Conductive Prep reg Systems 435

surfaces located within lightning strike zones IA or 2A, for example,

fuselages, engine nacelles, wing tips and empennage surfaces subject to
direct lightning strikes with a low probability of flash hang-on. Trailing
edges located in zone I B must be expected to receive multiple strokes to the
same spot and may have to be protected with several layers ofThorstrand or
other means if structural damage to the laminate is to be avoided.
Thorstrand TEF7 and flame-sprayed aluminum appear to provide
equivalent protection to laminates made of a combination of graphitelE
and Kevlar IE plies. Thorstrand is also effective for protection of laminates
made of Kevlar IE only. Flame-sprayed aluminum may be less effective than
Thorstrand for protection of Kevlar IE laminates based on the significantly
greater 'affected zone' after a lightning strike test, i.e. the greater area of
flame spray burned away from the laminate about the heat affected
attachment point.
In many applications the lightning protection systems must do more than
protect the aircraft from the direct effects of lightning. The indirect effects
can be just as hazardous. Low frequency magnetic field energy is emitted
from a lightning strike. This energy can upset many of the electrical
components with which it comes in contact. Thorstrand systems are now
being tested for their effectiveness in providing protection against these
indirect hazards.
It should be noted here that each structure possesses its own level of
susceptibility to damage by lightning. Lightning protection of a composite
structure is a problem that must be addressed early in the design stages.
Once a part has been placed in production, it is very difficult to provide that
structure with an efficient lightning protection system.
In a fashion analogous to the example cited above for lightning strike
protection, the intrinsic electrical or thermal conductivity characteristics of
the Metafil G fiber (used as the basic building block) provide the basis for
the development of fabric constructions for specific applications such as:
EMI (electromagnetic interference), static dissipation, parabolic dish
antennas, and thermal dissipation.
Simulated tests are subsequently employed to confirm the effectiveness of
the system design.

MANUF ACTURING TH ORSTRAND PROTECTED

STRUCTURES

Thorstrand prepregs possess the same drape, handling and processmg

characteristics as fiberglass prepreg systems, so the same processing
436 Gary L. Patz

techniques can be employed. After the Thorstrand prepreg is formed onto

the mold as the exterior ply and then cured with the glass, Kevlar or
graphite structural plies, the electrical and structural properties of the
Thorstrand ply become an integral part of that structure. No secondary
manufacturing step is necessary.
Over Kevlar structures the Thorstrand ply aids in minimizing the fraying
of the Kevlar structure during subsequent cutting and drilling.
An adequate means of conducting electrical currents into and away from
the Thorstrand-protected structure must be provided. This can be
accomplished by direct contact between adjacent Thorstrand plies, between
Thorstrand and other metallic elements, or by means of metallic fasteners.
If metallic fasteners are utilized to conduct the currents from Thorstrand-
protected structures to other conducting structures, direct contact should
be made between the Thorstrand and the fasteners to minimize electrical
sparking at these interfaces.
Lightning Technologies, Inc. recently evaluated a series of panels
manufactured by Vought Corporation for the purpose of determining
satisfactory metallic fastening methods for conducting current from the
Thorstrand-protected panel to the grounded aircraft substructure. They
reported that 'both the removable fasteners, which were spaced five inches
apart, and the aluminum and monel rivets, which were spaced 0·75 to 1·5
inches apart, permitted sparking to occur in their immediate vicinity during
the severe 200 kA stroke, but very little sparking was evident during the
50 kA stroke. Since current densities (i.e. current per rivet or fastener) in
most aircraft applications would be lower than those resulting during these
tests, the current per fastener would be less. Thus, any of the configurations
tested here would appear to be adequate to transfer current to interior
structural members without damage.'3 Individual designs should be
evaluated by simulated lightning tests if doubt exists as to their
effectiveness.

SUMMARY

Because of the uniformity and predictability of the basic fiber, Thorstrand

systems can be developed to meet the electrical, thermal and mechanical
requirements for almost any application. Thorstrand systems have been
successfully developed for lightning protection, static electricity dissi-
pation, EMI shielding, parabolic antenna dish surfaces and thermal
 Electrically Conductive Prepreg Systems 437

dissipation. Work is continuing at Hexcel in the areas of developing good

fastening techniques and producing maximum strength Thorstrand
systems with the lowest weight.

REFERENCES

1. Report of SAE Committee AE4 Special Task F, Lightning Test Waveforms and
Techniques for Aerospace Vehicles and Hardware, May 5, 1976.
2. PLUMER, J. A., Simulated Lightning Tests on Graphite Laminates Protected with
Thorstrand Aluminized Glass Cloth, Lightning Technologies, Inc., August 10,
1979.
3. PLUMER, J. A., Simulated Lightning Tests on Kevlar and Graphite Laminates
Protected with Thorstrand Aluminized Glass Cloth and Flame-Sprayed
Aluminum, Lightning Technologies, Inc., March 1981.
 29
Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic
Thermomechanometry (Dynamic Mechanical
Analysis)

P. BURROUGHS AND J. N. LECKENBY

Du Pont (UK) Ltd, Wedgwood Way,
Stevenage, Herts SGJ 4QN, England

ABSTRACT

Epoxy-fibre composite materials have been analysed by dynamic mechani-

cal analysis. The technique has been used to detect the glass transition of
highly cured composite materials and to investigate the curing reaction itself
for normally formulated and experimental materials. Both isothermal and
scanning temperature programs have been used, individually, and combined
in more complex cure cycles.
Differences in mechanical and curing properties brought about by a
variation in the composition of the reinforcingfibres have also been detected.

INTRODUCTION

Composite materials consisting of a thermosetting polymer and a

reinforcing agent are becoming increasingly important for applications in,
for example, the aerospace industry, the automotive industry, building and
electronics. In order to achieve maximum dimensional and high
temperature stability from such materials it is necessary to characterise the
curing (crosslinking) reaction in the polymer and to be able to measure the
degree of cure in the final product. Furthermore, changes brought about by
small differences in the product formulation and the reinforcing agent must
also be monitored.
Thermal analysis techniques have been used for some years to study
thermosetting polymers and, more recently, the same techniques have been
438
 Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic Thermomechanometry 439

applied to commercially availably reinforced thermosets. Data has been

presented at two recent meetings1,2 on the study of epoxy-graphite
composites by several T A techniques, and this paper reports a further
extension of that work with particular emphasis on the results obtained by
dynamic thermomechanometry or dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)
which, for a number of reasons, seems to be the most successful T A
technique for these materials.

MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTATION

A variety of reinforced epoxy resins have been used in this study from both
commercial and experimental sources, but the primary material in-
vestigated was Fibredux* 914 C which was supplied in the form of a
unidirectional carbon fibre prepreg from Ciba-Geigy. The polymeric phase
of this material is a proprietary mixture of epoxies that cure primarily in
reactions promoted by a solid curing agent or hardener which is present in
the prepreg in low quantities. The prepreg contains about 58 %by weight of
carbon fibre.
Du Pont thermal analysis equipment was used throughout this work,
together with either a model 990 thermal analyser or a model 1090 thermal
analyser/data system. The TA modules used were a 910 Differential
Scanning Calorimeter, a 981 Dynamic Mechanical Analyser and a 943
Thermomechanical Analyser.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study of the curing of composite epoxy systems by differential scanning

calorimetry (DSC) and the calculation of efficient cure cycles from the
kinetic parameters of the reaction is the subject of continuing work and will
be reported in a future communication. Whilst the curing of a prep reg can
be successfully followed at various pressures by DSC, as can be seen from
the data for Fibredux given in Fig. 1, the glass transition (and hence degree
of cure) for fully or nearly fully cured composites is sometimes not so
straightforward to detect. Figure 2 is the DSC data for Fibredux samples
cured under various conditions and shows nothing in the expected glass
transition region of 180 to 200°C, and is complicated by the exothermic

* Fibredux is a Ciba-Geigy registered trademark.

440 P. Burroughs and J. N. Leckenby
Sampl.. FIBREDUX 914 PREPREG Date. 2"-AUG-79 Time. 14.59.45
Six.. 15 MG "1".7/3.5 MPA N2 DSC
Rate. 1" DEG/MIN Dperator. P.BURRDUGHS

14

12
1 bar
IS
~
~
•
0
B
8bar
[;:
...
•
0 6
36 bar
:J:

S+S--+--+--+--1+0-0-+--+--+--+20-0-+T-e-m+p-e-r+a-tu-~+~-n-(+.-c-)+--+--4+0-0-+--+--+--+--+--+--+

FIG. 1. DSC results for Fibredux 914 prepreg.

Sample. CURED FIBREDUX 914 Dote. 2"-AUG-79 Time. 15."6.29

Siz.. 15 MG DSC
Rate. 2" DEG/MIN Dperator. P.BURRDUGHS

14 CURE ONLY: NO PQSTCURE

12 CURE AND POSTCURE:

NOT UNDER PRESSURE

CURE AND POSTCURE:

IS
UNDER PRESSURE

•
o
B
[;:

100 200 300

Te ...peraf;.ure (·e)
FIG. 2. DSC results for cured Fibredux.
 Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic Thermomechanometry 441

degradation reaction at higher temperatures. It has been found that the

higher the percentage of reinforcing agent present in the composite, the
more difficult it is to detect a glass transition by DSC at high levels of cure.
Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) or dilatometry is sometimes more
successful. Hassel and Blaine! have reported measuring expansion
coefficients for epoxy composites (glass fibre and graphite fibre reinforced)
and noted changes in values on going through the glass transition. Using
the thermomechanical analyser in its penetration mode (fitted with a
loaded, pointed sample probe) may at times give a clear indication of the
glass transition, but where the tip of the probe comes to rest directly on a
reinforcing fibre the experiment may produce no useful data.
Using sample blocks of approximately 0·2 cm thickness in the direction
of measurement, the expansion coefficient of cured Fibredux 914
unidirectional carbon fibre composite has been measured as 30 to
40 pm/m K in the axis at right angles to the carbon fibres. Figure 3 shows
TMA data for a small strip of cured Fibredux, 0'6cm square and 0'04cm
thick, standing on edge and with a flat sample probe loaded with I g resting
on the top edge of the sample. This mode of operation allows the sample to
buckle slightly as it softens at higher temperatures under the small
compressive force of the probe, and is less affected by inconsistencies in the
Saapl •• FIBREOUX 914 PART CURE Dat.•• 9-AUG-19 T1 ... 10. 3l!o 1'18
IlI.B CM
51:11: ... TMA
R.n. •• 5 OEG/MIN Op-ral.orl P.BURROUGHS

m
211 f

It

]'-28
&,
ti -411
6
~
";
<
.....
I
C
.....
+
II
--
-I"

•
-128
411 88 128 181 281 2411 2811 328 44It
T____ .n........ ('C)

FIG. 3. TMA results for cured Fibredux.

442 P. Burroughs and J. N. Leckenby

surface of the sample than operating the TMA in the penetration mode. The
first break in the lower curve at 176°C correlates well with the dynamic
mechanical analysis data for the glass transition region. The second break
at 240 °C is probably due to degradation.
By comparison with the data so far reported, the results obtained by
studying composite samples by dynamic mechanical analysis are
consistently clearer and potentially more useful. The use of a small visco-
elastic tester for studying epoxy laminates has been reported by HasseP and
the instrument has been described in detail elsewhere. 4 Favre 5 has also
reported the use of torsional braid analysis (TBA) to observe the curing of
Fibredux 914. Figure 4 is a survey D MA scan of Fibredux 914 prepreg from
a subambient temperature and shows the glass transition (as measured by a
peak in the energy damping curve at O°C) and the curing reaction above
163°C which is indicated by an increase in the sample's resonant frequency.
This frequency may be used to calculate the Young's modulus of the sample
when the sample is clamped vertically in the instrument, and the damping
value, given here in m V, may be used to calculate the loss modulus or tan D.
These calculations are most conveniently performed using an on-line data
reduction system. 6 Figure 5 shows DMA data for two Fibredux samples,
one cured under high pressure and the other cured under only one
atmosphere of pressure. Not only does the data show the glass transition
clearly by a decrease in frequency and a peak in the damping, but the lower

GRAPHITE-EPOXY PREPREG
IDMAJ
28
,
,,
Size 12x10x04mm I

Program SOC/min
24 Mode Vertical
I
I
20 I :;-
.s
OOG
I
",
N x20
!. I (9
18 z

,, ,,
>
u ,, I 0::
zw
,
I, I ::;
I
12
,,
<I;
:> I 0
0
w I I
T
'-'
II: 8 I
"-
I
I
---' 1.
4

-80 -40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360

TEMPERATURE (DC)

FIG. 4. DMA results for Fibredux 914 prepreg.

 Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic Thermomechanometry 443
PARTIAL CURING
Graphite-Epoxy Composite IOMAI

14

12

10
--- - .....
.......
""
100

80

N
I CURED UNDER PRESSURE" "
" 60
:;-
E
8 ......
>-
o ..... ..... C)
z
40
zw NOT CURED UNDER PRESSURE ...... c;:
6 ::;;
:J 4:
ow SIze 120x120x04mm 30 o
cr: Program T
"-
LM-=-o",de_ _V.:..:e--,-'toc:..:ca,---1_ _- - - ' / ' " - ....... 20 I
",
I
",
10
o .,/ '"
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300

TEMPERATURE ('C)

FIG. 5. DMA results for cured Fibredux.

high temperature mechanical strength of the sample which was not cured
under pressure can be clearly seen. In the industrial curing process pressure
is always applied to epoxy-graphite prepregs to enable the resin to fill the
voids between the fibres and so give better mechanical properties in the final
product.
The curing reaction itself may also be studied by DMA as the following
data will show. Figure 6 shows the increase in frequency values of samples
of Fibredux prepreg curing under isothermal conditions (the temperatures
are noted on the curves). Gel times can be measured from the first upward
turn in the frequency and are as follows.
l700e Gel point = 7·0 min
193°e 4·5 min
205°e 3·5 min
21re 2·8 min
Whilst the gel time is an important parameter for a thermosetting
material it is felt that, in this particular system, the gel time is governed by (i)
the curing agent melting and going into solution and (ii) the conduction of
heat through the predominantly graphite matrix and the consequent slow
time for the whole sample to achieve thermal equilibrium. However, once
the curing reaction has started and been in progress for some minutes these
two factors become less important. The initial rate of reaction can be
 444 P. Burroughs and J . N. Leckenby

ISOTHERMAL CURE
Graphite-Epoxy Prepreg

28

24

N
!. 20
>-
U 170·C
Z 16
UJ
::J
aUJ
12
a:: S,ze 120x 116 ",07 mm
"-
Program ISOlherma'
8 Mode Honzontal

oL-~ __ L-~_ _~_ _L-~_ _~~_ _~~~~-

o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44

TIME (min)

FIG. 6. Isothermal curing studied by DMA.

Sam"I ... EXf-ER!MENTIIL Flflrd::[)I:X

Size. !.1Il X I. 5 X il.l eM
Rat... 5 OEG/MIN

16

1.

.. 12

'",...
0
10

,•.-
(

L
U-
•

~~0~+-~~~--~~~~~1~00~+-~I~c.---~I~'~0~~I~OO~~~I~~--~~~0-+~2~~---~~.i.2~~~;;-+
T....p.ralur. c·e) OuPont 1i!91i!

FIG. 7. Variation of resonance frequency during cure: 0, normal formulation, X, +20 %

curing agent, D, - 20 %curing agent.
 Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic Thermomechanometry 445

estimated from the tangent of the angle marked on the Figure and
preliminary calculations show that this may be a more useful parameter for
characterising the curing reaction than the gel time.
The dynamic mechanical analyser used for this study has the ability to
take small samples (for example 1·0 x 1·5 x 0·1 cm strips) and can
thermally program such samples at the relatively high rate of 5 °Cjmin. This
has been done on three experimental Fibredux 914 C epoxy-graphite
composites, two with non-standard hardener contents ( + 20 %and - 20 %
of the normal values) and one correctly formulated. Figure 7 shows the
frequency curves for the three samples (each point being the mean value of
the corresponding frequency from three separate runs on the same type of
sample). Even though it is not possible to calculate accurate elastic modulus
values for these samples which tend to separate and distort on curing, the
data shows that the sample low in hardener content requires a higher
temperature to cure to the same degree as the other two samples. The curve
needs to be shifted by approximately 20 degrees to overlap the other two.
The hardener rich sample and the correctly formulated sample are much
closer together and difficult to distinguish. However, Fig. 8 compares the
Sompl., EXPERIMENTAL FIBREDUX Out., 23- MAY- B0 Ti ..., 1111,49,36
Sh.., I. III X I. 5 X Ill. 1 eM OM A
R"t .., 5 DEG/MIN Op.rotor, P.BURROUGHS

·16

UJ

-
c 'u
o
·12

·10

'06

'02+-~--~-+~--~+-~~-+~--~+-~~-t~~~+-~--~~
.a BIl 811 1110 1211 1 "" 1611 1lIB 21!2 221! 24e 2tiI!
T.mp.r"t~. C"C> DuPont 11119111

FIG. 8. Variation of damping during cure: 0, normal formulation, X, + 20 %curing agent,

D, -20% curing agent,
446 P. Burroughs and J. N. Leckenby

calculated tan £5 values of the same three samples (once again each point is a
mean of three runs) and differences between samples are more obvious. As
might be expected, the data from the normally formulated sample falls
between that from the hardener rich and deficient samples. The tan £5 curve
for the hardener rich sample also appears to be peaking at about 240°C,
suggesting that the curing reaction is nearer completion than the other two
samples at this temperature.
During the industrial curing process for epoxy composites the thermal
profile is not normally a linear increase in temperature up to a preset
maximum level, but is usually a cure cycle in which the sample is raised to an
intermediate temperature to decrease the viscosity of the resin, and held for
a period of time at this temperature (the high pressure is often applied at this
point). The temperature is then raised again to initiate the cure, and the
sample held for some time at the higher temperature. The effectiveness of
such cure cycles may be tested using DMA by simulating the thermal
profile used industrially. A typical cure cycle for a graphite-epoxy
composite consists of raising the temperature at 5°C/min, holding at 175°C
for 1 h, then raising the temperature to 195°C and holding it there for 4 h.
Figure 9 shows how the resonant frequency (elastic modulus) of a normal
Fibredux graphite-epoxy prepreg changes on undergoing this cure cycle.
The importance of the 195 ° post-cure period can be seen by the increase in
frequency from 35 Hz to 50 Hz during this time, corresponding to a

STEPPED ISOTHERMAL CURE

Graphite-Epoxy Prepreg
70

60

50
N 195'C
!.
>- 40
I.)
Z
w Size 12x12x04mm
:::J 30
aw Program Cure Cycle
Mode HOrizontal
a:
L1. 20

o
o 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440

TIME (min)

FIG. 9. A typical cure cycle followed by DMA.

 Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic Thermomechanometry 447

doubling of the modulus. The use of high pressure probably causes an even
greater increase in modulus during this postcure period, but the 4-h limit
was set since it is not economically worth while to cure the sample for longer
periods. Only a small further increase in modulus would take place after
this time.
The final series of Figures show how D MA can easily reveal differences in
the mechanical properties of the cured composites formed from a single
epoxy resin reinforced with different fibre materials. A graphite reinforced
system (Fig. 10) shows approximately a 70 % drop in modulus in going
through the glass transition, whereas a glass-fibre reinforced composite
(Fig. 11) shows a slightly lower drop in modulus, approximately 60 %over
the same temperature range. The damping peak maxima at the glass
transitions for these two samples are both around 200°C. By comparison,
an epoxy system reinforced with aramid fibres (Fig. 12) also shows a
modulus drop of about 70 %, but at a temperature some twenty degrees
lower, suggesting that the degree of cure is lower in this composite than in
the other two samples. This may be due to a blocking effect on the
crosslinking reaction caused by reaction with the active sites on the aramid
fibre. The glass transition of these three materials could not be detected
easily using DSC, and only DMA was able to show the difference in
mechanical properties in the region on the glass transition.

GRAPHITE I EPOXY COMPOSITE IDMA I

40

35
I
I
30 Sample SIZe: 115(WlKl 0 1I 600
(T)x193
25 (Umm
Prog Rate : 5°C/min
~500
I
Atm. N, (,
FREOUENCY 20 Maunr . Longitudinal , ' ~ 400 DAMPING
(Hz) '------'----'----', \
, I (mV)

,, \
\ I
15 ~300
\ I

10
,I \
\
I
1200
,,
I \
\ I
\
5 I , ~ 100
,~
......... _... '"
I \
, .....,- I
I

o 100 200 300

TEMPERATURE (OC)

FIG. 10. DMA results for a graphite/epoxy composite.

448 P. Burroughs and J. N. Leckenby

GLASS/EPOXY COMPOSITE \OMA\

I
I
30 -1240
I
I
i'\ I
I \ I
25 I \ .., 200
Sample SIZe. II 5(W). I I (T) \
\
.195(L)mm I I
Prog Rate : 5°Clmln. I
20 Atm. . N, \ ., 160
Mount . Longitudinal I
\ I
\ I
FREQUENCY I I DAMPING
15 -I 120
(Hz) I (mV)
I

10 80
\
\
\
\
5 I I 40
/ \
/' .... __ ..... ~
/
I
\
\
"
"-
0 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE (OC)

FIG. II. DMA results for a glass/epoxy composite.

ARAMID / EPOXY COMPOSITE IOMAI

II 1 800
II I
I I I
I I 1 700
I I
I I
I Sample SIZe: 116(W). 18(T)
60 I .19.3(Umm 11600
I Prag Rate : 5°C/mln 1
FREQUENCY I DAMPING
(Hz) 50 I
AIm : N, J 500 (mV)
I Mount Longitudinal I
I
40 I 1400
I
I
I
I 1
30 1 300
I
I I
I
20 J 200
..... I
I
--_
/' /
.... .....
/
I
 Analysis of Composite Materials by Dynamic Thermomechanometry 449

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the statT of Ciba-Geigy Ltd, Duxford, UK, for
several helpful discussions and for providing fresh normal and experimen-
tal Fibredux 914 C prepreg samples.

REFERENCES

1. HASSEL, R. L. and BLAINE, R. L., Proceedings of the SAM PE Symposium, San

Francisco, 1979.
2. BURROUGHS, P., BLAINE, R. L. and GILL, P. S., Proceedings of the NATAS
Meeting, Chicago, 1979.
3. HASSEL, R. L., Quality control of thermosets, Industrial Researchj
Developments, 20 (1978).
4. LOFTHOUSE, M. G. and BURROUGHS, P., J. Thermal Anal., 13 (1978) 437-53.
5. FAVRE, J. P., Proceedings of the '2 e Conference International sur les Materiaux
Composites', Toronto, 1978.
6. LEVY, P. F., BLAINE, R. L., GILL, P. S. and LEAR, J. D., Thermal analysis-
Advances in instrumentation, International Laboratory, 9 (1979) 53-60.
 30
Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress-
Wave-Factor and Acoustic Emission

T. GREEN
ALLEN

Acoustic Emission Technology Corporation, 1812J Tribute Road,

Sacramento, California 95815, USA

ABSTRACT

The development ofacoustic emission and stress-wave-factor methodsfor the

evaluation of composite materials and structures is discussed. Reference to
existing work and on-going programs shows the direction for the use of both
methods. Acoustic emission measurements rely on the self:originating
signals created during deformation whilst the stress-wave-factor method
utilizes an externally stimulated impulse and properties within the material
which perturb the signal.
Promising results are shown for both methods.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that the analysis and inspection of composite materials and
structures is currently a difficult and imprecise science. Two methods which
are finding greater use in both these areas are the stress-wave-factor and
acoustic emission. The stress-wave-factor is basically a measure of the
efficiency of stress-wave energy transmission and acoustic emissions are
self-generated stress waves created by deformation of the material.
While both stress-wave-factor (SWF) and acoustic emission (AE)
inspections (or examinations) are relatively easy to perform and permit one
to obtain data, they are distinctly different in many aspects. The major
differences are that the stress-wave-factor is a dynamic method and acoustic
emission is a passive method, and that AE is generated by actual
450
 Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress-Wave-Factor and Acoustic Emission 451

deformation of the material while the SWF is a measure of the transmission

of an artificially generated stress-wave. Additionally, AElmethodology in
composites has been developing since its application to E and S glass
'Polaris' filament wound rocket motor cases! in the early 1960s to where,
today, we find nearly a dozen companies producing AE equipment for
commercial sale. Stress-wave-factor, also referred to as acousto-
ultrasound, on the other hand, is of more recent origin 2-the late 1970s-
with only a single company producing commercial equipment.
Acoustic emission examinations of composite materials and structures
are generally conceived with the normal non-destructive examination
objectives of the detection and location of defects. Stress-wave-factor
examinations, while capable of detection and location, are also suitable for
ranking composite structures according to strength.

BACKGROUND AND DISCUSSION

(A) Acoustic emission methods in composite structures began in the early

1960s with the 'Polaris' rocket motor case project as a research and
development program. 3 In all AE methods the microscope signals are
amplified and frequency filtered and then processed by two primary
methods. One is counting threshold crossings (each AE event creates
multiple threshold crossings due to the resonant decay of the signal from
the sensor and/or structure), and the other is measuring the total signal
level. In the first method, simple counters may be utilized to establish total
counts or count rates, and the second method may utilize RMS or TMS
(Root-Mean-Squared or True-Mean-Squared) voltage measuring circuits.
Within threshold measurement methods other characteristics of the AE
event, such as peak amplitude, event duration and rise-time, can be
established. Other parameters can be associated and tracked for additional
correlation to the AE data. Filtering, based upon characteristics of the AE
event and/or external parameters and/or spatial notations, enables a wide
range of discriminatory levels to be applied. This feature enables portions
of structures to be isolated while being monitored and certain material
performance levels, such as resin (matrix) cracking, to be separated from
filament or interlaminar failures.
For example, in composite materials, the multitude of matrix failures can
best be followed by RMS/TMS measurements, while filament failures or
delaminations can be defined by the threshold counting methods.
During the early AE effort, we observed that not only could we
452 Allen T. Green

distinguish good structure from bad (i.e. unable to meet minimum pressure
test levels on a second cycle), but we could also: (I) measure the consistency
of the production process and (2) define at least three modes of structural
degradation-(a) matrix crazing, (b) filament fracture and (c) interlaminar
shear.
Figure I illustrates the amplitude analysis performed on the analog
recorded AE data, which defined filament failures and interlaminar shear
failures. Similar results are shown in Fig. 2, obtained from a frequency
spectral analysis. These analyses were confirmed by other experimental
destructive and non-destructive methods, including special specimen
testing, interlaminar strain gages and destructive sectioning.
In most materials, an effect named after one of the original researchers in
the field of AE is very demonstrative and has been utilized in helping to
diagnose the remaining structural integrity. The effect is the short-term
irreversibility of AE, known as the Kaiser Effect. The Kaiser Effect is
illustrated by stressing a material to a predetermined level, reducing the
stress, and then returning to a level beyond that originally reached. On the
first cycle, acoustic emission data will be noted whilst, on the second cycle,
no A E data will be detected un til the first level is exceeded or, as might

~.

"
2.,

22,000

11,000

.... 10,000

G
@ 6.000
::l
go
t! ~,ooo

o 2 •• •• 0 7.' 10.0 12.' n.O 17.' 20.0 22.1 2.LO

Pressure Increment, psig

*Notes: 1. Filament Failures

2. Interlaminar Shear Failures
3. Amplitude Shown as 6 dB (Acceleration Ratio of 2)
Between Contours
FIG. I. Amplitude analysis (composite pressure vessel) .
 Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress-Wove-Factor and Acoustic Emission 453

26,000

22,000

M
....... 18,000
til
0.
u
. 14,000
>-
U
zCol 10,000
:::>
QI
~ 6,000
'"
2,000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

TIME, mi llisec

FIG. 2. Frequency analysis. Spectrograph of hydrotest of ' Polaris' A3 filament wound

chamber.

happen under fatigue conditions, additional damage is sustained. In

instances where sufficient background information regarding the ~E
performance of a material has been previously established, the Kaiser
Effect, or the lack of it (sometimes referred to as the Felicity Effect), may be
used to establish the deformation or damage level previously sustained.
The classic example of using the Kaiser Effect in composites was
accomplished on the 'Trident' rocket motor cases, made from Kevlar-49/
epoxy as a filament wound structure.4 A hydropressure test schedule was
established for these structures so as to repeat a stress level range once
during each test. During the test, little or no acoustic emission is expected
while the motor case pressurization passes through this zone. The pressure
schedule and data obtained from two sensors are shown in Fig. 3. On
chambers which failed prematurely at low stress levels, high amounts of AE
data were recorded in this pressure increment. Conversely, good structures
showed little or no emission while passing through this pressure range.
Refinement of the data enabled a quantitative measurement of performance
for these limited use structures to be obtained, as is shown in the correlation
of the data points and the 95 % confidence limits of Fig. 4.
The most widespread use of AE has been in the chemical industry under
the auspices of the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) and their
Committee on AE for Reinforced Plastics (CARP) group. CARP has
developed a Recommended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of
454 Allen T. Green

KAISER
EFFECT
ZONE

N004

N002

MEOP

O ~~~~~-----------------
time time
A. Location of the Ka iser B. Iyplca I RHS Display of
Effec t Zone ACou5tic Emission Data

FIG. 3. Acoustic emission pressure test and data.

1--" ....
130 130
I~ 1..- ..... "J: i.-
12 0 12 0
~~ h-I--"
~
!i!
11 0
100
b
10
II 0 1 _
100
~ .... 0 f-I-
e 90 II;) 90
>.-- ....
Ie I,.-p
~

80 80
~
70 70
6 60
50 y . 110.19 + 0 .125X ' - f-
50
40 40
SY.X . 6 .09 8
r - 0.88a
I- -
) 0 )0
20
11 1 1 I 1 1
0 10
1 I I I 11
0
II 1 1 ILL
-160 -120 -80 - 40 o -+40 -+{IO + 120 0 -160 -120 -80 ·40 o -+40 +80 +120

K A P (PSIG) KAP (PSIG)

A. Scatter Diagram for First Stage B. Regr ession for First Stage
Irident-I (C-4) Chambers
Trident-I (C-4) Chambers

FIG. 4. Kaiser Effect zone acoustic emission pressure increment versus burst pressure
(Kevlar chambers).
 Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress-Wave-Factor and Acoustic Emission 455

Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels. 5 This recom-

mended practice is for application on new and in-service equipment, limited
to tests not to exceed 65 psia above hydrostatic test pressure and a vacuum
of less than 9 psia. The fact that FRP exhibit the Kaiser Effect only up to a
percentage of ultimate load, beyond which emission will begin at loads
lower than the previously attained maximum, is strongly used in the
recommended practice (Felicity Effect). Use of this effect makes it possible
to test in-service structures without exceeding their maximum operating
stresses. The chance of permanent damage is eliminated. The ratio of the
load (stress) at the onset of AE to the previously attained maximum load
has been defined as the Felicity Ratio. The lower the number, the greater the
damage. While much good use has been made of the Kaiser Effect-or the
lack of it (Felicity Ratio)-it is an area where research must continue
primarily because of the need to understand the effect of time on this
phenomenon. 6 Table 1 presents the acceptance criteria developed by CAR P
for new and in-service vessels. While the criteria may appear circumspect,

TABLE I
Acceptance criteria

Criteria I. Cri teria II. Significance

New vessels All other of criterion
first filling vessels

Emissions during None beyond None beyond Measure of continuing

hold 2 min 2 min permanent damage
caused by creep of
the matrix
Felicity Ratio Greater than Greater than Measure of severity of
0·95 a 0·95 previously induced
damage
Total counts Less than N/ Measure of overall
damage during a load
cycle
Number of events Less than 10 Less than lOa Measure of high-energy
greater than micro-structural
reference failures. This criterion
amplitude is often associated
threshold b with fiber breakage

NOTES: Criteria in italics are the most significant.

a This criteria will seldom govern.
b Varies with instrumentation manufacturer.
456 A lien T. Green

they have been based upon a relatively large number (over 400) of actual
tests of FRP structures. 7 Further data continue to be acquired regularly.
Similar use of AE testing is widespread among 'boom' truck industrial
users. Here again, structural loading over a predetermined program range
and use of the Kaiser Effect have become accepted methods of establishing
the structural adequacy of these booms. 8
(B) The stress-wave-factor method of evaluating composite materials and
structures involves injecting a low amplitude stress pulse into a specimen
and processing the received signal with acoustic emission methods. The
processed data have been found to characterize the factors attributed to
composite failures, such as constituent strengths and moduli lamination
orientations, flaw populations and distributions, applied and residual
stresses, energy dissipation dynamics and fracture propagation paths. They
have also been found to assess the integrated effect of flaw populations as
well as the more subtle effects such as fiber-resin bonding and ratios. 9 In the
method the pulses are generated at a repetition rate, g, with each successive
pulse identical to its predecessors. After amplification, the received signals
are sent to a electronic counter and a root-me an-squared voltmeter. The
counter determines the number of oscillations, n, received in each time
window which exceed a fixed threshold value. The time window of the
counter is reset after each interval, r. The displayed count assumes a
constant value soon after the sensors are coupled to the specimen. The
number is described as the stress-wave-factor, e, where e = grn.
Since the number e is arbitrary and depends on factors such as sensor
pressure, coupling, gain, reset time (r), threshold voltage, repetition rate

200
UPPER BOUND
CURVE,
\
100
80

••
60
STRESS WAVE
FACTOR 40 •
•
20 ••
•
10'---' _ _...L..._--'_...L..._-'-----'
50 100 200 300 500 800
CURE PRESSURE, psi

FIG. 5. Stress wave factor versus core pressure (Varyl°).

 Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress-Wave-Factor and Acoustic Emission 457

(g), and so forth, it will reflect only material variation of the specimen tested
if all these factors are kept constant for any series of measurements.
Figure 5 shows the stress-wave-factor variation with cure pressure for
graphite polyimide composite panels of AS/PMR-15 12 ply unidirectional
construction. According to the author, prior tests had indicated that the
range of cure pressure would produce a significant range of void contents
and fiber/resin ratios. The material strength increases directly with cure
pressure, the higher values of SWF (e) corresponding to greater
interlaminar shear strength (see Fig. 6).
The curve in Fig. 5 is actually an upper bound that represents an
apparent optimum condition for a given cure pressure. Ultrasonic C scan,
performed on one of the low-cure pressure and e value panels, has shown
the SWF to distinguish inferior material that can arise even when a key
processing parameter, cure pressure, is controlled.
As with all stress wave measurements, the C values are related to
positions along the specimen length. The C value for the specimens
subjected to interrupted loadings showed that the point of specimen
fracture coincided with minimal values. The data shown in Fig. 7
demonstrate that the stress-wave-factor correctly ranked the ultimate
strengths despite porosity variations. 10
Two 1in-thick graphite- epoxy panels, purposely damaged by different
energy impacts, were scanned by acousto-ultrasound and SWF readings

LOGARITHM -.~

NORMA lIZ ED
STRESS
-I
WAVE
FACTOR
-l.~

NORMALIZED INTERLAMINAR SHEAR STRENGTH, ( d ILS )

FIG. 6. Stress wave factor versus interlaminar shear strength in graphitejpolyimide laminate
(Vary and Bowles 2 ).
458 Allen T. Green

PLY MIGLES = 90 10 t~5 Ot~5 0 PEG

1.0
NORMALIZED
STRESS
WAVE
FACTOR

.1
.01 . 1 1 10
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH, cfUT ' GPA

FIG. 7. Stress wave factor versus tensile strength for graphite/epoxy laminates. (Vary and
Lark 9 ).

were developed. Figure 8 shows the panels, as marked off in !-in squares,
with the associated SWF readings noted graphically. The darker the color,
the lower the SWF. I I
Panel No.1 had three impacted areas at locations (1) F- G/12- 13, (2)
F-G /24- 25 and (3) F- G /35-36. Locations (1) and (2) showed de-
laminations on the rear surface of the panel while location (3) was only
casually visible on the front surface. Panel No . 2 had a total often impacted
areas, three of which showed no visible surface marks while five penetrated
the panel thickness, causing rear surface delaminations. The SWF
examination was conducted only from the front surface. Through thickness
readings could also have been obtained in this case, but were not.
Figure 9 shows a computer-derived three-dimensional representation of
the SWF data for Panel 1. The three impact points are clearly delineated.
The SWF data for Panel 2 are shown in three-dimensional projection in
Fig. 10. The heavily damaged (dark areas in Fig. 8) areas are clearly shown
as peaks in this display. Similar representation of this information can be
obtained as a grey scale for reference to conventional NDE methods.
Williams and Lambert 12 have reported SWF measurements, also
conducted on unidirectional AS/3501-1 continuous graphite fiber- epoxy
composites. Specimens damaged by impact and then tested for residual
tensile strength were SWF inspected. The residual tensile strength was
correlated with the SWF. The authors concluded that the results suggest
that impact damage in graphite- fiber composites can be non-destructively
assessed quantitatively using either through thickness attenuation (not
always possible) or the SWF.
 Evaluation of Composite Structures by Stress- Wave-Factor and Acoustic Emission 459

(;) o o o o o o
o o o

o c o
- - - --

PANel #1

(') PANel #2 o o o
(') c o o c o o o

CaD
liIo _
" .. r' ,.
II ..
I EJOKI
1\0
•f
too
iII lll l ol·1 I
"t

. . . . . . . ,·.. . wo .. <'h ... , .. . ..

,. . . . . . . , . . . .. ,~• • , .. t _
I
,_
.: ~I I
/f •
011....
•

"
:
I

•
liIa-:c:o:x:'l: alll l ol ·1
~:; ~ r, ~::;; ~;!:~ ,~::~
Ii':"
:;:;

FIG. 8. Graphite--epoxy panels stress wave factor examination.

460 Allen T. Green

FIG. 9. Panel I with (J = -10 and cjJ = 45.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the following conclusions may be drawn regarding AE and

SWF inspections of composite materials and structures.
(1) AE tests, when properly planned and conducted, can provide
information regarding the serviceability of the part and may be capable of
establishing the mode of degradation.
(2) AE testing requires some means of actively stressing the part under
investigation. While this might be done in-service, usually it is through an
additional test procedure.
(3) SWF is a sensitive indicator of composite strength variations that
accompany various fiber orientations relative to the load axis.
(4) For a given fiber orientation, SWF is also sensitive to strength
variations associated with differences in fiber-resin bonding, voids and
fiber-resin ratios. For the composite tensile specimens studied, the SWF
decreased proportionally with fractional powers of ultimate strength.
(5) The SWF may be a useful aid in predicting potential failure locations
in composite laminates.
 .-{'
y

8 = - 80 an
d </J = _ 30.
FIG . 10. Panel 2 with
462 A lien T. Green

REFERENCES

1. GREEN,A. T., LOCKMAN, C. S. and HAINES, H. K., Acoustic analysis offilament-

wound 'Polaris' chambers, Aerojet-General Corp. Report 0672-0IF, 16
September, 1963.
2. VARY, A. and BOWLES, K. J., Use of an ultrasonic-acoustic technique for
nondestructive evaluation of fiber composite strength, NASA Technical
Memorandum TM-73813, February, 1978.
3. GREEN, A. T., LOCKMAN, C. S. and STEELE, R. K., Acoustic verification of
structural integrity of'Polaris' chambers, Society for Plastic Engineers, 27-30
January, 1964.
4. JESSEN, E. c., SPANHEIMER, H. and DEHERRA, A. J., Prediction of composite
pressure vessel performance by application of the Kaiser Effect in acoustic
emissions, ASME Paper H3000-12-2-037, June, 1975.
5. Recommended Practice For Acoustic Emission Testing of Fiberglass
Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels, Committee on Acoustic
Emission from Reinforced Plastics (CARP). A Working Group of the Society
of the Plastics Industry, 2-3 December, 1980.
6. HAMSTAD, M. A., Testing fiber composites with acoustic emission monitoring,
University of California, UCRL No. 85428,23 January, 1981.
7. FOWLER, T. J., Acoustic emission testing of plant components, ETCE, New
Orleans, Louisiana, 3-7 February, 1980.
8. SWAIN, W. E., Nondestructive testing of aerial man-lift and digger derrick
equipment using acoustic emission, International Conference of Acoustic
Emission, Anaheim, California, 13 September, 1979.
9. VARY, A. and LARK, R. F., Correlation offiber composite tensile strength with
the ultrasonic stress-wave-Jactor, NASA TM-78846, April, 1978.
10. VARY, A., Recent advances in acousto-ultrasonic measurements of composite
mechanical properties, ASNT, St Louis, October, 1979.
II. THOMPSON, L. A., Stress-wave-Jactor examination of impact-damaged graphite
epoxy panels, AET Memorandum, 17 October, 1980.
12. WILLIAMS, J. H. and LAMBERT, N. R., Ultrasonic evaluation of impact-
damaged graphite fiber composite, Materials Evaluation (December, 1980),
68-72.
 31

Vibration Testing of Composite Materials

J. L. WEARING AND C. PATTERSON

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield,

Mappin Street, Sheffield Sl 3JD, England

ABSTRACT

The use of composite materials for engineering applications requires the

determination of their properties for the analysis, manufacture and quality
control of the materials. Conventional static tests are normally unsuitable
for composites because of the problems associated with clamping the
specimens. Suitable alternative experimental techniques must be employed,
therefore, if reliable results are to be obtained for the properties of these
composite materials.
In this paper a vibrational technique for the determination of the
properties of thin laminated plates is discussed. An expression is developed
for the determination of the natural frequencies of orthotropic rectangular
plates. Experimentally determined natural frequencies and mode shapes of
appropriately manufactured specimens are used in conjunction with the
developed expression to determine the properties of the laminate under
consideration.
In this initial investigation, to test the validity of the proposed approach,
indust rially derived specimens have been tested. The results are presented and
their accuracy is discussed.

NOTATION

a, b, h length, breadth and thickness of rectangular plate

m, n integers
time
463
464 J. L. Wearing and C. Patterson

w deflection of plate
W maximum deflection of plate
x, y co-ordinates directions
C II , C 22 , C 33 } cons tant lated to materIa
s re . I properties
.
C 12 , C 21
Arnn constant in assumed deflected form of plate
DxDy } constants related to material properties and plate
Dxy,D I thickness
Ex, Ey Young's moduli in the x and y directions
GXY torsional rigidity in the xy plane
H\rnn), Hi"'n)
Hjrnn), H~rnn) } constants related to derivatives of plate's deflected form
Kmn element in matrix obtained from maximum kinetic energy
Mmn element in matrix obtained from maximum strain energy
Trnax maximum kinetic energy
Urnax maximum strain energy
(Jx' (Jy normal stresses in the x and y directions
Txy shear stress in xy plane
Gx ' Gy normal strains in the x and y directions
Yxy shear strain in xy plane
v x ' Vy Poisson's ratios in the x and y directions
¢m(x), 8n (y) modal shapes of beams used in assumed deflected form of
plate
natural frequency of plate
Eigenvalue of plate
material density

INTRODUCTION

The demands imposed on present day structures have led engineers to

investigate the possibility of using new materials for the manufacture of
engineering components and structures. For example, engineering
applications in the use of stronger and lighter composite materials can be
found in the design and manufacture of space vehicles, heat shields and
deep submergence vessels.
The use of composite materials for engineering applications requires,
however, the determination of their properties for the analysis, manufac-
ture and quality control of the components which are to be produced with
such materials. One of the prerequisites in any experimental programme for
 Vibration Testing of Composite Materials 465

the determination of material properties is to use specimens which are

manufactured in the same way as the intended end product. If that
requirement is not met, the experimental effort is wasted. Previous methods
of determining the elastic constants of composites have been based mainly
on ultrasonic pulse propagation techniques and static tests. 1.2
The ultrasonic technique is based on the measurement of the velocities of
high frequency elastic waves propagating along known directions in the
composite. The velocity of the waves is dependent on the nature of the wave,
the material density and the elastic stiffness components. Ultrasonic
techniques are normally used to determine the properties of viscoelastic
composites or polymeric materials. These techniques have been used
successfully by Dean and Turner 3 for the characterization of elastic
composite materials.
Static tests require simple tensile compressive or bending specimens of
the material to be investigated, but there are inherent difficulties in such
tests. The simple tensile test requires undirectional samples and is therefore
unsuitable for cross-ply laminates. The formulae, which are used to
determine the experimental data, are based on linear stress-strain
relationships. Problems arise, therefore, in maintaining the deflections in
static tests within the linear stress-strain regime. Additionally, information
obtained from static tests may be subject to errors arising from local stress
concentrations, frictional effects, deformations around the loading and
support points and creep effects.
The industrially derived specimens tested for the work outlined in this
chapter were composites in the form of thin laminates and a vibrational
technique has been used for the determination of the material properties.
Thin rectangular plate specimens of the laminates were employed and the
Rayleigh-Ritz method was used to develop an expression for the
calculation of the natural frequencies of thin orthotropic plates.
Experimentally determined natural frequencies of appropriately manufac-
tured specimens were used, in conjunction with the developed expression,
to determine the properties of the laminates and the results of this iritial
investigation are presented here.

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS AND MATERIAL

PROPERTIES

It is necessary to examine the basic stress-strain relationships to ascertain

the number of independent material properties required to completely
466 J. L. Wearing and C. Patterson

characterize any material. The thin rectangular plate specimens tested were
comprised of bonded layers of fibre such that the fibre directions of
alternate layers were orientated in the same direction with the fibre
directions of the intervening layers being in a perpendicular direction (i.e.
the fibre formation was 0°-90°_0°). They were, therefore, assumed to be
orthotropic. As the normal stress components of thin rectangular plates are
assumed to be negligible, the stress-stress relationships for a thin
orthotropic rectangular plate lying in the xy plane are given by the matrix
expressIOn:

(I)

The coefficients, C jj , in eqn. (I) are related to the plate's material

properties by the expressions:

Ex
C 11-I_
- (2)
vv
x y

Ey
C 22 = (3)
I- VxVy

vyEx
C -
12-I_vv (4)
x y

C _ vxEy
21 - (5)
1- VxVy

C 33 = G XY (6)

Of the five independent elastic constants given in the above equations,

only four are independent. As the matrix of coefficients in eqn. (l) is
symmetrical, the following relationships can therefore be obtained from
eqns (4) and (5):

(7)

leading to the determination of the fifth property.

 Vibration Testing of Composite Materials 467

NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND MODE SHAPES OF

RECTANGULAR PLATES

The equation of motion of free vibrations of a thin orthotropic rectangular

plate is:

in which the constants, D x, D[, Dxy and D y, are given by the expressions:

3
D [ =ll- -
C 12h )

(9)
C 33 h 3
Dxy =-12-

Equation (8) cannot normally be solved to determine the natural

frequencies and mode shapes of a rectangular plate with any combination
of boundary conditions. An approximate technique must, therefore, be
used for the calculation of the natural frequencies. Of the approximate
techniques which may be used the Rayleigh-Ritz method is one of the better
known. To determine the natural frequencies using the method, the
maximum strain and kinetic energies of the vibrating plate are equated.
These are given respectively by the expressions:

U max
= ~2 1ao 1b [Dx(~2axW)2 + Dy (8a2yW)2
0
2 2

and:

Tmax =~ phw; f J: W 2 dydx (11 )

Equating eqns (10) and (11) results in the following expression:

(12)
The natural frequencies of the vibrating plate are obtained from eqn. (12)
by assuming, initially, that the deflected form of the vibrating plate is a
series solution of the type indicated by eqn. (13):
(13)
468

FIG. I. Nodal pattern 3/2 of a cantilevered rectangular plate.

The assumed deflected form is substituted into eqn. (12) and the
constants, A mn , adjusted to make it a minimum. This is achieved by
differentiating the resulting expression with respect to each of the constants,
A mn , to give a series of equations of the form:

aumax _ aTmax = 0
(14)
aAmn aAmn
from which the natural frequencies of the vibrating plate are obtained.
The functions <Pm(x) and On(Y) which have been chosen to represent the
deflected form (eqn. (13)) of the vibrating plate are those which represent
the normal modes of vibration of uniform beams. Beam functions have
been used by Warburton 4 and YoungS for the determination of the natural
frequencies of isotropic plates. They were chosen because the nodal
patterns which correspond to the natural frequencies of rectangular plates
take the form of lines which are approximately parallel with the edges of the
plate. The nodal patterns can be defined, therefore, by the notation min, in
which m is the number of nodal lines in the x direction and n is the number
of nodal lines in the ydirection. When an edge is simply supported or fixed it
is assumed to be a nodal line. Using that notation, the nodal pattern, 3/2, of
a cantilevered rectangular plate is indicated in Fig. 1.
A typical term, <P4(x)83(y), for example, in eqn. (13), for the deflected
form of a cantilevered plate is comprised of the deflected form <P4(X) of the
fourth natural frequency of a cantilevered beam and the deflected form
03(Y) of the second non-rigid body mode of a free-free beam.

FREQUENCY EXPRESSION FOR ORTHOTROPIC

RECTANGULAR PLATES

When eqn. (13) is substituted into eqn. (14) for the determination of the
natural frequencies of orthotropic rectangular plates, the equations which
are obtained, when the appropriate differentiations and integrations have
 Vibration Testing of Composite Materials 469

been performed, may be expressed in matrix form, as indicated by

eqn. (15):
(15)
The elements in the matrix [Mmnl are obtained from the strain energy
expression and the values of the appropriate integrals in that integral are
tabulated by YoungS for various values of m and n. The elements in the
matrix [Kmnl are obtained from the kinetic energy integral and are equal to
zero, apart from one principal term which is equal to unity in each equation.
A typical equation of those specified by eqns (15) would therefore be:
MllAll + M12A 12 + ... + (Mmn - A)Amn + ... = 0 (16)
Normally the natural frequencies are obtained by equating the
determinant of the matrix ([Mmnl - A[KmnD in eqn. (15) to zero. In the work
discussed in this chapter it was observed that the term (Mmn - A) in each
equation was large compared with the others which were, therefore,
neglected. This means that each equation is reduced to one term, as
indicated by eqn. (17), and is similar to the approach adopted by
Warburton: 4
(Mmn - A)Amn = 0 (17)
The term M mn in eqn. (17) is given by the expression:
M mn = D xH(mn)
1
+ 2D 1 H(mn)
2
+ D YH(mn)
3
+ D xy H(mn)
4
(18)
and A is obtained from:
A =/phw; (19)
Hence, if eqns (18) and (19) are substituted into eqn. (17) the natural
frequency of mode min is obtained from the following expression.
phw~ = DxW;nn) + 2D 1 HT'n) + DyH~mn) + DxyH~nn) (20)
in which the constants H~mn), H~mn), H~mn) and H~mn) are obtained from the
following derivatives in the strain energy integral:

(21)
470 J. L. Wearing and C. Patterson

The constants, D x, Dy and DXY and D 1 , in eqn. (20) are related to the
material properties of the plate through eqns (9). It follows, therefore, that
if four natural frequencies and their corresponding mode shapes are
known, four simultaneous equations can be obtained from eqn. (20) for the
determination of D x, D y, Dxy and D 1 , which can then be used for the
determination of the plate's material properties.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The objective of the experimental work was the determination of the

natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes of rectangular plates
manufactured from the laminate under consideration. The carbon epoxy
resin specimen which was tested was laminated with three layers of cloth
with the main fibre directions orientated at 0°-90°-0°. A cantilevered
rectangular plate and a rectangular plate with two opposite edges fixed and
the other two free were tested. The apparatus used for the experimental
determination of the natural frequencies and nodal patterns of the plate is
shown in block diagram form in Fig. 2.

To
mOl ns:<"--t--<:~=,----,

FIG. 2. Block diagram of experimental apparatus.

The natural frequencies of the plate were obtained by sweeping through a

range of frequencies and noting the maximum deflections on the
oscilloscope. The nodal patterns were found by scattering fine dry sand on
the plate and when it vibrated in a natural frequency the sand settled along
the nodal lines. Having found the natural frequencies and mode shapes, the
experimental results were used in conjunction with eqn. (2) for the
determination of the constants Dx> D y, Dxy and D 1 , from which the plate's
material properties were obtained.
 Vibration Testing of Composite Materials 471

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

Experimental natural frequencies for a cantilevered rectangular plate with a

length of O' 25 m, a breadth of 0·15 m and a thickness of 0·85 x 10- 3 m, are
presented in Table I. The density of the material from which the plate was
manufactured is 1568 kg/m 3. In the table the constants m and n are the
number of nodal lines in x and y directions respectively. Hence the natural
frequency corresponding to any particular nodal pattern m/n can be found
directly from Table 1.

TABLE 1
Experimental natural frequencies of cantilevered plate (a = 0'25 m, b = 0'15 m and
h = 0·85 X 10- 3 m)

~ 0 15·000
2

88·000
3

241·000
4

489·000
1 38·397 120·644 279·500 509·560
2 165·734 254·324 400·107 1017·235
3 554·120 667·067 676·000
4 1080-45 1494·340
5 1850·945 1980·187

The experimental results presented in Table 1 can be substituted into eqn.

(20) for the determination of the plate's material properties. If a natural
frequency corresponding to any of the modes m/O is used, Ox can be
calculated directly. This occurs because the integrals in the strain energy
expression (eqn. (10» are zero for n = 0 when both boundaries which are
parallel to the y axis are free (Fig. I), making H~mn), H~mn) and H~mn) equal to
zero in eqn. (20). Similarly the constants H~mn) and H~mn) are zero in eqn. (20)
for n = 1 giving an equation with Ox and Dxy as unknowns. For values of
n > 2 all integrals in the strain energy expression are activated for free-free
boundaries, leading to four unknowns in eqn. (20).
It is therefore possible to calculate Ox using one of the frequencies in
Table 1 having a nodal pattern of the form m/O. Having found Ox, a natural

°
frequency having a nodal pattern mj1 is used to calculate Dxy. The other
constants, 1 and D y, can then be found using two of the natural
frequencies from Table 1 for which n ~ 2.
The detailed procedure discussed above for the determination of the
constants Ox, D y, 0 1 and Dxy applies to plates with two free edges parallel to
472 J. L. Wearing and C. Patterson

TABLE 2
Experimental natural frequencies of a plate with two parallel edges fixed and two
parallel edges free (a = 0·21 m, b = 0·15 m and h = 0·85 X 10- 3 m)

S 0 140·033
2

355·160 683·983
3 4

1 151·016 390·188
2 283·400 466·905 831·214 1296·173
3 606·665 776·550 969·915 1693·637
4 1234·916 1370·380
5 1826·257 1909·267 2118·210

the x axis. In addition to the results presented in Table 1, natural

frequencies and mode shapes were obtained experimentally for a
rectangular plate which was fixed on the edges parallel to the y direction and
free on the edges parallel to the x direction. The length and breadth of that
plate were 0·21 m and 0·15 m, respectively and the results are shown in
Table 2.
The experimental results presented in Tables 1 and 2 were used
independently to determine the constants Ox, D y , DXY and 0 1 from eqn.
(20). These values were then substituted into eqn. (9) for the determination
of the plate's material properties. The average values of these properties
were computed from the results of several calculations and are shown in
Table 3.

TABLE 3
Material properties of three ply laminate

Ex = 92·53 x 10 9 Njm 2
Ey = 6·049 x 10 9 Njm 3
G 12 = 10·71 x 10 9 Njm 3
Vx = 0·0371
Vy = 0·5682

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

In this preliminary investigation it is important to make some assessment of

the accuracy of the values which have been obtained for the material
properties of the laminate under consideration. Inaccuracies can occur in
 Vibration Testing of Composite Materials 473

two main areas. The analytical expression which was derived for the
calculation of the constants D x, D y, Dxy and D1 is based on the Rayleigh-
Ritz method for the calculation of the natural frequencies of rectangular
plates and it is well known that the results from the technique are normally
higher than the true value. A further approximation was introduced by
considering only the principal term in any equation for the determination of
the natural frequencies. Warburton 4 has shown that, when using a single
term approximation for the deflected form of the vibrating plate, the
discrepancies occurring in the calculated natural frequencies are worse for
plates with two 'parallel' free boundaries than for plates with other
combinations of boundary conditions, with the worst cases occurring at the
modes III and 2/1 of cantilevered plates. For example, the natural
frequency of mode III of a cantilevered plate with a length to breadth ratio
of 5 is 27 %high and for mode 21 I it is 12 % high. The results for the other
modes are usually considered to be about 4 % to 7 % high.
There are also sources of error in the experimentally derived natural
frequencies. Apart from normal experimental problems when using simple
apparatus, such as ensuring that the noted frequency is an accurate value
for the natural frequency, the main source of error arises from the method
of obtaining the fixed edge which is very difficult to achieve experimentally.
In the work discussed in this chapter, the fixed edge was simulated by
clamping the plate between two heavy blocks of steel using heavy clamps. It
is unlikely, therefore, that the fixed boundary conditions would be
completely satisfied using that technique. Hence, the experimental natural
frequencies are probably lower than those of a true cantilever.
The constant, D x , and hence Young's modulus, Ex' in the x direction was
calculated using a natural frequency from the family miO. The constant,
D xy , and hence the shear modulus, Gxy' was calculated using a natural
frequency from the family mil. Finally, the constants Dy and D1 were
calculated using two natural frequencies from the families min, where n ~ 2,
and the previously calculated values of Dx and Dxy. These results lead
ultimately to the determination of Young's modulus, E y , in the y direction
and the Poisson's ratios Vx and vl' in the x and y directions.
Considering the possible sources of inaccuracy in the analytical approach
and in the experimental results, which were used, of the constants D x , D y ,
Dxy and D l ' which were calculated, Dxy is likely to provide the most
accurate results. Of the material properties which were obtained from these
constants G xy is probably the most accurate at around 20 %higher than the
true value, with vx and v)' being the least accurate at around 60 % higher
than the true value and Ex and Ey lying between these.
474 J. L. Wearing and C. Patterson

This investigation was undertaken to establish the feasibility of using a

vibrational approach to determine the material properties of thin
laminates. Although the best results which were obtained are in error by
around 20 %, the technique is worthy of further investigation. The trial
functions for the plate deflected form were simple approximations. If these
functions were improved, together with improvements in the experimental
approach, the results would be much more accurate, making this simple,
non-destructive approach attractive.

REFERENCES
I. TSAI, S. W. and SPRINGER, G. S., The determination of moduli of anisotropic
plates, ASME Trans., J. App. Mech., 30 (1963) 467-8.
2. MEGSON, T. H. G., Aircraft structures for engineering students, New York,
Crane Rusak Co., 1972.
3. DEAN, G. D. and TURNER, P., The elastic properties of carbon fibres and their
composites, Composites, 4 (1973) 174-80.
4. WARBURTON, G. B., The vibration of rectangular plates, Proc. Instn. M ech.
Engrs., 168 (1954) 371-84.
5. YOUNG, D., Vibration of rectangular plates by the Ritz method, ASME Trans.,
J. App. Mech., 17 (1950) 448-53.
 32

A Minimum Energy Composite Automobile

RICHARD W. McLAY

COMtech Inc., 18 Athens Drive, Essex Junction,

Vermont 05452, USA
AND

JAMES BUCKLEY, THOMAS FLOYD AND DANIEL VIENS

Mechanical Engineering, Votey Building,

The University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA

ABSTRACT

A two-passenger, minimum energy vehicle is discussed as it is based on the

concept of a four-wheeled moped. Power requirements are explored. The
results of a student competition for the building of a two-passenger model
airplane engined car point toward a minimum energy vehicle (MEV). The
preliminary design of the MEV is shown as a systems study of a 70 cc
powerplant and drh·e train combined with a composite/sandwich unitized
body. A PVC core/fiberglass skin sandwich is concluded to combine the
attributes of low weight and high impact toughness necessary for the MEV.
The mechanical/sandwich connections are explored.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years mopeds have become common on American roads. Based

on minimum energy concepts, the moped is designed to have a minimum
weight combined with a powerplant that slowly accelerates it to a speed just
under the threshold of aerodynamic drag, as shown in Fig. I. The resulting
vehicle is highly efficient for transportation over a short distance. For
higher speeds, the power requirements increase roughly proportionate to
v3 , which means that high speed, long distance travel requires higher energy
475
476 Richard W. McLay et al.

I/
50 r-----

40

I 30 / /
If
cr II

f/
~
Q. ~

~ L

'I V;Y
I 20
:I:
/

/ /

/ V
10

~~l# /
~
--
~O

o ----:::: ~ ~ ~
FUSee 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
M.P.H. 0 7 14 20 27 34 41 48 54 61
FIG. I. Theoretical power requirements versus speed for common vehicles.

outlays per passenger mile. Figure 1 does imply, however, that small, short-
ranged vehicles can be built that will be similar to the moped in economy.
One such vehicle is the subject of this paper. Called a minimum energy
vehicle (MEV), the two-passenger car appears as the curve labelled MEV in
the figure.
The following sections of the paper present the studies leading up to the
construction of an MEV powered by a 70 cc engine. First, a preliminary
project is reviewed in which two groups of students built competing cars
 A Minimum Energy Composite Automobile 477

powered by 0·21 in 3 (3·44cm 3 ) model airplane engines. The insight gained

from this project is shown to point toward the MEV. The design studies for
the MEV are next presented, the principal problem being the building of a
lightweight unitized body to accommodate the air-cooled engine and two
passengers. Finally, the mechanical/composite connections are discussed.

A SMALL-ENGINED AUTO COMPETITION

A competition was recently held in the Mechanical Engineering

Department of the University of Vermont for the construction of a two-
passenger automobile powered by a 0·21 in 3 (3·44cm 3 ) model airplane
engine. The guidelines of the competition required that the engine be
combined with four lightweight bicycle wheels to result in an automobile
capable of:

(I) Carrying two passengers over a 100 foot (30-48 m) straight-and-

level course for time trials.
(2) Racing from a Le Mans start with only a driver around a closed
circuit of 250 feet (76 m).

The four students of each group of senior mechanical engineering students

were assigned the following respective tasks in the design, construction and
testing of the cars: (I) the frame; (2) the suspension and steering; (3) the
engine run-in, controls, cooling system and general operation; (4) the
transmission (gearbox).
The overall winner in this competition is shown in Fig. 2. Briefly, the
attributes of this vehicle are as follows:

(1) The tubular aluminum frame weighs 81bs (3·63 kg).

(2) The entire vehicle weighs 32 Ibs (14·52 kg).
(3) The engine produces an estimated 1/2 hp at 26000 rev/min.
(4) The transmission provides power to a Lexan final drive wheel
through a series of belt and chain reducers and a bicycle type
sprocket/chain transmission.
(5) The speed of the vehicle is 2mph (3·22km/h).

This project offered a series of challenges that were both interesting and
technically valuable to the students' professional development. However,
the insight gained in the design and construction of this first car was most
valuable in the preliminary design of the minimum energy vehicle that is the
478 Richard W. McLay et al.

FIG. 2. An auto powered by a 0·21 in 3 (3-44cm 3) methanol, castor oil, nitromethane engine.

subject of this paper. The following conclusions were drawn from this initial
work:
(1) The vehicle must have a minimum weight.
(2) The engine and drive train should be a standard unit to ensure
reliability.
(3) The frontal area should be kept at a minimum to minimize the
power requirements.

THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN

The direction for the MEV design starts with the experience of the moped as
shown on the graphs of Fig. 1. Because the speed of the moped is less than
35 mph (56 km/h), its power requirements are minimal. If we take the
moped design and extend it to a two-passenger vehicle, we are faced with the
following problems as compared with the moped:
(1) The weight of the vehicle will increase by a factor of eight with a
unitized metal body.
(2) The engine and drive train weight will increase by a factor of six for
a water-cooled design.
(3) The frontal area will increase by a factor of two for a two-passenger,
side-by-side configuration.
 A Minimum Energy Composite Automobile 479

'~-
(

FIG. 3. The MEV preliminary design.

Thus, the design of the two-passenger MEV is a systems study that must be
undertaken with a view toward the constraints of weight, frontal area and
the engines available.
The concepts for the MEV design start with the choice of a 70 cc
motorcycle engine and drive train with a power output of 5 hp (3·73 kW).
With a frontal area of 12 ft2 (1·12 m 2 ) , the theoretical curve for the MEV
falls on the graph as shown in Fig. 1. Since the engine is air-cooled, the
increase in weight over that of the moped is minimal; the weight of the
engine and drive train is 40lbs (18 kg). However, since the engine is air-
cooled, it will have to be mounted externally to the body to facilitate air
flow . Finally, the problem of the increased body weight must be solved in
order to give the MEV a performance adequate for local driving. To solve
this problem, which is the principal problem in the design, the weight of the
unitized body must be minimized through the new technology of the
composite/sandwich,l the subject of this paper.
Figure 3 illustrates the general configuration of the composite/sandwich
unitized body. Molded in one piece, the body contains room for two
passengers side-by-side. The engine and transmission unit is mounted
externally and drives the right rear wheel through a chain. Cooling is
accomplished by natural air flow in the same way as on the motorcycle. All
480 Richard W. McLay et al.

body parts are fiberglass/PVC sandwich. The only metal parts are in the
suspension, steering and running gear.

THE COMPOSITE/SANDWICH UNITIZED BODY

The detailed design for the unitized body was done through the use of
polyvinyl chloride foam 2 for the core combined with a laminate of polyester
resin and 0·040 inch (1 mm) glass fiber fabric of 16 by 14 weave. The
measured breaking strength of the fabric was found to be 410 lbs/in
(718 N/cm).
The PVC core material was found from experiments to be the best overall
for use in the MEV body. It is a rigid PVC foam that is serviceable in a range
of temperatures between - 40 ° and + 75°C. At approximately 75 °c, the
foam loses its structural strength; thus, it can be molded with a return of the
properties as the temperature falls again to room temperature. The foam is
also compatible with the polyester resin used with fiberglass and forms a
strong mechanical bond with the glass fiber laminate. The main advantage
in the use of the PVC foam, other than its light weight, is its deformation
characteristics at ultimate load on the sandwich. In contrast to the more
brittle materials, the foam does not fracture at ultimate load; instead, it
compresses without debonding at the foam/composite interface. With a
release in load, the sandwich returns to its original shape with essentially no
loss of properties. Thus, by the definition of toughness, the energy of
failure, the sandwich absorbs a very large amount of energy as the core
compresses and the laminate debonds from its surfaces, but only after
several cycles of loading have occurred. The same properties make it very
tough from the standpoint of impact. In addition, the core has very good
damping characteristics from the standpoint of vibration, so that the small,
light engine may be used without fear of fatigue failure in the body
components adjacent to the motor mount platform.
Chemically, the PVC offers further advantages. It is naturally inert to
most chemicals in the environment including gasoline and lubricating oils.
It is self extinguishing in a fire. Finally, it is compatible with the polyester
resin in the laminate.
The production process for the glass fiber laminate/PVC foam sandwich
can be quite flexible. The foam and the finished sandwich can be cut, sawed,
and drilled as well as adhesively bonded to other materials. But, the major
advantage of the foam is its weight of 5 ounces/ft2 (0-47 kg/m2) in the
~inch (20mm) thickness, which was ultimately chosen for the design. It is
 A Minimum Energy Composite Automobile 481

FIG. 4. Three-point bending test of a PVC sandwich.

this property that allows the weight of the unitized body to be kept to an
absolute minimum while maintaining the stiffness, strength, and toughness.
The study of the PVC sandwich included a series of three-point bending
tests, one of which is shown in Fig. 4. In the figure, a beam consisting of a
i inch (22 mm) PVC core with a two-layer fiberglass laminate top and
bottom is loaded at the center by a fixture on the crosshead of the testing
machine. In this test, the sandwich was observed to suffer a deflection that
changed the geometry of the beam before the core compressed to cause a
loss of structural stiffness. On recovery, a crack was found in the top
laminate at the vicinity of the loading block. The crack was a shear failure,
illustrated by broken fibers and a locally debonded laminate. The breaking
load for this laminate, a 4 inch by 12 inch beam, was 2751bs (1224 N). The
insight gained from these tests indicated adequate strength in the sandwich
482 Richard W. McLay et al.

as long as the mechanical connections were properly designed to distribute

the loads from the engine and running gear.

THE MECHANICAL/SANDWICH CONNECTIONS

The major design problem in the use of the sandwich is to avoid high local
loads that will cause debonding of the laminate from the core. This is
especially important in the MEV since the laminate consists of two layers of
cloth over the majority of the body panels. Several methods were used in the
detailed design to distribute the loads. Most of them consisted of careful
bracing with redundant supports such as is found in the running gear
connection. But one common design feature is found in all of the
connections: the PVC core is replaced locally by a plywood insert to
distribute the large shear loads uniformly into the sandwich .

. pvc FOAM

~PLYWOOD INSERT

FIBERGLASS LAMINATE, BONDED TO

PVC FOAM AND PLYWOOD
FIG. 5. Example of a mechanical/sandwich connection.

A schematic of a typical plywood insert connection is shown in Fig. 5.

The fiberglass laminate is bonded straight across the joint between the PVC
and plywood. All interior joints between the PVC and plywood are also
bonded using a contact cement. The result is an incompressible connection
that can be bolted and that will distribute the load uniformly to the rest of
the sandwich.

CONCLUSIONS

We have presented work done on two phases of a minimum energy vehicle

study. In the first phase a student competition on a model airplane engined
car is reported. The experience gained in this first study is shown to point
toward the MEV as a natural extension of a moped. The preliminary design
 A Minimum Energy Composite Automobile 483

of the MEV is discussed from the standpoint of a PVC/fiberglass laminate

sandwich body. The advantages of the sandwich are shown to be low
weight, high stiffness and strength, and high impact toughness. Tests on
sandwich specimens give insight as to the design requirements of the
unitized sandwich body.
At the time of writing this paper the project has progressed to the layout
stage with various components of the running gear constructed to mate with
the sandwich body. The body components have been sized. Construction
and development should be completed by summer 1981. Field tests are
expected to last through August 1981.

REFERENCES

I. DHARAN, C. K. H., Design of automotive components with advanced

composites, In: Proceedings of the 1978 International Conference on Composite
Materials, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, The Metallurgical Society of the AIME,
1978, 1446--61.
2. JOHANNSEN, T. J., Airex cored fiberglass for construction of larger recreational
power boats, Symposium on design and construction of recreational power
boats, Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1979.
 33
Structures in Reinforced Composites
W. S. CARSWELL
National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride,
Glasgow G75 OQ U, Scotland

ABSTRACT

In the design of structures it is necessary to have accurate information on the

stress distribution produced by the service-loading conditions and geometry
of the structure and on the stress or strain limits for the material to avoid
premature failure or permanent damage.
Even in apparently uniform structures in composite materials fabrication
methods can introduce geometric and material variations which will
significantly distort the stress distribution. The stress or strain limits for
failure derived from 'ideal' testpieces and short-term tests may not be
representative of the failure conditions in large structures.

INTRODUCTION

As fibre-reinforced structures become more widely used in more critical

applications it becomes increasingly important that such structures are
properly designed to ensure effective and safe use of the structure or system
and of the materials used. It is an essential requirement in the design to have
accurate and precise information on the service-loading to enable the stress
distribution in the component to be obtained and to ensure that the critical
values of stress or strain are not exceeded for any type of failure. In this
context the term structure is intended to mean layered composite structures
possibly with geometrical discontinuities and curvature, as distinct from
uniform boards or strips prepared in ideal conditions. To a large extent the
484
 Structures in Reinforced Composites 485

form and geometry of such structures will be defined and dictated by the
application and the system of which it is part. From a model of the structure
the stress distribution can be obtained under any loading condition by
considering the material as homogeneous with derived elastic constants.
From this the stress distribution in each layer can be obtained. The critical
values of stress or strain are obtained for each layer or each component of
the structure by simple 'ideal' tests. The form of such data will depend on the
appropriate method of failure, and the service-loading of the structure.
The purpose of the paper is to review briefly the relevance of the data
obtained from simple ideal structures in a real structural application and
the problems of translation from one component to another.

STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

The structures examined are mainly curved structures, i.e. pipes formed by
winding filaments or fabric with resin around a mandrel. The materials
forming the composite are glass and polyester resin; the former may be in
the form of continuous filaments as in filament winding or short fibres in a
mat form.
The fabrication effects described may be typical of such a process as
described but it is considered that similar effects will occur in other
structures with other means of fabrication and with other constituent
materials.
The loading is generally multi-axial which requires the composite
structure to be designed accordingly.

FABRICATION

In the formation of large structures, particularly in the winding

arrangements, surfaces are not fully covered on the first ply and there are
often areas of overlap between layers. Such arrangements can cause regions
of different fibre or resin density. Figure I shows a typical arrangement of
filament winding. The effect of such variations is shown in Fig. 2 which
shows the variation in distortion of such a construction under internal
pressure.
Figure 3 shows the variation in circumferential strain around a pipe
produced by overlapping bands of isotropic chopped strand mat. The
variation in circumferential stress in a pipe produced by butting the bands
486 W. S. Carswell

FIG. I. Filament winding arrangement.

FIG. 2. Hologram of distortion of filament wound pipe under internal pressure.

1000r------r------.------,-------.--~~~----_,

800
~
~ 60
iii
~
u
'e 400
200
OUTSIDE

TOP 30 60 90 120 150 BOTTOM

ANGLE ROUND CIRCUMFERENCE -dpgrpps

FIG. 3. Strain distribution around the circumference of a 100 mm diameter pipe, 5 mm thick
with overlap, under 3·5 bar internal pressure.
 Structures in Reinforced Composites 487

b ... _--_ ....... \--- ... __ .... ""

OUTSIDE

TOP 30 60 90 120 150 BOTTOM

ANGLE ' ROUND CIRCUMFERENCE - degrees

FIG. 4. Stress distribution around the circumference of CSM pipe, 100 mm diameter, 5 mm
thick with no overlaps, under 3· 5 bar internal pressure.

without overlap is shown in Fig. 4. The strain gradients and shell bending
produced in these examples is a result of local material or geometrical
variation around the circumference. The effect of a simulated thickness
variation at three points around the circumference of such a pipe under
pressure is shown in Fig. 5.
The effect of tabs on the ends of tubular testpieces on the axial stress
distribution as shown in Fig. 6 has been shown by several workers. 1 The
tabs are fixed to assist gripping and load transfer into such testpieces. They
are very similar to overwrapping applied at joints for the same purpose.
It is well known that geometric changes in a structure introduce stress or

14 OUTSIDE
\
)
,---
INSIDE

TOP 3D 60 90 120 150 8OT1O'"

ANGLE ROUND CIRCUMFERENCE -degr~"5

FIG. 5. Circumferential stress distribution in 100mm diameter pipe, 5mm thick isotropic
material, with thickness variation at 0° (top) and 120°, under 7 bar internal pressure.
488 W. S. Carswell

~t)
OUTSIDE '1
I/) 4 I
I VINSIDE
,I
I/)
w
:: 2 \
I/)

::i. 01:::=-::==-=---
x
-c( -2

-4~------------------------------~
FIG. 6. Stress distribution along pipe with end tabs (from Rizzo and Vicario 6 ).

strain concentrations. With curved structures and finite sizes such effects
can be considerably increased due to shell bending. Anisotropy in the layers
of such structures can also introduce non-uniformity or stress gradients
into the structure. However, even in simple structures material variation
and small geometric variations, introduced accidentally or by the manner
of fabrication, can introduce stress gradients and local bending not
generally expected. The magnitude of such effects will depend on the
manner of loading. On the other hand, non-uniform stress distributions
can be introduced into small testpieces under simple uniform loading due to
the anisotropy of the material. 2
Investigations have shown that residual stresses are present in some
c
-- ...J
o
.; xc
-c(
- OUTSIDE
eu -c( ._~ - - INSIDE

'e\
on ....
~
:I ·~
52
I
_ 8SS mltrostrail'l
_____~:-:=:--t---=-=-=-::;....---_;;_:-_;:;_:::~Cl RCU MF E RE N TlAL
____ - - .710 microstrain

,,
FIG. 7. Residual strain for chopped strand mat tube.
 Structures in Reinforced Composites 489

-'
~
x
« OUTSIDE
INSIDE

-----=..,o;:;::-----_CIRCUMFERENTIAL

FIG. 8. Residual strain for ± 54 filament tube.

0

structures. 3 The magnitude of these stresses will be a function of the

material, the geometry of the structure, etc., and are produced by the
contraction of the resin during the curing cycle. These stresses are
macrostructural as distinct from the microstress present between resin and
glass fibre.
Examples of the residual stresses found in filament wound tubes are
shown in Figs 7 and 8. They are essentially bending stresses and although
the principal directions differ the magnitudes are all ofthe same order. Such
stresses will be superimposed on the stress distribution resulting from the
applied loads and will influence failure.

STRENGTH

Generally structures are not intended for uniaxial loading but have to
withstand multiaxialloading and the composite material of the structure
must be designed accordingly. This means that in composites the fibres are
not generally unidirectionally aligned but distributed in multidirectional
arrangements.
The strength of these constructions will therefore be anisotropic, and
dependent on the direction and magnitude of the principal loads applied. A
failure envelope is necessary to describe the behaviour over the full range of
490 W. S. Carswell

applied load. These can be obtained by tests on the actual structures but this
approach is time-consuming and expensive. Alternatively, they can be
derived using one of the many theories or interaction expressions available
for multiaxial failure 4 and the failure characteristics of the plies or
constituents making up the construction. In this latter method the failure
parameters are obtained for each ply when subjected to a uniform stress
distribution.
It is now generally accepted that higher strengths are obtained in the
presence of stress gradients than in uniform stress distributions. 5 The
reason proposed for this is that, since failure in a composite initiates at a
defect or some point with different properties, the probability of failure is
governed by the distribution of defects and the volume of the stressed area.
Under these circumstances the failure envelope for a structure with a non-
uniform stress distribution will have to be altered to obtain a realistic failure
prediction.
In testing constructions of basic balanced plies with simple testpiece
forms to ensure as uniform a stress distribution as possible, two features are
often prominent:
(a) the scatter in ultimate load values; and
(b) the non-linearity of the stress/strain curve.
Scatter is due mainly to variability both in the construction of the
laminate and in the properties of the constituents. Non-linearity is due to
the progressive or multiple nature of the failure. For a material with

PROPORTIONAL

\
LIMIT

RESIN
CRACKING
STRESS

STRAIN
FIG. 9. Tensile stress/strain curve for glass reinforced material (from Johnston 7).
 Structures in Reinforced Composites 491

reinforcing fibres in more than one direction, the form of the stress/strain
curve is often as shown in Fig. 9. 7 The curve can be divided into sections,
each of which can be broadly associated with a form of damage within the
material, e.g. debonding, resin cracking, and fibre failure. Various physical
phenomena, e.g. acoustic emission and visual effects, can also be associated
with such forms of damage.
In such tests the ultimate stress at failure, which is controlled by fibre
strength, is a function of the volume fraction of the reinforcing fibres but the
proportional limit (the point at which fibre debonding causes a significant
reduction in materials stiffness) is little affected. The dependence on fibre
volume fraction increases with higher levels of damage, e.g. gel-coat
cracking, as shown in Fig. 10. 8
The presence of cross fibres or angled fibres introduces strain
magnifications which can lead to debonding and resin cracking as shown in
100r-----------.-----------,

U.T.S.

80

STRESS
MN/m2

60

40

PROPORTIONAL
LIMIT

10 20 30
WEI GHT FRACT ION - per cent
FIG. 10. Dependence of ultimate strength, gel-coat cracking and proportional limit on the
volume fraction for CSM material (from Raymond B).
492 W. S. Carswell

FIG. 11. Resin crack from transverse fibre.

Fig. 11. This effect has been analysed by Kies 9 and the strain magnification
factor (SMF) simply stated as
1
SMF = or
2r Er b
--+-
s Ee S
where b is the spacing between transverse fibres, r is the radius of fibres,
s = b + 2r, Er is the elastic modulus of resin, Ee is the elastic modulus of fibre
and Ve is the volume fraction of fibres.
The strain magnification factor is a function of the volume fraction of
reinforcing fibres because of the dependence on band s. Thus, although the
strain at fibre debonding and the stiffness of the material are functions of
the volume fraction, the stress at this point will not be affected by the
volume fraction to the same extent. Also, if there is variation in
construction or local variations in fibre concentration any variations in
bond strength, etc. will lead to scatter in the initiation and growth of
damage. Thus a point on the stress/strain curve for any material is
indicative of the level of damage within the material. This level of damage
may be used to define a design limit as an alternative to the ultimate
strength. This point with the chosen level of damage on the stress/strain
curve or from another means of detection, e.g. acoustic emission, will be
termed 'point of first cracking'. The form of construction and mixture of
different construction, i.e. chopped strands, woven roving or mixtures, will
influence the magnitude of the point of first cracking as shown in Table 1.
 Structures in Reinforced Composites 493

TABLE I
Properties of mixed laminates with polyester resin

Construction Modulus First cracking First cracking UTS

(GN/m2) stress strain MN/m2
(acoustic) (acoustic)
(MN/m2) (%)

All chopped strand mat 6·96 32·0 0·46 81·5

Chopped strand mat
with woven roving 10·10 28·0 0·28 96-4
Chopped strand mat
with cross plied
unwoven layers II· 3 37·3 0·33 116·7

The long-term strength in fatigue or creep, i.e. strength after a large

number of cycles of stress or a sufficiently long period of time under
sustained static loading, where strength is defined as complete separation of
material or inability to sustain the load, appears to be related to first
cracking strain for different materials (Fig. 12). The sensitivity of a material
to an environment is demonstrated by the decrease in strength under
sustained or cyclic loading conditions. The critical level of'first cracking' in
the short-term tests is thus decreased with more aggressive environments
(Fig. 13). The strain at first cracking is therefore a better or more sensitive
indication of performance in long-term conditions than ultimate strength.
Other parameters such as overall structure size, which might influence

BOr----------r----------,----------.----------.

70
N
E
~ 60
~

If)
If)
l1J 50
a::
I-
If)
A-ALL CHOPPED STRAND MAT
B-CHOPPED STRAND MAT WITH WOVEN ROVING
40
C- CHOPPED STRAND MAT WITH CROSS - PLIED
UNWOVEN LAYERS

ENDURANCE -No OF cycles

FIG. 12. Fatigue curves for mixed laminates.
494 w. S. Carswell
75
MAX TENSILE STRESS 105 MN/m2
70
7985
<: ALCOHOL
65
e
;;;7200
N 60 e
.....E .!:!
~ 55
I z
UJ c(
50 a:
:n 5525
l!)
z
c(
a: 1,5
en .....
en z
~4740
~40
..... ~
en
::J
35
~3955

30
3170
25 GRAPHS CONSTRUCTED USING

20 2385

15
1600~------~--------~--------~--------~

10 2
NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE
FIG. 13. Effect of environment on fatigue performance of chopped strand mat/polyester
material.

ultimate strength, should not influence the point of first cracking in the
same way.
It is important to note that where stiffer materials are incorporated in a
structure with less stiff layers in attempting to improve overall stiffness for
the same material dimensions, corresponding proportional increase in
strength is not likely to be produced.
In design standards such as BS 4994 11 strength is related to the ultimate
strength of a material and various design factors are introduced to allow for
fabrication effects, long-term effects such as cyclic stress, or curing. A safety
factor of three is also introduced to ensure that, for any structure designed
to that standard, the design factor shall not be less than six. These designs
and safety factors can be shown to be dependent on the variability in
material and in stress distribution and on long-term effects. An alternative
approach is to limit the design strain, i.e. to 0·2 % as recommended in
BS 4994. This has been shown to be more relevant in terms of first cracking
 Structures in Reinforced Composites 495

but it must be remembered that the limit for failure can vary with material
and with operating conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper is presented by permission of the Director, National

Engineering Laboratory, Department of Industry. It is Crown copyright.
The work described was supported by the Engineering Materials
Requirements Board of the Department of Industry.

REFERENCES

1. RIZZO, R. R. and VICARIO, A. A. 'A Finite Element Analysis of Stress

Distribution in Gripped Tubular Specimens', Composite Materials (Testing
and Design) 2nd Coni, STP497, ASTM, 1972, 68-88.
2. PAGANO, N. J. and BYRON PIPES, R. Some observations on the interlaminar
strength of composite laminates, J. Composites, 15, 1973, 679-88.
3. DANIEL, I. M. and LIBER, T. 'Lamination Residual Strains and Stresses in
Hybrid Laminates', Composite Materials (Testing and Design) 4th Coni,
STP617, ASTM, 1977,330--43.
4. SENDECKYJ, G. P. 'A Brief Survey of Empirical Multiaxial Strength Criteria for
Composites', Composite Materials (Testing and Design) 2nd Corif., STP497,
ASTM, 1972, 41-51.
5. WHITNEY, J. M. and KNIGHT, M. The relationship between tensile strength and
flexure strength in fibre-reinforced composites, Exp. Mech., 20(6), 1980,
211-16.
6. AVESTON, J. and KELLY, A. Tensile first cracking strain and strength of hybrid
composites and laminates, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A294, 1980,519-34.
7. JOHNSTON, A. F. Engineering design properties of GRP. Publication 215/26,
British Plastics Federation, London, 1979.
8. RAYMOND, J. A. 'The Effect of Resin Content on the Mechanical Properties of
Glass Reinforced Polyester Laminates', BP F Reiriforced Plastics Coni,
Brighton, 1974.
9. KIEs, J. A. Maximum strains in the resin of fibreglass composites. Naval
Research Laboratory Report No. 5752, AD-274560, 1962.
10. ROBERTS, R. C. and CARSWELL, W. S. Environmental fatigue stress failure
mechanism for glass fibre mat reinforced polyester. J. Composites, 11, 1980,
95-9.
11. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Specification for vessels and tanks in
reinforced plastics, BS 4994: 1973.
 34

Properties and Performance of GRC

B. A. PROCTOR
Pilkington Brothers Limited, Research and Development Laboratories,
Lathom, Ormskirk, Lancashire L40 5UF, England

ABSTRACT

Glassfibre Reinforced Cement (GRC) is a new building and construction

material which is rapidly gaining acceptance around the world. This paper
outlines the test programmes which have been found necessary to provide
design information and to engender the necessary confidence for its use.
Material properties, long term strength predictions and some measurement
difficulties are also discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The introduction of any new material into real engineering or

constructional use is today dependent on the availability of a wide range of
property data. This is especially important in construction and building
applications since materials are used in a variety of conditions in different
climates and lifetimes are generally expected to be quite long.
The invention, development and commercialisation of alkali-resistant
glass fibres for cement reinforcement 1 - 3 launched a new material-
Glassfibre Reinforced Cement (GRC)-and generated just such a need for
new information. As the manufacturers of the alkali-resistant fibre
Pilkington Brothers recognised that need and responded to it by
establishing extensive research and development programmes devoted to
the investigation and testing of GRC materials and components under a
wide range of conditions. That work has led to the establishing of design
496
 Properties and Performance of GRC 497
procedures, the development of appropriate test methods and the definition
of quality control methods for GRC which are all described in a number of
privately published brochures 4 • 5 available to Pilkington Licencees and to
major GRC specifiers and designers. Some of this work has also been
published in the open literature. 6 - 9
In principle, as with all fibre reinforced materials, even a combination of
one type of alkali-resistant (AR) fibre with only one basic cement matrix can
yield an infinite number of composites depending on fibre content,
orientation, method of manufacture, etc. The problems of information
gathering are dauntingly impossible.
In practice, again as with most fibre reinforced materials, very few
materials turn out to be economic, practicable and useful. In the case of
GRC the requirements of most applications have been met by the use of a
relatively standard sprayed material containing about 5 %wt of AR
glassfibre. This has made the data gathering more manageable and most of
the information given below refers to that type of material. From a
knowledge and understanding of the properties of that standard composite,
and of the different roles played by fibre and matrix, the properties of other
types of composite can generally be predicted.
These predictions have been supported by very much more limited
experimental programmes on 'special' composites of varying glass content,
differing cement matrices, etc. In general it is true to say that the Young's
modulus, Limit of Proportionality (LO P) and creep behaviour of GRC are
strongly dependent on matrix properties and are therefore influenced by:
(a) the type of matrix being used (neat cement, mortar, etc.), and (b) the
degree of cure of the cement.
The ultimate strength of GRC, whether it be bending, tensile or impact
strength is essentially determined by the presence of the glass fibres and is
therefore dependent on:

(1) glassfibre content and form,

(2) orientation and disposition of the fibres,
(3) the bonding between fibre and matrix (a function of matrix type,
porosity and curing of the matrix).

Another factor which has eased the problem of data gathering and
encouraged more acceptable application of GRC is that the 'standard'
material has been based on an RHPC or OPC mortar matrix. Composites
based on other cements (aluminous and supersulphate) are possible and
have been studied-but practical considerations have almost always led
498 B. A. Proctor

back to the use of composites based on RHPCjOPC. The wide knowledge,

experience and confidence in this cement system, which forms 95 %of GRC,
have been important factors in the ready acceptance of GRC as a
construction material.

WEATHERING STUDIES

The first GRC composites were developed and made at the Building
Research Establishment 1 where the need to set up long term test
programmes to establish the durability of this new material was
immediately recognised. Samples of spray dewatered GRC initially with a
neat cement paste matrix and containing 5 %wt of AR glassfibre, were laid
down in three basic storage conditions for subsequent testing in a series of
programmes beginning in 1968. Results from the earliest series were
reviewed by a BREI Pilkington Working Party after the 5-year results were
available. 10 Ten-year results have recently been reported by BRE 11 and are
commented on by Majumdar. 12
The three basic storage conditions used in the BRE experiments were:

(l) dry, indoors (40 % RH, 20°C),

(2) water immersion at 20 °C,
(3) UK weather exposure (at BRE Garston).

As Pilkington became involved in the commercial development of GRC

in the early 1970s it was realised that weathering information was needed
over a much wider range of climatic conditions. Also it became clear that,
even with the 5 %glass content of the standard material held constant, there
would be detailed variants of formulation and manufacturing method-in
particular sand was introduced early on to reduce moisture movement and
many components were made by a hand spraying method which did not
include dewatering. 13 Consequently in the years following 1972 a number
of Pilkington weathering programmes were set up to supplement the BRE
experiments and provide additional information on the effects of different
climates on a variety of GRC materials. The main variables covered in this
work are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Early programmes were planned for 10
years. As the work has developed the amount of material exposed has been
increased to allow for longer exposure times (20 years) and a wider range of
tests including shear strengths, density, porosity and permeability
measurements.
 Properties and Performance of GRC 499
TABLE I
GRC weathering stations

UK, Lathom Temperate, low rainfall, rural

UK, Fort William Temperate, high rainfall, rural
UK, St Helens Temperate, low rainfall, industrial
UK, Nottingham University Controlled soil burial (pH 4--8)
UK, Anglesey Sea water immersion/spray
Singapore
Nigeria, Lagos } Tropical, high rainfall
Canada, Toronto Hot summer/freezing winter
India, Bombay Monsoon
Australia, Cloncurry } Hot/dry, desert site
USA, Arizona
Australia, Innisfail Hot/wet, jungle site

It will be appreciated that the amount of test data available over the years
from these BRE and Pilkington weathering programmes could present
severe problems of assimilation and analysis. In common with many
cement based or composite materials properties may vary from sample to
sample and the ability to summarise the total range of results from many
similar experiments is invaluable. This has been achieved by the
establishment of a computer data bank for GRC. Pilkington weathering
data, BRE data available under the Pilkington-NRDC licence and some of
the results from accelerated tests referred to below are all included, and it is
possible to produce comprehensive summaries of all available information.
For example, Fig. 1 shows all available bending strength results in UK
weather for spray dewatered GRC containing 4·8 % to 6·0 %(wt) of Cem-
FIL fibre in Portland Cement matrices, with and without sand up to sandi

TABLE 2
Main materials variants in weathering experiments

I. Spray dewatered material OPC and OPCjpfa matrices

2. Spray dewatered } rna tena
· Is RHPC and HAC matrices
Spray non-dewatered
3. Spray dewatered materials Swiftcrete, white OPC, supersulphate
cement, Aquacrete, Revinex addition
4. Spray dewatered materials RHPC, sand and limestone flour matrix
RHPC and OPC with and without sand
5. Spray dewatered }materials RHPC and sand matrix,
Spray non-dewatered new series with larger panels
(tests include shear, shrinkage,
permeability)
500 B. A. Proctor

o
+ 0
+ 0
+

20

+.to/eroge 01 dl boards

O CP3S/76 boards rrit

Aqe at I e s ! r g _
10 00ys

FIG. I. Bending strengths of spray dewatered ORC in UK weather (longitudinal samples).

cement ratios of 0·5, and made with water/cement ratios less than 0·4. Table
3 indicates that up to 5 years the data points are mainly the averages of tests
on samples from 10 to 40 separate experiments. This type of study has
shown that sand-containing GRC tends to have slightly lower early life
strengths than the prototype neat cement paste material studied and
reported in CP 38. 10 However after 18 months the overall average strengths

1.0

+
+ +
+
MJR
30
0 0 0
+
I101Nlm lt
0 0 'ci q
2
+<f
+[)ey,otered ORe +
10 ONon.{)ev.olered GRC

Aqe at testll1Q
1Xkbys ~ 2 3' -0 20
FIG. 2. Bending strengths of dewatered and non-dewatered sprayed ORC in UK weather
(5 %wt Cem-FIL fibres, longitudinal specimens).
 Properties and Performance of GRC 501

TABLE 3
Bending strength results for longitudinal specimens of spray dewatered GRC
containingfrom 4·8 to 6·0 wt % Cem-FIL ARfibre in UK weather for up to 5 years

Age MOR Standard No. of LOP Standard No. of

(MN/m2) deviation sets of (MN/m2) deviation sets of
(MN/m2) results (MN/m2) results

Initial strength
7 days 35·6 5-4 51 12-4 2·1 29
Initial strength
28 days 37·2 5·3 129 12·5 2·9 100
3 months 36·7 3·9 21 l3-2 2-4 18
6 months 32·6 2·6 29 l3-6 2·5 24
1 year 30·4 3·1 41 14·1 2·1 31
It years 26·8 3·3 12 14·5 1·0 6
2 years 25·7 2·5 27 14·2 2·0 22
3 years 24·4 2·4 12 14·7 2·5 11
4 years 22·7 1·3 3 15·5 2-4 2
5 years 22·4 3·5 16 16·2 2·0 13

for all materials tested are very similar to the original neat cement paste
based samples and clearly indicate that the long term strength predictions
from the earliest weathering programmes may be applied to newer sand-
containing materials.
Another important comparison is shown in Fig. 2, which shows
weathering results for dewatered and non-dewatered materials of similar
fibre content and density. Although the initial values of the non-dewatered
material are significantly lower, the strengths after 2 years are
indistinguishable-and are expected to remain so thereafter.

ACCELERATED DURABILITY TESTING

Alkali-resistant glass fibres represent an enormous step forward over non-

alkali resistant E-glass fibres, making possible the manufacture of useful
reinforced composites. Nonetheless the highly alkaline environment in wet
cement still leads to some attack on the fibres and this is shown up as
strength loss in the weathering results given (for example) in Figs 1 and 2
and discussed in more detail in Refs 3, 6,10,11 and 12. Design and use ofa
new material such as GRC must be based on reliable estimates of long term
strength values which can be regarded as minimum values over the lifetime
502 B. A. Proctor

of the components. One way of making such predictions is to carry out

weathering studies over a number of years (as described above) and then
attempt to extrapolate from observed trends after (say) 5 or 10 years. 10 - 12
An alternative and valuable complementary approach is to find some way of
accelerating these changes, to attempt to relate the time scales of the
accelerated and real changes, and then to use the accelerated test results to
indicate expected long term behaviour.
Early work at BRE had indicated that GRC composites lost strength
more rapidly when immersed in hot water; subsequent Pilkington work
confirmed this and indicated further that there was no additional strength
loss induced by cycling between hot and cold conditions. Separate
fundamental studies of the tensile strengths of glass strands set into small
blocks of cement and immersed in water at various temperatures-as
distinct from the more complex behaviour of GRC composites-also
indicated a general pattern of early strength loss followed by a continually
reducing rate of change. The pattern of behaviour was similar at all
temperatures. Strength losses occurred more rapidly at high temperatures
and it was possible to simulate the changes which would occur over many
years-even tens of years-at lower practical working temperatures, by
tests lasting days or weeks at higher temperatures.
Thus both the work on GRC composites and on glass strands led to the
concept of accelerated testing of GRC based on immersion in hot water.
With the advantage of several years' real weathering data also available it
has been possible to establish relationships between the accelerated testing
times and real weathering. This has led to the ability to make strength
predictions over tens of years covering most practicable lifetimes. One such
approach for UK weathering, based on a summary of all relevant data in
the computer data bank, is shown in Fig. 3. Composite strengths from
accelerated tests at 50°C, 60 °C and 80°C have been combined with actual
weathering results for up to 10 years to give an indication of strengths
expected over 60 years or more. To achieve this the strength plots for the
higher temperature accelerated results have been displaced along the log
(time) axis until the early results overlap with the measurements made in
real weathering conditions. It can be seen that the results for the different
acceleration temperatures then form a common curve, extending forward
for many years in real weathering, and it is believed this provides a sound
basis for extrapolation to indicate patterns of expected future strength
values.
Of course Fig. 3 deals with one particular type of spray dewatered
material in one climate but similar treatments can be used for other
 Properties and Performance of GRC 503

i
MQR
1""1m2 1
• .. ..
•
•• •
.... '" :
..
.!
I'

1 2 5 10 20 I[J 60 myrors
AGE /lJ TESTI~I"..mer1 OR EXTRAPClATED~ted testl _ _

FIG. 3. Bending strengths of dewatered GRC in UK weather, extrapolation based on

accelerated test (5%wt Cem-FIL glassfibre) . • UK weather accelerated test at: 0, 50°C;
+,60°C; x, 80°e.

conditions. The more fundamental approach based on glass strand strength

measurements will be described in detail elsewhere. The results provide
further justification for the approach outlined above and give very similar
extrapolations from somewhat different types of calculation. This
approach is more general and can be used to predict the behaviour of a
wider range of composites with, for example, different glass contents,
orientations, and even different types of cement.

BEHA VIOUR UNDER CONTINUOUS LONG TERM LOADING

So far GRC has not been used to any great extent in situations in which it
would be subjected to significant permanently applied or continuous
stresses. Thus properties such as creep, stress-rupture and fatigue have not
been critical. The fact that creep strains are generally less than moisture
movements creates certain difficulties of measurement. Even in a controlled
humidity laboratory direct tensile creep measurements can be obscured by
small changes in the moisture level of the environment. By measuring
deflections in bending tests on simple strip specimens the moisture
movement effects are suppressed and creep may be observed and measured
in normal laboratory conditions. The general form of creep strain variation
with time for GRC materials is shown in Fig. 4 which gives results for neat
cement paste based samples tested in bending. At bending stresses below the
Limit of Proportionality, LOP (i.e. in the design stress range, see below) the
504 B. A. Proctor

D1

• _ _ . .. . .... .. . .. ~ ..•. • .·1911

0·8
, ..,.J".
~
c 161

.. ~,
:gO
111
.... . ....
.' ~::•... -
~
u 9

04

0-

L_---~- ____ --1&

50 1 150
Time under lood [weeks)
FIG. 4. Creep of spray dewatered GRC with cement paste matrix in dry conditions (5 %wt
glass; water/cement ratio, 0·3; I month old at loading). Numbers on curves are nominal
applied bending stresses in MN/m2 .

creep behaviour of sprayed GRC is not influenced by the fibres and is

identical with that of the matrix material made in the same way. Both water
content and aggregate content have a big effect on creep rates-as they do
for mortars-and creep coefficients for a neat cement paste GRC and a
sand-containing GRC in wet conditions are shown in Fig. 5. In dry
conditions creep is initially somewhat greater but approaches the 'wet creep'
at the longer times.
Recently some additional experiments in natural weather conditions
have been started with hollow box beams 200 mm wide x 100 mm deep with
10 mm thick skins loaded in four-point bending over a 1· 3 mm span to
stresses of nominally 3 MN/m2 and 4·5 MN/m2. Because of the hollow
sections the stress condition is much nearer to pure tension, rather than
bending. Over a period of 18 months any creep which may have occurred
has been indistinguishable from the variations due to moisture and
temperature changes.
Stress rupture tests in bending have been in progress with spray
dewatered GRC for between 3 and 5 years in dry indoor conditions, water
 Properties and Performance of GRC 505

c
.~

"til
]5 ,~
- .-
0
~ · oorP
•
- .........
C

~2 t ~
a.
~ -0
• • ••
•••

~1 •
.I.!
:s:: •
~
a.
II:'-
u

10 '00
Time after loading (weeks) ~

FIG. 5. Effect of matrix type on creep of GRC loaded in flexure at I month (creep under
water). 0, ., Neat cement paste, water/cement ratio 0·3; •• sand/cement mortar, water/
cement ratio 0·29.

immersion and UK weather. No stress rupture failures have been observed

in any of these conditions at stresses below twice the normally
recommended design stress and overall no additional strength loss due to a
stress corrosion effect has been observed so far. This is illustrated in Fig. 6
for the water immersion conditions where stress rupture failures (points) are
compared with the normal strength changes with age for similar material

~ B
•
0

8 ~I-~ •
0

oI cr. ...

=t 4-->
4_

. 10days lOOdays lyear 2 5 10

Age at Failure _
FIG. 6. Stress rupture of GRC in water. Age when loaded: . , I month; 0,3 months.
506 B. A. Proctor

(bars). All the stress rupture failures lie within the normal (unstressed
storage) scatter bands and several samples survive after 5 years under stress
in these wet conditions.
Fatigue tests have been carried out under conditions of non-reversed
flexural loading in four-point bending 14 and in direct tension under zero
load-tension and tension--compression cycling. 4 While more work is
certainly needed, and is planned, particularly in fully reversed flexure, the
present results indicate fatigue lives in excess of 10 6 _10 7 cycles at the
recommended design stress levels, showing that fatigue is not a critical
consideration in the uses so far considered for GRC.

COMPRESSIVE AND SHEAR STRENGTHS

The mode of failure and compressive strength of GRC depend on the

orientation of the test relative to the fibres. The in-plane compressive
strength (stress parallel to fibres) is about 70 %of the across-plane strength
(stress perpendicular to fibres). Both strengths are strongly dependent on
the type of matrix and the latter strength is in fact close to that of the
unreinforced matrix material.
Initially values were obtained from 25 mm cubes cut from extra thick
sprayed sheet. Because GRC is so frequently used as a much thinner sheet
material we wished to test coupons of representative thickness cut from
normal sheets. A recent study 1 5 has indicated that consistent results for in-
plane strength could be obtained with a specimen size of 60 x 50 x
8-10 mm. Compressive strength values for a spray dewatered material
containing 5 %Cem-FIL fibre in a matrix with a sand:cement ratio of 1: 3
lay in the range 64-83 MN/m2. Stress·-strain curves were linear to about
45-55 MN/m2 with Young's moduli in the range 27 to 31 MN/m2 and
Poisson's ratios of 0·12 to 0·22. Tests on samples stored in natural weather
for 5 years indicate a tendency for compressive strengths to increase on
ageing, and for the in-plane strength to approach the across-plane strength
values.
Work on the shear strength testing of GRC has been described by Oakley
and Unsworth. 8 Because of the anisotropy of sprayed sheet materials there
are three different types of shear strength:

(1) Interlaminar shear with failure plane and shear direction parallel to
the fibre plane. This is essentially a matrix-controlled property,
 Properties and Performance of GRC 507

strength values being about 3 to 5 MN/m2 and tending to increase

slightly on wet ageing.
(2) In-plane shear with failure plane perpendicular to fibres and shear
direction in the fibre plane. This tends to be a fibre-controlled
property and Oakley and Unsworth have pointed out that it is
numerically equal to tensile strength. Values fall on wet ageing from
about 15 MN/m2 to about 5 MN/m2.
(3) Punch-through shear with both failure plane and shear direction
perpendicular to the fibre plane. This again is a matrix-controlled
property and is thought to be related to the compressive strength of
the materials. Values tend to lie in the range 30 to 50 MN/m2.

Tests on samples aged for up to 3 and 5 years in UK weather and indoors

respectively indicate no reduction in punch through shear strengths. Tests
on samples aged in water at 20 DC for 4 years show a possible slight fall from
35 to 40 MN/m 2 to rather less than 30 MN/m2.

FREEZE-THAW AND LOW TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOUR

Construction materials are often exposed to prolonged freezing conditions

and to cycling between normal and sub-zero temperatures. Part of the GRC
weathering programme involves exposure of material on a roof site in
Toronto which is subject to prolonged cold winters with hot summers.
Samples of spray dewatered and non-dewatered GRC with a neat cement
paste matrix have recently been examined after 5 years exposure at this site
and compared with similar material weathered in the UK. The Canadian
samples showed no deterioration over the UK samples, visually the surfaces
were free from pitting or cracking and the strengths were if anything slightly
higher than the UK weathered samples.
In laboratory tests based on BS 4624, i.e. cycling wet samples 25 times (as
in BS 4624) or 50 times between + 20 DC and - 20 DC in air, no loss of
strength could be detected with dewatered or non-dewatered GRC in either
a freshly made or artificially aged condition. When tested at low
temperatures (e.g. - 55 DC) GRC actually shows an increase in strength
over room temperature values; this is quite a slight effect with dry material
but is quite marked for wet material.
ASTM C666 (Procedure A), freezing and thawing immersed in water,
provides a very severe freeze-thaw condition and most materials show some
degradation. GRC is no exception but it still compares favourably with
508 B. A. Proctor

• - r-()N -OEWArERFD GRC

10 o -[l:WATEREO GRC
D-I>-saESTOS C&!ENT{f"'Iy~)
• -ASBESTOS. CEMENT!...... ~)
5

0~2~O--~7~O------~----~~----~
N° of Cycles _

FIG. 7. Effect offreezing and thawing in water on the strength of GRC and asbestos cement.

older established construction materials as shown in Fig. 7 and the

conclusion is that freeze-thaw conditions do not pose a significant problem
in the use of GRC.

DESIGN AND WORKING STRESS LEVELS

In selecting design stress values a number of factors must be considered.

They include:
(I) the type of stress system and relevant material strength,
(2) the retention of that strength over product lifetimes in given
conditions,
 Properties and Performance of GRC 509

(3) the type of stress-strain curve for the material,

(4) material quality and probability of providing safety margins.
The main reason for adding alkali-resistant glass fibres to cement is to
provide useable and reliable flexural and tensile strengths. The flexural
strength of GRC is generally 2 to 3 times the tensile strength, 6,16 - 19 both
decrease with wet ageing but change little in dry indoor con-
ditions. 4 ,6.10-12,16 The stress-strain curve for GRC in bending or tension
has a linear initial region and then bends over at an apparent yield point or
Limit of Proportionality (LO P) to a region oflower slope. The yielding is in
fact due to very fine distributed cracking in the material 6.20 and cycling
above the LOP leads to reductions in modulus and, eventually, to fatigue
failures.
The approach which Pilkington has taken in recommending design or
working stress levels has been to select different values for the direct tension
and bending stress conditions such that a considerable margin exists
between very long term strength predictions (say 60 years based on
extrapolations and/or accelerated tests) and the design values. These stress
values were also chosen to be below the LO P so as to avoid matrix cracking
or stiffness changes, and to ensure that fatigue, if it occurred, would not be a
problem.
With standard types of GRC material, over a wide range of uses and
conditions, it has been convenient and practical to choose standard
nominal values of 3 MN/m2 (tension) and 6 MN/m2 (bending) for these
design stresses. Material testing and quality control procedures 5 have then
been recommended to ensure that material quality and performance is
adequate. In rare cases of use in severe conditions these design
recommendations have been lowered, in other instances where lifetimes and
use conditions were precisely known, they have been raised somewhat.
This approach to the design and use of GRC may appear to be cautious
or conservative but it is desirable to introduce a new construction material
carefully. As a consequence, GRC components when first manufactured,
and during their early lifetimes-when they are handled, transported and
installed-possess a considerable reserve of strength over and above their
working requirements.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The object of this paper has been to draw attention to the enormous amount
of information that is required in order to establish a new construction
510 B. A. Proctor

material and provide enough confidence for it to be used, and also to

indicate how much of this has so far been achieved for Glassfibre
Reinforced Cement based on OPC/RHPC and Cem-FIL AR glassfibre.
It is impossible to list all the properties and measurements in a single
paper. In addition to the work outlined above considerable effort has been
devoted to the study and measurement of shrinkage and moisture
movement, thermal movement, fire testing, erosion, permeability, etc.
The incorporation of AR glassfibre into Portland Cement has provided a
new cement based sheet material. Non-combustible, capable of manufac-
ture in thin and lightweight sections, it is extremely tough when made.
Despite a loss of strength and toughness over the years it retains useful,
predictable properties over long practical lifetimes and is already
extensively used in building and construction all around the world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of many of my colleagues in the

GRC Research Department of Pilkington Brothers Research Laboratory.
This paper is published with the permission of the Directors of
Pilkington Brothers Ltd and Mr A. S. Robinson, Director of Group
Research and Development.

REFERENCES

1. MAJUMDAR, A. J. and RYDER, J. F., Glass fibre reinforcement of cement

products, Glass Technology, 9(3) (June, 1968) 78-84.
2. PROCTOR, B. A. and YALE, B., Glass fibres for cement reinforcement, Royal
Society Discussion Meeting on New Fibres and Their Composites, London,
May, 1978. (To be published in The Proceedings of the Royal Society.)
3. BLACKMAN, L. C. F., PROCTOR, B. A., SMITH, J. W. and TAYLOR, J. W., Glass
fibre reinforced cement, The Chartered Mechanical Engineer (January, 1977)
45-51.
4. 'Design guide-glassfibre reinforced cement', issued by Pilkington Brothers
Ltd to all Cem-FIL Licensees and available on request to GRC Specifiers and
Designers.
5. 'Application data for use with Cem-FlL fibre-quality control test booklet',
issued by Pilkington Brothers Ltd to all Cem-FIL Licensees and available on
request to GRC Specifiers and Designers.
6. PROCTOR, B. A., Principles and practice of GRC. A review, Composites
(January, 1978) 44-8 (also in Proceedings of the International Congress on
 Properties and Performance of GRC 511

Glass Fibre Reiriforced Cement (Brighton, 1977), Cross, S. H. (ed.), The

Glassfibre Reinforced Cement Association, 51-67).
7. WARD, D. and PROCTOR, B. A., 'Quality control test methods for glassfibre
reinforced cement'. In: RILEM Symposium: Testing and Test Methods of Fibre
Cement Composites (I 978), Swamy, R. N. (ed.), The Construction Press, 35-44.
8. OAKLEY, D. R. and UNSWORTH, M. A., 'Shear testing for glass reinforced
cement'. In: RILEM Symposium: Testing and Test Methods of Fibre Cement
Composites (1978), Swamy, R. N. (ed.), The Construction Press, 233-41.
9. LEE, J. A. and WEST, T. R., 'Measurement of drying shrinkage of glass
reinforced cement composites'. In: RILEM Symposium: Testing and Test
Methods of Fibre Cement Composites (1978), Swamy, R. N. (ed.), The
Construction Press, 149-57.
10. 'A study of the properties of Cem-FIL/OPC composites', Building Research
Establishment Current Paper, CP 38/76, 1976.
II. 'Properties of GRC:IO year results', Building Research Establishment
Information Paper, IP 36/79.
12. MAJUMDAR, A. J., 'Properties ofGRC'. In: Concrete International: Symposium
on Fibrous Concrete (April, 1980), The Construction Press, 48-58.
13. LEE, J. A., 'Modifiers and additives for GRC A review'. In: Proceedings of the
International Congress on Glassfibre Reinforced Cement (Brighton, 1977),
Cross, S. H. (ed.), The Glassfibre Reinforced Cement Association, 39-49.
14. HIBBERT, A. P. and GRIMER"F. J., 'Flexural fatigue of glass fibre reinforced
cement', Building Research Establishment Current Paper, CP 12/76, 1976.
15. McKENZIE, H. W. and CHOONG, C, Private communication, 1979.
16. PROCTOR, B. A., Fibre reinforcement of cement and concrete, Fourth South
African Building Research Congress, Capetown, May, 1979.
17. NAIR, N. G., Private communication (Pilkington R&D Report, 1973).
18. ALLEN, H. G., Stiffness and strength of two glass-fibre reinforced cement
laminates, J. Compo Mat., 5 (April, 1971) 194--207.
19. AVESTON, J., MERCER, R. A. and SILLWOOD, J. M., 'Fibre reinforced cements-
Scientific foundations for specifications'. In: Composites-Standards, Testing
and Design, Conference Proceedings (April, 1974), IPC Science and Technology
Press, 93-103.
20. OAKLEY, D. R. and PROCTOR, B. A., 'Tensile stress-strain behaviour of glass
fibre reinforced cement composites'. In: RILEM Symposium: Fibre Reinforced
Cement and Concrete (1975), Neville, A. (ed.), The Construction Press,
347-59.
 35
Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six
Carbon-Epoxy Laminates
J. F. M. WIGGENRAAD
Department of Structures and Materials,
National Aerospace Laboratory, NLR, Anthony Fokkenweg 2,
1059 eM Amsterdam, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Buckling tests have been performed on 6 different laminates. The objectives

were to select the best configuration for application in hat-stiffened panels
and to investigate how close the test results could be estimated with classical
plate theory. A description of test specimens, testing equipment and
instrumentation is given. The problem ofderiving the buckling loadfrom the
test data is discussed, as well as the difficulties encountered in obtaining
stiffness matrices with the lamination theory for the specimens at hand. A
comparison between experimental results and theory is made for Young's
modulus, buckling load and post-buckling behavior of the laminates.

NOTATION

A coefficient of deflection function

Aij membrane stiffness matrix elements
a half wavelength
b plate strip width between supports
Dij bending stiffness matrix elements
£1' £2 modulus of elasticity of the plate in the x and y directions
respectively
elastic shear modulus of the plate with respect to the x and y
directions
512
 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 513

H elastic constant defined by

H=_I__ 2 V12
G 12 El
applied load and critical load in x direction
plate thickness
in-plane displacement and critical value of in-plane displace-
ment of plate middle surface in x direction
out-of-plane deflection
Poisson's ratio in the x and y directions
bending stress in the x and y directions
(J X m ' (J 1m membrane stress in the x and y directions

INTRODUCTION

As a first stage in designing and testing carbon-epoxy hat-stiffened panels, 6

different laminates were evaluated in buckling tests on plate strips. Tests
were performed on long plate strips as these form the basic elements of a
panel. In this respect four laminates were selected which could serve as
panel skins «I)-(IV) while the other two laminates «V), (VI» were to be
applied in the stiffeners. The objectives of the tests were to select the best
skin configuration and to investigate how close the compressive pre-
buckling stiffness and buckling load could be estimated with classical plate
theory. As the buckling load was assumed to be the design load of the
panels, post-buckling calculations were not considered at first. However, in
order to derive the buckling load from the test data, such calculations
turned out to be essential, as they gave a better understanding of the plate
strip behavior. Results from a simple approach and from computer
calculations are compared.

TEST SPECIMENS

The plate strips were manufactured at Fokker-Schiphol's Technological

Center (Manufacturing and Product Development Department). They
were assembled from uni-directional and fabric layers. The fibres were
T300-Torayca and the epoxy was Narmco-550. The fabric was coded No.
6141 for thin layers (t = ±0·25mm) and No. 6341 for thick layers
(t = ±0·5 mm). It contained 3000 fibres per bundle in an 8 harness satin
514 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

o
DETA IL KNIFE EDGE MEMBER

OA
OM 630

60 (40)

FIG. 1. Testing rig and specimen.

 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 515

TABLE I
Laminate configurations

No. Configuration Average layer Total

thickness thickness
(mm) (mm)

(I) ±45°F, ±45°F 0·505, 0·505 1·01

(II) ±45°F, 90 0T, 90 0T, ±45°F 0·225, 0·3, 0·3, 0·225 1·05
(III) ±45°F, OCT, OCT, ±45°F 0·225, O· 3, O· 3, 0·225 1·05
(IV) ±45°F, 00/90°F, ±45°F 0·29,0·55,0·29 1·13
(V) 00/90°F,00/90°F 0-49, 0-49 0·98
(VI) 00/90°F, OCT, 00/90°F 0·24,0·31,0·24 0·79

F = fabric, T = uni-directional tape. 0° is the loading direction.

weave. Further details are given in reference I. Fabric has been used when
possible, because it is easier to handle than uni-directional tape. A
disadvantage of fabric is the decrease in stiffness due to waving of the fibre
bundles. The configuration of each of the 6 laminates is given in Table I.
The plate strips had a length of 630 mm and a width of 60 mm, except for
laminate (VI) which had a width of 40mm (see Fig. I). For each
configuration a number of specimens were tested (up to 6).

TESTING EQUIPMENT

The plate strips were tested in a rig that was attached to an Instron-1122
machine with a maximum capacity of 5000 N. The loading was
displacement-controlled. A general impression of the rig is given in Fig. I. It
was designed and built at the NLR. Essentially it consists of 2 supports
which are bolted to the base of the testing machine. To give simple support
conditions at the unloaded plate strip edges each support has 2 adjustable
knife edge members, in between which the plate strip is guided. The
unrounded knife edges are made of steel. In combination with some grease
this provided a minimum of friction. This was essential as the lengthwise
edge displacements of the plate strips were quite substantial due to the
length of the strips. The line-contact between the plate strip and the knife
edges was situated at I mm from the plate edges, which left a buckling width
of 58 (38) mm between the knife edges. The short ends of the plate strips
fitted into slotted adapters, attached to the heads of the testing machine, to
give approximately clamped end conditions. The free length of the plate
516 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

strips between the heads was 600 mm. Test data (outputs of strain gauges
and displacement transducers and end load) were scanned during the test
and recorded by a 'programmable apparatus for data acquisition and
procedures' (PADAP). During a test run 13 data channels were scanned
between 100 and 200 times each at a speed of 25 channels per second.
Hence, there was no need to stop the test in order to take the readings.
When a test run was completed the recorded data were plotted or printed. It
was also possible to manipulate the data before plotting. This was done to
obtain bending and membrane strains from the recorded surface strains.
The buckling pattern was plotted at certain load levels by means of a
displacement transducer (LVDT) which was guided along the centerline of
the plate strip. The output of a linear potentiometer determined the
position of the transducer along the traverse and was used, together with the
output of the L VDT to drive an x-y plotter. In order not to disturb the
readings of the test data a second test run was made to obtain the buckling
patterns. This was allowed because the actual buckling tests were stopped
before failure occurred, while the material remained elastic up to the
maximum applied loads.

INSTRUMENTATION

Strain gauges were applied on both sides of the plate strips in the loading
direction, one pair exactly at the centre of the strip, another 30 mm further
along the central axis of the plate strip (see Fig. I). In this way at least one
pair of strain gauges was positioned at or close to the crest of a buckle.
Displacement transducers recorded the load-end displacement and the out-
of-plane deflection at a crest of the buckling pattern. At the time when the
experiments were carried out a post-buckling analysis was not considered.
Therefore the load-end displacement was recorded to give an indication of
the buckling load. For a post-buckling study this is not a useful parameter
because it records the displacement of the moving head rather than the end
displacement of one or a number of regular waves (away from the clamped
ends).

BUCKLING LOAD FROM TEST DATA

Results of one buckling test are given in Fig. 2. Figures 2a and 2b show the
output of the two strain gauge pairs as well as the membrane and bending
 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 517

strains which were calculated with:

Figure 2c gives the deflection w versus end load, Fig. 2d gives the end
displacement versus end load and Fig. 2e shows the buckling pattern at
various load levels. From these data the buckling load has to be derived.
This can be done in various ways:
(a) The Southwell-plotZ (Fig. 2c). From the deflection-load plot a new
plot can be made, where w/P is plotted against w. A straight line
should then be found in the region where w is not too small, but less
than the plate thickness. The inverse of the slope of this line gives
the buckling load. This method is not very accurate for these
configurations, as the line is not very straight in most cases, while
small changes in the slope give large variations in the buckling load.
(b) The load versus end displacement plot (Fig. 2d) shows a change of
slope close to the buckling load. The pre-buckling part of this line is
straight and if the post-buckling part of this line forms a straight
line too, the point of intersection can be taken as the buckling load.
However, as appears from the post-buckling analysis and also from
test data, in many cases this line is not straight so an accurate point
of intersection cannot be found.
(c) The sliding transducer produces useful information about the
behavior of the plate strips during the test. It appears that some
waves are developed earlier and faster than others, possibly because
of variations in the plate thickness, but when the buckling load has
been exceeded the amplitudes are all of the same magnitude. An
exact point where the buckling load has been reached cannot be
found, however.
(d) The load versus strain plots (Figs 2a and b) show the strain reversal
behavior near the buckling load. Imperfections have a great
influence on this behavior. The test data show in many cases a large
transition area between the pre- and post-buckling situation so a
well defined buckling point cannot be given.
(e) The membrane strains were plotted versus end load (Figs 2a and b)
and it appeared that the post-buckling part of these lines was almost
 v.
00

;...
~

i~
CONF. III CONF . III

1000 o -1000 -2000 - 3000 f: (,,) 1000 o - 1000 - 2000 -3000 €(p)

o. LOAD VERSUS STRA INS UPPER STRAIN GAUGES II. LOAD VERSUS STRAINS LOWER STRAIN GAUGES

FIG. 2. Test results- for configuration (III).

 5000 ~
U ~
PIN)
5~1' w/ P (pmIN)
'/1~ ~
j ~Nll I ~
4000 I- fi'\ AI 4000 I "1:l
I is"
I
I ;;;
V)
~
"6-
3000
I I 'I:...
::
~
'i2""
2000
5''"
::
~
V)
::;-
1000
CONF. III CONF.III
Q
..,
~
c
::
.g,c
-600 fO 600 1200 CD 1800 -600 o 600 1200 1800 U (Jim) ~
-300 0 300 600 Q) 900 W (pm)
~
c. LOAD VERSUS DEFLECTION AND SOUTHWELL - PLOT d. LOAD VERSUS LOAD - END DISPLACEMENT ::i
,,-
FIG_ 2-contd. ~
~

V>
v:;
 V>
N
o

LOWER STRAIN GAUGES 3· ~ UPPER STRAIN GAUGES 1·1

~ooo { '
4500 II I

~
:>"J
~

1.10 am
it

~92 ..

DISPLACEMENT
.) BUCKLING PATTERN CDNf.11I TRANSDUCER

FIG. 2-contd.
 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 521

linear far into the post-buckling region. This was found even for
strain gauges which were positioned on a node in the buckling
pattern, so the point of intersection of these lines gives a well-
defined buckling point. This approximate linear behavior is
explained by the post-buckling theory discussed in the penultimate
section of the paper.
As the last method gives the best defined buckling point, this method was
used in the analysis of the test data.

THEORETICAL BUCKLING LOAD AND YOUNGS MODULUS

As can be seen from Table I all laminates are built up (symmetrically) from
homogeneous orthotropic layers. This implies that for all layers (0°,90°,
0°/90 0, ±45 0) the stress-strain equations with respect to the plate axes x-y
reduce to

Q~ I Q~2 0

Q~2 Q~2 0 (I)

o o
where

(2)

and k refers to the properties of layer k.

From these values the constitutive relations for the plate follow:

Nx All AI2 0 1 0
I
I0 0 eOx
1 eO
Ny AI2 A22 0 11 0 0 0 Y
N XY
=
0 0 A66 : 0 0 0
-------------1--------------
YXY ° (3)
Mx 0 0 0 1011 0 12 0 -w,xx
I
My 0 0 0 : 0 12 O 2 0 -W,yy
I
Mxy 0 0 0 10 0 0 66 -2w,xy
522 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

where

(4)

As far as in-plane behavior is concerned, the laminate is equivalent to a

homogeneous plate with properties £1' £2' V12 ' V2I and G I2 which can be
derived from:

(5)

The buckling load of a simply supported rectangular plate with properties

described by eqn. (3) is given by:

The strips had clamped ends, but at some distance from these ends this
influence vanishes. Apart from the first and last one or two buckles the
buckling pattern is regular, so eqn. (6) gives the buckling load when the half
wavelength of these buckles is substituted for a. The calculation of Young's
modulus and the theoretical buckling load is thus based on the membrane
and bending stiffness matrices A and D, defined by eqn. (4). These values
can be determined when the lamina-thickness and properties in eqn. (2) are
known. The fabrication process of the laminates is still such that thickness
variations (leading to fibre volume percentage variations) are unavoidable,
even more so when fabric is used. This results in a range of values for
Young's modulus and the buckling load for each laminate, so it would be
very desirable if these values could be determined more precisely from tests.
Young's modulus is measured indirectly during the buckling tests (through
the compressive strain recordings) but it is difficult to determine the bending
stiffness coefficients by a test, because it appears that these values are very
sensitive to small deviations of the displacement parameters. The
development of a suitable test method is the subject of study at the NLR.
 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 523

POST-BUCKLING CALCULATIONS

Post-buckling calculations have been made based on the theory as

presented by Banks. 3 According to this method a suitable expression for the
deflection function w is chosen, containing a number of independent
parameters. Subsequently the stress function F is solved in terms of w, by
means of compatibility equations. Finally the unknown parameters are
determined by minimizing the total potential energy expression. With the
deflection known, stresses and strains can be calculated.
In the case of the plate strips a calculation of post-buckling values of the
deflection can be made by considering a plate with a length equal to one
buckle, which is assumed to be simply supported along all edges. At the
buckling load the end displacement is given as follows:
b ..

"""'" I---L
• u/2

' - - -_ _ _ _ _ _--L._ _ l..L u/2

ttttttttt
(~y
{Oll !~
+ 2(°12 + 2066) + 022 ~:}
u =--"--""----"-----------------"-- (7)
cr tEl

a
while the deflection w takes exactly the form of:

w = A cos (:x) (n:)

cos (with A indeterminate) (8)

Post-buckling calculations can be performed when assuming the deflection

524 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

field to remain unchanged apart from the amplitude A, which is thus the
only parameter to be calculated. Banks showed 3 that this approach gives
good results for values not too far in excess of buckling ( -::::. P / P cr less than 2).
Such calculations can be done in closed form as shown hereafter.
Calculations with the program STAGS have been made as well, to show
the limits to the accuracy of these post-buckling formulas. The amplitude of
the deflection is determined as follows:

For plates with E;H2 > 4 ;1:

2

k 1_- 27t
a

k _ 27t (9)
2-
a

S1 = sinh ( k 1 %
) S2 = sinh (k2%)
(10)
C1 = cosh ( k 1 %) c2 = cosh (k2%)

(11)

For plates with E2H2 < 4 EE .

1
1•
2

(12)

(13)
 Buckling of Plate Strips~An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 525

A=

Z 3b a 4 Ez[ -J4-E E H z{ (cp)Z(sq)2 + (SP)2(C q )Z} +b ]}

-n { E -+--
ab 18 b4 8 1 Z (P)(sq)(cq) + (q)(sp)(cp)
(14)
For plates with EtH2 = 4(EdEz ), i.e. isotropic plates, one has to calculate
A from the limiting case of either group: lim (k 1 - k 2 ) -+ 0 or lim q -+ O.
withE 1 =E2 =E, H=2jE.
The total in-plane load is given by:

p= tE1b{u_ n 2
a 8a
A2} (15)

hence, because of eqn. (14), the relation between P and u is linear. The
membrane stresses are found as follows:

(J x~
-uE I E1n z
= - a - + 4az
A2 cos 2(ny)
b + 2a2n bZ A2(cos ----;;-
2 2nx)(,!",,)
'I'
(16)
(Jy~ = - :z:: AZ(COS 2:X)c<jJ)

The relation between the membrane stresses and u is linear.

For plates with EtHZ > 4 EI:

E2
<jJ = _ E2a:
16n
{I _ k 2s2coshkly
k 2s Zc 1 - kls1c z
+ klSI coshk2y }
kZsZc 1 - kls1c z
(17)
<jJ" = _ Eza: { kikzsz coshkly + klk~SI COShkzY }
16n k 2s 2C1 - k1cls z k 2s 2C1 - kls1c z

For plates with EtH2 < 4 EI:

E2
R = - (P)(cp)(sq) - (q)(sp)(cq)
S = (P)(sp)(cq) - (q)(cp)(sq) (18)
N = (P)(sq)(cq) + (q)(sp)(cp)
2 a4 { R coshpycos qy + N
S smh
. (py) sin (qy) }
<jJ = - E16n2 1+N (19)
526 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

" E 2a 4 {(p2 - q2)R + 2pqS

cjJ = -16n2 N coshpycosqy

(p2 _ q2)S - 2pqR . .}

+ N smhpysmqy (20)

Membrane strains can be calculated with:

- V l2
-- (J
E Xm
I (21)

The relationship between membrane strains and u is linear.

Bending strains at the plate surfaces can be derived with:

t t (n)2 nx ny
C = -- W =- - Acos-cos-
Xb 2 'xx 2 a a b

c Yb = -2t W,yy =2t (n)2 nx ny

b Acos---;;cos[; (22)

Bending stresses at the plate surfaces follow with:

(JXb = C-~112V21Y C~2:~~2IY c~ (23)

while E~, E~, V~2' v~ I are constants for the surface layers.
It has been shown by Banks et al. 5 that an improved function for the
displacement w, which allows for a flattening out of the centre of the plate,
gives a deviation of the linear relationships mentioned before. These
deviations were confirmed by the STAGS calculations.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Figure 3 shows membrane and bending strains versus end load and Fig. 4
shows out-of-plane deflection and end-displacement versus end load for
representative specimens of all 6 laminates, both theoretical and
 ~
";>;-
5000 §7
£m- MEMBRANE STRAIN ~

P(N) £b-BENDING STRAIN ~

s-STAGS c-COSINE
~
4000
V)
"::;
'6'
I:>..
3000 ;:,

~
tl

!?
"c·
2000 ;:,

~
~
Q
..,
1000 c:r-
Cl
CONF. I ;:,
.g,
Cl

~
-1000 -2000 -4000 £ (,u) 500 0 -2000 t"-
500 o -3000 -1000 -3000 -4000 £(,u) tl
:;:
FIG. 3. Membrane and bending strains versus end load. S·
tl
B'
V>
tv
-..J
528 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

3
§
<= ... I

-"
80
M
I

80
N
I

§
I"

0
80 Z §..., § 80 §
ii:"
'"
M N
8
'" ~
::::
<:)
<oJ
I
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rZ

~
iii"
§
... I
u:
~
u
§
M
I

.........
.. u
-"..D -" §
N
I

§
I"

0
§ z
ii:"
§... § § g
'" M N
8
'"
Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 529

3..,
80
....I

8
M
I

§
<'<
I

§
'I

<>

8 .,,;
'" -.:
c
"I
M

0
>i:

3..,
§
....
I

§
'7

§
'"I

8
I

8
'" <>

8
'"
 v.
w
o

5000
W=OUT-OF-PLANE DEFLECTION
PIN) U- END -DISPLACEMENT
s = STAGS c 2 COSINE
4000

3000 ~
~

~
2000
it
CONF . I C(»jF. II

o 1000 2000 3000 U,W (pm) o 1000 2000 3000 U,W (pm)

FIG. 4. Out-of-plane deflection and end-shortening versus end load .

Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 531

E
3-
~

~
::5
u.:z
0 80
u M

8o
N

8o

~
;::
c
"I
""0
.:L:
EE
33
~~

u.:z
00
0 00
u 00
MN
532 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

§§
M'"

§§
"'-

0
80

0 0
8 z 8
CC
'" 0
~
I::
<:l
<.J

J
d
~

EE
~~
;:) ,.,;:)
~

u
;:)
88
00
M '"

00
88
'" -
 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 533

TABLE 2
Theoretical and experimental results for Young's modulus and buckling load

Conf. t Ex (N/mm2) Pcr(N)

no. (mm) Theory Experiment % Theory Experiment %
(I) 1·01 14310 13766 -4 2750 2100 -24
(II) 1-05 15896 16922 +6 3270 3125 -4
(III) 1·05 63461 70495 + 11 3350 3675 + 11
(IV) 1·13 32369 32954 +2 3600 3225 -10
(V) 0·98 47377 49724 +5 1750 1200 -31
(VI) 0·79 72696 75697 +4 1500 1350 -10

experimental results. The values of the end load as used in the calculations
have been multiplied by 60/58 (40/38 for configuration (VI)) to account for
the actual width (60 mm resp. 40 mm) of the plate strips compared to the free
buckling width (58 mm resp. 38 mm) which was used in the calculations.
Theoretical results are presented, obtained with STAGS calculations and
with calculations based on the assumption that the post-buckling deflection
form can be described by a simple cosine function in x and y direction of the
plate.
Table 2 compares the theoretical values of Young's modulus and the
buckling load with experimental results for all 6 laminates. A good
agreement is found for Young's modulus; most theoretical values are
slightly lower than the experimental values. Theoretical buckling loads are
generally higher than experimental values, except for configuration (III)
(for which the longitudinal stiffness was the most underestimated of all the
laminates). The agreement is reasonable except for configurations (I) and
(V). A possible reason for these deviations from theoretical results can be
found in the nature of 8 H satin weave fabric. This material is not
symmetrical with respect to its midplane, but shows some resemblance of a
two-layer laminate: (0 °,90°) or ( + 45 0, - 45 0). As laminates (I) and (V)
consist purely of 2 layers of thick fabric these are most affected. For
laminate (I) the effect is a considerable amount of bending torsional
coupling (DI6, D26 # 0), which is known to reduce the buckling load with
up to 30 %. 6 Laminate (V) resembles a (90 0 0 90 laminate with a lower
0
,
0
,
0
,
0
)

longitudinal bending stiffness D 11' resulting in quite a shorter wavelength.

Thus, the theoretical result is too high because the buckling load was
calculated for the inadequately modelled material (0/90) forced into the
buckling pattern of the actual material (90 0, 0 °,0 0, 90°) as observed in the
test.
534 J. F. M. Wiggenraad

Post-buckling Behavior
The agreement between membrane strains calculated with the 2 different
methods is good with some deviations for configurations (V) and (VI), while
the agreement between the calculated bending strains is good «V),
reasonable «III), (IV) and (VI» and poor «I) and (II». A comparison of
theoretical and experimental results reveals that the post-buckling load-
strain plots have different starting points but they generally are in
reasonable to good agreement otherwise. These starting points are
determined by Young's modulus and the buckling load, so the differences
between these points are caused by the difficulty in obtaining the actual
membrane and bending stiffness matrix of a specimen with the lamination
theory ~s discussed earlier. As a different choice from the range of
stiffness values for these specimens gives merely a translation of the
theoretical post-buckling curves it seems probable that a better set of
stiffness values could lead to a closer fit of theoretical and experimental
curves. The theoretical results for out-of-plane deflection and end-
displacement as calculated with both methods are in good agreement, with
some deviations of the end-displacements for configurations (II), (V) and
(VI). The theoretical values for the out-of-plane deflection are generally
larger than the experimental values, which was also noted by Banks. 7
Theoretical values of the end-displacement have been multiplied by
600/(half wavelength) to give some conformity with the measured end-
displacement of the moving head of the testing machine. It was mentioned
before that this parameter is not suitable for a comparison with theoretical
results.
It can be concluded that, for this class of laminates, hand calculations,
based on the assumption that the post-buckling deflection form of a plate
can be approximated by a cosine function, give generally good results
compared to more accurate computer calculations, for loads not too far into
the post-buckling region. To improve the agreement between theoretical
and experimental results it should be possible to determine laminate
stiffness parameters more accurately, for instance by a suitable bending
test.

REFERENCES
1. SHIBATA, N., NISHIMURA, A. and NORITA, T., Graphite fibre's fabric design and
composite properties, SAMPE Quart., 1976, July, 25-33.
2. SOUTHWELL, R. V., On the analysis of experimental observations in problems of
elastic stability, Proceedings, Royal Society, London, Series A, 135 (1932),
601-16.
 Buckling of Plate Strips-An Evaluation of Six Carbon-Epoxy Laminates 535

3. BANKS, W. M., The post-buckling behaviour of composite panels, 1st

1nternational Conference on Composite Materials, Geneva, 1975, 2, 272-93.
4. ALMROTH, B. 0., BROGAN, F. A. and MARLOWE, M. B., Collapse analysis for
shells of general shape, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, TR-71-8, 1972.
5. BANKS, W. M., HARVEY, J. M. and RHODES, J., The non-linear behavior of
composite panels with alternative membrane boundary conditions on the
unloaded edges, 2nd International Conference on Composite Materials, Toronto,
1978, 316--36.
6. WIGGENRAAD, J. F. M., The influence of bending-torsional coupling on the
buckling load of general orthotropic, midplane symmetric and elastic plates,
National Aerospace Laboratory, TR 77126 U (1977).
7. BANKS, W. M., Experimental study of the nonlinear behaviour of composite
panels, 3rd International Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, 1980.
 36
The Damage Tolerance of High Performance
Composites
R. J. LEE
School of Materials Science, University of Bath,
elaverton Down, Bath, Avon BA2 7AY, England
AND
D. C. PHILLIPS
Materials Development Division, AERE,
Harwell, Oxfordshire OX]] ORA, England

ABSTRACT
A study has been carried out of the effects of severe stress concentrations on
the strength of high performance laminates. The aims have been to
establish the most appropriate strength criterion for engineering design
and to determine the effects of microstructural variables on the damage
tolerance. The development of damage prior to and during fracture has
been observed by a variety of techniques including acoustic emission,
optical microscopy, andfinefocus x-ray radiography. The residual strength
depends upon geometricalfactors such as crack size, crack tip radius, plate
dimensions and on the notch sensitivity of the material. The development of
damage and notch sensitivity depend upon material parameters such as fibre
type, bondstrength,ply orientations and thickness, and lamination sequence.
The injiul!nces of these effects on residual strength are outlined and guidelines
for the development of tough laminates are suggested.

1. INTRODUCTION

Present understanding of the factors which control the strength of

composites containing damage or severe stress concentrations is very
limited and barely adequate for materials selection and component design.'
A better understanding is required of the usefulness and limitations of
available predictive theories, such as linear elastic fracture mechanics
536
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 537

(LEFM), and of the effects of materials variables such as fibre type, ply
orientation and stacking sequence. Although the mechanical properties of
undamaged laminates can be calculated with reasonable accuracy using
laminate theory no accurate means of predicting toughness are available. In
contrast to metals where stress relaxation at a notch occurs by yielding, and
failure usually involves the extension of a single macroscopic crack
perpendicular to the applied stress, in laminates stress relaxation and
fracture usually result from combinations of splitting parallel to the fibres,
matrix microcracking, fibre failure, delamination, and pulling out of fibres
and under some circumstances of complete plies. The formation of a stable
zone of damage has been observed by several workers 1.2 using optical
microscopy and laser interferometry and its size has been shown to be
governed by such factors as the radius of curvature at the crack tip, the
orientation and localised interactions between plies, fibre matrix bond
strength, ply stacking sequence and thickness. 3 ,4 Any micromechanical
mechanism which absorbs energy will increase the fracture resistance and a
larger damage zone produced at a notch tip will result in a higher toughness
and greater damage tolerance. Because of the complexity of the failure
process and the number of parameters involved there is not yet any general
analytical model that successfully predicts the toughness of laminates, and
failure theories which have been established are all over-simplifications,
usually resulting in two- or three-parameter formulae which ignore fine
details. Most theories are essentially two-dimensional and are inadequate
to describe the complex stress distribution near cracks and free-edges where
three-dimensional effects occur, such as out-of-plane normal and shear
stresses. Three-dimensional analyses performed so far for notched
laminates using minimum complementary potential energy principles and
finite element numerical analysis have not resulted in any immediate
implications for designing a tough laminate.
This paper summarises some of the results of an investigation of the
damage tolerance and residual strengths of notched and holed carbon fibre
laminates. The applicability of a variety of failure theories has been
considered, and some guidelines for the design of tougher laminates are
suggested.

2. FRACTURE MODELS AND RESIDUAL STRENGTH

CRITERIA FOR LAMINATES

Mathematical treatments describing the fracture of laminates can be

classified essentially into three categories. At one extreme microstructural
538 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

models, which treat the material as heterogeneous and anisotropic, have

been useful in elucidating the physical processes of energy absorption such
as fibre pull-out, debonding and post-debond friction. A good understand-
ing exists of the relative importance of these models for unidirectional
materials but their significance for laminates, in which delamination and
splitting are important, has not been well established. A general
micro mechanical approach would require a detailed understanding of all
the various material parameters and of the complex three-dimensional
stress field surrounding the notch tip, which is not presently practical. At
the other extreme macroscopic models which ignore heterogeneity are
simpler to apply but are physically unrealistic. An intermediate approach 5
which treats the material as a homogeneous orthotropic continuum but
incorporates local heterogeneous regions near crack tips has been used with
some degree of success for unidirectional materials although extension to
laminates of arbitrary lay-up have not been reported.
In this work five macroscopic models have been considered and
compared with experimental data from a variety of laminates.
LEFM has been applied successfully to high strength, low ductility alloys
but its relevance to composites which fail by a variety of complex modes
appears a priori doubtful. However in practice it has been applied with
some success to notched laminates when allowances were made for the
formation of damage zones which effectively extend the notch 6 ,7

(I)

where O"N is the notched strength, K 1c is the critical stress intensity factor, a is
the semi-crack length, Y is a width correction factor and Rp is the effective
increase in notch length, a characteristic of the laminate,
Waddoups et al. 8 introduced a two parameter fracture mechanics model
which relied on a hypothetical 'intense energy' region of dimension IY.
adjacent to the notch or hole modelled as an inherent flaw. The
characteristic length was assumed to be a material property and the notched
(O"N) and unnotched (0"0) strengths were related

:: = Ja:1Y. (2)

In rather similar approaches Nuismer and Whitney 9 introduced two

different fracture models which both relied on characteristic dimensions
which were material parameters, The 'point stress' failure criterion assumes
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 539

that failure occurs when the stress at some distance, do, ahead of the notch
reaches the unnotched strength. For a sharp central crack in an infinite
width plate this results in

O"N _
0"0 -
J( 1 a
a+do
) 2
(3)

The 'average stress' criterion assumes that failure occurs when the stress
averaged over a characteristic distance, ao, ahead of the crack reaches the
unnotched strength, resulting in the relationship for a sharp central crack

I - (ala +a o)
(4)
1 + (ala + a o)
Experimental investigations have shown that the average stress failure
criterion can be used to produce predictions that are in reasonable
agreement with experimental results for three-point bending lO and for
centrally cracked laminates in both uniaxial tension II and compression. 12
However, it has been recently reported 13 that a constant characteristic
dimension is inappropriate for the notched behaviour of laminates and
extension of the analysis by the use of additional parameters l4 has been
suggested, although this is essentially a curve fitting procedure and does not
lead to a better understanding of the physical processes during fracture.
Mandell et al. IS have questioned the validity of trying to apply directly a
LEFM approach where the main crack is blunted by growth of sub-cracks
which tend to reduce the stress concentration and where the size of the
damage zone near the notch tip, which is the same order of magnitude as the
crack length, would be expected to destroy the classical stress singularity
and render the calculated value of KQ meaningless. They proposed an
extension of the stress concentration approach where for an elliptical notch
in an infinite uniaxially loaded specimen the maximum stress (O"max) at the
notch tip is given by:

(5)

where p is the notch radius, a the semi-crack length and ii the remote applied
stress. This expression has been modified to take into account the effects of
material anisotropy2.15

(6)
I +q [ -
a JI /2
Po
540 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

where

E J1/2))1/2
q = ( 2( IX'E11 + [ E::

IX , = -
I V12
---
2G 12 Ell
and where Po is the critical crack tip radius which is a characteristic of the
laminate.
Comparison of eqns (1)-(6) shows that although the models are
physically different a common result is that they all predict a notched
strength which varies with the reciprocal of the square root of the notch
length and contain a characteristic parameter which can be suitably
adjusted to fit to notched strength data.

3. EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

A variety of carbon fibre laminates were manufactured from commercially

available unidirectional pre-impregnated sheets of moulded ply, thickness
0·25 mm, which were laid up into a range of stacking sequences,
representing extremes of elastic behaviour. The laminates were balanced
and symmetrically stacked about the central plies in order to eliminate
warping, and contained approximately 60 volume percent of high modulus
carbon (Grafil EHM-S) or high strength carbon (Grafil EHT-S) fibres with
two different levels of surface treatment. Straight sided tensile specimens
were cut using a diamond tipped slitting wheel, and aluminium alloy end
tabs were bonded to transfer the load into the specimen. Central notches
with both sharp and rounded ends were cut in order to look at the effects on
the notched strengths of the following parameters.
(a) Geometrical parameters
(i) notch length [2(ajW)0'2 -+ 0·7]
(ii) specimen dimensions (plate width, laminate thickness)
(iii) notch tip radius ('sharp', 0·5 mm, I mm)
(b) Material parameters
(i) fibre-matrix bond strength
(ii) fibre type
(iii) ply orientations
(iv) style of reinforcement (woven or plied)
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 541

Specimens were clamped in wedge action grips and aligned by universal

joints and loaded uniaxially at a crosshead displacement ofO·5 mm min -1.
A piezo-electric transducer was attached to monitor acoustic emissions in
order to indicate when irreversible processes were occurring and the surface
deformations were examined visually under low magnification during
loading. Some of the specimens were unloaded at pre-determined levels,
selected on the basis of acoustic emission, to see what damage had occurred
and in some cases were soaked in an x-ray opaque additive and
radiographed.

4. RESULTS

Fracture mechanics measurements were made on the centre notched

specimens where the Mode I K1c was calculated from the load at failure and
crack length and adjusted for finite width by using an isotropic correction
factor, 16
(7)
For metals the candidate fracture toughness (KQ) measured from a test has
to satisfy certain requirements concerning the amount of inelastic
deformation at the crack tip and specimen size before it is classified as the
true fracture toughness, K1c ' No such standardised procedures have been
established for composites, consequently the candidate fracture toughness
(KQ) will be used. We recognise that LEFM may not be appropriate to these
materials but the value of KQ provides a useful comparison of the damage
tolerance of these materials and is used as such in the following.

4.1. Effect of Notch Length

The results could be broadly classified into two main categories.

(a) Notch insensitive

This behaviour occurred in two classes of laminates, [Os]. and [± 45lz.,
where the net-section stress measured at the notch section equalled the
unnotched tensile strength as shown in Fig. 1. In this case linear elastic
fracture mechanics is clearly not applicable. Failure of the [± 45]. laminates
started by initiation and extension of sub-cracks from the notch tip parallel
to fibres, spreading across the entire width of the plate to produce a large
damage zone and eliminating the stress concentration. Final failure was by
macroscopic shearing and was controlled and non-catastrophic. In the [Os].
542 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

laminate, longitudinal shear cracks initiated and grew from the notch tip,
thereby reducing the stress concentration. These subsequently grew the
length of the specimen and eventually tensile failure of the specimens
occurred catastrophically near the loading grips.

(b) Notch sensitive

The remammg laminates were [0, ± 45, O]s' [0,90,0, 90]s and
[0, ±45, 90]s' These were sensitive to the presence of notches, their
strengths falling below the notch insensitive line, Fig. 1. The notch sensitive
behaviour could be divided into two distinct classes.
J
(i) High notch sensitivity (K Q < 20 M Pa m). In our experiments this
was exhibited by laminates containing high strength carbon fibres which
had received high levels of fibre surface treatment resulting in strong fibre-
matrix bond strengths and high interlaminar shear strengths (> 100 MPa).

10

0·9

0·8
"',<NO"" Insensit ive Line

07 .~
06

~ 05
')"
ao
1""I
)
O·L,

03

02 ~
~
Notch Sensitive
0 '1

0· , 0 2 0·3 OL, 0·5

20
Vi"

CD Notch insensitive -EHM-S/COOE69 ((!4512 I S

CD Notch sensitive - EHT-S/COOE69 10, 90,0 .90I s 1 strong bond I

FIG. 1. Residual strengths of two laminates with different notch sensitivities.

 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 543

These laminates included the stacking sequences [0,90,0, 90]s, [0, ± 45,0].
and [± 45]2s' There was little acoustic emission prior to failure nor was
there any visible splitting near the notch tip during loading. Because of the
strong fibre-matrix bond the stress relaxation resulting from splitting and
localised delamination was suppressed. Failure occurred in a catastrophic
manner in which the main crack grew from the notch tip in a direction
perpendicular to the applied stress and no delamination between plies took
place. Measured values of KQ were independent of notch length for a wide
range of aspect ratios, as shown by case I in Fig. 2, indicating that LEFM
may be appropriate in this case.
(ii) Low notch sensitivity (K Q > 20 MPaJm). The majority oflaminates
had KQ values ranging from 30-50 MPaJm and failure involved complex
interactions between plies with the occurrence of large amounts of

50
I I
l- I CD
40 l-
I I
I
I--

30 l-
~
e
a.. I--
~

~'"
20 I--

I--

10 l-
I I
I I I I Q)

l-

t I L I I I I I I
o1 02 03 04 05 0·6 o7 08 09 10
2a
Vi

Q) EHT-S/CODE 69 [10,90)21 5 IStrong fibre/matnx bond)

0 EHT-S/CODE 69 [10,90)2 15 IReduced fibre/matrix bond)

FIG. 2. Comparison of the fracture toughness of two laminates with different notch
sensitivities.
544 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

delamination. In this case measured values of the fracture toughness were a

function of the notch length as shown by case 2 in Fig. 2. Small and large
notches caused a reduction of the KQ value. Other workers have explained
this crack size dependence of KQ in terms of a damage zone, as in metals
where a crack length correction factor Rp has been invoked to account for
the forward shift of the crack tip stress field as a result of plastic zone
growth. This procedure has had some success with composites. It requires
the use of eqn. (1), KQ = YaNJ a + Rp, and can describe the increase of KQ
with crack size at small crack lengths. At large crack lengths it is argued that
interaction between the crack tip stress field and specimen boundaries
causes a decrease in K Q . The use of the crack length correction factor is,
however, doubtful on physical grounds because it has been suggested that
the extension of sub-cracks does not produce a forward shift in the crack tip

FIG. 3. Fine-focus x-ray radiograph of notched cross-ply laminate at 80 % of failure load

(EHT-S/Code69, [0,0,90,90]" W=30mm).
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 545

stress field. Further the development of damage is not localised at the crack
tip as is shown by the fine focus radiograph of a notched laminate (EHT-S/
Code 69 [0,0,90,90]., Fig. 3. There is no clearly distinct damage zone near
the notch tip and damage is widespread throughout the gauge length.
Immediately above and below the notch the material is unloaded and very
little cracking occurred in these regions. Longitudinal splits can be seen at
the notch tips extending the entire gauge length. The spacings of the
multiple transverse cracks, which are a function of applied stress and ply
thickness, are smaller near the notch as a result of the higher stresses.
Longitudinal splits can be seen some distance from the notch and occur
through thermal and Poisson generated strains.

4.2. Effect of Specimen Dimensions

Increasing laminate thickness by repeating the stacking sequence does
not significantly alter toughness. For example the two EHM-S/Code 69
laminates [0,90,0,90]. and [0,90,0,90]2. which were 2 mm and 4 mm thick
had KQ values of35·7 MPaJm and 36·9 MPaJm respectively when tested
with a 30 mm wide specimen and a 2a/ W of 0· 3. KQ does however tend to
increase with specimen width as shown in Fig. 4.

4.3. Effect of Fibre Type

Fibres which can store large amounts of elastic strain energy would be
expected to be good candidates for a tough laminate, and in support of this
high strength carbon laminates have been found to be tougher than high
modulus laminates. For example two [0,90]28 laminates made from EHM-
S/Code 69 and EHT-S/Code 69 gave KQ values of 35·7 MPaJm and
43·5 MPaJm respectively (width 30 mm, thickness 2 mm, 2 a/WO·3).

4.4. Effect of Notch Tip Radius

Table I shows the effects of changing the sharpness of a crack. The
toughness of notch insensitive laminates is unaffected by notch tip radius.
Of the notch sensitive laminates the tough laminates are also unaffected by
original notch tip radius because the growth of damage prior to fracture
obscures the original tip shape. For the more brittle, notch sensitive
materials there is a pronounced effect of crack tip radius, toughness or
effective strength decreasing with increasing sharpness.

4.5. Ply Stacking Sequence

Ply stacking sequence has a considerable effect on damage tolerance.
Table 2 shows data obtained from 0 0 /90 0 and 0 0 / ± 45 0 laminates. The
546 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips
100

90 -
80 I-
0

70 I-
0 B 0
A
l; A
60 I-
0
a...
~
~ 0
0 0
0 A
0 50 I-
~
0 0
1.0 I- B
30 l- S
20 -

10 - (~=03)
I I I I I I I I I
10 20 30 1.0 50 60 70 80 90 100
Width (mm)

0 EHT-S/CODE 69 I ~ 1.5 00) 5

A EHT-S/CODE 69 1090 090)5
0 EHM-SI CODE 69 109009015
FIG. 4. The effects of specimen width on the fracture toughness.

TABLE 1
Effects of crack tip radius on effective fracture toughness KQfor a range of notch
sensitivities

Notch Lay-up KQ at crack tip radius

sensitivity (MPaJm)

1 mm 0·5 mm 'sharp'

Insensitive EHT-S [±45lz s 13·2 12·2 J3.1

Sensitive
Low EHM-S [0, ±45,0]s 42·3 38·4 41·1
Medium EHT-S [0, ±45,O]s 22·6 17·5 17-4
(strong bond)
High EHT-S [0, 90,0, 90]s 20·0 17·0 12·3
(strong bond)
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 547

TABLE 2
Effect of ply stacking sequence on toughness

Stacking sequence KQ (MPaJm)

(EHT -S/Code 69) 2a/W=0·3, W=30 mm, t=2 mm

A. [0,0,90,90]. 56·5
B. [90, 90,0,0]. 38·4
e. [0,90,0,90]. 43·0
D. [0, ±45,0]. 33·0
E. [±45,0,0]. 56·5

differences in toughness were reflected in fracture morphology. For

example the 0 0/90 a laminate was very much tougher with 0 a fibres on the
outer plies and for this lay-up a great deal of multiple splitting and
delamination occurred, while with 90 a plies on the outside the material was
much less tough and splitting and delamination were largely suppressed. It
is worth noting that A and B were identical materials rotated through 90 a
and this demonstrates the orientation dependence of toughness.

4.6. The Effects of Style of Reinforcement (Woven and Plied)

The fracture behaviour of laminates made from woven fibre reinforce-
ments was significantly different to that of conventional plied material. For
example two EHT-S/Code 69 laminates, one plied [0,90,0,90]. and one a
[0,90]10. plain weave, had KQ values respectively of 43·0 MPaJm and
31·5 MPaJm (width 30mm, thickness 2mm, 2a/WO·3). The weave
constrained the development of shear cracking and splitting and resulted in
a 'brittle' failure with little acoustic activity prior to failure and no
delamination between plies. The fracture plane was perpendicular to the
applied stress and contained short stubby bundles of fibres which protruded
~lmm.

5. DISCUSSION

5.1. The Applicability of Predictive Models

Although the fracture behaviour of notched laminates involves a
complex sequence of events and has been shown to be controlled by various
material and geometrical variables, there is a requirement for simple
parameters which can be obtained from mechanical tests which give an
indication of the materials behaviour in an engineering application.
548 R . J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

Despite their different derivations, the 'inherent flaw' model and the
'average stress' criterion are identical in practice and the predictions of the
'point stress' criterion are in close agreement provided that the ratio do ja is
small. Under this condition the characteristic lengths are related by ao =
2(X - 4do Figure 5 compares the various residual strength criteria, together
o

with appropriate averaged model parameters, for data obtained from two

10

0·9
Insensitive

08

07

06
,
\
aN"
ao 05 \

,
\

,-_.-
\
0 ,1. -'--'--).:::
"""... ...
03 .... - '''-r.

-- ___~ T
02
1 ----r
High Notch Sensl tovlty
0,1

00
7 9 10 11
Semi-crock Length 1mm I

AS PS I F SC LEFM
LAMINATE
oolmm dolmm) otlmm) loolmm) KalMPoJiil
High Notch Sensit ivity
0,7 017 035 8 12 9
EHT-S/CODE 69[10 90)2)S
Low Notch Sensollvity
1. , 1 092 205 1.0 1.07
EHM-S/CODE 69(O!1.50i s

A S, Average Stress
P S POint Stress
I F I nherent Flow
SC Stress Concentration
LEFM = linear Elastic Fracture MechaniCS

FIG. 5. Comparison of strength reduction models for two laminates with different notch
sensitivities.
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 549

laminates with different notch sensitivities. For the highly notch sensitive
laminate all of the predictions are in close agreement and fit the data equally
well. For the laminate with lower notch sensitivity the situation is less clear.
In all of the laminates showing this class of behaviour the characteristic
length associated with each model varied with the length of the crack and
the geometry of the specimen, which suggests that these parameters are not
fundamental material properties. In other studies extra parameters have
been introduced;13.14 however, they do not have a clear physical
significance and have not been applied to the present results. With enough
parameters any models can be made to fit experimental data and the
procedure then becomes a curve fitting exercise, which is dangerous for
extrapolation outside the range of experimental data points. It is probably
fortuitous that the LEFM predictions appear to give the best fit for the
residual strength of the less notch sensitive laminate considered, since
failure did not occur by growth of a single macroscopic crack.
Hence for highly notch sensitive laminates the simplest theory, LEFM,
appears to fit the data well and is as useful as any of the others. For less
notch sensitive materials no theory appears to have a demonstrable
advantage nor general applicability. There is still a need for a predictive
theory which can be applied to a range of geometries and test conditions,
and a theory does not yet appear to exist which will accurately fit the data
obtained even for the simple conditions of these experiments.

5.2. The Effects of Ply Constraints

One of the most important laminate characteristics that influences the
failure of a notched laminate is the constraint effects imposed by each ply on
adjacent off-axis plies, which give rise to both in-plane and through-
thickness effects. There are two ways in which in-plane effects can arise.
Because the individual plies have different thermal expansion coefficients as
a result of their different orientations, constraints due to thermal stresses
occur when cooling down from the curing temperature. Thermal stresses
which are generated can be calculated with reasonable accuracy using
laminated plate theory and Table 3 shows values calculated for some
laminates tested in this work. Large thermal stresses are developed
transverse to the fibres and can approach the failure strength in that
direction. The second effect is a result of the different mechanical responses
of plies with different orientations. When an axial stress is applied to a
laminate the plies would in general undergo differing Poisson's con-
tractions if they were not constrained by adjacent plies. However, because
they are bonded to their neighbours the net result is that they all undergo an
550 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

TABLE 3
Thermal constraint stresses in two typical laminates (EHT-S/Code 69,
t-.T = -150°C)

Laminate 0"\ 0"2 '12

MPa MPa MPa

0° ply in [0,90lz s
90° ply in [0,90lzs
-39·7
-39·7
39·7
39·7 °
°
0° ply in [0, ±45,0]s
+45° ply in [0, ±45,0]s
12-4
-62
34·8
38 °
-5·6

equal transverse strain with the generation of in-plane stresses. These

constraint stresses can be calculated readily for an unnotched laminate but
are less easy to estimate in the vicinity of a crack or notch. Typical values
calculated for unnotched laminates are shown in Table 4. Here (J 1 is the
stress parallel to fibres in a ply while (J 2 is the transverse stress. It can be seen
that transverse stresses can be positive or negative.
Thermal and Poisson generated stresses affect the development of micro-
cracks in the highly stressed vicinity of the notch tip and account for the
differences in toughness observed for different stacking sequences shown in
Table 2. It is observed in notched [0, 90lzslaminates that longitudinal shear
cracks develop extensively at the notch tip, which reduces the stress
concentration; whereas in the [0, ±45,0]s laminate, which has a higher
resistance to shear, the 0° plies are under transverse compression which
results in the suppression of splitting and reduced toughness.
The through-thickness constraint effects generate interlaminar and
transverse shear and normal stresses ('xz' 'yz' (Jz) which are localised near
free edges and cracks and result from different responses of each lamina in
the laminate. The sign of the interlaminar normal stress «(Jz) can be

TABLE 4
Mechanical constraints effects in two laminates (EHT-S/Code 69, applied
strain = 0· 3 %)

Laminate '12
MPa

0° in [0,90b 444 +4
°
90° in [0,90b 24 -4
°
-27°
0° in [0, ±45,0]s 440 -11·9
+45° in [0, ±45,0]s 74 4·8
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 551

estimated by comparing the major Poisson's ratio of the outer ply with that
of the laminate. If V l2 (outer ply) > V l2 (laminate) then a z is positive and
may result in delamination. The interlaminar and transverse shear stresses
('xz' 'yz) are concentrated near free edges within a distance approximately
equal to the laminate thickness and are also likely to be responsible for
delamination. Consider the behaviour of two stacking sequences
[0, ± 45, O]s and [± 45,0,0].. The 45 0 plies in both laminates are under
different degrees of constraint; in the first case they are surrounded by an
adjacent 0 ply and a -45 ply whereas in the latter case the surface 45 ply
0
0
0

is only constrained on one side. Shear cracks develop in the 45 plies when a
0

notched laminate is loaded and for a given load are longer in the 45 0 plies
which are unconstrained on one side. In the first lay-up the plies do not
delaminate and this results in a line discontinuity of high stress near the
interface of the adjacent 0 0 load bearing fibres. The fracture surfaces in Fig.
6 show that the 0 0 plies failed along the 45 0 line and close inspection shows
that the fibres failed in a step-wise fashion. The behaviour of the other
laminate was different (Table 2) in which multiple splits developed in the
outer 45 0 ply and final failure involved delamination between cracked 45 0
plies and the load bearing 0 0 plies which then failed at a higher applied
stress.
It can therefore be seen that selective delamination between cracked off-
axis plies and load bearing 0 0 fibres reduces the notch sensitivity and might
be a way to control the notch strength although it is recognised that the
requirements for other properties, such as fatigue response and
environmental integrity, may exclude this approach.

5.3. Guidelines for Tough Laminates

It has been shown that laminates exhibit a wide range of notch
sensitivities ranging from completely notch insensitive to very notch
sensitive as a result of changing various material parameters. Considerable
scope exists for designing laminates which are tough. The following general
conclusions can be applied:
(1) The most important parameter is the fibre/matrix bond strength. In
order to obtain tough laminates the interfacial bond strength has to
be optimised through correct fibre surface treatment. If the bond is
too strong the material always fails in a brittle manner irrespective
of lay-up.
(2) Materials which can store large amounts of strain energy would be
expected to be tough (a1 /2E per unit volume). Consequently fibres
552 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

(a) (b)

FIG. 6. Fracture surfaces of two laminates with different stacking sequences. (a) EHT-S/
Code 69, [±45,0,Oj" UN =451 MPa, KQ = 56·5 MPaJm. (b) EHT-S/Code 69, [0, ±45,Oj"
UN = 366 MPa, KQ = 33 MPaJm.

with high strength, intermediate modulus and high failure strain are
expected to be good candidates for a tough laminate. Hybridisation
provides much scope for developing composites with increased
toughness and the following ranking order would be expected for
the toughness of laminates of a specified lay-up from this effect:
E-glass> Kevlar 49> EHT-S > EHM-S .
(3) Although the fracture toughness of a laminate does not appear to
vary with specimen thickness (and there is no apparent plane stress
to plane strain transition), it has been shown to depend sensitively
on the thickness of individual plies. 4 ,6 In general, thick plies
delaminate more easily and therefore decrease the interactions of
 The Damage Tolerance of High Performance Composites 553

adjacent cracked and uncracked plies, which increases the

toughness. However, it is recognised that a compromise may have
to be obtained for other mechanical properties such as fatigue and
environmental response as it is generally well recognised that
thicker plies increase the susceptibility for transverse cracking.
(4) While the effects of stacking sequence on the notched strength are
not clear it has been shown that arranging plies to encourage
delaminations between shear cracks in 45 0 plies and adjacent load
bearing 0 0 fibres (e.g. [± 45,0,0].) results in a higher notched
strength. If, however, the delamination is suppressed (e.g.
[0, ±45,0].) then the shear cracks which develop in the 45 0 plies at
relatively low stresses have a detrimental effect on the 0 0 fibres,
which results in a relatively brittle behaviour with the 0 0 fibres
failing in a step-wise fashion along the 45 0 line.
(5) The style of reinforcement has an important effect on the notched
strength in which the formations of a damage zone is largely
suppressed and results in a relatively brittle behaviour.
(6) Changes in ply orientation have been shown to affect the notched
strength. [±45]. lay-ups, although they are relatively weak, ilre
notch insensitive with large damage zones which are developed
across the entire width of the test specimen which results in a
controlled and non-catastrophic failure. Because of their relative
weakness in the longitudinal directional they are unlikely to be used
to resist tensile loads alone but could be used as crack arrestment
strips in a laminate containing load bearing fibres.
It has been shown that there are many parameters which control the
fracture toughness of laminated composites, some of which are more
important than others. Before a general model capable of predicting
notched laminate behaviour can be developed a better understanding of the
events occurring during loading, and the resulting fracture mechanisms, is
required.
Copyright © Controller HMSO, London 1981.

REFERENCES
1. MANDELL, J. F., WANG, S. S. and MCGARRY, F. J., The extension of crack tip
damage zones in fibre reinforced plastic laminates, J. Compo Mat., 9 (1975)
266-87.
2. BISHOP, S. M., Deformation near notches in angleplied carbon fibre composites,
RAE TR 77093, 1977.
554 R. J. Lee and D. C. Phillips

3. MCGARRY, F. J., MANDELL, J. F. and WANG, S. S., Fracture of fiber reinforced

composites, Polym. Eng. Sci., 16 (1976) 609-14.
4. BISHOP, S. M. and McLAUGHLIN, K. S., Thickness effects and fracture
. mechanisms in notched carbon fibre composites, RAE TR 79051,1979.
5. KANNINEN, M. F., RYBICKI, E. F. and GRIFFITH, W. I., Preliminary
development of a fundamental analysis model for crack growth in a fiber
reinforced composite material, Composite materials: Testing & design (fourth
conference), ASTM STP 617, 1977, pp. 53-69.
6. DOREY. G., Damage tolerance in advanced composite materials, RAE TR
77172, 1977.
7. OWEN, M. J. and BISHOP, P. T., Critical stress intensity factor applied to glass
reinforced polyester resin, J. Compo Mat., 7 (1973) 146-59.
8. WADDOUPS, M. E., EISENMANN, J. R. and KAMINSKI, B. E., Macroscopic
fracture mechanics of advanced composite materials, J. Compo Mat., 5 (1971)
446-54.
9. NUISMER, R. J. and WHITNEY, J. M., Uniaxial failure of composite laminates
containing stress concentrations, Fracture mechanics of composites, ASTM
STP 593,1975'1117-42.
10. KIM, R. Y., Fracture of composite laminates by 3-point bend, Exp. Mech., Feb.
(1979) 50.
II. NUISMER, R. J. and LABOR, J. D., Applications of the average stress failure
criterion: Part I-Tension, J. Compo Mat., 12 (1978) 238.
12. NUISMER, R. J. and LABOR, J. D., Applications of the average stress failure
criterion: Part 2-Compression, J. Compo Mat., 13 (1979) 49.
13. KARLAK, R. F., Hole effects in a related series of symmetrical laminates, Proc.
Fail. Modes in Composites III, Chicago, ASM, 1977, 105-17.
14. PIPES, R. B., WETHERHOLD, R. C. and GILLESPIE, J. W., Macroscopic fracture of
fibrous composites, Mat. Sci. & Eng., 45 (1980) 247-53.
15. MANDELL, J. F., MCGARRY, F. J., KASHIHARA, R. and BISHOP, W. R.,
Engineering aspects of fracture toughness: Fiber reinforced laminates, 29th
Ann. Tech. Con! SPI, 1974, Paper 17-D.
16. BROWN, W. F. and SRAWLEY, J. E., Plane strain crack toughness testing of high
strength metallic materials, ASTM STP 410, 1966, p. 11.
 37

Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Candidate Resins

for Use in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair
Schemes
D. P. BASHFORD AND A. K. GREEN
Fulmer Research Laboratories Ltd,
Stoke Poges, Slough SL2 4QD, England
AND
K. F. ROGERS AND D. M. KINGSTON-LEE
Materials Department, Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Farnborough G U 14 6TD, England

ABSTRACT

Five matrix resin systems have been evaluated as potential candidatesfor use
in a rapid repair system for aircraft skin damage, incorporating glass/
carbonfibre hybrid reinforced plastics as the repair material. Two epoxy and
three polyester resin systems were evaluated at 20 °e. Additionally, the three
polyester systems were evaluated at Doe. The effect of contamination of
metal surfaces by aviation fuel and hydraulic fluid was investigated. The
properties measured were metal/composite joint overlap shear strength, as
manufactured and following a fixed schedule of tensile fatigue load
conditioning, and bending stiffness. These properties were determined 4 h
and 24 h after fabricating the simulated repair.
The resin system Quickcure QC3/ Lucidol CH50/dimethyl-p-toluidine
was found to give repairs equal to riveted metal plate repairs under all
circumstances except to hydraulic fluid contaminated substrates at Doe.

INTRODUCTION

During its service life an aircraft may undergo damage in situations where
workshop facilities are not available, but where the local conditions
555
556 D. P. Bashford et al.

demand immediate high-speed emergency repair. Such repairs must be

capable of implementation in the field, with the minimum of equipment;
they might not necessarily restore the aircraft to full airworthiness but
would allow the completion of a limited number of further flights, possibly
at a restricted level of performance.
Various methods of affecting rapid in-field repairs by means of fibre-
reinforced plastics patching have been developed at the Royal Aircraft
Establishment. 1.2 The simplest of these uses a wet-laminating technique,
which allows the patch to conform easily to the contour of the damaged
structure, and enables its stiffness to be controlled on-site by the choice of
reinforcement.
To maintain the original distribution of load in the structure, the patch
should match the substrate in absolute stiffness and strength. If at the same
time the specific stiffness of the patch can also be matched to that of the
substrate the weight penalty will be minimal. The portion of an aircraft
most likely to be damaged is the skin, which is usually fabricated from an
aluminium alloy; an absolute stiffness match can be achieved in the patch
by choosing a glass fibre/carbon fibre hybrid reinforcement, preferably in
the form of a bidirectional balanced fabric to minimise the effect of errors in
the direction of lay-up during repair. Hybrid fabrics of this type have been
developed under RAE sponsorship and are commercially available.
The RAE development work showed that wet-laminated repairs could
achieve the static tensile strength of comparable conventional repairs based
on riveted metal plates; the research programme described in this paper was
initiated to assess the fatigue performance of the repairs.

TEST PROGRAMME

General Considerations
The critical feature determining the performance of a wet-laminated
repair is the condition of the interface between the substrate and the resin
matrix. Since it must be assumed that in field conditions solvents and
primers may not be available, the preparation of the substrate must be
limited to simple abrasion, and because there is no guarantee that the
surface will remain completely clean prior to laminating, the resin should be
tolerant to contaminants such as aviation fuel, hydraulic fluid and water.
The resin must also be sufficiently fluid to wet-out the fabric and the
substrate easily, and must have an adequate (not less than 15 min) pot life.
However, since the repaired aircraft must be flyable as soon as possible a
 Ttmsile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair 557

short cure time is essential. Because of the emergency situation cure must
proceed without any application of external heat.
To assess the fatigue properties, simulation repairs as previously
reported 2 were done at room temperature (20°C), using two epoxy and
three polyester resin systems. The three polyester systems, with increased
hardener and accelerator content, were also used to make simulation-
repairs at 0 °C, the epoxies being unsuitable because of their greatly increased
viscosity. Following conditioning for either 4h or 24h at the repair
temperature all repairs were static tensile tested and fatigue tested at room
temperature.
The programme was repeated for substrates contaminated with Avtur 50
aviation fuel and with hydraulic fluid to DTD 585B.

Materials
Substrate panels
The substrate panels in all tests were of aluminium alloy to specification
3L73, of dimensions 175 x 152 x 1·23mm (18SWG).

Hybrid fabric
The reinforcing fabric was a bidirectional, balanced twill weave 3: 1,
glass:carbon hybrid cloth woven from 600-tex E-glass rovings and 6000-
filament EXAS carbon fibre tows, and weighing 509 g/m 2 (Fig. 1). The twill
weave was preferred to a plain weave because its better drape properties
allow it to conform more easily to areas of multiple curvature.

Resin systems
The formulations used for the repairs at 20°C were:
(i) Epikote 828 epoxy resin, mixed in 2: 1 ratio by weight with hardener
Ancamine AC*;
(ii) Epikote 808 epoxy resin, mixed in 2: 1 ratio by weight with
Ancamine AC;
(iii) Quickcure QC3 polyester resin, cured with 1· 5 % by weight of
Butanox M50t methyl-ethyl ketone peroxide hardener; the resin
as-supplied is pre-accelerated;
(iv) Quickcure QC3 resin cured with 4 % by weight of Lucidol CH50t
benzoyl peroxide powder hardener and 1 % of a 10% solution of
dimethyl-p-toluidine (DMpT) in styrene;
(v) polyester resin A cured as in (iv) above.
* Anchor Chemical Co.
t Akzo Chemie Ltd.
558 D. P. Bashford et al.

FIG. I. Twill weave hybrid glass/carbon fibre cloth.

The formulations used at O°C were:

(vi) Quickmore QC3 cured with 4 % of Lucidol CH50 and 2·5 % of a
20 % solution of DMpT in styrene.
Ancillary tests were done with:
(vii) Quickcure QC3 cured with 4 % of Butanox M50;
(viii) Quickcure QC3 cured with 4 % of Butanox M50 and 4 % of added
cobalt accelerator X,
(ix) polyester resin A cured with 4 %of Lucidol CH50 and 2·5 % of a
20 % solution of DMpT in styrene.

SIMULA TI ON-REPAIR

For each repair two aluminium alloy plates were thoroughly cleaned by
successive wipes with acetone and Inhibisol. An area Il4mm wide along
one 175 mm edge of each plate was abraded thoroughly by a flap wheel in a
hand-held power tool, and the abraded surface brushed lightly with a clean,
 Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair 559

dry brush to remove loose particles. For plates required to be

contaminated before repair the contaminant was spread at this stage onto
the abraded areas of the plates, and the excess removed with a paper wiper.
The contaminated areas were then thoroughly worked with a 20 g mix of the
resin to be used for the repair, using a second wiper and a circular motion.
As much resin as was reasonably possible was then removed with a third
wiper.
A simulation-repair jig was positioned within the cabinet of a small
commercial freezer, controllable at ooe when required. The plates were
clamped into the jig side-by-side, with their abraded areas inwards and
separated by a 76 x 1·23 mm thick alloy strip to establish a parallel gap
between the plates to simulate a damage hole. Prior to locating the plates
both the strip and the base-plate of the jig were covered with 0·025 mm thick
FEP release film. A fresh mix of resin preconditioned either to 20 or ooe
was brushed onto the abraded areas of the plates and across the central
strip, and a 280 x 175 mm patch of hybrid fabric was wet-laminated across
the wetted area. Three further patches each successively 25 mm shorter were
laminated centrally across the first. The ends of all the patches were
feathered out for 12 mm at each end prior to laminating, by the removal of
warp tows; this improved the lay of the patch ends and avoided abrupt
changes of action. The completed simulation-repair is shown schematically
in Fig. 2.
NS
- - ,- =---=:--= - =- - - - -
~CIM

I
- ---- -- -- --------- ----
I I 2
- -f- 1
3
,...'" _::("" ==--:::1-----
4
-. ----------- -1
2bS I I 5
+ ---------------~---------------------
I I b
..!.. - - - - - ~- =-- :,.-:,. J. - -

----27 9------~

fEATHEFtEO OVEFtLAP lL7J ALUMINIUM

OF CLOTH LAYERS ALLOY PLATE

. .,.! , :' 1. I 23
76 ----+I
- - - - - - - 3 9 0 - - - - - - - -->·1
FIG. 2. Test repair panel and specimen plan (not to scale). Dimensions in mm.
560 D. P. Bashford et al.

SPECIMEN PREPARATION

The repair panel was removed from the jig 31 h after resin mixing; from the
panels laminated at 20°C six specimens 26· 5 mm wide were cut using a
diamond wheel, this width containing exactly nine glass rovings and three
carbon tows per ply for the particular fabric used. (An example is shown in
Fig. 3.) From the panels laminated at 0 °C, three specimens were cut and the
uncut half of the panel returned to the freezer; the remaining three
specimens were cut 231 h after mixing the resin. All specimens were de-
burred with a fine file and were equilibrated to room temperature prior to
testing. Fatigue specimens were drilled with two 6· 3 mm diameter holes in
each of the aluminium end-pieces, along the centreline and at centres 8 and
27 mm from each end.

--
', ... ..
• • ",.. .... • '0 .. . . . . . . . , . .

~.: 4 ~,...,

FIG. 3. Specimen prior to fatigue loading. Scale bar represents 50mm.

TEST PROCEDURE

Flexural and Tensile Testing

To assess the degree of resin cure the flexural stiffness of one specimen
from each repair variable was measured in four-point bending, stopping
each test when the load/deflection record became non-linear, to avoid
permanent deformation. Two specimens from each repair variable were
tested in static tension, one following flexural test and the other as-
manufactured.

Fatigue Testing
A purpose-built fatigue machine was constructed, incorporating a 50 kN
servo-hydraulic actuator and load cell. Pin-and-button grips using clevis
fixtures were fabricated, using 38 mm diameter steel discs as the buttons and
two 6· 3 mm diameter high tensile steel bolts 19 mm apart along a disc
diameter and equidistant from the disc centre as the pins. This design was
chosen to avoid fretting in the grips. The fatigue stress was applied in
fluctuating tension only. The cycle amplitude was held below 1/7 of the
ultimate tensile strength (440 M Pa) of 3L 73 alloy, corresponding to a load
 Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair 561

amplitude of 2·05 kN about a mean tensile load of 2· 5 kN, to further avoid

fretting. This load amplitude applied at 10 Hz was found adequate to
discriminate between the repair variables and induced no detectable heating
effects in the specimens. The specimens were fatigued for a maximum of 10 5
cycles (2~ h) and were then tensile tested if failure had not occurred
previously.

CONTROL TESTS

1·23 mm 3L 73 aluminium alloy strips of the same dimensions as the

composite repair specimens (26'5 x 380 mm) were tested in four-point
bending, demonstrating tangent stiffness in the range 0-4-0·5 Njmm and
plastic deformation at loads above 19N.
The tensile failure load ofa 26·5 mm wide strip of 1·23 mm 3L 73 alloy was
known from previous work to be 14·3 kN.
'Conventional' simulation-repairs were done by bridging the 'damage
area' between two 3L 73 plates by a 1·23 mm 3L 73 sheet and securing it to
each plate with a double row of 4·75 mm diameter 'pop' rivets at 30 mm
spacing, i.e. an offset spacing of 15 mm between each rivet. The mean tensile
failure load of these repairs was equivalent to 7·7 kN for a width of26·5 mm.
Four 'conventional repairs' to this pattern were tested in fatigue to the
same load pattern used for the composite repairs. Two were tested in
tension after 10 5 cycles, both failing at 8·0 kN (per 26·5 mm of width). The
remaining two failed in fatigue after 3·11 x 10 5 and 3·98 x 10 5 cycles.

RESULTS

The results are presented in histogram form in Figs 4-6. In Fig. 5:a fatigue
specimen failing before completing 10 5 cycles is denoted by the symbol F.
Where no histogram bar is present all specimens failed in fatigue. When the
symbol F and a histogram bar are both present, the bar is the mean tensile
result of those specimens that survived 10 5 fatigue cycles. Two F symbols
and a bar indicate two fatigue failures and the tensile value for the one
specimen that survived 10 5 cycles.
It should be noted that the fatigue results for specimens that survived 10 5
cycles are for effective cure times of 7 and 27 h, rather than the 4 and 24 h
quoted, since cure will be advancing during the test.
 V>
Rj

U Uncontamll'lOted
A Avtur Contaminated
H Hydraulic 011 Contaminated

10
4 h cure

kN

~
o ~
A H A H U A H U A H U A U A H A H U A U A H
~r-
r-
24h cure
UhrllJlnlrtn ~
s:'"'
10
r-r- r-
- r- r- '"
il.
f- r-
- - ...- r- - r-_ ~
f- - r-
kN :-
'"
~~n
o OT OT OT o·c o·c OT o·c
OT o·c
Re$ln
No of Panel$
828/AC 8OB".c
n QC3/MSO QC3/MSO QC3/MSO/X QC3/tHSO/DMPT QC3/CHSO/DMPT A /tHSO/DMPT
n
A /CHSO/DMPT

FIG. 4. Mean tensile results.

 ~
Cl
~
U Uncontarmnated ~
A A~tur Contaminated
H Hydraulfc 011 ContOlmnated
r-- ...--r--
f-
i'
:...
) ...--
r--r--
1-1- ...--
l- f-- .----
4h cure "'--1-
f- r-
~::!
, ~
~
F F F F F F ~
)

A H A H U A
F
H U A
F nF
H
FO U
OF
A H
~
U A H U A H U A H
~.
r-- r--
S·
0-
)
f--- r- ~
r---r- f- <::>-
r-r- ~
~ 0- O-r-
I- - ~

" ~
~
C

)
F F F FF FF FD F
DT ~ OT

Resin
JF
RT
828/AC OC)8/f.C
RT
QC3/MSO
F Fr F
aC3/MSO
I "or ~
0' 3/MS0/ X QC3/CHSO/DMPT aC3/CHSO/DMPT A /CHSO/DMPT A ICHSO/DMPT
No of Ponels
~
.§
FIG. 5. Mean tensile results after 10 5 fatigue cycles.
~
~.

~
~
I:l
::;.

V>
a-
t..>
 v.
~

U Uncontaminated
A Avtur Contaminated
, H Hydraulic 011 Contomt1oted
.~ .. ~~ ............. ~--
.--- S Silcol1t Stiffness
.---
.--- .--- "-
1f- I- "-~

Nlm , .-- .--- 4h cure

r--
I
~
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
o
[ 1'~"~I'~wl IJTI ~
U A U A H U A H U A H U A U A H U A H A H U A H
r-- ~
,~ .--r-- S;
r- C
24h cure:
r-r-r-- ~
2
~ ~
, -~ r-_
Nlm f:-
I

, S S S S S S T T T T T T [T T T T T T T T T T T
n, n, n, A"C A"C n,
cfC RT O'C
ReSin 828/AC B08/AC aC3/MSO QC3/MSO QC3/M5G/ X QC3/CHSO/DMPT QC3/CHSO/DIv1PT A ICHSO/DMPT A /CHSO/DMPT
No of Panels 3 2 , 3 3

FIG. 6. Mean bending stiffness results.

lIT
 Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reiriforced Composite Repair 565

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS FROM INDIVIDUAL RESIN

SYSTEMS

Epikote 828/ Ancamine AC Resin

This resin mix was fairly viscous, and required considerable working to
achieve satisfactory wetting-out of the cloth. An early panel in this series
was laminated at 16°C, and this increased significantly the difficulty in
achieving satisfactory lamination. The speed of cure, as monitored by the
bending stiffness measurement at 4 h, was strongly dependent on
laminating temperature.
Most of the 4-h tensile specimens failed cohesively in the resin layer
adjacent to the alloy plate, but adhesive failure predominated in two of the
hydraulic fluid contaminated specimens. Two specimens, one Avtur
contaminated, the other uncontaminated, failed in tension in the laminate
close to the end of the overlap. Creep was observed in some of the 4-h
fatigue specimens during cycling, the degree being apparently dependent on
cure temperature. The specimens exhibited permanent curvature on
removal from the fatigue machine, and it was found that the gap between
the aluminium alloy end plates had increased by up to 3 mm, compared to
about 0·5 mm for most other specimens. This creep phenomenon did not
occur during fatigue cycling of 24-h specimens. All fatigue cycled
specimens, both 4 and 24 h, failed adhesively at the alloy surface during
subsequent tensile testing.
Specimens tensile tested after 24 h also failed adhesively at the alloy
surface. Although contamination has a significantly adverse effect on the
composite/alloy bond strength, both fatigued and unfatigued, hydraulic
fluid having a greater effect than Avtur, only minor differences in failure
mode were observed with no consistent pattern apparent.

Epikote 808/ Ancamine AC Resin

The viscosity of this resin was similar to that of the Epikote 828 system.
One panel was laminated with difficulty at 14°C, and the decrease in the
speed of cure at this temperature was apparent from the low bending
stiffness in comparison with panels prepared at 20 °C.
Failure within the composite in the central area of the specimen rather
than at the bond line occurred more frequently with this resin system than
with Epikote 828, in both tensile and fatigue/tensile tested specimens but
never in specimens contaminated with hydraulic fluid. All other failures at
4-h cure were cohesive in the resin layer adjacent to an alloy end plate. A
566 D. P. Bashford et al.

similar transition to adhesive failure at the alloy surface after 24-h cure, as
observed for Epikote 828, was noted for all specimen types.

Quickcure QC3jButanox M50 Resin, Laminated at Room Temperature

This resin mix is of much lower viscosity than the epoxy resin systems and
could be laminated rapidly with ease.
For all specimens, failure in the tensile test was both adhesive and
cohesive. The adhesive failure mode predominated in all cases, accounting
for 50-90 %of the failed area. No consistent failure mode pattern could be
observed when comparing contaminated and uncontaminated specimens,
either 4- or 24-h cured.
During fatigue cycling progressive debonding from either end of the
bond overlap was occasionally observed, by adhesive failure at the alloy
surface. This progressive debonding led to failure prior to 10 5 cycles in
some cases. Specimen failures during fatigue were always adhesive at the
alloy surface, whereas those produced by tensile loading, in both fatigued
and unfatigued specimens, displayed combinations of adhesive and
cohesive failure. No creep was observed during fatigue cycling.
One 24-h cure hydraulic fluid contaminated specimen was fatigued for
120h (4·.32 x 106 cycles) without failing. Slight debonding of the laminate
from the alloy plate occurred during fatigue cycling. The specimen failed at
9· 5 kN in a subsequent tensile test.

Quickcure QC3jButanox M50 Resin Laminated at ODC

The results for this resin at 0 DC were significantly lower than those at
room temperature. No specimen survived 10 5 fatigue cycles; all failures
were wholly adhesive. After 4-h cure, stiffness values were often too low for
practical consideration.
In an attempt to improve this poor performance, a third series of panels
was prepared using additional cobalt accelerator X. The histograms show a
marginal improvement in performance, but this remains inferior to the
results obtained from the room temperature laminated system.

Quickcure QC3/Lucidol CH50/DMpT Resin Laminated at Room

Temperature
The failure modes following tensile and fatigue testing were usually a
mixture of adhesive failure at the alloy surface and cohesive failure in the
resin. The only consistent effect noted was that hydraulic fluid
contaminated specimens generally failed in a wholly adhesive manner. The
results obtained were broadly similar to those for room temperature
 Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair 567

laminated QC3/M50 resin, except for a greater sensitivity to contamination

by hydraulic fluid, and a somewhat better performance after 4-h cure in
fatigue, particularly for hydraulic fluid contaminated specimens. Indeed,
the hydraulic fluid contaminated specimens displayed a curious behaviour,
in that specimens tested subsequent to fatigue cycling failed at higher loads
than those tested as-manufactured, for both 4- and 24-h cure specimens.

Quickcure QC3/Lucidol CH50/DMpT Resin Laminated at ODC

The overall performance of this resin system was superior to that of 0 DC
laminated QC3/M50 systems. The system was sensitive to the effect of
hydraulic fluid contamination, particularly in fatigue, which was
emphasised by completely adhesive failure at the alloy surface. All other
specimens displayed mixed adhesive/cohesive failure.

Polyester Resin A/Lucidol CH50/DMpT Laminated at Room Temperature

The predominant failure mode for all specimens was adhesive failure
with only a few uncontaminated specimens displaying cohesive failure in
the resin across 5-10 %of the bond area. No consistent difference in failure
mode was apparent between 4- and 24-h cure specimens;
As can be seen from the histograms the performance of the resin system
was inferior to that of QC3 using the same hardener/accelerator
combination, although the deleterious effect of hydraulic fluid con-
tamination on bond strength in both as-manufactured and fatigued
specimens is marginally less severe than observed in the comparable QC3
resin system.

Polyester Resin A/Lucidol CH50/DMpT Laminated at ODC

Failure with this system was almost totally adhesive, with only a few
uncontaminated and Avtur contaminated specimens displaying a very
small amount ( < 3 % of the bond area) of cohesive failure.
The overall performance of the system was again inferior in all respects to
the comparable 0 DC laminated QC3 system, the fatigue performance being
particularly inferior. An interesting feature of the results is that the
observed increase in strength between 4- and 24-h as-manufactured
specimens, both contaminated and uncontaminated, was not translated
into superior fatigue performance. The only other resin for which similar,
but not so clear-cut observations can be made is the O°C laminated
QC3/CH50/DMpT system.
568 D. P. Bashford et al.

RELATIVE ASSESSMENT OF RESIN SYSTEMS

Reference to Figs 4, 5 and 6 shows that none of the resin systems gave
completely satisfactory results. Figure 4 shows that only the room
temperature laminated QC3/M50 system gave repairs stronger than the
riveted controls for all six combinations of contamination and cure time.
With most ofthe other systems, the hydraulic fluid contaminated specimens
were the least satisfactory.
It is noteworthy that both contaminants have a more severe relative
degradative effect between the 4- and 24-h cure results for the epoxy resin
systems than for the polyesters. This may be associated with differences in
the degree of cure, since Fig. 6 suggests that substantial curing occurs after
4 h in the epoxies, whereas cure is substantially complete at 4 h for most of
the polyesters. This is consistent with the observed transition in the epoxies
from cohesive failure after 4 h to adhesive failure after 24 h and the
predominance of adhesive failure for all polyester-based repairs, since an
undercured resin is predisposed to fail cohesively. Figure 6 indicates that
the presence of the contaminant does not significantly affect either the speed
or degree of cure. Hence, it is suspected that performance degradation
induced in the epoxies by the contaminant is purely a reflection of the
increasing difficulty of the epoxies in adhering to contaminated surfaces as
their stiffness increases. This is analogous to the peel behaviour of many
adhesive systems, where high peel strength is often related to compliance in
the bond line.
An interesting effect is the generally more severe degradation of
properties caused by hydraulic fluid contamination compared to Avtur
contamination. Small traces of adherend surface contaminants are known
to have an adverse effect on both the initial strength and the environment
durability of bonded joints, and even the effect of humidity in a bonding
process area 3 can be significant due to the adherend surface absorbing
water molecules. These effects are usually ascribed to reduction in surface
energy of the clean surface by the contaminant, which is conventionally
assessed by measuring contact angles of liquid adhesive on the surface
under study, this being effectively a measure of the wettability of the surface
by the adhesive. There is no reason why Avtur and hydraulic fluid should
have equal influences on the wettability of abraded aluminium alloy
surfaces. Indeed, contact angle measurements 3 for various organic liquids
on abraded steel surfaces suggest precisely the opposite. It is, therefore, not
surprising that one contaminant should have a consistently more severe
degradative effect than the other.
 Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair 569

The more severe effect of hydraulic fluid compared to Avtur is

particularly evident in the fatigue results (Fig. 5). The equivalent riveted
repairs (see section headed 'Control Tests') sustained 10 5 cycles under
fatigue loading, subsequently failing in tension at 8 kN and for composite
repairs to be considered as feasible alternatives to riveted repairs they must
be capable of this order of performance. The performance of both epoxy
systems when contaminated degrades significantly between 4-h cure and 24-
h cure, and only the Avtur contaminated 808/AC repairs withstood 8 kN in
tension after 10 5 cycles. This degradation is similar to the behaviour
uncontaminated, and the effects are again suspected to be associated with
continuing cure between 4 and 24 h increasing the resin stiffness. The
808/AC system is far less sensitive to the effects of contamination than the
828/AC system, and it is noteworthy that the 24-h cure data for 808/AC
fatigued specimens (Fig. 5) are superior to those for the 24-h cure 808/AC
as-manufactured specimens (Fig. 4), both contaminated and uncon-
taminated. The degradation in properties of the contaminated epoxy
systems between 4 and 24 h implies that further work must be done to
stabilise the level of properties in relation to time.
The fatigue performance of the polyester systems presents a more
complicated picture. QC3 systems cured with M50 hardener tended to
improve their performance in fatigue between 4- and 24-h cure, the bending
stiffness results suggesting that cure of these systems is still continuing to
some extent, particularly at 0 DC. However, no QC3/M50 specimens
manufactured at 0 DC withstood 8 kN after 10 5 cycles, the majority failing in
fatigue. Systems cured with CH50/DMpT combinations tend to degrade in
fatigue performance between 4 and 24 h, whereas the results in Fig. 6
suggest that their cure is substantially complete at 4 h. This is contrary to
the behaviour observed for the epoxy systems, and suggests that different
degradation mechanisms may operate for polyesters and epoxies. It is
possible that the lower viscosity of the polyesters assists their wetting of the
aluminium alloy, and that they are consequently less sensitive to the effects
of contaminants, as the data in both Figs 4 and 5 tends to suggest. If this is
so, any effects due to stiffness changes of the resin as cure proceeds could be
expected to be minimised, and certainly be less than those observed for the
viscous epoxy resins.
Lamination at 0 DC produces a much more dramatic reduction in the
fatigue performance than in the as-manufactured performance. It is
possible that the increase in viscosity of the resin at 0 DC reduces its wetting
capability, but why this should produce the more serious degradation in
fatigue properties is not clear. During fatigue cycling, it is likely that flaws in
570 D. P. Bashford et al.

the bondline, be they inherent or produced in response to stressing, will

grow until a critical size is reached, at which point the bond will fail. Indeed,
a progressive debonding failure was often observed during fatigue cycling,
particularly for the QC3/M50 system. Consequently, it is possible that if
o°C lamination produces an imperfectly wetted alloy surface voids may
form and initiate early failure. Monotonic tensile testing of such
imperfectly wetted specimens would not be expected to cause any
significant void growth until immediately prior to failure; hence one would
expect a lesser degradative effect, compared to those fatigued. This is again
an effect at the alloy/resin interface, and one would anticipate only a small
influence from the state of cure of the resin.
The question of which is the best resin system of those investigated is not
an easy one to answer. Where static loading alone was involved, the only
system that exceeded the strength of the equivalent riveted repair in all
combinations of cure time and contamination condition was the room
temperature laminated QC3/M50 system. However, this system is very
sensitive to hydraulic oil contamination when fatigue loaded at short cure
times. Overall, the best balance of static and fatigue properties for the room
temperature systems was given by 808/AC and QC3/CH50/DMpT. Of the
O°C lamination systems, only the QC3/CH50/DMpT system could be
considered to have any useful performance when fatigue loaded, but was
also sensitive to hydraulic oil contamination. Hence, it seems sensible to
recommend the use of the QC3/CHSO/DMpT systems as having the best
overall balance of properties over a useful lamination temperature range,
with the reservation that its fatigue resistance is lowered if hydraulic fluid on
the substrate surface is not completely removed.
The measured bending stiffnesses for most of the composite specimens
were in the range 2-3 N/mm. Since the composite patch was intended to
match the aluminium alloy in both specific and absolute stiffness this
disparity is, at first sight, surprising. However, the composite panel
thicknesses were in the range 2'S-3'Omm and bending stiffness is
proportional to the cube of the beam thickness. Hence, although the
aluminium alloy and the hybrid composite may be matched in tensile
stiffness, the greater thickness of the composite gives it a much greater
flexural stiffness. However, since aircraft skins are stiffened, by for example
ribs and stringers that confer lateral support, and do not strain by more
than! %, this difference in flexural stiffness is not significant. It should be
noted that the fatigue and tensile tests used in this work permitted specimen
bending, and this was consequently a very severe assessment of the repair
method since this lateral bending is restricted in service.
 Tensile Fatigue Assessment of Resins in Fibre Reinforced Composite Repair 571

The bond between a repair patch and a substrate is a critical feature of a

successful repair and recent work has been undertaken to improve the
efficiency of the bond. The cloth used for the work described in this paper is
fairly coarse, and, when laminated, pockets of neat resin are trapped locally
between the cloth tows and the substrate. These resin pockets effectively
produce a locally thick bondline and hence reduce the efficiency of the bond
and possibly the strength of the repair. On some repairs this phenomenon
revealed itself when discrete pockets of cohesively failed resin were visible
on the substrate following tensile testing. By using finer fabrics
(incorporating 3000 end carbon fibre yarns) higher strength repairs have
been made when compared to repairs made with the coarser fabric.

CONCLUSIONS

1. With regard to all the experimental variables, i.e. 4- and 24-h cure,
contamination condition, room temperature and O°C lamination and as-
manufactured and post fatigued performance, no resin system can be
regarded as offering an alternative to riveted metal plate repairs in all
circumstances.
2. The best all-round combination of properties was obtained with
Quickcure QC3 polyester resin, cured with Lucidol CH50 hardener and
DMpT accelerator. This system gave results equivalent to, or better than
riveted metal plate repairs in all cases except on hydraulic fluid-
contaminated surfaces at O°C.
3. All resin systems were affected more adversely by aircraft hydraulic
fluid contaminant than by Avtur contaminant, possibly because the
contaminants alter the wettability of the abraded alloy surface by the resin.
4. At room temperature the polyester systems were, in terms of
percentage loss in tensile strength, less affected by contamination than were
the epoxies. The epoxies, however, showed inherently higher tensile
strengths in the uncontaminated state.
5. At 0 °C the detrimental effects of contaminants are more severe than at
room temperature, particularly in the case of fatigue performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work described in this paper has been carried out under an extramural
contract supported by the Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence.
572 D. P. Bashford et al.

REFERENCES

I. ROGERS, K. F., KINGSTON-LEE, D. M. and PHILLIPS, L. N., 'The Application of

Reinforced Plastics to the Emergency Repair of Aircraft', Symposium on
Jointing in Fibre Reinforced Plastics, Imperial College, London, Sept. 1978,
104-15.
2. ROGERS, K. F., KINGSTON-LEE, D. M. and PHILLIPS, L. N., 'The Use of Carbon
and Hybrid Woven Fabrics in Emergency Aircraft Repair Work', Proceedings of
the Third International Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, August 1980,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1390-407.
3. GLEDHILL, R. A., KINLOCH, A. J. and SHAW, S. J., Effect of relative humidity on
the wettability of steel surfaces, J. Adhesion, 9, 1977, 81-5.
 38
Temperature Increase in SMC Fatigue Testing
S. v. HOA AND S. LIN

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sir George Williams Campus,

Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 1M8, Canada

ABSTRACT

The temperature increase in sheet molding compound SM C-R30 subjected to

fatigue loading is investigated. Thefrequency range variesfrom 20 to 40 Hz.
Using dimensional analysis, a formulation is obtained which enables the
prediction of the temperature increase at different frequencies and different
locations on the specimen, knowing the temperature increase at one
frequency at one location.

INTRODUCTION

The need to reduce weight in automobiles has led to the rapid development
of short fiber reinforced plastics. These materials are light weight but have
good strengths and stiffnesses such that they can be used to construct load
bearing components of the automobile such as engine support bracket,
transmission support bracket, oil pan, truck frame, etc. Among the various
mechanical properties of the material, the fatigue behavior plays an
important role in design. In fatigue testing, the frequency of loading affects
the temperature increase within the specimen. Results from the fatigue tests
on engineering plastics 1 have indicated that the increase in temperature has
a considerable effect on the fatigue life of the material. This paper examines
the effect of frequency on the temperature increase in SMC-R30 subjected
to fatigue testing. Dimensional analysis is made such that prediction of the
temperature increase at different frequencies, knowing the temperature
increase at one frequency, is possible.
573
574 S. V. Hoa and S. Lin

0.111

o l
FIG. I. Specimen configuration. Points I and 2 show the location of thermocouples.

EXPERIMENTS

The material tested is SMC-R30 supplied from Somerville Industries, Ltd.

Its composition is shown in Table 1. Flexural fatigue testing is performed. A
schematic of the experimental set up is shown in Fig. 1. The specimen was
completely insulated during the experiment. The frequency of loading was
varied from 20 to 40 Hz. The temperatures at two locations (point 1 and
point 2 in Fig. 1) were recorded using thermocouples. Experimental results
are shown as solid points in Fig. 2.
liT
liT ·c
OF
60

•
100

•
SO
80
•
40

60
30

40
• 20

20
10

o 0
20 30 40 f(Hz)
1200 1600 2000 2400 cy./min

FIG. 2. Temperature increase versus testing frequency for insulated specimen.

 Temperature Increase in SMC Fatigue Testing 575

TABLE 1
Components of sheet molding compound

Matrix Polyester resin 27%

Fiber E Glass 30%
Filler CaC0 3 41 %
Thickener Magnesium hydroxide 1%
Catalyst, internal release 1%

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The increment of the temperature along the test specimen can be presented
as a function of the geometrical configuration of the specimen, the physical
properties of the material, the test amplitude and frequency, and the overall
heat transfer coefficient between the specimen and its ambient air,
I:J.T = f(x, I, t, b, E, 11,15, w, U) (1)
where x = space coordinate, I = length of the specimen, t = thickness ofthe
specimen, b = width of the specimen, E = Young's modulus, 11 = loss
coefficient, 15 = maximum test amplitude, w = test frequency, U = overall
heat transfer coefficient.
For a fixed geometrical configuration of the specimen and for a fixed test
amplitude with constant material properties and a negligible change of the
overall heat transfer coefficient, eqn. (1) can be simplified as
I:J.T = f(x, I, w) (2)
We assume that the function of I:J.T can be obtained by the method of
separation of variables,
I:J.T = X(x, I)Y(w) (3)
For dimensionless representation of eqn. (3), the test data obtained at the
frequency w = 20 Hz are used as reference data. As an approximation,
functions Yew) and X(x, I) are presented as follows:

Y(W)=(;J (4)

X(x, I) = i>{7}
i=O
(5)
576 S. V. Hoa and S. Lin

It can be seen that X(x, I) represents the temperature distribution along the
specimen at w = 20 Hz. Equation (5) can then be written as
m

X(x, I) =ATw=ZO(T) = l>{T} (6)

;=0

Substituting eqn. (6) into eqn. (5) and then substituting eqns (4) and (5) into
eqn. (3), we obtain

AT (w)n (7)
ATw=zo = 20

By making use of the temperature data measured from point I, AT!, at 20

and 30 Hz, the exponent n is determined to be n = 2·6. Curve (a) in Fig. 2 is
obtained from eqn. (7). In order to test the validity of the value n, curve (b)
in Fig. 2 is also obtained from eqn. (7) with ATw= zo = 2·5 dc. It is seen that
the results obtained from eqn. (7) with n = 2·6 agree very well with those
obtained from the test data.
For the expression of the function ATw=zo(x/I), the following two
boundary conditions are available:
1. At x = I, there is no energy dissipation. Therefore AT = O.
2. At x=O, ATw=zo must reach its maximum value. Therefore

dATw=zol =0
dx x=O
With two additional measured temperatures at w = 20 Hz, eqn. (6) may be
expressed as

(8)

where ao, a!, a z and a 3 are constants. At x = 0, we obtain

ATw=zo,x=o = ATmax,w=Zo = ao (9)

rhen eqn. (8) can be written in a dimensionless form,

 Temperature Increase in SMC Fatigue Testing 577

with its derivative

(11 )

where b l , b1 and b3 are constants.

At x/I = 0, due to

d( I1T )
11 Tmax w=lol =0
d(7) x/l=O
(12)

we obtain
( 13)
At x/I = 1, because

(~)
11 Tmax w=lO
-0 (14)

it follows,
1 + b1 + b3 = 0 ( 15)
From the measured data at w = 20 Hz,
x
- = 0·3077 (16)
I
and
x
- =0·6923 ( 17)
I
the constants b 1 and b 3 are obtained as follows:
b2 = -3·245 ( 18)
b 3 = 2·245 (19)

Therefore the temperature distribution along the specimen, eqn. (10), can
be written as

(~)
11 Tmax w=lO
= g(~) = I - 3'245(~)1 + 2'245(~)3
I I I
(20)
578 S. V. Hoa and S. Lin

where
flTmax .w =20 = 13'2°C (21)
Substituting eqn. (20) into eqn. (7), we obtain,

~flT =
flTmax . w =20
[1 _3'245(~)2 +
1
2.245 (~)3J(W)2'6
1 20
(22)

At xii = 0, because
(23)
eqn. (22) becomes,

flTw •max (W)2'6

(24)
flTw =2o.max = 20
Substitution of eqn. (24) into eqn. (22) yields

~
flT
= 1- 3'245(~)2
1
+ 2'245(~)3
1
(25)
max

It can be seen that the function of g(xl I) from eqn. (20) represents the
temperature distribution along the test specimen not only for the frequency
at (jJ = 20 Hz, but also for any frequency. Therefore the experimental
results of the temperature increment along the test specimen with variable
test frequency can be presented in eqns (25) and (24) with flTw =20.max =
13·2°C.

CONCLUSION

Even though the experimental data is limited to only two locations and for
insulated specimens, the agreement between experimental results and
theoretical prediction using dimensional analysis is good. The accelerated
increase of the temperature at the high end of the frequency range can be
due to the increase in the loss coefficient at higher temperatures. Work is
underway to investigate this effect.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The financial assistances from the Natural Sciences and Engineering

Research Council Canada through grants No. A0413 and A 7929 are
appreciated.
 Temperature Increase in SMC Fatigue Testing 579

REFERENCE

1. MANSON, J. A. and HERTZBERG, R. W. Fatigue failure in polymers, Critical

Reviews in Macromolecular Science, I, 1973,433.
 39
A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision
Space Structures Elements

H. COHAN AND R. R. JOHNSON

Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Inc., Bldg. 104, PO Box 504,
Sunnyvale, California 94088, USA

ABSTRACT

A procedure for fabricating graphite epoxy columns used in the assembly of

large space platforms is described. The requirement for precise dimensional
controlled to a unique hot resin injection process. Dry, high modulus fiber is
wound over a vertically mounted steam-heated mandrel. A steam-heated
sleeve or caul is slipped over the wound mandrel and resin is injected and
cured in place. Approximately 200 column elements have been fabricated
using this efficient process.

INTRODUCTION

Large space platforms have been proposed for a number of applications

such as communication satellites, multikilowatt power modules, large
modularized antennas, and geostationary platforms in general. Such
platforms would be required to have very low ratios of mass to area (or
volume) after assembly and/or deployment on orbit. Figure 1 portrays the
automated assembly of a linear section of a large platform, using the Space
Shuttle orbiter as a work-base. The structure is composed of tubular,
double-tapered column elements assembled to node joints designed to
facilitate on-orbit assembly. The structural elements are the 2·6 m half-
columns described in this paper. A free flying assembler using 10 m half-
columns is shown in Fig. 2.
A major consideration in optimizing utilization of the Space
580
A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space Structures Elements 581

FIG. I. Automated assembler mounted on orbiter.

FIG. 2. Free flying assembler.

582 H. Cohan and R. R . Johnson

Transportation System (Space Shuttle) is the low weight-to-volume ratio of

typical conventional space structure elements and subassemblies. A load of
such elements will fill the available orbiter cargo-bay volume without
approaching the weight-lifting capability of the vehicle. The National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, has
developed a structural concept using double-tapered graphite epoxy
columns, manufactured and shipped as tapered half-columns which can be
stacked and nested very compactly, resulting in efficient use of the Shuttle
cargo bay. The half-columns are to be snapped together on orbit to form
the full-column elements, then erected by utilizing node joints at element
intersections. The studies leading to the selection of the tapered column
concept are discussed in reference 1. The physical characteristics of
tetrahedral truss type platforms constructed from such columns are
described in reference 2.
The half-column elements described in this paper are approximately
2·6m long and were manufactured using a process developed for 10m
elements. The taper of the column elements permits nesting, and this high
packaging efficiency makes it possi ble to use the full weight capability of the
Space Shuttle Orbiter.

COLUMN DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

A sketch ofa 2·6m half-column is shown in Fig. 3. The column tapers from
a diameter of IOcm at one end to Scm at the other. Graphite epoxy was

,..-.....-,
. - - 2 . 6m-----l
" ,

- E =D Scm D

ALUMINUM END FITTlNG7

ALUMINUM
END FITTING 90~. 0.08 mm
O~. 0.4 mm

FIBER
---C-ONGITUDINAL VSB- 32 PITCH
CIRCUMFERENTIAL T - 300
FIG. 3. Half-column.
 A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space Structures Elements 583

selected for the columns because of its high stiffness and near zero
coefficient of thermal expansion. The fiber orientation is (90/0/90) with
Thornel T -300 fiber, 0·08 mm thick, used for the circumferential wraps, and
Pitch Type VSB-32 fiber, 0·4 mm thick, for the longitudinal ply. The pitch
fiber was selected for its low cost and high stiffness. The aluminum end
fittings are integrally wound on the mandrel to achieve precise repeatable
column lengths and fitting placement. Finished weight is approximately
840 g per half-column. The design compressive load for the full-column is
over 400 kg, and they have been successfully tested to that load.

PROCESS SELECTION RATIONALE

Large space platforms may eventually require half-columns in excess of

10 m long; the manufacturing process described here has the capability to
meet this requirement. A hot process was selected to avoid separating the
integrally wound aluminum fittings from the column during cure due to
differences in thermal expansion coefficient. The steel mandrel increases in
length about 5 mm during heat up for cure and drives the end fittings with it.
Although the use of heated tooling eliminates the thermal management
problem during cure it precludes the use of prepreg material during fiber
placement. Therefore, a dry fiber wind process followed by resin injection
was selected.
Hand tooling, inside and out, is required to achieve the wall thickness
control and smooth surfaces required to permit close nesting and later
separation of the half-columns. Precise column straightness is required to
provide ease of stacking, handling, and assembly as well as platform
flatness characteristics. This requirement tends to preclude the use of
horizontal winding systems. A horizontally supported mandrel will permit
an excessive amount of sag. A steady rest at the mid-point, or other points
of the mandrel, would be impractical; some form of rolling contact would
be required and could possibly damage uncured material. The obvious
solution to these problems is a vertical winding system. The approach
described here uses a stationary mandrel, vertically suspended, to simplify
winding the 90 lamina over the 0 fibers. A major portion of the
0 0

manufacturing development effort required for horizontal fabrication was

eliminated by using a winding machine with stationary mandrel vertically
suspended.
584 H. Cohan and R. R. Johnson

FIG. 4. Vertical winding machine.

 A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space Structures Elements 585

DESCRIPTION OF THE VERTICAL WINDING MACHINE

The vertical winding machine is shown in Fig. 4. The machine provides a

mechanism by which longitudinal fibers can be accurately positioned.
Discrete and appropriate numbers of longitudinal fibers are terminated at
previously determined locations to accommodate the column taper. This
procedure assures the maximum number of fibers (volume fraction) from
the large diameter to the small diameter. The filament winding mechanism
of the machine is relatively simple. The mandrel is positioned in the
machine. A rotating head, shown in Fig. 5, traverses up the length of the
mandrel, applying a continuous wrap of circumferential (90 fibers. After
0
)

the initial layer is complete, longitudinal (0 0 ) fibers from the previously

loaded tension plate and convergence ring are attached to a bracket above
the large end fitting. During the downward pass, as the longitudinal fibers
are drawn through the tension plate and convergence ring, the rotating
head captures them with circumferential wraps maintaining accurate
alignment and pretensioned load. Figure 5 shows this step clearly. Note the
two bobbins of fiber which rotate around the mandrel to lay the 90 fibers in 0

place. The machine is 14m tall, and is capable of fabricating column

elements 10 m in length.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The manufacturing process, which is described in more detail below, is

briefly outlined as follows:
(I) Load the tension plate.
(2) Preheat mandrel and external sleeve.
(3) Install mandrel in winding machine.
(4) Apply inner 90 wrap as carriage traverses up the mandrel.
0

(5) Attach longitudinal fibers and apply longitudinal and outer

circumferential wrap.
(6) Insert wound mandrel in steel sleeve.
(7) Inject resin.
(8) Allow part to cure.
(9) Remove outer sleeve.
(l0) Allow mandrel to cool and remove part.

Tension Plate Loading

The tension plate, which is in fact three plates, has 720 equally spaced
586 H. Cohan and R. R. Johnson

FIG. 5. Winding machine head.

 A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space Structures Elements 587

FIG. 6. Loading the tension plate.

holes. The entrance and exit plates have bonded ceramic eyelets, and the
center plate contains 720 ceramic brakes for providing tension (140 g/
strand). The plate is hand loaded with the VSB-32 longitudinal fibers which
are precut to correct length. Plate loading is shown in Fig. 6. The
convergence ring through which the fibers pass is also shown supported by
four members which are adjusted by individual turnbuckles. In order to
maintain a uniform wall thickness over the length of the columns, it is
necessary to terminate longitudinal yarns as the fiber is applied from the
large end toward the small end. The use of the tension plate provides
flexibility in that the longitudinal fiber count is easily changed and is
accurately measured. Local reinforcement of the large end fitting is
achieved by adding short longitudinal lengths ofT-300 fiber during tension
plate loading.

Winding of the Mandrel

The aluminum end fittings are mounted as appropriate on the large and
small ends of the steel mandrel. Both the external sleeve and the mandrel are
heated to 107 °C by steam prior to winding. This temperature is maintained
until the part has cured. The first circumferential or 90 ° wrap of T-
300 is applied during a traverse from the bottom to the top of the mandrel.
The strands are wrapped as closely as possible without overlap giving a
588 H. Cohan and R. R. Johnson

nominal ply thickness of 0·08 mm. This spacing is achieved by setting the
gear ratio of the vertical traverse to spool carrier ring rotation. Upon
completion of the first vertical traverse, the longitudinal (0 0) pitch fibers are
attached to a bracket above the mandrel and the downward traverse begins.
The longitudinal fibers and the outer 90 ° wrap are incorporated
simultaneously, with the outer 90° wrap capturing the 0° fibers. With the
completion of this downward pass, the fiber ends are held with a tacking
resin and the wrapping trimmed to final length.

Resin Injection and Cure

The wound mandrel is transferred to the externally insulated sleeve by
use of a hoist. Care is exercised in guiding the mandrel into the sleeve to
ensure that the mandrel does not touch the sleeve wall. A vacuum is drawn
from the large end of the assembly to remove air and volatiles, and resin is
injected from the small end. During injection, 60 kPa pressure is applied to
the pressure pot and the vacuum is reduced to 25 cm Hg. Approximately
1O-15min are required for the resin to reach the top of the column.
Completion of the resin injection is determined by observing the flow of
resin in the transparent plastic tubing in the vacuum line at the top of the
column. Prior to the injection process, the sleeve is backed away from the
fully closed position on the fiber wound mandrel. This provides a larger
pumping annulus which reduces the pumping time and minimizes 'wash' of
the circumferential fibers. The nominal 0·5 ° taper allows an increase of
about 0·09 mm in the radius of the pumping annulus (clearance between

FIG. 7. Completed half-columns, shown stacked.

 A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space Structures Elements 589

mandrel and sleeve) for each linear cm the sleeve is backed away from the
mandrel.
After fill is complete, the injection valves are closed. The outer closure
sleeve is drawn to close on the mandrel to a predetermined wall thickness
annulus. Excess resin is permitted to flow out during this closing operation.
After closure, pressure is applied using shop air, approximately 700 kPa.
Pressure is held until full gelation is achieved. Nominal cure time at this
temperature is 6 h. After the part is cured, the sleeve is removed and the
spool piece which locks the small end of the column to the mandrel is
released. The mandrel is allowed to cool and the part is easily removed with
a small mechanical load after releasing the large fitting retaining ring. Some
of the completed columns are shown in Fig. 7, in nested stacks.

Resin System Selection and Management

Requirements for the resin system to be used with the injection process
include the following:
(1) long pot life at the pumping viscosity temperature;
(2) low viscosity at injection temperatures to minimize injection time,
fiber wash, and to insure void-free filling;
(3) adequate gel-time at injection temperature to insure that the resin
does not set up during injection;
(4) high strength at cure temperature, to permit the sleeve removal at
that temperature.
An MynO-DDS system was selected for this process. This system
demonstrated good pot life at 80 DC, easy flow at 120 DC, and adequate cure
rates at 175 DC.
Columns were also manufactured using a room temperature handling
epoxy system ADX 16/ AP-22. This system, developed by LMSC for glass
epoxy buoys, had been successfully used also for impregnating a graphite-
epoxy submarine sensor mast. The ADX 16 is a distilled version of
Lekuetherm X-50 imported by the Mobay Chemical Co. A cure cycle was
established for this system by evaluating the glass transition temperature
and short beam shear properties under LMSC Independent Development
Program founding. The cure cycle is 6 h at 104 DC plus a post cure of 6 h at
135 DC.
Photomicrographs of a specimen are shown in Fig. 8. This section is cut
normal to the longitudinal fiber and shows both the smaller diameter T-300
reinforcing fiber and the VSB-32 pitch type fiber. Good compaction and
zero voids can be observed.
590 H. Cohan and R. R. Johnson

FIG. 8. Specimen photomicrographs. (a) = x 250; (b) = x 100.

 A Unique Approach to Fabricating Precision Space Structures Elements 591

CONCLUSION

Approximately 200 half-columns have been made by this process at this

time. A number have been assembled into a tetrahedral structure (Fig. 9) for
test and demonstration at NASA's Langley Field, Virginia facility. Others
are being used experimentally in the NASA Neutral Buoyancy Facility at
Huntsville, Alabama . The process has been demonstrated to be capable of
producing consistent high quality structural elements.

FIG . 9. Tetrahedral structure .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The development of the process was sponsored by the NASA Langley

Research Center under Contract NASI-14887, 'Development of Large
Space Structures Concepts'.

REFERENCES

1. BUSH, HAROLD G. and MIKULAS, MARTIN M., JR. A nestable tapered column
concept for large space structures, NASA TM X-73927, 1976.
2. MIKULAS, MARTIN M., JR., BUSH, HAROLD G. and CARD, MICHAEL F. Structural
stiffness, strength and dynamics characteristics of large tetrahedral space truss
structures, NASA TM X-7400l, March 1977.
 40

Manufacturing Methods for Carbon

Fiber /Polyimide Matrix Composites

WESLEY C. MACE

Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Inc.,

PO Box 504, Sunnyvale, California 94086, USA

ABSTRACT

High-temperature processing of polyimide matrix/carbon fiber composites

has required the development of new and innovative tooling approaches,
manufacturing methods, and material processing. This paper describes
several tooling approaches, including the use of ceramic, molded graphite,
and metallic tool surfaces, and the criteriafor selection ofeach. The influence
of different thermal coefficients of expansion on tool material selected and
geometric restraints is explored.
Consideration is given to the ultimate production process to be used, i.e.
press molding, autoclave molding, and hydroclave molding.
The use of alternative, energy efficient tooling methods such as internally
heated tools and part peculiar heating blankets is illustrated. Tool design
solutions to minimize the loss of heat during high-temperature processing
are given.
Selected case histories of varied designs are examined in detail. The
rationale for the manufacturing-too ling-processing approach is given, as
well as the results of tests on the end item.

BACKGROUND

The advent of the new high-temperature resin systems, of which polyimides

are the most promising, has required an increase in the amount of
development engineering applicable to manufacturing processes. Too often
592
 Manufacturing Methods for Carbon Fiber/ Polyimide Matrix Composites 593

introduction of new systems with their seemingly bright promise of better

engineering properties and breakthroughs in environmental resistance has
faltered because of manufacturers' inability to realize their potential. For
this reason, LMSC decided early on that processing techniques must keep
apace with materials development; the results of this effort are reported in
this paper.
A prime consideration of this program was to ensure that any process
developed in the prototype stage could be readily transferred to a
production mode. This required that typical part geometries be fabricated
by methods that were not only economically viable but could withstand the
criterion of reproducibility. This necessitated a compromise in reaching the
absolute potential of the materials involved in favor of the aforementioned
economic and reproducibility constraints in some cases.
Even a cursory study of missile structures will reveal that the determining
factor in any manufacturing process will be part geometry. Therefore, not
one, but perhaps two or three processes may be required for any materials
system. This has, in fact, been borne out in the case of polyimide matrix/
graphite composites. The principal processes involved here are autoclave,
hydroclave, and press molding.

AUTOCLA VING

The key to successful autoclave processing of condensation/addition

polyimide is to completeJhe imidization cycle (a condensation reaction) as
nearly as possible without initiating polymerization of the imides formed,

.00
0.....
~«
QC
w
0..

~
90 MIN VACUUM
3"UMI
125 . ~ CM Hg
I
o - - - - o ______ o __ ~ __

u 2
TIME (hrl
FIG . I. Cycle for LARC-160 resin.
594 Wesley C. Mace

thereby restricting flow of the resin at autoclave pressures. At the same time,
removal of the solvents and evolved water must be ensured. A reasonably
successful cycle for LARC-160 resin has been developed 1 and is shown in
Fig. 1. This cycle was used to fabricate the parts shown in Fig. 2.
The tooling for these configurations was dictated by two criteria:
geometry and thermal coefficient of expansion. Because of the need to mate

-_. " -

FIG. 2. LARC-160/carbon fiber--details.

certain bonding surfaces, female tools were required . To avoid inducing

stress into the cured parts during cool-down, a reasonably close match of
tooling thermal coefficient of expansion with the composite was required.
This in turn narrowed the selection of tooling material to two, i.e. molded
graphite or cast ceramic. Cast ceramic was chosen for the following
reasons:
(1) With judicious design of the heat source, the ceramic could be used
to insulate the part temperature from the periphery of the tool,
thereby allowing for use of standard bagging materials.
 Manufacturing Methadsfor Carbon Fiber(Po/yimide Matrix Composites 595

(2) Machining of male form blocks used to cast the ceramic molds was
less expensive than machining female molds from solid graphite.
(3) Because solid graphite tooling had previously been demonstrated
successfully, 2 these parts presented a good opportunity to prove the
efficacy of cast ceramic tooling.
The cast ceramic surface was relatively porous. Consequently, it was
decided to apply a ceramic glaze to the part surfaces. This glaze not only
provided a good tool surface but proved to be an excellent parting medium

FIG. 3. Cast ceramic tools.

for the cured composite and required no further application of parting

agents prior to cure . Figure 3 illustrates the completed ceramic tooling.
The layup of the parts was routine, except for the PAN details. Because
these were designed as shear panels, the edges were built up with the center
of the panels dropping off to a thin section. This required buoying the center
panels between the edge buildup plies and providing a staggered joint.
Accurate placement of the center plies was achieved by fabricating
fiberglass transfer templates that were indexed to the sides of the female
tools. The natural tack of the polyimide resin allowed the raw material to
adhere to the template. The template was then positioned in the tool, hand
pressure was applied to the surface, and the pattern detail was transferred to
the layup as th{~ template was removed. Upon completion of the layup,
596 Wesley C. Mace

perforated teflon coated glass was used as a separator, and the bleeder plies
were installed.
A tetrafluoroethylene film was used as a barrier, and flexible woven
heater blankets were installed. Fiberglass insulation was applied over the
entire surface, the layup envelope bagged and cured in the autoclave as
shown in Fig. 1, using only gas pressure in the autoclave and all heating
supplied by the flexible heating blankets.

PRESS MOLDING

Matched die molding of polyimides is one of the most reliable and cost-
effective processes available. In addition, it provides precise dimensional
control of at least two surfaces with ease and three surfaces with the use of
some ingenuity in die design and the willingness to assume the increase in
cost associated with the increased complexity of the tool. An added
advantage is the ability to imidize the matrix at a higher temperature, use
higher pressures in the final polymerization, and thereby ensure the
removal of all volatiles and condensation reaction moisture from the
laminate. Using this premise, a cure cycle was developed for matched die
molding of LARC-160 (see Fig. 4). Matched steel dies were machined, and
sample brackets were produced as illustrated in Fig. 5.
Several cautionary items are in order at this point. Because of a final

400

300
G
RElEASE PRESSURE

100

2
TIME (HRl
PRESS CURE CYCLE

FIG. 4. Matched die cure cycle.

 Manufacturing Methodsfor Carbon Fiber/Polyimide Matrix Composites 597

FIG. 5. Matched die-molded brackets.

curing temperature of 316 DC, the difference in thermal coefficient of

expansion (TCE) of the composite part and TCE of the tooling material
becomes a matter of concern with certain geometrics. For example, the
TCE of steel can approach eight times that of a carbon fiber composite, and
a part in a completely enclosed female half of a tool (such as a PAN
configuration) could be subjected to an unacceptable stress level during
cool-down of the mold. Even a flat surface with restrained edges can be
deleteriously affected by these phenomena. In the case of the brackets
illustrated previously, this problem was resolved relatively easily. An
approximate 0'6cm x 0'6c groove was machined around the periphery
of one die half 0·7 cm from the end of the part. A fluorosilicone rubber
extrusion was placed in this dot, extending far enough above the surface to
provide a seal when the two halves of the die were closed. When pressure
was applied, the seal prevented escape of the excess resin beyond the tool
cavity, allowing internal hydraulic pressure to be exerted on the layup.
Upon cooling, the pressure was reduced, the rubber could exert no
appreciable strain on the layup and no residual stress was imparted
through the edges of the part. The draft angle of the hat section allowed the
part to slide up the slope so that the hat section was not stressed. The
mportance of having sufficient draft angle, - 2 Dminimum is recom-
'llended, on near vertical walls when using high TCE tooling materials
.,nnot be over emphasized.
When perpendicular walls are an absolute requirement, there are two
utions to the problem. One is to fabricate the female portion of the die
f m a material that has virtually the same TCE as the composite, such as-
m Ided graphite or ceramic. The othtr is to induce an artificial draft into
598 Wesley C. Mace

the part by laying in sacrificial plies on the periphery and subsequently

machining them away after removal of the part from the mold. The
sacrificial plies can be of a cheaper material than carbon fiber, such as glass.
This method is often used in areas where machined tolerances are required
for subsequent fit-up operations.

HYDROCLAVING

The third method of processing used with polyimide materials was

hydroclaving. Hydroclaves have certain advantages over autoclaves, chiefly
because the pressurizing medium is water instead of an inert gas. With a
water medium, pressures of up to 6·9 Mpa can be obtained by the simple
expedient of attaching an air booster to the in-plant compressed air source.
The ability to achieve high pressures without the danger associated with
compressed gases allows a much lower capital cost for equivalent size
equipment. Whereas LARC-160 processes fairly readily at pressures of
1·38 Mpa, certain geometries may require higher pressures because of
pressure degradation occurring when deep draft, compound curvatures are
involved . Other polyimide systems, such as PMR 15, require higher
pressures for successfully molding this type of part in a repeatable, reliable
manner. Hydroclaved polyimide parts must be fabricated on internally
heated tools to achieve the 316°C curing temperature. Nylon films cannot

FIG. 6. Hydroclave tool.

 Manufacturing Methodsfor Carbon FiberfPolyimide Mat rix Composites 599

FIG . 7. Hydroclaved cylinder.

be used safely at high molding pressures, so rubber bags are used, and the
part is insulated from the bag to keep the temperature at the bag surface
under 173 °C. The same curve cycle is used with hydroclaving as with
autoclaving, with the sole exception of higher curing pressures that are
empirically determined for each geometry. A typical hydroclave tool is
shown in Fig. 6, and the resultant part is shown in Fig. 7.
There were several key reasons for designing the tool as a male instead of
a female mold. The use of aluminum with its high TCE caused the tool to
expand against the bag pressure, thereby minimizing wrinkles. The high
TCE also aided in removal of the part because the tendency was to shrink
away from the layup during cool-down. Advantage also could be taken of
the high thermal conductivity to allow for faster heat-up rates and lower
thermal gradients over the part areas.

RAW MATERIAL SELECTION

Though the majority of data and experience available on carbon fiber

composites was evolved in the use of collimated tape, an early decision was
600 Wesley C. Mace

made to design mainly around woven fabric. The reasons for this were both
economic and engineering. The type of structures contemplated contained
geometries of radical contour, including many complex curvatures and
near right-angle bends. The loading necessitated a pseudo-isotropic
structure. Accurate orientation of collimated fiber plies was extremely
difficult, and orientations were almost impossible to maintain during flow
of the matrix when cure was effected. Tests performed on pseudo-isotropic
laminates of both collimated tape and woven fabric revealed that design
allowables were actually a little higher using the woven fabric than when
using collimated tape, even in a Celanese compression test. This would seem
to be an anomaly because weaving operation imparts a slight buckle to the
fibers. However, observation of the tests revealed that collimated tape
laminates sometimes had a tendency to fail in sequential layers along the
shear plane between plies. The woven fabric laminates, however, did not
exhibit this tendency-probably because of the nesting effect of the
weaves-and always failed as a complete unit. Therefore, although
individual values could be considerably greater with the collimated tape
laminates, the nature of scatter made their actual allowables smaller.
A paradox also appears to exist in the economic side. Woven fabric costs
$20 to $25 per pound more than collimated tape in the preimpregnated
form. Fabricated structures, on the other hand, can be made with
considerably less labor cost using woven cloth as opposed to collimated
tape; in some cases, the reduction in labor costs are as much as 70 percent.

552

276

FIG. 8. Ultimate compressive strength-LARC-l60.

 Manufacturing Methods for Carbon Fiber/Polyimide Matrix Composites 601

In the case of the parts considered by LMSC, automation of layup

operations was impractical because of their geometries, and the labor
saving made the difference in raw material cost inconsequential. Typical
compressive values for parts manufactured to these processes are shown in
Fig. 8.

RAW MATERIAL CONTROL

The LARC-160 used in these processes was fully characterized by the

methods outlined in reference I, and each lot of material was tested using
dielectric dynamic analysis, liquid chromatography, infra-red spectros-
copy, and thermal gravimetric analysis for conformance to the 'fingerprint'
developed in that program. Uniformity of the material was excellent, and
no problems were encountered because of material variability.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) Polyimide-graphite composites of the LARC-160 type are readily

processible by anyone of the three reported methods.
(2) Iterations of designs with tooling and manufacturing engineers are
a prerequisite for successful application of these materials.
(3) Woven fabric is preferred to collimated tape for reasons of cost and
reproducibility for the majority of geometries of this type.

REFERENCES

1. WERITA, A. JR. and HADAD, D. K., Resins for Aerospace, ACS Symposium
Series No. 132, 1980,215-32.
2. MACE, W. C. GraphitejPolyimide Processing, Proceedings~Inter Continental
Conference on Composites, Cannes, France, January 1981.
 41

The Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement:

Some Structural Considerations

D. G. SWIFT

Appropriate Technology Centre for Education and Research,

Kenyatta University College, PO Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya

ABSTRACT

Whilst natural organic fibres have advantages in many developing countries,

of low cost and ready availability, their use for reinforcing cement based
materials is complicated by their relatively low elastic modulus, their water
absorbing properties, susceptibility to fungal and insect attack, and
variability of properties amongst fibres of the same type. These points are
examined theoretically and in the light of experiments carried out on sisal-
cement composites. Their relevance to the design of structures using organic
fibre-cement composites is discussed. It is shown that such composites are
appropriatefor many low cost structures in developing countries despite, or
in some cases because of, their peculiar properties.

INTRODUCTION

Several reference texts are now available on the fibre reinforcement of

cement based materials. 1- 5 The fibres are added to give the material one or
more of the following properties:
(i) increased flexural strength;
(ii) post-crack load bearing capacity;
(iii) increased impact toughness;
(iv) increased viscosity in the fresh state.
602
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 603

The main fibres to have been used on a commercial basis have been
asbestos, steel, alkaline resistant glass and polypropylene. Asbestos fibres
have, of course, been in use throughout the present century. Applications
using fibres other than asbestos are relatively recent.
Most developing countries do not have indigenous supplies of asbestos,
steel, glass or polypropylene fibres, but do have relatively underused
supplies of inexpensive natural organic fibres with adequate tensile strength
for fibre reinforcement. However, their other properties have raised doubts
concerning their suitability for reinforcing cement-based materials. These
disquieting properties are as follows:
(i) low elastic molecules compared with that of cement paste or
concrete;
(ii) tendency to absorb water;
(iii) susceptibility to fungal decay and insect attack;
(iv) variation in fibre dimensions, strength and modulus even among
fibres from a single plant.
In the present paper, these points will be considered from a theoretical
viewpoint and according to the experimental evidence available in order to
assess their relevance to structural applications in developing countries.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Effect of Low Young's Modulus

High modulus asbestos, steel and glass increase the tensile strength of
cement based materials by bearing the major part of the applied load. They
may also increase the compressive strength in this manner. There is no
obvious mechanism whereby low modulus fibres could increase the
compressive and direct tensile strength of concrete.
Low modulus fibres can, however, increase the flexural strength of
concrete. In a previous paper 7 the author showed how the movement of the
neutral axis in flexure, arising from the use of low modulus fibres, can result
in significant increases in modulus of rupture, whilst the accompanying
increases in first-crack flexural strength could be explained in terms of the
fibres hindering the development of microcracks into visible cracks. The
analysis was based on a model of the composite 8 that divided a flexed beam
into zones depending on the predominant constitutive equations applying
to each zone (e.g. linear elastic straining of the intact composite, constant or
decaying stress during fibre pull-out).
604 D. G. Swift

According to this model, the first-crack flexural strength free and the
modulus of rupture fr~e (,ultimate strength') of the composite wer~ found to
be given a first approximation by the equations

fr~e = 2fr~m/(I + J E2/E) (1)

and

fr~e = (2CT T + 3r:xfeuf3 2)/(I + f3)2 (2)

where
f3 = E1 eeuiCTT (3)
and
CT T = (2E Ir:xlrcuee) 1 (2 (4)
Bothfr~e andfr~e are defined in terms of the respective bending moment M
by the equation

fr.e = 6M/bd 2 (5)

where band d are the breadth and depth of the beam respectively.
In the above equations, fr\ is the first-crack flexural strength of the
matrix; feu and eeu are the cube compressive strength and accompanying
strain at the compressive surface of the beam; E, E1 and E2 are the effective
elastic moduli of the composite in the tensile zones at the commencement of
flexure, when visibly cracked, and when extensively microcracked but not
visibly cracked, respectively; r:x is a stress-block factor determined by the
compressive stress-strain behaviour of the composite and, by analogy with
unreinforced mortar, probably lying within the range 0-4 to 0·7.
The modulus EI of the cracked composite in tension is given by the
expression
(6)

where Vr and Er are the fibre volume fraction and fibre elastic modulus
respectively, and where factor A. allows for discontinuous and misaligned
fibres. For long, aligned fibres, A is unity, and is equal respectively to 2/n
and 0·5 for planar and three-dimensional random orientations of
moderately long fibres. Modulus E2 could be found using the 'rule of
mixtures' if the fraction of voids present as microcracks were known. In
practice, modulus E2 must be deduced from experimental evidence using
eqn. (I).
This theory may be further developed to give approximate expressions
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 605

for the impact toughness of a beam using a drop-weight test. Suppose mass
m is dropped from height h onto the mid-point of the upper surface of a
beam of mass M simply supported over a span L. In general, the total
kinetic energy TT of the falling weight will be expended as follows:
(i) Energy TI will be lost as heat, sound and surface energy as the mass
hits and indents the top surface of the beam. This may be estimated by
equating the momentum of the falling mass immediately before impact with
that of the mass and beam after impact when both are moving together.
Then energy TI lost in this process is given by the expression
(7)

(ii) Elastic energy TE will be stored as strain energy in that part of the
matrix that remains uncracked, and in the fibres under tension. This may be
found from the expression

TE = f(J2/2Edv (8)

where (J and E are the stress in, and modulus of, volume element dv of the
beam, and the integral is taken over the whole beam, assumed (as a first
approximation) to be undergoing simple beam bending. It can be shown
from eqn. (8) that, for the composites which are of interest, TE is given
approximately by the relation
TE = bdL«(J*)2/6E* (9)
where (J* and E* are respectively:

{
fr~m' E for unreinforced composites at first cracking,
fr~c' E2 for reinforced composites at first cracking,
Ir~c' EI for reinforced composites at ultimate failure.
This elastic energy will be lost from the beam after each blow, as the beam
loses its elastic strains.
(iii) Energy Tp will be dissipated as fibres pull out at cracks and
microcracks against frictional resistance. This energy may be found by
multiplying the frictional force at the interface, equal to the tensile force in
the fibre, by the amount of fibre pull-out, and summing over all fibres. The
amount of fibre pull-out increases linearly from zero at the neutral axis to
approximately LeT at the tensile surface, where eT is the overall strain at this
surface (greatly exceeding the elastic strain in fibre and matrix). Carrying
606 D. G. Swift

out this analysis, the pull-out energy at first crack and ultimate failure are
found to be respectively
T C = bdL(fr~m)Z bdLfr~mfr\
(10)
p 3E2 (1+JE 2 /E) 6E z

and

ru = bdLa:r (11)
p 3E 1 (1 +JEdE )
For the type of composites under consideration, both f3 and the ratio
EdEare much less than unity. Hence, using eqns (2) and (4), we may rewrite
eqn. (11) as

ru = bdL(fr~Y (12)
p 12El

(iv) Surface energy Ts will be absorbed by the new surfaces at cracks and
microcracks.
(v) Energy TL will be lost to the supporting structure.
As a first approximation, energies T 1 , TE to first-crack matrix stress, Ts
and TL may be assumed to be the same for both reinforced and unreinforced
specimens. The increase in impact toughness due to fibre addition will
therefore be Tp and the increase in TE above that at which the unreinforced
matrix cracks.
From eqns (9), (10) and (12), it can be seen that low modulus fibres that
also increase the first-crack and ultimate strength of the material in flexure,
will give significant increases in toughness up to first-crack, and even greater
increases in overall impact toughness.
The same theory is applicable to fracture toughness defined in terms of
the area under a force-deflection curve in flexure, except that energies Tl
and TL no longer apply.

Absorption of Water
The effect of water absorption by the fibres depends on when the fibres
are wetted, how rapidly they absorb the water, and the effect of this
moisture on the fibre properties.
If the fibres absorb water so slowly that they continue to extract water
from the concrete whilst it is curing, so drying it prematurely, then the
resulting concrete will be weak and porous.
Concrete that is weak and porous will also result from rapid fibre
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 607

absorption of water if this takes place before mixing with the cement. The
fibres will have a moisture content in excess of the equilibrium content of
fibres in the mix. Water will therefore flow out of the fibres into the wet mix,
pushing cement away from the fibre so that the interfacial bond is
weakened, and giving the matrix around the fibres a very high water-
cement ratio.
If, on the other hand, fibres are added dry to the mix and then rapidly
absorb water, they can improve the properties of the final composite. The
fibres attract cement to give a strong interfacial bond, and lower the water-
cement ratio of the mix surrounding the fibres. As the matrix begins to dry
out during curing, the fibres themselves will act as a water reservoir tending
to maintain the moisture content of the matrix surrounding them. The
matrix strength and permeability will therefore be improved by the addition
of fibres, expecially if they also restrict the growth of microcracks into
visible cracks.
The cracking of bamboo reinforced concrete as the bamboo swells on
taking up moisture, and the decrease in interfacial bond as it shrinks, have
received considerable attention. 9 The smaller the inclusion size, the smaller
the effect will be. Thus it is less likely to be important for single fibres,
though it may be important for fibre bundles or ropes. If the fibres absorb
water rapidly, they will be saturated, and thus fully swollen, during mixing,
and thus will not swell to crack the matrix when the material is soaked after
curing. The fibres may shrink, and so have a decreased bond on drying.
Alternatively, the bond may be weaker when the fibres are wet and have a
lubricating layer of water at the interface.

Fungal Decay and Termite Attack

Natural organic fibres of vegetable origin consist of cellulose molecules
cross-linked with lignin, and are susceptible under normal conditions to
fungal decay and termite attack. Should this decay occur within the matrix,
then the composite would finally consist of just matrix with fibre-shaped
voids. The strength and elastic modulus of the composite would then be,
respectively

(13)
and
(14)
Since Dr is relatively small for such composites, the reductions in strength
and modulus below those of the matrix would also be relatively small.
608 D. G. Swift

On the other hand, the presence of the cement could inhibit fungal and
termite attack. At the same time, there would be the possibility of alkaline
attack, as with glass fibres. Any resulting decay in fibre strength would only
become important when it led to the stage of fibres failing prematurely,
prior to pull-out. Fibre embrittlement, leading to a reduction in toughness,
could also be a problem.

Variability in Fibre Properties

This variability inevitably means that products cannot be made from
natural fibres with close tolerances of strength and stiffness. The variability
in length, thickness and stiffness of the fibres is more important than the
strength, the latter only being relevant when it leads to fracture of the fibres
prior to pull-out. Since natural organic fibres are cheap and readily
available in rural areas of developing countries, they are likely to be
employed for labour intensive processes in which close tolerances would be
impossible to achieve however uniform the fibre properties.

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE

To carry the discussion a stage further, we consider the evidence gained

from experiments on a particular natural organic fibre-sisal.

Effect of Low Young's Modulus

To investigate this effect, flat roofing tiles were made with dimensions
430 mm x 200 mm x 9 mm using equal parts by weight of cement and sand,
with a water-cement ratio of 0·4. Half of these tiles were reinforced with
sisal, adding 1·6 % by volume as 25 mm lengths added dry to the mix, and
laying 1·2 % by volume the length of the mould to form a central aligned
fibre layer sandwiched between layers of mortar.
Eight of each type of tile were tested in flexure over a span of 370 mm,
with readings taken of centre deflection up to first crack in order to
determine the initial Young's modulus E of the material. A further eight of
each type of tile were impact loaded over the same span with a 1· 75 kg metal
sphere that was dropped from increasing heights of 5 mm up to 50 mm and
every 10 mm thereafter up to 'failure'.
In the case of sisal reinforced specimens, there was no sudden ultimate
failure or maximum load either in flexure or impact. The tiles merely curved
to such small radii of curvature that they touched the base of the test rig.
This in itself was a demonstration of the high ductility imparted by the low
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 609

modulus fibres. It was, however, noted that once a central deflection of

around 60 mm had been reached, small increases in flexure load, or
repeated impacts, caused very large increases in deflection. Consequently,
'ultimate failure' was defined for the purposes of this experiment as the load
or impact needed to give a centre deflection of 60 mm.
The results of these tests are shown in Table 1. It is evident that sisal fibres
give considerable increases in both flexural strength and impact toughness,
the increases already being to some extent evident at first cracking.
Before comparing the results with the theory outlined in the previous
section, two further sets of tests were carried out. Firstly, a further set of
tiles were impact loaded over shorter spans. This had no significant effect on
the results obtained. Secondly, the impact procedure was altered. The
sphere was dropped repeatedly from 15 mm above some of the reinforced
tiles (that is to say, from approximately the height needed to crack
unreinforced tiles). For other sisal-cement tiles, the sphere was dropped
repeatedly from a height of 45 mm. It was found that, in all cases, the point
at which cracking, ultimate failure, and even observable damage on the top
surface, occurred was determined by the total energy summing over all
impacts.
Both of these results support the assumption inherent in the theory that
the energies absorbed are important rather than the impact force. The fact
that the energy absorbed did not appear to increase with span length as

TABLE I
Results of flexure and impact tests on flat roofing tiles

Flexure First-crack Modulus of Initial Young's

specimens strength rupture modulus E
(MNjm 2 ) (MNjm 2) (GNjm 2 )

Plain mortar 3·7 ± 0·9 3·7 ± 0·9 34·6 ± 5-4

Sisal--cemen t 4·1 ± 0·5 6·2 ± 1·1 33·6 ± 6·1

Impact Height of drop for Height of drop to cause

specimens initial cracking failure
(mm) (mm)

Plain mortar 16 ± 5 16 ± 5
Sisal--cemen t 25 ±4 469 ± 125
610 D. G. Swift

predicted by eqns (9) to (12) may be due to the fact that for short spans,
more energy was lost to the surroundings, sufficient to compensate for the
lower energy absorbed by the specimen.
To compare the results of the impact test with the proposed theory, it was
assumed that for the full span of370 mm, energy TL lost to the surroundings
was always zero, whilst surface energy Ts was the same for all specimens,
and could therefore be deduced from the toughness of the plain mortar
specimens. This gave a value for Ts of 0·133 1 (contributing 37 1jm 2 to the
'impact toughness' values shown in Table 2). As indicated, the energy from
the falling weight was summed over successive impacts, and the
components T1 and TE given by eqns (7) and (9) deducted for all impacts
except, in the case of T E , the final impact. The values of E1 and E2 were
deduced from the flexure test results and by assuming the value for E f of
13·2 GNjm 2 found from earlier tests 10 to be correct. This gave the values
for E1 and E2 of 0·26 GNjm 2 and 13·2 GNjm 2 that were then used in eqns
(9), (10) and (12).
The results of this analysis are shown in Table 2. There is seen to be full
agreement with the experimental results for first cracking, and the result for

TABLE 2
Theoretical values oj'impact toughness' for reinforced tiles

Failure criterion Predicted height of drop 'Impact toughness'

to cause 'failure' up to 'failure'
(mm) (11m2)

Initial cracking 25 198

60 mm centre deflection 340 13700

final failure lies just outside the scatter of the experimental results (probably
because the assumption that TL was zero was invalid for these larger
impacts). Since the value for impact toughness of the plain mortar derived
using this theory was 45 1jm 2 , these results represented more than a four
fold increase in toughness up to first-crack and more than a 300 fold
increase in toughness up to 'failure'. Even this ignores the energy that would
subsequently be required to tear the tile into two pieces.
Recent tests on beams containing around 15 %of sisal fibres have shown
that increases in flexural strength by more than a factor offour are possible
(i.e. above 20 MNjm 2). On the other hand, as shown by earlier
experiments, 1 0 sisal fibres can give reductions of up to 20 %in compressive
strength and direct tensile strength.
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 611

Thus low modulus fibres can be used to give modest improvements in

first-crack flexural strength, and significant increases in modulus of
rupture, provided accompanying small decreases in compressive and direct
tensile strength are acceptable.

Absorption of Water
The results of earlier tests on sisal fibres indicated that, when sisal fibres
are immersed in water, they absorb, within 5 seconds, 67 % of their own
weight of water, with no further detectable increase with time. 10 Ifwe may
assume that the absorption of water from the mix is extended to minutes
rather than seconds, then fibres added dry to the mix should give increases
in strength and decreases in permeability of the final composite. It was
shown in an earlier paper 1 0 that adding wet fibres to the mix had an adverse
effect on the composite.
Increases in composite flexural strength resulting from sisal fibre
addition have already been noted, and some of this improvement could be
due to the absorptive nature of the fibres. A further series of tests was
carried out to investigate the effect of sisal addition on permeability.
Tiles were tested for air permeability during curing by forcing air through
them at a pressure of 4 kN/m2 using a 50 mm diameter funnel sealed against
the surface of the tile. Twenty tiles were made containing equal parts by
weight of sand and cement, half of them made with a water-cement ratio of
0·5, and the remainder with a water-cement ratio of 0·4. Half of those using
the wetter mix were reinforced with 2 %of sisal fibres aligned along the tile
and of length equal to that of the tile. Half of those using the drier mix were
reinforced with 1 % of aligned sisal and the remainder with 3 % of aligned
sisal. Measurements of airflow were carried out from the time of
demoulding (24 hours) to the twentieth day of curing. The results of this test
are shown in Figs 1 and 2.
Subsequently, 28 day old mortar specimens were tested for water
permeability using the test rig of BS 690: 1963 and comparing the water loss
from the reservoir with that from a control using a glass plate instead of the
mortar. Three specimens had a cement: sand ratio of I : 3 with I %of25 mm
sisal fibres and 2 %of long sisal fibres, three had 1:4 cement:sand mix with
the same fibre reinforcement, whilst a final three had a 1 :4 cement: sand mix
with 0·5 % of short fibres and I % of long fibres. The results of this test,
carried out over a period of 28 hours are shown in Fig. 3.
I t is evident from these results that sisal fibres can considerably reduce the
permeability of a mortar, both against air and water. At least part of this
effect may be due to the absorbent nature of the fibres.
612 D. G. Swift

Rate of air flo.., Rat,of air flaw

(10" em' /s) (10' em'/s)

10

10 0·5

Age (days)
o~------~~------~-------- O~------~I~
O ----~--~
20-----
10 20 Age (day»

FIG. I. Air permeability of I: I mortar of FIG. 2. Air permeability of 1:1 mortar of

water-cement ratio 0'5, with and without water-cement ratio 0,4, containing different
sisal reinforcement, throughout the initial fibre fractions of sisal reinforcement, mea-
curing period. sured throughout the initial curing period.

Volume of
200 water absorbed
((m')

180

160

140

120 14m" • 1 5% SISal

100

80

60

40

20

Period (hours)
12 16 20 24 28

FIG. 3. Water absorbed by 28 day old mortar specimens reinforced with sisal fibres.
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 613

Fibre Degradation
To test for termite attack, cracked mortar specimens containing sisal
fibres were placed in proximity of a termites' nest. Sisal fibres on their own
were placed, as a control, in virtually identical conditions_ Whilst the sisal
fibre control was rapidly attacked and removed by the termites, the sisal in
the mortar, even when visible in cracks, was not attacked_
Fungal decay was investigated using BS 1982: 1968 extended to a period
of 6 months, using specimens 10 mm thick containing equal parts of cement
and sand and containing 3 %of sisal of length 25 mm and 6 %aligned along
the specimen_ The test was repeated using fibres presoaked for 24 hours in a
0- 5 %solution by tri-n-butyltin oxide/dieldrin in kerosene_ Specimens with
and without sisal reinforcement were stored dry alongside the experiment as
a control. After exposure, the specimens were tested for flexural strength
and impact toughness, and the quality of any exposed fibres was assessed
visually and by crushing or pulling with the fingers_ The results of this test
are shown in Table 3_
No reduction in first-crack strength or modulus of rupture was evident
TABLE 3
Results of fungal test

Specimens Exposed Flexure Impact

fibre
quality First Modulus Residual Fall to Fall to
on scale crack of strength * cause cause
0-4 flexure rupture (MN/m2) crack failure
strength (MN/m2) (mm) (mm)
(MN/m2)

Unreinforced
cAlntrol 4-4±0-8 4-4±0-8 0 9±5 9±5
Reinforced
control 4 5-7±1-3 9-4±3-2 5-4±1-9 19±7 100±50
Treated
control 4 8-6±2-7 9-6±3-0 5-8±2-1 20±8 117 ±39
Untreated
in soil 0-4±0-5 8-8±2-7 9-3 ± 1-9 0 20±5 40±8
Treated in
soil 2-4±0-7 8-1 ±2-0 8-1 ±2-0 0 19±5 36± 14
Untreated in
sterile 'soil' 3-l±1-0 7-3±2-1 7-3±2-1 0 20±6 33±10
Treated in
sterile 'soil' 3-5±0-9 9-2±2-0 9-2±2-0 0 20±5 44±5

* 'Residual strength' = stress at centre deflection of 22 mm over span 120 mm_

614 D. G. Swift

among any of the exposed specimens. There was, however, a loss of

'residual strength' after cracking, and large decreases in both fracture
toughness and impact toughness (although both remained well in excess of
those of the unreinforced mortar). This embrittlement appeared to be due to
a chemical embrittlement of the fibres rather than fungal attack, as all
specimens were equally affected whether or not pretreated with the
fungicide/insecticide, and whether in composted soil or sterile quasi-soil.
Tests on two year old and four year old roofing sheets have yielded
similar results. On the other hand, specimens saturated in a curing room for
one year showed no such degradation. This subject is therefore under
further investigation.

RELEVANCE TO STRUCTURES UTILIZING NATURAL

ORGANIC FIBRES

Because of the possibility of chemical degradation of the fibres, natural

organic fibre cement composites should not be used in situations where a
decrease in toughness with time could prove dangerous. They may,
however, be used with confidence for structures which, because of their
shape, only require high strength and toughness during construction. This
applies to shell structures that are conical, domed, vaulted or involve large
corrugations. The reduced flow characteristics of the fresh mix make the
material suitable for plastering, and for moulding of flat sheets in a manner
analogous to the moulding of asbestos-cement. The low permeability
means that the composite can form an impervious plaster, and is suitable
for grain storage bins, silage stores, water jars, biogas storage vessels and
similar applications including non-structural roofing covers, such as tiles.
The high strength in flexure and initial toughness of sisal-cement, and the
fact that it involves long, cheap fibres, means that structures can be formed
by novel methods. For example, the grain store shown in Fig. 4 in its initial
stages of construction, was made over a conical framework of sticks
covered with polythene. The open sisal mesh was plastered with a thin layer
of mortar containing chopped fibres, which was sufficiently strong and
tough for the polythene-covered framework to be removed after a few days.
The inside was then plastered so that the final structure has adequate long-
term strength and toughness. Figures 5 and 6 show the construction of a
house using sisal to strengthen and bind a sisal-cement plaster against a
mud-brick wall. The building is roofed with sisal-cement roofing sheets.
 Use oj Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 615

FIG. 4. Grain storage bin under construction using sisal net and sisal fibre reinforced mortar
plaster.

FIG. 5. Mud- brick wall of house with sisal fibres passing between mud bricks ready to
receive sisal reinforced mortar plaster.
616 D. G. Swift

FIG. 6. Finished walls after plastering. The roof is covered with sisal-<:ement roofing sheets .

Thus natural fibre-cement composites are already suitable for many

structures in developing countries, and may be generally applicable to
shell st-ructures if the problem of alkaline attack of the fibres can be
overcome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his indebtedness to the FAO/SIDA project on

Rural Structures for Africa, The Kenya National Council for Science and
Technology, ICIPE for assistance with the test on termite attack, Mr M.
Okere who carried out the permeability and fungal tests, and Professor
Smith of Nairobi University Civil Engineering Department for his general
help and encouragement.

REFERENCES

1. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE, Fibre reinforced concrete, Publication SP44,

Detroit, Michigan, ACI, 1974.
2. THE CONCRETE SOCIETY, Fibre-reinforced cement composites, Technical Report
51.067, Concrete Society, London, 1973.
3. NEVILLE, A. (Ed.), Fibre reinforced cement and concrete, RILEM Symposium
1975 Proceedings, Construction Press, London, 1975.
4. SWAMY, N . (Ed.), Testing and test methods o/fibre-cement composites, RILEM
Symposium 1978 Proceedings, Construction Press, London, 1978.
5. HANNANT, D. J ., Fibre cements and fibre concretes, John Wiley and Sons,
Chichester, 1978.
 Use of Natural Organic Fibres in Cement 617

6. ARNAOUTI, C. and ILLSTON, J. M., Tests on cement mortars reinforced with

natural fibres, The Hatfield Polytechnic, 1980.
7. SWIFT, D. G. and SMITH, R. B. L., The flexure strength of cement-based
composites using low-modulus (sisal) fibres, Composites, July 1979, 145-8.
8. SWIFT, D. G. and SMITH, R. B. L., The physical significance of the flexure test
for fibre cement and fibre concrete. In: Testing and test methods offibre-cement
composites (Swamy, N. (Ed.», Construction Press, London, 1978,463-78.
9. FANG, Y. H. and FAY, S. M., Mechanism of bamboo-water~oncrete
interaction. In: Materials of construction for developing countries, Volume 1
(Pama, R. P., Nimityongskul, P. and Cook, D. J. (Eds», Asian Institute of
Technology, Bangkok, 1978, 37-48.
10. SWIFT, D. G. and SMITH, R. B. L., Sisal fibre reinforcement of cement paste and
concrete. In: Materials of construction for developing countries, Volume I
(Pama, R. P., Nimityongskul, P. and Cook, D. J. (eds», Asian Institute of
Technology, Bangkok, 1978, 221-34.
 42
On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre
Composites

K. G. SATYANARAYANA, A. G. KULKARNI, K. SUKUMARAN,

S. G. K. PILLAI, K. A. CHERIAN AND P. K. ROHATGI
Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR), Industrial Estate P.O.,
Trivandrum 695 019, Kerala, India

ABSTRACT

The use ofnatural fibres, such as coir, banana, sisal and pineapple leaffibres
which are abundantly available in India, as polymer based composite
materials has been examined in this paper. Tensile strength, percentage
elongation, modulus, electrical resistivity and dielectric strength of these
plant fibres and some of the mechanical and physical properties of natural
fibre-polyester composites have been measured. The properties of untreated
fibre-polyester composites are lower than either the polyester or the fibre
pointing to the need for surface modification to improve bonding. The
beneficial effects of surface treatments, such as copper coating on coir fibre,
on its own properties and on the properties ofcoir-polyester composites have
been described. Consumer articles like wash basins, mirror casings, chair
seats, scooter boxes, slide projectors, voltage stabilizer tubes, crash helmets
and roofing materials have been prepared out of natural fibre-polyester
composites.

INTRODUCTION

Natural and synthetic fibres and their products such as yarns, cords, tapes
and cloths are widely used as engineering materials in various industries like
the textile, rubber, laminating, building, electrical and chemical industries
and in aerospace applications. Natural fibres like coir, banana, jute, etc.,
form large renewable resources III many countries, particularly in
618
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 619

TABLE I(a)
Comparative prices of typical natural
and synthetic fibres

Fibre Cost/kg
($)

Carbon 220·00
Stainless steel 56·00
Glass 5·00
Pineapple leaf 0·75
Banana 1·50
Palmyra 1·00
Sisal 0·75
Coir 0·50

developing countries like India. These fibres form one of the low energy,
renewable materials (Table l(a)) and are receiving increasing attention as
composites in polymers,l - 3 cement, 4 - 6 clay and rubber matrices. This is
due to two reasons: (i) although the natural fibres have relatively poor
mechanical properties in comparison to synthetic fibres, they have low
density, low cost and are low energy materials, and (ii) the shortage of
nonrenewable resources of reinforcements like glass, boron, carbon, nylon
and other synthetic fibres, inherent high cost of their production and their
toxic nature. Table l(b) gives the availability of some of these important
natural fibres in India and the world. However, one of the handicaps in the
utilization of a vast resource like natural fibres is the lack of precise scientific
information on structure and properties of these natural fibres, their
compatibility with various matrices and properties of the composites based
on these fibres. The other factors which contribute to the nonutilization of
natural fibres as composites particularly in polymeric matrices are low and

TABLE I(b)
Annual fibre production (in tonnes) of some of the natural
fibres (1979)

Fibre India World

Coir 160000 282000
Banana 163-20 100296
Sisal 3000·00 600000
Palmyra 100·00 not known
Pineapple leaf not estimated
620 K. G. Satyanarayana et al.

variable strength and moduli, poor resistance to weathering, and lack of

wettability of the fibres with polymers.
The literature available on the properties of various natural fibres like
coir, banana, sisal, etc., is very inadequate. 7 Some literature is available
now 1 - 3 on the utilization of vegetable fibres as engineering materials
particularly with polymeric matrices. In view of quantity available, cost,
physical and other properties and final commercial forms, jute is the only
fibre which has been considered as most suitable for use as reinforcement in
FRP composite. 8 Cotton fabric-phenolic resin composites have been used
as bearings in place of phosphor bronze in the roll necks of steel and
nonferrous rolling mills resulting in an energy saving of up to 25 %.1
Laminates by hand lay-up and winding of cylinders with longitudinal or
helical and hoop reinforcements have been successfully prepared using sisal
fibre-epoxy resin composites. 2 These composites have been found easy to
fabricate and the cost of production of the composites was comparable to
fibreglass products. Also, the specific properties of these composites were
found to be nearly the same as that of glass-epoxy composites.
Strength of bagasse fibre-formaldehyde composites has been evaluated
for varying fibre-matrix combinations. 3 It has been found that 80-90 %
volume fraction of fibre with formaldehyde can be used as crack arrester.
In this paper we report the physical, electrical and mechanical properties
of coir, banana, sisal, pineapple leaf and palmyra fibres, and composites
based on coir and banana fibres with polyester resin. Some of the consumer
articles like crash helmets and roofing materials made of coir with polyester
resin and scooter boxes, mirror casings, stabilizer casings, etc., made of
banana fabric incorporated into polyester which were successfully made are
also described. Also, future work which is essential for better utilization of
these natural fibres in composites is listed.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Coir fibre which is generally used by the coir industry was brought from
Kovalam, near Trivandrum in India. Banana, sisal, pineapple leaf fibre and
palmyra fibres were supplied by Khadi and Village Industries Commission
which is a rural development organization in Trivandrum, India. All these
fibres are mostly used by fibre based industries for preparing products like
mats, mattings, bags, purses and other ornamental articles.
The fibres were thoroughly cleaned and dried before subjecting them to
any testing or preparing composites. Then, the fibres were sorted out for
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 621

measurement of fineness and size. Density of the fibres was determined

using a specific gravity bottle with toluene solution, while moisture content
of the fibres was determined using a moisture balance. Electrical resistivity
of the fibres and composites was determined on 100 mm length between
100 V-I 000 V d.c. voltage using a million megohmmeter (Model RM-160
MK IlIA) while dielectric strength of fibres and composites and dielectric
constant were measured at different conditions using insulation breakdown
tester supplied by M/S BPL(India) Ltd: 2·S mm thick composites were used
for these measurements. X-ray studies on fibres explained elsewhere 9 were
made through transmission Laue photographs using copper K radiation
with the fibre axis kept perpendicular to the incident beam.
Composites were prepared in two different ways. In one case, mats of coir
(9 %wt) or banana fibre-cotton fabric (11·44 %wt) were introduced in
polyester resin with 2 % MEK paroxide as the hardener and 2 % cobalt
naphthanate as the catalyst. The laminates were prepared by hand lay-up.
A slight pressure was applied to keep the fibres in position whenever
required.
In the other case 0·1 m lengths of coir fibres (raw as well as coated with
copper up to I· Slim thick)* were aligned unidirectionally by stretching the
fibres in a mould of dimension 0·1 x O·OIS m 2 and a predetermined
quantity of resin mixed with hardener and catalyst as before was poured
into the mould. In this case also, pressure was applied and samples were
post cured at 80 DC for 24 h.
Mechanical properties of fibres and composites were determined using a
10 ton Instron Testing Machine at a strain rate of2 cm/min. A O·OS m gauge
length of specimen was used in all cases. Testing of composites was carried
out as per ASTM Standards. The fibres were conditioned at 60-6S %RH and
2SD-30 DC for 1-2 days prior to testing.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2 lists size, density, major chemical constituents, volume resistivity,

dielectric strength, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), Young's modulus,
percentage elongation and microfibrillar angle of coir, banana, sisal,

* Details of coating of copper on coir fibres are explained elsewhere. 10 In summary,

copper coating on coir was obtained by activating the fibre surface with NaOH-
HCHO/ammoniacal silver nitrate solution and then depositing copper from
Fehling's formaldehyde solution. Two different thicknesses (l·Sllm and S·O Ilm) of
copper were obtained on the fibres by varying the concentration of coating solution.
 R;
IV

TABLE 2
Physical and mechanical properties of fibres

Fibre Width or Density Volume Dielectric Micro- Cellulose/ Moisture UTS Modulus Percentage
diameter x 10- 3 resistivity at strength fibrillar Lignin content (MN/m2) (GN/m2) elongation
(m) (kg/m3) 100 V x 10 5 for 0·1 m angle (%) (%) (0·05m GL)
(Qcm at length of (8)
65% RH) the fibre ~
after oven ~
drying at ~
105°C ~
~
:s
~
Glass 2·5-10 2540 6 x 10 7_1 X 1011 827·6--1724 68·96 4·8
Carbon 6--10·5 1780-1980 1700-2410 180-415 ~:s
Jute 25-12 1450 7-9 63/12 12 533 2·5-13-0 1-2 ~

Coir 100-450 1150 9-16 5kV 30-49 32-43/40-45 10-12 131-175 4-6 15-40 ~
Banana 80-250 1350 6·5 5 11 63-64/5 10-12 529-754 7·7-20·8 1·8-3·5 ~
:---
Sisal 50-200 1450 0-48 5 18-22 66--72/14-10 11 568-640 9·4-15·8 3-7
Pineapple
leaf 20-80 1440 0·77 5 14-80 84-5/12-7 Highly 413-1627 34·5-82·5 0·8-1·6
hygroscopic
Palmyra 70-1300 1092 1·00 4·5 30 95-220 3-3-7·0 3·2-11·2
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 623

pineapple leaf fibre and palmyra fibre. For comparison the properties of
jute, glass and carbon fibres are also included in this table. Figures I ((a) and
(b» and 2 show typical stress-strain diagrams of various natural fibres while
Fig. 3 shows the microstructures of these fibres. As can be seen from Table
2, these fibres have low and varying strength (95-800 MN/m2), low
modulus (3-40GN/m2), but the volume resistivity (1-16 x 10 5 ncm) and
dielectric strength values (5 kV) are comparable to those of insulating
materials like wood and mica. The specific strength and modulus of these
fibres are in the range of 0·13-0·4l/m and 4-40/m respectively in
comparison to the values for glass fibre ofO'5/m and 27·l5/m respectively.
The percentage elongation of different natural fibres varies between 1 to
40 %, being highest for coir fibres. Similarly, the microfibrillar angle varies
from 11-49 the highest being that for coif. The chemical constituents
0,

listed indicate that the lignin content is low (5-15 %) for banana, sisal and
pineapple leaf fibres while it is highest in the case of coir fibre (40-45 %). On
the other hand, cellulose content is highest (63-85 %) for these fibres, the
exception being coir (32-43 %).
The observed mechanical properties of these fibres seem to depend
mainly on the microfibrillar angle and cellulose content, while the values of
electrical resistivity of the natural fibres correlate strongly with the cellulose
content and moisture content of these fibres. Since the details of
microstructure of these fibres differ from species to species (Fig. 3),
properties of the fibres may be influenced to some extent by the structures.
In fact, in the case of coir, it has been found 11 that the modulus and
percentage elongation are related mainly to the microfibrillar angle, while
the strength of the fibres seems to be influenced by the chemical composition,
size and internal structure of the fibres and the presence of defects in the
fibres.
The values of electrical resistivity and dielectric strength of the fibres
suggests that all the fibres may be a satisfactory replacement for wood in
insulating applications. The fibres will have special advantages over wood
in that they can be readily pressed into complicated shapes through
moulding. This is significant in view of the dwindling resources of wood
which may in some applications be replaced by abundantly available
natural fibres.
However, since the above properties of the fibres have been measured at
60-65 % RH and 25-30°C, it would be worthwhile to measure these
properties under various environmental conditions with a view to finding
their suitability for use in different environmental conditions.
Table 3 ((a) and (b» lists the density, volume resistivity, surface
624 K. G. Satyanarayana et al.

260
240
tal
220
200
c<;- 180
~ 160
z
::E 140
~

'"'"w
120
<>:
f-
100

'"

o ~I_---':',... -L-
2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42
5 TRAIN ("02 )

5 TR AIN (,,03 )
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
100
700 lbl

600

500 N
N' WE
.§ Z
i 400 ::E
'"'"
'"
~ 300
<>:
4O~
l-
V)
f-

'" 200
20

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 TRAIN (. 163 ) - -- -

FIG. I. Stress- strain diagrams of natural fibres: (a) coir fibre; (b) (i) sisal fibre, and (ii)
palmyra fibre.
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 625

36 720

32 640

26
560 t
24 460

1z 20
::;:
v 16 320'" '"w
'"'"
UJ
""
I-
""
I- 12 1- Bdndnd & P'Mdpp/~ Ilbr .. 240 '"
'" 2- Poly~slu

3-Bdrldnd f,b" (/Jwl tl~POly.SI~r

e i.-Co.r '9 wltl+ POly~sl.r
160

80

~---L__~____~__-L__~~__~__- L____L -__~__ I

o 4 6 12 40 44

FIG. 2. Stress-strain diagrams of banana, pineapple leaf fibre, polyester and natural fibre-
polyester composites.

TABLE 3(a)
Physical and mechanical properties of unidirectional coir fibre/polyester composite

Material UTS Flexural Volume resistivity

(MN/m 2) strength at 100 V Ocm
(MN/m2)

(Mould) Polyester 49·6 52·2 1·35 x 1011

As received coir-polyester 45·9 56·2 1·23 x 10 10
(0·23 vf)
Copper coated coir-polyester 56·9 69·8 9·93 X 10- 20
(0·23 vf) 17 ·16 b
Copper coated coir-polyester 1.77 0
(chopped fibre with aspect 63·13 b
ratio of 100)

o Longitudinal.
b Transverse.
 Cf',
TABLE 3(b) ...,
Cf',
Physical and mechanical properties of composites

Property Polyester Glass fibre Cotton fabric Banana fabric Banana fabric Coir
resin reinforced reinforced reinforced reinforced reinforced
polyester polyester polyester polyester polyester
resin resin resin resin resin
(fibre/fabric content (II % wt (11 % wt (9% wt
not mentioned) fabric) fabric) fibre)
(warp) (weft)
(cotton in
the termida)
?':
~
Density (kg/m3) 1300 1500-1900 1400 I 215 I 215 1 160 ~
~
Strength (MN/m2) ;,.
'"
tensile 41·38 241·4-689·6 34'5-689'6 35·92 27·96 18·61 '..."
flexural 89·69 344,8-862,1 62·1-124·1 50·60 64·00 38·15 ~
;,.
Modulus of elasticity 2·06 6'9-41-38 2·76--4·14 3·33 3·34 4·045 '"
(GN/m2) '"
~
Impact resistance (unnotched) 77-5 3116--8476 257·3-428·8 748·5 329·2 391 ~
(kgm/m2)
Water absorption 0'21-0AO 0'2-1'0 0·8 1·93 1·36 1·36
(24 h room temperature) %
Volume resistivity (n cm)
or surface resistance 1000kM 400kM 400kM
(n/25 cm 2) (at 100V d.c.)
Dielectric strength 10 kV/min 10kV/min 10kV/min
(an 2·5mm thickness)
Dielectric constant 3·04 3·5 3·5 3·14
(at 1·5 MHz)
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 627

FIG. 3. Microstructures of natural fibres and composites (cross sections). (a) coir ( x 400), (b)
banana (x 400), (c) sisal (x 400), (d) pineapple (x 320), (e) palmyra (x 100).

resistance, dielectric strength, dielectric constant, UTS, Young's modulus,

percentage elongation, flexural and impact strengths of composites based
on coir and banana-cotton fabric with polyester resin. For comparison
some properties of glass fibre reinforced plastic and cotton fibre reinforced
polyester composites are also given. 12 Figure 2 shows typical stress-strain
diagrams of polyester and various composites studied in the present
investigation. It can be seen that the composites have lower strength than
either the fibres or the polyester. This could be due to lack of bonding
between the fibre and polyester resin. Also, the volume percentage of the
fibres used in the present investigation may be lower than the critical
628 K. G. Satyanarayana et al.

amounts above which the rule of mixture begins to apply. However, natural
fibre composites have a much lower density (Table 3) and higher electrical
resistance and hence they are likely to be more insulating to electricity and
sound. It can also be seen from Table 3(a) that there is no significant
difference in the properties when raw coir fibres are incorporated in
polyester. However, when 23 %(volume) of copper coated coir fibres are
incorporated in polyester there is an increase of 15 % in UTS and 34 %
flexural strength over that of the polyester matrix. Some of this can be
attributed to an increase in the strength of coir fibre due to copper coating.
This suggests that copper coatings can make coir fibres perform as
reinforcements instead of mere fillers when used with polyester resin.
On the other hand, copper coating of coir fibres leads to a marked change
in the resistivity of the composites. While the resistivity of composite with
raw coir fibre (unidirectionally aligned) was 1·23 x 10 10 Q cm, the resistivity
of composite with copper coated fibre (23 vol % unidirectionally aligned)
decreased to 1·23 x 1O- 2 Qcm in the direction parallel to the fibre and
17·6Qcm in the direction perpendicular to the fibre.
Similarly, composites having lower volume fraction of randomly
oriented chopped copper coated fibres having an aspect ratio of 100,
showed a decrease in resistivity much below the value required for
electromagnetic interference shielding and discharging of static electricity
like metal/polymer composites. 10
It has been reported in an earlier paper10 that the propagation of flame
was approximately at the same rate (100 mm in 40 secs) in bundles of raw
coir fibres and 1· 5 Jim copper coated coir fibre, the only difference being that
the copper coated fibre bundle did not show any after-glow as observed in
the case of raw fibre bundle. On the other hand, a 5 Jim thick copper coated
fibre bundle did not show either the propagation of flame or the after-glow.
This could be due to the fact that 5 Jim copper coating conducts the heat
away and imparts flame retardancy. This study also suggested that when the
copper coating on coir fibres exceeds a certain threshold, the coir fibres can
become flame retardant.
From Table 3(b) it can be seen that the modulus values of composites
studied are higher than those of polyester resin. The specific modulus values
of composites are in the range of2·7-3·5/m while that of polyester resin and
GRP are in the range of 4·6-27·6/m respectively. The surface resistances of
composites containing banana fabric and coir fibre were 400 kMQ in
contrast to 1000 kMQ for polyester only at 100Y d.c. This decrease in
resistance is expected according to rule of mixture since fibres have lower
resistance (Table 2) than the polyester. On the other hand, values of both
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 629

FiG. 4. Laminates and various consumer products made of coir fabric- polyester and
banana fabric- polyester. (a) Laminates, (b) roofing, (c) mirror casing, (d) seat covering,
(e) projector box, (f) voltage stabilizer covering and crash helmet.

dielectric strength (10 k V d.c. /min) and dielectric constant (3-4·5 at

1·5 MHz) were similar for polyester and composites based on coir and
banana fibre fabric with polyester.
A number of consumer items (Fig. 4(a)-(f) have been fabricated using
coir mats or banana fibre-cotton fabric with polyester resin. In the case of
coir fibre some difficulty was faced during fabrication since the fibres tended
630 K. G. Satyanarayana et af.

to spring up. Some pressure had to be used in this case to keep the mat
intact. Laminates were however easily prepared using chopped fibres. On
the other hand, the fabrication process was easier, quite comparable to
glass fibre, in the case of banana fabric-polyester composite. Also, the resin
content used was similar in quantity in the case of banana fabric to that
consumed by glass fibre fabric for similar fabrications. These components
have shown no degradation when kept indoors (nearly 8-10 months in the
case of coir-polyester composites and 4-5 months in the case of banana
fabric-polyester composites). The roofing made of coir fibre sandwiched
with glass fibre-polyester resin (Fig. 4(b» has been in the outdoors for more
than two months and no signs of degradation have been observed.
The present work therefore suggests that natural fibres can be used for
fabricating laminates and consumer articles where high strength is not
absolutely essential. However, the problem of wetting and bonding between
fibre and polyester resin through surface modification of fibres needs
further attention to reduce the consumption of polymer in these composites
and to improve their mechanical properties.

FUTURE WORK

Future work on natural fibre reinforced composites could be done along the
following guidelines:
(1) The experiments carried out so far in our laboratory suggest that it
is necessary to characterize the properties of a wide variety of
natural fibres under various environmental conditions in order to
fully utilize these renewable resources as composites.
(2) The moisture absorption and resin absorption characteristics,
compatibility of fibres with polymers, clay, cement and rubber
require fundamental studies.
(3) Fundamental understanding of relationships among the micro-
structures of various natural fibres and their properties should be
obtained to devise micromanipulations to further improve their
properties.
(4) In the case of banana, sisal and pineapple leaf fibres, in addition to
engineering data, textile characteristics should be evaluated with a
view to blending these fibres with cotton or glass fibres to prepare
hybrid composites for use in grain storage, water carrying troughs,
false roofing and in the automobile industry.
 On the Possibility of Using Natural Fibre Composites 631

(5) Relationships among the properties of individual fibres and those

of yarns, cloth and composites made from these should be
thoroughly investigated in order to develop optimum properties for
any suitable application.
(6) Techniques for surface modification of these fibres, for instance by
providing metal or polymer coatings on them, thermal or
mechanical prestretching of fibres to change their microfibril angle,
applying transverse and compressive stresses to change the shape of
the fibres to ribbons and increase modulus, etc., should be
developed in order that these natural fibres may not only be
improved in strength properties but will also bond more easily with
various matrix materials. Some of the coatings may also protect the
fibres from environmental degradation. Metal/carbon (made from
natural fibres) composites may find use in antifriction, highly
conducting electrical contact materials with moderate arc re-
sistance and in high speed rotating machines with no arcing but
with high current.
(7) The high surface area of the carbon produced in natural fibres like
coir, for example, may provide active sites to form refractory
carbides and to suppress the formation of oxides like Si0 2 , Zr0 2 ,
Ti0 2 , etc. This phenomenon should be studied in detail to produce
newer refractory composites and to open up new areas in high
temperature materials.
(8) Short natural fibres of all types are generally considered waste
materials. Attempts should be made to make chopped strand mats
for use as reinforcements in plastics. These mats can be used along
with small amounts of fibreglass material if necessary to make
lightweight partition walls or chair seats, roofing, etc., where very
high strength is not absolutely essential.

CONCLUSIONS

Stress-strain diagrams of some of the natural fibres like coir, banana and
composites of these fibres with polyester are reported. It has been possible
to incorporate natural fibres into polyester to prepare stable laminates and
consumer articles like helmets, mirror cases and projector covers. Strength
properties of the composites are lower than either the fibres or the polyester
indicating lack of bonding between fibre and polyester. Development of
surface treatments of natural fibres is necessary to improve wetting and
632 K. G. Satyanarayana et al.

bonding between the fibre and polyester. For example, copper coatings on
coir fibres resulted in considerable increases in tensile and flexural strengths
of polyester-coir composites.

REFERENCES

1. PARAMASIVAM, T. and ABDUL KALAM, A. P. J., On the study of indigenous

natural fibre composites, Proceedings of 29th Annual Technical Conference,
Reinforced Plastics/Composites Institute, The Society of Plastics Industry,
Inc., USA, 1974, Sec. 4A, 1-2.
2. Save Energy-Save Money, Composites News, Composites, 10, 1979,61.
3. McLAUGHLIN, E. c., The strength of bagasse fibre reinforced composites, J.
Mater. Sci., 15, 1980, 886-90.
4. SMITH, D. G. and SMITH, R. B. L., The flexural strength of cement based
composites using low modulus (sisal) fibres, Composites, 10, 1979, 145-8.
5. COUTTS, R. S. P. and CAMPBELL, M. D., Coupling agents in wood fibre
reinforced composites, Composites, 10, 1979,228-32.
6. CAMPBELL, M. D. and COUTTS, R. S. P., Wood fibre reinforced cement
composites, J. Mater. Sci., 15, 1980, 1962-70.
7. SATHYA, C. R., Natural fibres of vegetable origin (unpublished work).
8. SATYANARAYANA, K. G., KULKARNI, A. G. and ROHATGI, P. K., Potential of
natural fibres as a resource for industrial materials in the future of Kerala, J.
Indian Acad. Sci., (in press).
9. KALYANI VUAYAN, SATYANARAYANA, K. G. and ROHATGI, P. K.,X-raystudies
of vegetable fibres (unpublished work).
10. PAVITHRAN, C., GOPAKUMAR, K., PRASAD, S. V. and ROHATGI, P. K., Copper
coating on coir fibres, J. Mater. Sci., (in press).
11. KULKARNI, A. G., SATYANARAYANA, K. G., SUKUMARAN, K. and ROHATGI, P.
K., Mechanical behaviour of coir fibre under tensile load, J. Mater. Sci., (in
press).
12. SHAND, E. B., Glass Engineering Hand Book (2nd Edn), McGraw-Hill Co. Inc.,
New York, 1958, 416-36.
 43
Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in
Composite Sandwich Structures

I. ROMAN,* H. HARELt AND G. MAROMt

* Materials Science Division.
t Casali Institute of Applied Chemistry.
School of Applied Science and Technology,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91904 Jerusalem, Israel

ABSTRACT

In composite materials, the stress intensity factor is significantly affected by

the reinforcement geometry. This geometry affects the degree of anisotropy
of the material. It is maintained that in order to obtain valid stress intensity
factor values, the compliance calibration procedure presented should be
carried out for every new reinforcement geometry.
In complex composite structures such as the sandwich control surface the
relative position of the notch tip has a significant effect on the fracture
toughness. This position defines the microstructure encountered by the crack
front and consequently determines the fracture mechanism that operates in
the damage zone ahead of the notch tip.
In many cases, thefracture process in sandwich structures containing skin
surface notches is confined to delamination in the skin at the vicinity of the
notch tip,followed, ultimately, by splitting at the adhesive layer between the
skin and the core.
In such cases, the fracture stress of the sandwich structure can be
calculatedfrom the fracture toughness of the skin and the relevant Y value is
that obtainedfrom the new Y polynomials derivedfor the skin andfrom the
corresponding ratio of notch depth to skin thickness.

l. INTRODUCTION

The recent applications of composite structures in aviation generated an

urgent need for reliable durability and damage tolerance assessment
633
634 I. Roman et al.

procedures. Such procedures would, in fact, provide rejection/certification

criteria for either new or in-service damaged parts. As a particular example,
let us consider a control surface comprising a honeycomb core and angle-
ply composite skins. Common damage modes or defects experienced by this
structure are delamination within the composite skin, surface scratches or
cracks, and holes. Unless a reliable failure criterion is available it is
impossible to determine whether or not such types of detectable damage are
critical.
Currently, a statistical approach utilizing the distribution of micro-
damage in the reinforcing phase is developing as a basis for failure
prediction methods. Although such an approach might prove very useful in
cases of stress rupture controlled by such distribution of microdamage, it
would be fruitless when some macroform of stress concentration is present
in the structure. Consequently, the option of applying a fracture criterion
based on LEFM was given priority.
Although LEFM and its fracture criterion-the critical stress intensity
factor-have been used in research with composites for quite some time
now, its applicability is not yet commonly accepted. The present study has
been undertaken to provide an experimental certification of the
applicability of the concept to a composite control surface.
This structure was constructed of angle-ply composite skins and a
composite honeycomb core as shown in Fig. I. The research was confined to
cases of skin damage such as surface scratches or notches, and was aimed at
providing a tool for determining when such forms of detectable damage
became critical.
We have been aware of numerous reports on the successful application of
LEFM to composites! and there have been other favorable indications for
adopting it. These are summarized as follows:

(I) Reasonable agreement exists between different measurements of

K,c reported in many studies, in spite of the various test specimens
employed and the different K-calibration functions, and in spite of
the numerous reinforcement geometries. 2
(2) General resemblance (analogy) is noticed between the plastic zone
at the crack tip of homogeneous materials and the damage zone-
also termed the debonding zone-in composites. 3 ,4
(3) When this general analogy is examined more closely it is seen that
the calculation of the size of the damage zone is possible with good
accuracy using plastic zone size expressions derived from LEFM.5
(4) When values of Kc are converted to fracture surface energies
 Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite Sandwich Structures 635

FIG. I. The sandwich structure. (a) General view . (b) A close-up of the honey com b with part
of the skin removed.

(y = K~/2E), these energies are correlated reasonably well with

values calculated for the micromechanical processes which occur
during the fracture. I

2. BACKGROUND

In view of the above observations it was decided to try to adopt LEFM.

Customarily, the critical stress intensity factor is determined by the fracture
criterion expressed by the equation:
(1)

where ()F is the fracture stress, c is the notch depth , Y= Y(c/d) is the K-
calibration function and dis the specimen thickness. Alternatively, Kc may
be calculated through its relation to the fracture surface energy as follows:
(2)
636 I. Roman et al.

where Eis Young's modulus and y is the fracture surface energy determined
from the fundamental relationship:

(3)

where U F is the elastic energy stored in the material up to the point of

maximum load and A is the total notch area.
When the LEFM approach is applicable the two methods should yield
identical results.
Thus, as a preliminary examination of the applicability issue, a set of
experiments with a simple composite material (unidirectionally reinforced)
was conducted. 6 This preliminary examination showed a significant
discrepancy between K1c values calculated by the two methods. It was
proposed that this discrepancy could be eliminated by the use of new K-
calibration polynomials derived specifically for composites. The reasoning
for the need for new K-calibration polynomials stems from the fact that the
original calibrations were derived with homogeneous isotropic materials
and might be inadequate for the anisotropic composites.
It is recalled that in the isotropic case K = J(a, c), where a and c are the
stress and the notch depth and the functionJdepends on the configuration
of the cracked homogeneous material and on the way in which the load is
applied. To extend the applicability of the stress intensity factor concept to
composite materials it was proposed that the reinforcement be taken into
account in the form K = J(a, c, g), where g is a parameter manifesting the
nature and geometry of the reinforcement. The equation actually implies
that composite materials should have different K-calibration functions,
depending on the geometry of reinforcement, implying that, in composites,
the K-calibration functions are anisotropic.

3. THE EFFECT OF ANISOTROPY ON K-CALIBRATION

The effect of anisotropy on K-calibration was examined in three-point

bending with a series of glass fibre-reinforced composites of different
geometries, described in Table I.
The computation of the K-calibration polynomials was based on the
combination of eqns (I) and (3), resulting in the following expression for Y:
(4)
This calibration procedure yielded different Y functions for the four
 Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite Sandwich Structures 637

TABLE I
Materials and modes of loading

Material Reinforcement Volume Loading

geometry fraction mode
(%)

I Unidirectional 41·5 Translaminar

II ±45° 36·0 Translaminar
III ±45° 37·5 Interlaminar
IV Satin 181 48·5 Interlaminar

TABLE 2
The coefficients of the K-calibration function

Material Coefficients

Ao Al Az A3 A4
I 3-87 -20·89 65·53 -87·70 49·16
II 7·58 -63·95 287·1\ -541·12 402·05
III 2-80 -7·09 62·36 -181-42 200·61
IV 4·65 - 34·10 144·92 -275·64 201·51

TABLE 3
New Y values compared with Srawley-Brown (SB) values

cJd Y SB
Material Material Material Material
I II III IV

0·1 2·35 3·56 2·55 2-43 1·80

0·2 1-69 2·59 2·75 1·74 1·80
0·3 1·53 2·88 3·01 1·65 1·92
0-4 1·64 3·60 3047 1·71 2·16
0·5 1·92 4·87 4·71 1·97 2·58
0·6 2·35 7·79 HI 2·94 3·32

reinforcement geometries of Table 1. The Y functions were expressed as

fourth degree polynomials, and Table 2 shows the new coefficients derived
for materials I to IV. The new Yvalues, calculated with the new coefficients,
are presented as a function of the relative notch depth in Table 3, where they
are also compared with the Srawley-Brown values for three-point bending.
Finally, as an example, Fig. 2 compares K[c results obtained for materials
638 I. Roman et at.

Malerial
r eo
II e o

f f ±! }
30

-
~
~ 20
; y I~ ~ 2~
6
u

'"
10
i5 Il
0 ~ !l
• • • • •
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
c/d
FIG. 2. KIc results for materials I and II calculated with the Srawley-Brown function (closed
symbols) and with the new polynomials (open symbols).

I and II with the Srawley-Brown Yvalues with those obtained with the new
Yvalues. The new results are generally different and, most important, the
trend in c/d is reduced. Thus, it can be concluded that in composite
materials the stress intensity factor is significantly affected by the
reinforcement geometry. A K-calibration procedure should be carried out
for every reinforcement geometry to obtain valid stress intensity factor
values.

4. K-CALIBRATIONS AND KIc MEASUREMENTS IN

LAMINATES

Following the procedure and conclusions outlined above, a K-calibration

procedure was carried out for the angle-ply skins of the actual sandwich
construction. Each skin was a glass fibre-reinforced epoxy laminate of the
following composition and structure. An angle-ply of [0 °/0 °/90 °/
±45 °/90%%OJ was manufactured from prepregs offibreglass cloth and
epoxy resin type F 161 (Hexcel Products). The 0° and 90° laminae consisted
of a unidirectional cloth, type 1543, with 90 %of the fibres aligned in the
principal direction and the remaining 10 % aligned in the transverse
direction. The ± 45 ° lamina consisted of a balanced cloth, type 1581. A
vacuum bag/autoclave moulding procedure was used including 'bleeders'
on both surfaces. The final fibre volume fraction was 46 %.
 Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite Sandwich Structures 639

-- B
A

.
7'

,,: J

10 20 30 10 20

ffiIIIIIIIIIIlIIII DIIIIIIWIII IIIIO=

c o
7
P,
6

:z
::!
Il. 3

10 20 30
10 20 30

FIG. 3. Loading modes and typicalload--<iisplacement curves of specimens A, B, C and D.

640 I. Roman et al.

Two types of specimen of 100 mm x 20 mm x 2 mm were cut out of the

plates. These were longitudinal and transverse specimens relative to the
fibre direction in the outer laminae. A single V-type notch of depth in the
range 0·1 ~ c/d ~ 0·6 (notch-to-depth ratio) was introduced either across
the wide, or across the narrow, specimen edge. The notch location, coupled
with the fibre direction, produced four different combinations, as indicated
in Fig. 3. Unnotched specimens were used to determine the modulus.
Testing in tension at a crosshead speed of O· 5 cm/min was carried out at
ambient temperature. Unnotched and notched specimens were tested with
M.T.S. and Instron machines, respectively (five specimens for each
determination).
The new K-calibration functions, Y(c/d), were determined and
calculated by the same procedure as described above. Figure 3 presents the
load- displacement curves obtained with the four specimen types; the load
levels taken in the calculation of the fracture stresses are also indicated.
The strain energies to fracture, U F' were calculated directly by
integrating the load- displacement curves. Figures 4 and 5 present plots of
the strain energies as a function of the notch area. I t can be seen (Fig. 4) that
for both longitudinal and transverse specimens with translaminar notches
U F is a linear decreasing function of A. In specimens with an interlaminar
notch (Fig. 5), however, two distinct slopes are observed. The transition
occurs at A ~ 30 x 10 - 6 m 2 , corresponding to a c/d ratio of about OA. The
transition indicates a change in the active fracture mechanism.
Examination of the laminate reveals that at c/d ~ 0·4 the notch tip is inclose

II2l

EI

"")
~u.. Ei
=>
'-i

::2

I 12l . ::212l . 312l . '-i I2l .

FIG. 4. Plots of strain energies as a function of the notch area of specimens with an edge
(trans laminar) notch.
 Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite Sandwich Structures 641

::2121 '"

16

1 121 . ::2.121. 3121. '-1121

FIG. 5. Plots of strain energies as a function of the notch area of specimens with a surface
(interlaminar) notch.

proximity to the ±45° layer. Consequently, the fracture mechanism in the

process zone ahead of the notch tip changes from either a pure transverse or
a pure longitudinal mechanism (a transverse lamina or a longitudinal
lamina is close to the ±45 0 layer, respectively), to a mixed mode
mechanism resulting in the observed slope variation. Fractographic studies
of the fracture surfaces furnished experimental verification for the
transition in the failure mechanism.
The fracture energy is higher for all the longitudinal specimens with
trans laminar notches when compared with the transverse specimens. In the
case of interlaminar notches, the transverse specimens display higher
fracture energies compared with those for longitudinal specimens up to
c/d ~ O· 35. The opposite is observed for o· 35 < c/d < 0·6. This behaviour
can be explained by the higher area fraction of longitudinal fibres intact in
all the cases where a higher fracture energy was observed.
The values of the above-mentioned slopes (d UF/dA), along with those of
the modulus (E), of 20·1 ± 3·5 G Pa for materials A and C and of 15·6 ±
1·5 GPa for materials Band 0 were used in eqn. (4). The results of Y(c/d)
for each one of the four specimen geometries were fitted with fourth degree
polynomials whose coefficients are presented in Table 4. These new Y(c/d)
functions were utilized to determine the appropriate fracture toughness
values of the four specimen types studied. The results are plotted in Figs 6
and 7 as a function of c/d and are summarized in Table 4.
 ~

TABLE 4
The coefficients of the new K-calibration polynomials and the resulting fracture toughness

Material cld Ao Al A2 A3 A4 Kc
(MPa jffi) :--
~
c
A 0·20--0·60 9·78 -38·46 187· 38 -364·17 262·50 92·6 ::l
t>
::
B 0·20--0·60 7·38 -5·08 73·13 -167·50 137·50 63·5
~
C 0·20--0-40 54·51 -217·90 -465·49 4259·32 -5983-46 58·5
C 0-45-0·60 -4·07 26·34 81·58 109·25 -321·15 76·9 f:..
D 0·20-·0-40 - 1 122-58 17433·07 -96478·70 231693-41 -202933·40 159·5
D 0-45-0·60 199·24 -507·22 -1372-31 5546·59 -4501·55 40·5
 Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite Sandwich Structures 643

1:2121

~ ~ r
1 121121
('J~ A
~..... ElI2I

Z
~u
:x:
5121 P
r F B
'-1121

:2121

121 . 1 121 .:2 121 .:3 121.'-1 121 .5: 121.5

cJd
FIG. 6. Plots of critical stress intensity factors as a function of notch to depth ratio for
specimens with an edge (translaminar) notch.

In the case of an edge (translaminar) notch (Fig. 6) Kc is constant over the

entire c/d range examined, regardless of the fibre orientation, longitudinal
or transverse. The longitudinal Kc (material A) is higher than the transverse
(material B). In general, the edge notch results (materials A and B) are two-
to-threetold higher than values available in the literature for glass fibre-
epoxy resin angle-ply laminates (compare, for example, with reference 7).
This conforms with the fact that the new Y(c/d) values at c/d = 0·2 are
about three times higher than the corresponding Srawley-Brown values.
In the case of a surface (interlaminar) notch (Fig. 7) Kc exhibits a

N
15121
r rf r ~ 0

..... 1:2 121

ME
.....
z
~
::£ E312l

P' PI . I"
r po
r c
'-1 121 l- F' I" to

12l . 1 12l .:2 12l .:3 I2I.Y t2l . S: 12l . 5

c/d
FIG. 7. Plots of critical stress intensity factors as a function of notch to depth ratio for
specimens with a surface (interlaminar) notch.
644 I. Roman et al.

discontinuity at c/d = 0·4 for both longitudinal and transverse con-

figurations. This feature is anticipated in view of the UF results discussed
above. In the longitudinal configuration Kc in the c/d range of 0'20-0'40 is
lower than that in the range of 0-45-0'60, and vice versa in the transverse
configuration.
The results for the skin laminate indicate that, in addition to the effect of
the reinforcement geometry, the relative position of the notch tip has a
significant effect on K. The term 'position' refers to the notch configuration
(inter or translaminar) and to its relative depth. These factors select the
composite layer encountered by the crack front and, in turn, determine the
fracture mechanisms which take place in the damage zone ahead of the
notch tip.

5. FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF THE SANDWICH

STRUCTURE

Fracture Itestingi by three-point bending of very long sandwich structure

specimens containing surface notches in the skin was next carried out. Test
results indicated that fracture was confined to the skin and that the fracture
mechanisms resembled those observed in skin specimens tested in tension.
The prominent mechanism identified was delamination in the skin at the
vicinity of the notch tip followed ultimately by splitting at the adhesive layer
between the skin and the honeycomb core. Consequently, it was proposed
that the fracture stress of the sandwich structure containing a surface notch
could be calculated from the KIc value determined for the skin. The relevant
Y value for this calculation was obtained from the new Y polynomials
derived for the skin and from the corresponding ratio of notch depth to skin
thickness.
To check the validity of this approach the calculated fracture stresses
were compared with the experimental values. A detailed example of such a
comparison is presented next.

Example
The fracture stress of the sandwich structure that contains a surface
notch in one of its skins can be determined utilizing eqn. (I). Following the
previous discussion, the appropriate K1c and Yvalues are those obtained for
the skin. For a longitudinal specimen with an interlaminar notch in the
range 0·5 ::s; c/d::s; 0·6 (where d is the thickness of the skin only) K1c =
76·9 MPafo, Y = 23·\. Thus, for notch depths of 0·5 and 0·6 mm, the
 Stress Intensity Factor Measurements in Composite Sandwich Structures 645

fracture stresses, calculated from eqn. (1), are 111·7 and 10 1·9 M Pa,
respectively.
An experimental determination of the fracture stresses was carried out in
three-point bending with 20 x 35 x 300 mm beams and a loading span of
260mm. The fracture stresses were calculated from eqn. (5):

Md (san d.
wlch)
(J = - (5)
2I
where M is the bending moment and I is the moment of inertia of the
sandwich structure, determined as in reference 8.
The experimental results of the fracture stresses were 125 and 101 MPa
for sandwich beams containing 0·5 and 0·6 mm deep skin notches,
respectively. These experimental results correlate well with the calculated
values and confirm the validity of the approach.

REFERENCES

1. COOPER, G. A. and PIGGOTT, M. R. Cracking and fracture in composites. In:

Advances in research on the strength offracture of materials, Vol. 1. Taplin, D.
M. R. (ed.), Pergamon Press, USA, p. 557.
2. HAREL, H., MAROM, G., FISCHER, S. and ROMAN, I. Effect of reinforcement
geometry on stress intensity factor calibrations in composites, Composites, 11
(1980) 69.
3. BEAUMONT, P. W. R. and PHILLIPS, D. C. The fracture energy of a glass fibre
composite, J. Mater. Sci., 7 (1972) 682.
4. MANDELL, J. F., WANG, S. S. and MCGARRY, E. J. The extension of crack tip
damage zones in fibre-reinforced plastic laminates, J. Camp. Mater., 9 (1975)
266.
5. GAGGAR, S. and BROUTMAN, L. J. The development ofa damage zone at the tip of
a crack in a glass fibre reinforced polyester resin, Int. J. Fracture, 10 (1974) 606.
6. MAROM, G. and JOHNSEN, A. C. On the applicability of LEFM to longitudinal
fracture of unidirectional composites, Mater. Sci. Engng, 39 (1979) 11.
7. MANDELL, J. F., MCGARRY, E. J., WANG, S. S. and 1M, J. Stress intensity factor
for anisotropic fracture test specimens oflseveral geometries,IJ. Camp. Mater., 8
(1974) 106.
8. FAUPEL, J. H. Engineering Design, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964,
p.295.
 44
Progressive-Failure Model for Advanced
Composite Laminates Containing a Circular Hole

D. Y. KONISHI
Rockwell International, North American Aircraft Division,
PO Box 92098, Los Angeles, California 90045, USA
K.H.Lo
Shell Development Company, Westhollow Research Center,
PO Box 1380, Houston, Texas 77001, USA
AND

E.M. Wu
Lawrence Livermore Laboratories, Box 808-L421 ,
University of California, Livermore, California 94550, USA

ABSTRACT

A progressive-failure advanced composite laminate strength model is

presented. It is dependent on laminae properties and thus is independent of
lamination geometry and loading. The model is based on the stress-strain
distribution in the laminate in the neighborhood of a flaw. Failure for a
lamina is hypothesised to occur when the stress state at a characteristic-
limiting dimension, re, away from the flaw intersects thefailure envelope. re is
a material characteristic dependent only on lamina properties. The
progressive-failure trajectory is determined by consideration of the changes
in the stress-strain state as lamina failures occur. Laminate failure is
assumed to occur when the principal load-bearing lamina fiber fails.
Examples are presentedfor laminates with and without a hole. Comparisons
with test results for various types of graphite/epoxy (Gr/ Ep) coupons was
excellent. Thus, the model appears to be capable of analysing both standard
and non-standard laminates.
646
 Failure Model for Advanced Composite Laminates Containing a Circular Hole 647

INTRODUCTION

An analytic model is required to evaluate the damage tolerance and

durability of advanced composites so that the engineer can take them into
account during the preliminary design phase. Various studies have been
conducted in order to accomplish this but at the present time the only real
validation is to test the actual component in a real time spectrum
environment.
In order to develop a generalised analytic model, the failure process must
be tractable. This paper presents a method to obtain the failure process for
both standard and non-standard laminates containing a hole or crack
under static loading. Data are also presented for the residual strength after
undergoing two lifetimes of an accelerated test spectrum representing the
expected aircraft spectrum.
Once the failure process is known, the effects of stacking sequence and
stress complexity can be hypothesised and tests can be conducted and
assessed. In addition, the effects of flaws can be analysed for criticality,
NDE techniques can be expanded, accelerated test spectrum rationales can
be developed, and durability verification can be conducted in a more cost-
effective manner.
The basis for the analytic model was first presented in Reference 1, and
the model was utilised in Reference 2. The complete basis for the model as it
now stands is given in References 3 and 4, where holes and cracks in
standard fiber-dominated laminates are considered. In this paper, examples
are presented for non-standard matrix-dominated unbalanced laminates
which arose from aeroelastic tailoring of the wing and canard torque box
covers of a forward swept wing aircraft. Compared to previous cases (for
fiber-dominated laminates the proposed method and previously developed
methods such as presented in the Advanced Composite Design GuideS
predicted similar results) the proposed method is a much better way of
predicting the results for the non-standard laminates. This is due to the
physical basis for the model as opposed to the empiricism in previous
models. This empiricism was very good when the laminate geometry was
conventionally fiber-dominated but proved deficient when extrapolated to
an unconventional laminate geometry.

PROGRESSIVE-FAILURE MODEL

The progressive-failure model for laminates containing stress con-

centrations is as follows:
648 D. Y. Konishi el al.

(1) The stress state is obtained in the conventional manner. For this
paper, it is obtained by treating the laminate as a homogeneous
anisotropic material and assuming that lamination theory holds.
(2) The stress state at the characteristic-limiting dimension, Tc , from
the stress concentration is examined for a failure criterion. The
Hill-Tsai failure criteria on a lamina-by-lamina basis, assuming
that lamination theory (plane stress) holds, was used for this paper.
(3) Once a lamina fails in a particular mode, its pertinent material
property is modified. For this paper, if the matrix fails, ET and GLT
are assumed to evanesce; if the fiber fails, EL is assumed to evanesce.
For the 'unfiawed' laminates, an intermediate step is taken. When the
matrix affecting stresses, (JT. and 'k' reach the prescribed stress level, the
elastic moduli are replaced by their corresponding secant moduli at failure.
When the failure stress is again attained, the properties are then assumed to
evanesce.
(4) Each time the lamina properties are modified, stress redistributions
are allowed to occur. For this paper, the initially obtained stress
resultants are assumed to remain constant, thus limiting the stress
redistribution to the through-the-thickness direction. This should
be valid for monotonically increasing 'static' loading where the
dynamic relationships do not allow complete in-plane re-
distribution. In general, all redistributions should be allowed to
occur, but tractability in the example precluded this.
(5) Failure occurs when all subsequent loading configurations are less
than the failure configuration. For this paper, the principal load-
bearing lamina criterion, wherein the fiber failure of the laminae
whose orientations are such that they are under the highest axial
stress, fiber direction, in a continuous region due to the far-field
stress field, terminates the calculations.

STRESS STATE
Savin 6 presented the solution for the stress field in the neighborhood of a
hole or a crack in a homogeneous anistropic material (Fig. 1).
The solutions for the stress resultant components are
Nl = Nf + 2Re [Sfc/>'(Zl) + SN'(Z2)]
N2 = N; + 2Re [¢'(Zl) + ,!/(Z2)]
N6 = N'6 - 2Re [Sl¢'(Zl) + S2t/!'(Z2)]
 Failure Model for Advanced Composite Laminates Containing a Circular Hole 649

T
FIG. 1. Laminate coordinate system.

For a crack

{S2Nf + N;'(l- SIS2) - SIN'f

- i[S2Nl" + SIS2Nf
+ N;'(SI +S2)]}
¢(ZI)=a 2 ----~~~~=---~~~==~~---------­
{2(SI - S2)[ZI + JZ; - a 2 (l + Sf)]}

{SINf + N;'(l - SIS2) - S2N~

- i[N'f + SIS2Nf + N;'(SI + S2)]}
t/!(Z2) = _a 2 ------~~___:~~--r=;=:::::::;==~~----­
{2(SI - S2)[Z2 + JZ; - a2(1 + sf)]}

for a hole
650 D. Y. Konishi et al.

where Z\,Z2=X+S\Y, X+S 2Y, SI,S2=roots of the characteristic

equation

and

CHARACTERISTIC-LIMITING DIMENSION

A characteristic-limiting dimension, r c' has been discussed previously. 7 It is

hypothesised to be a property of a lamina and thus is independent of
lamination geometry. A value of 0·07 in is used for the GriEp system of the
present study. It is, however, a function of the fiber volume fraction and
would change if there were a substantial change from the 60 %value for this
study.
For a hole, rc is taken radially to the center and measured from the edge
of the hole. For a crack, it is measured from the crack tip. Studies previously
conducted 3.4 also use this value of 0·07 in and show good correlation with
test data both for specimens with a hole and specimens with a crack.

PRINCIPAL LOAD-BEARING LAMINA

In principle, laminate failure occurs whenever all subsequent load-bearing

capacities are smaller than the failure capacity. In actual practice, this
would involve the calculation of all subsequent laminate configurations. In
order to reduce the number of calculations, the following hypothesis is
made:

Failure occurs when or before the principal load-bearing lamina fails

in a fiber failure mode in a continuous region of the lamina.

The principal load-bearing lamina is that lamina that attains the highest
axial stress due to the far-field stress tensor. The continuous regions of the
lamina are those regions that are not interrupted by fiber termination due to
the 'flaw', i.e. the hole or the crack.
 Failure Model for Advanced Composite Laminates Containing a Circular Hole 651

NUMERICAL SIMULATION

Previous examples include specimens containing a hole utilising different

standard laminate configurations, under both unidirectional and biaxial
loading. These examples show that the model predicts not only the final
strength but also the failure trajectory. Unidirectionally loaded crack
specimens of various laminate configurations, where the crack is both
orthogonal and canted up to 30 °to the loading direction, are also reported.
All of the aforementioned specimens were for symmetric balanced
laminates where the primary load-carrying members were the fibers. This
paper presents examples of specimens which are off-axis, unbalanced, and,

TABLE I
Laminate geometry

Laminate Stacking sequence

I (-45/10 5 /90/45/ 104 / - 45)c

2 ( +45/ 10 2/45 2/102>S

in some cases, unsymmetric. In these cases which arise from aeroelastic

tailuring of torque boxes, matrix-dominated laminates result and
previously developed methods predict much too Iowa failing strength. Two
laminate configurations of the material AS/3501-5A GriEp were tested
(Table 1). Both laminates are off-axis and unbalanced, but laminate I is
unsymmetric while laminate 2 is symmetric. Room-temperature 'dry' and
elevated-temperature, 220°F, wet, 1 % moisture content tests were
conducted. The material properties for a lamina are shown in Table 2.

FIG. 2. Coupon geometry.

652 D_ Y_ Konishi et aI_

TABLE 2
Material properties, ASj3501-5A

Temperature Moisture EL ET Gu GLT

sec
l'u F'u
L
F'u
T
F'Y
L
F'Y
T
F'U
LT
(OF) content (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (in/in) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi)
(%)

70 0 18750 1500 600 350 0-3 225-0 6-75 225-0 31-3 10-0
220 I 18200 800 400 230 0-3 224-0 3-38 154-0 24-0 7-0

TABLE 3
Test results-Unfiawed coupons

Laminate Temperature
( OF)
Moisture
content
FlU
y
(ksi)
J;u
(ksi)
F'u
x
(ksi)
f:
(ksi)
u

(%)

I 70 '0-0' 81-5 76-8 24-0 24-2

I 220 1-0 73-7 71-7 23-3 31-4
2 70 '0-0' 86-3 67-2 17-6 23-3
2 220 1-0 85-0 54-3 16-0 20-7

TABLE 4
Tests results-Coupons with hole

Laminate Temperature Moisture F'u

y J;u F'u
x
f;u
( OF) content (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi)
(%)

70 '0-0' 98-1 84-8 18-5 20-9

220 1-0 III-I 79-3 21-5 21-2
la 220 1-0 65-3
2 70 '0-0' 52-9 77-3 21-6 21-2
2 220 1-0 68-9 69-5 25-1 20-1
2a 220 1-0 77-3 19-6

a Residual strength after two lifetimes fatigue test spectrum_

Figure 2 shows the geometry for the 'unflawed' tension coupons and the
coupons with a hole_ They are identical except for the presence of a O·25-in
hole_
Table 3 shows the test results and predictions for an unflawed laminate
while Table 4 gives the test results for a laminate containing a O·25-in hole.
 Failure Model for Advanced Composite Laminates Containing a Circular Hole 653

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Two computer programs were utilised to obtain the results. Both programs
are modifications of computer programs available through the Advanced
Composites Design Guide 5 and should be available in a subsequent edition.
The unflawed coupons were analysed using computer program AC3P,
which incorporates a progressive-failure criterion into the presently
available AC3. The progressive-failure criterion is that the shear modulus
progresses from GLT to GLT at failure to O. This program accounts for the
asymmetry of the coupon by including the 'B' terms. The shearing load
boundary condition for the off-axis effect was accounted for by utilising
Pagano's technique. 8 Both laminates had shearing loads in the order of
- 0·1 Nf due to the high percentage of 10 plies.0

The coupons with a hole were analysed using computer program AC41 E.
This program modifies computer program AC41, which is in the Advanced
Composites Design Guide,5 by not terminating the process when the
principal load-bearing lamina is not continuous. This program differs from
AC3P in that once a lamina fails, its affected properties are automatically
set to zero rather than going through an inelastic phase. This program does
not account for an unsymmetric laminate, but the shearing load due to the
off-axis loading is included.
In order to visualise the results of the progressive failure for an unflawed
laminate, laminate I under tensile loading is tracked for the room-
temperature dry condition. Between 36· 3 and 37·6 ksi, the 90 and 45 0 0

layers progressively craze and then fail in the matrix mode, causing a
reduction in the extensional modulus Ey from 11-4 to 11·2 Msi. At 59 ksi,
the upper 10 0 plies become inelastic. Immediately the 10 0 plies down to the
90 0 ply and the upper - 45 0 ply also become inelastic. Ey at this point is
reduced to 10·9 Msi. At 61·6 ksi, the 10 0 ply below the 45 0 ply becomes
inelastic, followed by the matrix failure of the upper - 45 ply. This is
0

followed at 65·2 ksi by matrix failure of the upper 10 ply. Ey at this point is
0

10· 7 Msi, or 96 %of its original value. All subsequent configurations fail at
a lower stress level, representing the design strength for the laminate. The
expected strength for this configuration is 125 % of 65·2 or the 81·5 ksi
shown in Table 3. Note that due to the asymmetry, the 10 plies failed 0

independently rather than as a group.

Table 5 shows the progressive failure for a room-temperature dry
laminate I specimen, containing a hole, under tensile loading along the y-
axis. The initial failures for loads up to 26 ksi occur in the region ee between
87 0 and 105 0 • Both matrix and fiber failures occur in all plies except the
654 D_ Y. Konishi et a/_

TABLE 5
Progressive failure of coupon with hole specimen

Load 10° 45° -45° 90°

(ksi) fiber matrix fiber matrix fiber matrix fiber matrix

0-l3-6 93-105 93-105 93-105 93-105 93-105 93-105 93-105

13-6-26-0 87-93 87-93 0-15 87-93 87-93 0-3
33-57 27-51
81-93 165-180
165-180
26-0-30-7 81-87 81-87 15-33 81-87 81-87 3-27
57-69 51-63
147-165 141-165
30-7-44-0 0-63 69-81 39-51 63-75
159-180 135-147 135-141
44-0-50-0 63-69 0-9 0-9 0-39 0-9 75-81
153-159 39-63 39-57 51-63 57-63
165-180 81-93 153-180 177-180
165-180
50-60 147-153 9-39 129-135 9-39 63-75 9-27 123-129
69-75 63-75 159-165 141-153 63-75
153-165 159-171 171-177
60-78-3 75-81 75-81 123-129 57-63 75-81 27-39 117-123
135-147 135-153 23-141 75-81
135-153
165-171
78-47 27-33

designated principal load-bearing laminae which are the 10 0 plies_

Subsequent to this, up to a loading of 50 ksi, matrix and fiber failures occur
at ee between 0 0 and 90 0 , and 165 0 and 180 0 , with some failures between the
two regions. It should be noted that due to anti symmetry the results for ee
from - 15 to 0 are the same as those for 165 to 180 The 10 plies incur
0 0 0 0
•
0

matrix failures in all of these regions. There is then extensive matrix damage
and some fiber failures up to a load of nearly 78 ksi. The initial fiber failure
for the principal load-bearing lamina (10 0) is predicted to occur at 78-47 ksi
e
in a region of e between 27 0 and 33 0 • These results are obtained by using
the 'design' strengths. In evaluating the data, the expected failure strength
should be used. This is 125 %of the design strength, or98·1 ksi. The average
test data for these specimens were 84·8 ksi. This is excellent correlation,
considering the deficiencies in the numerical simulation methodology;
namely, the computer program does not consider asymmetric laminates
and only a two-step progressive-failure process is used. In addition, the F12
term for AC4l was assumed to be zero, whereas it was' -1' for AC3P. This
anomaly resulted from the difference in structure between the two computer
 Failure Model for Advanced Composite Laminates Containing a Circular Hole 655

programs. One interesting result is that the net failure stress for specimens
with a hole was not only predicted to be larger than for the unflawed
specimens, but test results for the longitudinally loaded specimens were also
larger. The test specimens showed extensive crazing and fiber failures. The
failure location was very close to the predicted ee
= 30 in all cases.

CONCLUSION

A method has been presented to predict the failure strength of laminates

containing a hole. Although the empirical factors utilised by the method
were obtained by evaluating standard fiber-dominated laminates, the
methodology shows very good correlation with test data for non-standard
matrix-dominated laminates which, in some cases, were even asymmetric.
The method not only predicts the strength, but also the extensive matrix
failures and fiber failures that occur before the ultimate failure, as well as
the location of the failures.

REFERENCES

1. KONISHI, D. Y. and Lo, K. H., Flaw criticality of graphite/epoxy structures,

ASTM STP 696, Proceedings of the Symposium on Nondestructive Evaluation
and Flaw Criticality for Composite Materials, Philadelphia, PA, October 1978.
2. KONISHI, D. Y., Effects of defects on tension coupons undergoing an accelerated
environmental spectrum. In: Fibrous composites in structural design, Lenoe,
E. M., et al. (eds), New York and London, Plenum Press, 1980, pp. 847~60.
3. ALTMAN, J. M. et al., 'Advanced composites serviceability program', AFWAL-
TR-80-4092, 1981.
4. Lo, K. H. et al., Failure strength of notched composite laminates, Journal of
Composite Materials, in press.
5. ARVIN, G. H. et al., DOD/NASA Advanced composites design guide, in press.
6. SAVIN, G. H., Stress concentration around holes, New York, Pergamon Press,
1961.
7. Wu, E. M., Phenomenological anisotropic failure criterion, Journal of
Composite Materials, 9 (1975).
8. PAGANO, N. J. and HALPIN, J. c., Influence of end constraints in the testing of
anisotropic bodies, Journal of Composite Materials, 2 (1968).
 45
Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated
Plates to Random Loads
CHUH MEl

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics,

Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23508, USA
AND
KENNETH R. WENTZ
A FWAL/ FIBED Flight Dynamics Laboratory,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OB 45433, USA

ABSTRACT

Large amplitude response ofantisymmetric angle-ply laminated rectangular

panels subjected to broadband random acoustic excitation is studied
analytically. The boundary conditions considered are all the edges simply
supported and all the edges clamped. Inplane edge conditions considered are
immovable and movable for each of the above cases. Mean-square
deflections, mean-square strains/stresses, and equivalent linear frequencies
at various acoustic loadings are obtainedfor laminates ofdifferent length-to-
width ratios, lamination angles, number of layers, and panel damping ratios.
Results obtained can be used as a guide for sonic fatigue design of angle-ply
laminated composite panels under high noise environment.

INTRODUCTION

The need to improve sonic fatigue resistance of aircraft structures has

become increasingly important as a result of military and commercial
demands on current and future airplane designs. This has been
demonstrated by a significant number of theoretical studies, 1- 7 and
nJJmerous experimental investigations 8 - 13 on sonic fatigue design of
656
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 657

aircraft structures have been undertaken during the past several years to
help provide the needed reliability. The majority of analytical in-
vestigations to date have been formulated within the framework oflinear or
small deflection structural theory. Test results 6 •8 • 1 0 - 13 on various aircraft
panels, however, have shown that high noise levels in excess of 120 dB
produce nonlinear behavior with large deflections in such panels. The linear
analyses often predict the root-mean-square (RMS) deflection and RMS
stresses well above those of the experiment, and the frequencies of vibration
well below those of the experiment. 6 ,8,12,13 It is well known that the
prediction offatigue life is based on RMS stress and predominant response
frequency in conjunction with the stress versus cycles to failure (S-N) data.
The use oflinear analyses, therefore, would lead to poor estimation of panel
service life.
High modulus-type fiber reinforced composite materials are under
development for use on aircraft. Many of these composite structural
components are exposed to high intensity noise fields and are subjected to
acoustic fatigue. However, few investigations on large amplitude random
response of composite plates are reported in the literature. In the present
paper, the large deflection responses of regular anti symmetric angle-ply
laminated rectangular plates subjected to broadband random acoustic
excitation are studied analytically. Nonlinear equations of motion of angle-
ply laminates 1 derived in terms of stress function F and lateral displacement
Ware used in this work. Due to the complex nature of the problem, only a
single-mode analysis is carried out in the study. A deflection function
satisfying the out-of-plane boundary condition is assumed. Corresponding
to the assumed mode, a stress function satisfying the different inplane edge
conditions is obtained by solving the compatibility equation. Galerkin's
method is then applied to the governing equation in deflection to yield a
nonlinear time differential equation. Assuming that the excitation is
Gaussian, the equivalent linearization method 14-16 is employed so that
this nonlinear equation is linearized to an equivalent linear differential
equation. An iterative procedure 1,2 is introduced to obtain RMS amplitude
and equivalent linear (or nonlinear) frequency for rectangular laminates of
different length-to-width ratios, lamination angles, number oflayers, panel
damping ratios, and excitation pressure spectral density (PSD). RMS
strains/stresses are also obtained as functions of RMS amplitude and
locations at which they are to be measured. The boundary conditions are all
the edges simply supported (SSSS) and all the edges clamped (CCCC). Two
inplane edge conditions considered are immovable and movable for each of
the above cases.
658 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz

1--- - - a - - - --1

FIG. I. Angle-ply laminated plate.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The plate geometry and coordinate system are shown in Fig. 1. For a
regular antisymmetric angle-ply laminated composite plate undergoing
large deflections, the governing equations, neglecting the effects of
transverse shear and rotatory inertia, are'

phW +L,W -jL3F - ¢(F, W) -p =0 (1)

L 2F + L3 W + 1-¢( W, W) = 0 (2)

in which

L, =D!,( ),xxxx+ 2 (D!z +2D~6)( ),xxyy+D!z( ),yyyy

L z = A !2( ),xxxx + (2A! 2 + A~6)( )'Xxyy + A!, ( )'yyyy
- L3 = (2B!6 - B~,)( )'XXXy + (2B!6 - B~z)( )'Xyyy
¢(F, W) = F,yyW,xX + F,xxW,yy - 2F, xy W,xy (3)

where a comma denotes the partial differentiation with respect to the

corresponding coordinate and A *, B* and D* are the laminate
stiffnesses. 17,18 In eqns (I) and (2), p is the average mass density of the plate,
h is the uniform plate thickness, p is the applied lateral load per unit area,
and x and yare the rectangular Cartesian coordinates.
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 659

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

SSSS Angle-Ply Laminates with Movable Edges

The simply supported conditions are
X= ±a/2: W=O Dil W,xx +Di2 W,yy + Bi6Nxy = 0
Y= ±b/2: W=O Di2 W,xx + D~2 W,yy + B62Nxy = 0 (4)

For the inplane condition of zero shear stress N xy at the edges, the deflection
function satisfying the above conditions is assumed as
nx ny
W = q(t)h cos --; cos b (5)

Substituting eqn. (5) for Win eqn. (2) and solving it, the stress function is
obtained as
(6)

. nx . ny qZhZr2 ( 2nx 2ny )

F = -qhF Slll-Slll- - - - F cos-+F cos- (7)
p 00 a b 32 10 a 01 b

where r = a/b, and the constants Fij are defined in the Appendix. It can be
easily shown that Fe is zero for movable inplane edges. By substituting these
expressions for Wand F in eqn. (1) and applying Galerkin's method, a
model equation is obtained as
.. p(t)
q + w o2 q + f3 Pq3 =-
m (8)

and

2hz
f3 P = f3*P Epb4
4
(9)
}'6 = E2~3r4 {D{I + 2(Diz + 2D66)r2 + D~zr4
+ Foo[(2B~6 - B 61 )r + (2Bi6 - B6z)r 3])

(10)

where Wo is linear radian frequency, {Jp is nonlinearity coefficient, and m is

mass coefficient. The linear frequency .leo and nonlinearity coefficient {J; are
nondimensional parameters.
660 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz
SSSS Angle-Ply Laminates with Immovable Edges
For the immovable edges, the inplane boundary conditions of zero shear
stress and zero normal displacement are

x = ±a/2: F,xy = 0 f f(e~ --!W,Ddxdy = 0

f f (e~ - -!W,;)dxdy = 0 (11)

where e~ and e~ are the strains in the middle surface of the plate. The
complementary solution is assumed as
_ x2 _ y2
F=N-+N-
c y 2 x 2
(12)

Using eqns (5), (6), (7), (12) and (13) in eqn. (I) and applying Galerkin's
method yields the modal equation as

q + woq
.. 2
+ (f3 p + f3)c q 3 =p( t)
m
- (14)

where

f3 * -
..,.4 (A*22 - 2A*12 r2 + A*11 r4)
-"-- (15)
c -8£2 hr4 A*11 A*22 _A*2
12

The term f3c is an addition to the nonlinearity coefficient due to immovable

in plane edges; the nonlinearity coefficient f3: is a nondimensional
parameter.

ecce Angle-Ply Laminates with Movable Edges

The deflection function which satisfies the clamped condition is assumed
as

(16)
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 661

Introducing eqn. (16) in eqn. (2), the stress function is obtained as follows
(17)

Fp = I--F
qh
4 00
2nx . 2ny
sin--slll--~~-
a b
q 2h 2r2 (
32 F 10 cos-+F
a
2nx
01 cos-
b
2ny

2nx 2ny 4nx 4ny

+ F 11 cos--;;-cosT + F 20COS--;;- + F02 cOST

4nx 2ny 2nx 4ny )

+ F21 cos--;;-cosT + F 12 cos--;;-cosT (18)

where the constants Fij are defined in the Appendix. Now applying
Galerkin's procedure to eqn. (1), we obtain

.. 2 [3 3 p(t)
q+OJoq+ P
q =m- (19)

where

[3* E2h2 9ph 2

16
[3 =
P P pb4
m=-- (20)

A.~ = 9E16;:r 4 {3D1\ + 2(D!2 + 2D~6)r2 + 3Di2r4

2

+ Foo[(2Bi6 - B~l)r + (2B!6 - B~2)r3])

4
[3; = 9; h [FlO + F01 + F11 + F 20 + F02 +¥F 21 + F 12)] (21)
2

ecce Angle-Ply Laminates with Immovable Edges

The complementary stress function is assumed as the form appearing in
eqn. (12). Upon enforcing the inplane edge conditions eqn. (11), the
constants Nx and Ny are obtained as

- 3q 2h2n 2 (Ai2 A!2)

12 --;;Z-Y
N X =32(A*11 A*22 _A*2)

(22)
662 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz

Using eqns (12), (16), (18), and (22) and applying Galerkin's method yield
the model equation
({3 p(t)
q + woq +
.. 2
p + {3)c q3 = m
- (23)

{3 = {3* E2h2 (24)

C C pb 4
Equations (8), (14), (19) and (23) represent the modal equations of
undamped rectangular angle-ply laminates undergoing large deflections
with simply supported and clamped edges, respectively.

Damping Factor
It is known that damping has a significant effect on the response of
structures. The two methods commonly used for determining the damping
characteristics of structures are the bandwidth method and the decay rate
method. In the bandwidth method, the half-power bandwidth (=20 is
measured at modal resonance. In the decay rate method, the logarithmic
decrement (=2nO of decaying modal response traces is measured. The
values of damping ratio, (=c/cc) generally range from 0·005 to 0·05 for the
common type of composite panel construction used in aircraft struc-
tures.5.13.19 Once the damping ratio is determined from experiments or
from existing data of similar construction, the modal equations, eqns (8),
(14), (19), and (23), can be expressed in a general form as

q.. + 2'. . woq. + woq

2
+ {3q3 =p(t)
- (25)
m
The method of equivalent linearization will be used to obtain an
approximate RMS amplitude from eqn. (25).

Method of Equivalent Linearization

The basic idea of the equivalent linearization method 14 - 16 is to assume
that an approximate solution to eqn. (25) can be obtained from the
linearized equation
.. 2' . n2 p(t)
q+ ... woq+u q = - (26)
m

where n is an equivalent linear (or nonlinear) frequency. The error of

linearization is
(27)
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 663

The method of attack is to minimize the mean-square error E[err]2, that is

a0a2 E[err 2 ] = 0 (28)

If the acoustic pressure excitation pet) is stationary Gaussian, is ergodic,

and has a zero mean, then the approximate amplitude q, computed from
the linearized equation, eqn. (26), is also Gaussian and approaches
stationarity because the panel motion is stable. Substituting eqn. (27) into
eqn. (28) yields the relation
0 2 = w6 + 3[3E[q2] or A2 = A6 + 3[3* E[q2] (29)
where A2 = 0 2 /(E 2 h 2 / pb 4 ) is a nondimensional nonlinear frequency
parameter. The linear frequencies Ao and nonlinearity coefficients [3* are
given in eqns (10), (15), (21), and (24) for different support conditions.
The mean-square modal amplitude from eqn. (26), for lightly damped
«( : ;
0·05) structures, is

E[q2] = roo S(w)IH(wW dw ~ 4 n~(Q) 2 (30)

Jo m woO
where S( w) is the PSD function of the excitation p(t), H( w) is the frequency
response function given by

(31)

Note that the frequency response curves will be highly peaked at the
nonlinear frequency 0 (not at Wo as in the small deflection linear theory). In
practice, the PSD function is generally given in terms of the frequency f in
Hz. To convert the above result one can substitute 0 = 2nf and
S(O) = S(f)/2n into eqn. (30); then the mean-square peak deflection
becomes
for SSSS

for ecce (32)

where S is a nondimensional forcing excitation spectral density parameter

defined as
(33)
664 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz

Solution Procedure and Stress Response

The mean-square amplitude E[q2] in eqn. (30) is evaluated at the
nonlinear frequency !1, which is in turn related to E[q2] through eqn. (29).
To determine the mean-square deflection, an iterative procedure is
introduced.1.2 One can estimate the initial mean-square amplitude E[q~]
using linear frequency Wo through eqn. (30): E[q~] = 1tS(Wo)/4m2(w~. This
initial estimate of E[ q~] is simply the mean-square deflection based on linear
theory. It can now be used to obtain a refined estimate of!11 through eqn.
(29): !1i = w~ + 3PE[q~]; then E[qil is computed through eqn. (30) as
E[qi] = nS(!1 I )/4m 2(w o!1i. As the iterative process converges on the jth
cycle, the relations
2 nS(!1 j ) 2
E[qj] = 4m 2(w o!1J ~ E[qj_ tl (34)

become satisfied. In the numerical results presented in the following section,

convergence is considered achieved whenever the difference of the RMS
deflections satisfy the relation

I
I
JE[qJl-JE[qJ-I] < 10-3 (35)
JE[qJl -
Once the RMS displacement is determined, the mean-square strain (or
stress) on the surface of the plate (z = h/2) can be obtained from the general
expressions I
E[t: 2] = CiE[q2] + 3q(E[q2])2
E[(j2] = DiE[q2] + 3D~(E[q2])2 (36)
where C l , C 2, D l , and D2 are constants, and they can be determined from
material properties, dimensions, number of layers of the plate, lamination
angle, and the location at which the stress/strain is to be measured.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Because of the complications in analysis of the many coupled modes, only a

single-mode approximation is used. The assumption for fundamental mode
predominacy is admittedly overly simplified; the conditions under which
this is a valid approximation remain to be investigated. This single-mode
approximation was first presented by Miles,20 and it is commonly used for
all sonic fatigue analyses. 3 A simple model sometimes helps to give the basic
understanding of the problem.
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 665
3.0

2 .5

....
.&:

"o EI
i 2 .0 "[2= 40

~ ~I~ • 0 .5

LAMINATION ANGLE, 8
FIG. 2. RMS deflection of simply supported, square, angle-ply plates (at (= 0·02 and
S= 5000).

In the results presented, the excitation PSD function S(f) is considered

constant or varying slowly with frequency in the vicinity of the nonlinear
frequency j, and a representative high modulus graphite/epoxy with
material properties in the principal material directions
EI = 30 X 10 6 psi (207 GPa)
G I2 =0·375 x 10 6 psi (2·6 GPa)
is used in all computations.

SSSS Angle-Ply Plates

Figure 2 shows the RMS maximum deflection (q = W max/h) as a function
of lamination angle and number of layers for a square antisymmetric angle-
ply laminated graphite/epoxy plate with a damping ratio of ( = 0·02 and at
an acoustic pressure loading with nondimensional spectral density
parameter of S = 5000. The infinite number of layers case corresponds to
the specially orthotropic solution in which the coupling between bending
and extension is ignored. For a two-layered plate and a ±45 ° lamination
666 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz

EJ
3S0 IS

Lb-J
.c

....'"
!oJ
300 10N.o
"'.e N
N
....
!oJ b

.
N
"'.c
i~
.<I
b O.S
<Il
....'"
!oJ

::0 ~12 • 0 .2 5 N.e

0:: 2S0 5 N
b
<Il
"I ::0
0:
""12

15 30 4S0
LAMINATION ANGLE, (J

FIG. 3. Maximum RMS stress for simply supported, two-layered, square, angle-ply plates
with immovable inplane edges (at' = 0·02 and S = 5000).

angle, neglect of coupling results in an underprediction of the deflection by

18 %and 32 %for immovable and movable inplane edges, respectively. The
effect of coupling between bending and extension is quite significant for
two-layered laminates, but rapidly decreases as the number of layers
increases. For a fixed laminate thickness h, the bending-extension coupling
stiffnesses 1 7.18

(37)

obviously decrease as n increases, so the source of the change in the

influence of coupling is evident. However, only where there are more than
six layers can coupling be ignored without significant error. The RMS
deflection of the immovable in plane edges case is much less than that of the
movable edges: that is, as the in plane edges are restrained, the plate
becomes stiffer.
The normalized RMS maximum stresses (at the center of the plate) in the
principal material directions versus lamination angle of two-layered square
laminates with immovable inplane edges at (= 0·02 and S = 5000 are
shown in Fig. 3.
The maximum mean-square deflections versus nondimensional spectral
density parameter of excitation for a square plate with a ±45 lamination 0

angle are shown in Fig. 4. Clearly, coupling is significant for two-layered

 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 667
12

10

I I , J

2 4 6 8 10
PSO OF EXCITATION, S • 103

FIG. 4. Mean-square deflection versus pressure spectral density parameter for simply
supported, square, angle-ply plates (at' = 0·02).

laminatt:s, but rapidly decreases as the number of layers increases. It can

also be seen from the figures that the mean-square deflections of the
movable inplane edges cases are approximately three to four times those of
the immovable edges. Results of mean-square deflection versus forcing
spectral density based on small deflection theory are also shown.

ecce Angle-Ply Plates

Figure 5 shows the RMS maximum deflection as a function oflamination
angle and number of layers for a square angle-ply plate with, = 0·02 and
subjected to a pressure excitation S = 5000. The presence of coupling
between bending and extension generally increases deflections: for
example, the RMS deflection of a clamped square plate with e = 45 and 0

two layers is about 50 %more than the specially orthotropic solution which
is valid when the number oflayers is infinite. Again, as the number oflayers
increases, the effect of coupling decreases. The RMS deflection of the
clamped plates is generally somewhat less than that of the simply supported
case.
RMS deflection results as a function of lamination angle and number of
layers for a rectangular angle-ply plate of aspect ratio r = 2 and a damping
ratio 0·02 with immovable inplane edges are shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 7 shows the mean-square deflection versus nondimensional PSD
 §lJ
1.6

1.4
~ b~

.
-'"
"-
0 1.2
E
J
VI
::E
II:

10

~~;::;::::::::::::'-ZT ROPIC SOL UTiON

(B16 • B 6 0)
•

o 15 30 45
LAMINATION ANGLE, 8
FIG. 5. RMS deflection of clamped, square, angle-ply plates (at ( = 0·02 and S = 5000).

2.4

r NUMBER OF
I LAYERS
2.0
.2 EI
- • 40
E2
I.B
.<:
"-
..
0
1.6
E 4
J
ORTHOTROPIC 00
1.4
'"::E
II:
SOLUTION
(B 16 = B26 • 0)
~

1. 2

1.0
m~
0 .8 2b-J
060
30 60 90
LA MINAT IO N ANG LE , 9
FIG. 6. RMS deflection of clamped, rectangular, angle-ply plates with immovable in plane
edges (at ( = 0·02 and S = 5000).
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 669

4 NUMBER OF
LAYERS ./
./
/'
b /'
n;.5- /'MOVABLE
3 /'

4 6 B 10
PSD OF EXCITATION, S. 103

FIG. 7. Mean-square deflection versus pressure spectral density parameter for clamped,
square, angle-ply plates «( = 0·02).

,.., 5
Q
" 4
N"

:3
-- -::::.=
00 _ _ - : : : : : - - _

===---4
- .:::::.::::-3..:::::' ----

-
.=;:- __
n:: 2
_---MOVABLE
--- --
--- ZNUMBER OF LAYERS

FIG. 8. Frequency parameter versus mean-square deflection for clamped, square, angle-ply
plates.
670 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz

DAMPING ~-0010
14 ,/;- ..................
/ --.l... = 40 -
/ E2
1.3 / G2
/ _1- _ 0.5

-----
/ E2
/ ~12 • 025
1.2
, / ./.MOVABLE ./ -..._
--/ /
--
..
~ 1.1
001~
/ / 0 010
. IMMOVABLE

"E /
~ h

'"
~
a:

LAMINATION ANGLE, e
FIG. 9. Effects of damping on RMS deflection for clamped, square, six-layered, angle-ply
plates (at S = 5000).

of excitation for a square plate with () = ± 35 o. The mean-square deflection

of the movable inplane edges case is approximately twice that of the
immovable edges case. The difference of mean-square deflections between
immovable and movable edges for clamped laminates is small compared to
that for simply supported laminates. Results based on linear structural
theory are also given.
Figure 8 shows the nonlinear frequency square versus mean-square
deflection for a square plate with () = ± 35 o. The frequencies corresponding
to zero mean-square deflection are resonance frequencies based on linear
structural theory.
Figure 9 shows the RMS deflection versus lamination angle for square
six-layered angle-ply plates of different damping ratios. It is clear from the
figure that the precise determination of plate damping is important.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

An analytical method is presented for determining large amplitude

response of antisymmetric angle-ply laminated rectangular plates subjected
 Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 671

to broadband random excitation. The formulation is based on the Karman-

type geometric nonlinearity, a single-mode Galerkin approach, the
equivalent linearization method, and an iterative procedure. Angle-ply
laminates of both simply supported and clamped support conditions with
either immovable or movable inplane edges are considered. Computer
programs! are developed to aid in the determination of RMS deflection,
RMS stress/strain, and equivalent linear frequency at given pressure
spectral density of excitation. This computed RMS stress/strain and
nonlinear frequency, in conjunction with failure S-N data,9 should be used
in the estimation of fatigue life. It is suggested that experiments on simple
composite plates are urgently needed for adequate quantitative com-
parison. The test measurements should include linear frequency, equivalent
linear or nonlinear frequency, damping ratio, RMS deflection, RMS
strains, and excitation pressure spectral density.
The presence of coupling between bending and extension in a laminate
generally increases RMS deflections and RMS stresses. Hence, coupling
decreases the effective stiffnesses of a laminate. The effect of coupling,
however, dies out rapidly as the number of layers increases. For more
general laminates, specific investigation is required.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was sponsored by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research,
Air Force Systems Command, under Grant No. AFOSR-80-0 lO7 with cost
sharing participation by the Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics
Department, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA.

REFERENCES

1. MEl, c., Large-Amplitude Response of Ang1e-Ply Laminated Composite Plates

to Random Acoustic Excitation, Interim Scientific Report, Old Dominion
University Research Foundation, Jan. 1981.
2. MEl, C., Response of Nonlinear Structural Panels Subjected to High Intensity
Noise, AFWAL-TR-80-3018, WPAFB, OH, March 1980.
3. RUDDER, F. F. JR. and PLUMBLEE, H. E. JR., Sonic Fatigue Design Guide for
Military Aircraft, AFFDL-TR-74-112, WPAFB, OH, May 1975.
4. VOLMIR, A. S., The Nonlinear Dynamics of Plates and Shells, Chapter X, AD-
781338, Foreign Technology Division, WPAFB, OH, April 1974.
672 Chuh Mei and Kenneth R. Wentz

5. THOMSON, A. G. R. and LAMBERT, R. F., Acoustic Fatigue Design Data,

AGARD-AG-162-Part I and II, NATO Advisory Group for Aero. Res. and
Dev., 1972.
6. JACOBS, L. D. and LAGERQUIST, D. R., Finite Element Analysis of Complex
Panel to Random Loads, AFFDL-TR-68-44, WPAFB, OH, October 1968.
7. Fox, H. L., SMITH, P. W. JR., PYLE, R. W. and NAYAK, P. R., Contributions to
the Theory of Randomly Forced, Nonlinear, Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom,
Coupled Mechanical Systems, AFFDL-TR-72-45, WPAFB, OH, 1973.
8. HOLEHOUSE, I., Sonic Fatigue Design Techniques for Advanced Composite
Aircraft Structures. AFWAL-TR-80-3019, WPAFB, OH, April 1980.
9. WENTZ, K. R. and WOLFE, H. F., Development of random fatigue data for
adhesively bonded and weld bonded structures subjected to dynamic excitation,
ASME Trans., J. Engng Mat. Tech., 100, 1978, 70-6.
10. JACOBSON, M. J., Sonic Fatigue Design Data for Bonded Aluminum Aircraft
Structures, AFFDL-TR-77-45, WPAFB, OH, June 1977.
II. VAN DER HEYDE, R. C. W. and WOLF, N. D., Comparison of the Sonic Fatigue
Characteristics of Four Structural Designs, AFFD L-TR -76-66, WPAFB, 0 H,
September 1976.
12. VAN DER HEYDE, R. C. W. and SMITH, D. L., Sonic Fatigue Resistance of Skin-
Stringer Panels, AFFDL-TM-73-149-FYA, WPAFB, OH, April 1974.
13. JACOBSON, M. J., Advanced Composite Joints: Design and Acoustic Fatigue
Characteristics, AFFDL-TR-71-126, WPAFB, OH, April 1972.
14. CAUGHEY, T. K., Equivalent linearization techniques, JASA, 35, 1963,
1706-11.
15. CAUGHEY, T. K., Nonlinear theory of random vibrations. In: Advances in
Applied Mechanics, Yih, C. S. (ed.), Academic Press, 1971, pp. 209-53.
16. SPANOS, P. T. D. and IWAN, W. D., On the existence and uniqueness of
solutions generated by equivalent linearization, Int. J. Non-Linear Mechanics,
13, 1978, 71-8.
17. JONES, R. M., Mechanics of Composite Materials, McGraw-Hill, 1975.
18. TSAI, S. W. and HAHN, H. T., Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic
Publishing, 1980.
19. RUPERT, C. L. and WOLF, N. D., Sonic Fatigue and Response Tests of Boron
Composite Panels, AFFDL-FYA-73-1O, WPAFB, OH, July 1973.
20. MILES, J. W., On structural fatigue under random loading, J. Aeronaut. Sci.,
21, 1954, 753-62.

APPENDIX

Constants F jj in eqns (7) and (18) are defined as

(2B!6 - B~l)r + (2Bi6 - B~2)r3
F -~~~~~~~~--~
00- A!2+(2Ai2+A~6)r2+Ailr4
Nonlinear Response of Angle-Ply Laminated Plates to Random Loads 673
1
FOl = A*11 r 4

1
F ---
2°-16A*22

16Ai2 +4(2AT2 +A~6)r2 +ATlr4

1
F ----:--:---:-----:-,----.----,----,---,---:;-
12 - Ai2 +4(2AT2 +A~6)r2 + 16ATlr4
 46

Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Mechanical

Properties of Epoxy Resin and Composite Systems

RICHARD J. MOULTON
Hexcel Corporation, Dublin, CA 94566, USA
AND
ROBERT Y. TING
Code 5975, PO Box 8337, Naval Research Laboratory,
Orlando, FL 32856, USA

ABSTRACT

Thermosetting resins such as epoxy and polyimide are widely used as matrix
materials in organic composite systems. These polymers are inherently
brittle materials, poor in their resistance to the growth of internal flaw and
the propagation of crack. A practice in the industry is to add elastomeric
particles to the brittle matrix in order to enhance the resin toughness. The
mechanismsfor this enhancement are only recently understood as involving
triaxial dilatation of rubber particles at the crack-tip, particle elongation
and matrix plastic flow. However, when such a modified resin system is used
in a fiber-reinforced composite, the effects of these additive particles on the
mechanical properties of the composite have not been clear. In this paper,
both the fracture behavior and mechanical properties balance of such
composite systems will be discussed, based on the results of an extensive
experimental study.
A series of acrylonitrile-butadiene modified epoxy polymers were used in
the study. Resin fracture energies were determined by using standard
compact tension specimens and the Izod impact specimens. The elastomeric
modifiers greatly increased the fracture energy of the base epoxy, and the
extent of this increase depended on the weight percentage and the molecular
weight of the CTBN additives. Post-failure fractography was also carried
out to examine the system morphology for the identification of the basic
mechanism of toughening.
674
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 675

Composite laminates were prepared using both 7781 glass and T300/3K
graphite reinforcements. Short beam shear tests were performed to evaluate
interlaminar shear strength, which is known to be a matrix-dominated
property. Mechanical properties, as measured by 200 F SBS, are correlated
0

with resin fracture energy. Enhanced toughness is seen to always couple with
trade-offs in strength and modulus. It also shows that the short beam shear
test gives the interlaminar shear strength ofthe composite sample, but not the
interlaminar fracture energy.
Flexural fatigue study was also performed on laminate samples. Failure
took place in an interlaminar shear mode to cause delamination propagation.
Elastomer-modified resins, when used in composite, were found to increase
the laminate fatigue life by a factor of 10. Fatigue data for the modified
system also showed less scattering. Both these effects indicated that the
modified composite systems would offer a considerably higher design limit
for fatigue, with a trade-off in static strength.
The precipitation of the second phase, along with the high molecular
weight modifiers, has a dramatic effect on controlling process rheology. The
resulting laminates have reduced (or zero) voids and the matrix possesses
adhesive properties for one shot bondable honeycomb sandwich structures.
Future composites will require higher strain/failure values without
mechanical sacrifice at service temperature in a saturated condition.
Improved 'toughness' versus mechanical strength matrix resins, combined
with higher strain fibers, will be needed for future aircraft composites.

INTRODUCTION

Current epoxy composites for both military and commercial applications

use TGMDA and DDS as their main matrix components. The specification
requirements are for as high as possible service temperature and the best
attainable initial mechanical properties. As a neat resin, TGMDA/MDA
(methylene dianiline), obtained the highest Tg and modulus among more
than a hundred synthesized epoxies. 1 DDS is used as the aromatic amine
because the sulfone group provides latency which MDA does not have. But,
like MDA, DDS provides molecular fit and relatively stable epoxy/amine
links which, when used with TGMDA, give excellent initial mechanical
properties. In addition, the semi-solid state of the TGMDA dictates only
minor modifications for good prepreg physical properties.
Current high cross-link matrices, although offering high mechanical
676 Richard J. Moulton and Robert Y. Ting

strength, are inherently brittle materials. The composites where these

matrices are used generally fail by the growth of internal flaws and micro-
voids that result in crack propagation, eventually leading to a catastrophic
breakdown. The importance of polymer fracture properties in structural
applications of composite materials has, therefore, been emphasized in
recent years. 2- 4 The TGMDA/DDS based composites have been
previously documented to have very low toughness values (G)C and
impact).2.3
In addition to fracture toughness, next-generation commercial aircraft
will be demanding higher strain-to-failure in composites. This will increase
the structural applicatiens of composites and thus transpose into lighter
weight which, of course, greatly improves fuel efficiency. A 2 % strain
composite will be sought to increase the current design allowables of
0·003 in/in. In addition, in a higher strain fiber, such a composite with
improved fracture toughness will also reduce the 'knock-down' factor of the
current composites.
A practice in the industry is to add elastomeric particles to the brittle
matrix in order to enhance the resin toughness. The mechanisms for this
enhancement are only recently understood as involving triaxial dilation of
rubber particles at the crack-tip, particle elongation and matrix plastic
flow. 4 However, when such a modified resin system is used in fiber-
reinforced composite, the effects of these additive particles on the
mechanical properties of the composite are not clear.
Increased 'toughness' of any type cannot come without some sacrifice of
initial matrix-dominated mechanical properties. Interlaminar strength (as
measured by short beam shear), high temperature strength retention and
wet strength retention are examples of total matrix domination. Ultimate
compressions and ultimate flexural strengths are also strongly influenced by
matrix properties. In general, the modulus of the neat resin is lowered by a
proportional volumetric amount of the second phase. The second phase
essentially reduces the initial load bearing area. 5 Modulus is the most
dominant neat resin property which affects the initial composite
mechanical properties. 6
Lowering modulus can actually increase some fiber-dominated initial
properties, such as tensile strength, and increase matrix-dominated
properties where the strain-to-failure is critical, such as off-axis tensile,
transverse tensile and flexural fatigue (SN curves) properties.
An added indirect benefit of composite toughening is increased laminate
processability, especially in large parts with complex curvatures and
varying thicknesses. Toughened composites with controlled flow also have
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 677

the one-shot bonding ability to honeycomb which the current high-flow

brittle systems do not possess.
The aircraft industry has an awareness that in order to achieve the
desired~and soon to be required~increase in toughness some sacrifices in
the initial mechanical properties will be needed. In this chapter an attempt
will be made to show examples of the extent of required mechanical sacrifice
in order to obtain a 'tougher' composite. Fracture behavior will also be
discussed.

EXPERIMENTAL

A series of acrylonitrile-butadiene modified epoxies were used in this study.

The nitrile rubbers are commercially available from the B. F. Goodrich
Company (Table I).
Neat resin fracture energies were determined by using standard compact
tension specimens. These low-strain opening-mode fracture tests have been
documented heavily in the literature in the last several years by Bascom et
al./ Buchnell and Smith,8 and others.
The fracture toughness of laminates was determined by using the width
tapered beam geometry of Mostovoy and Ripling. 9 Steel plates were used to
eliminate adherent yielding during test.
The model systems were prepared in neat resins and in laminates.
Thornel 300 3000 K was the graphite and 7781 E glass was the fiberglass.
The laminates were all autoclave cured, 60 psi, 1-5 DC heat up rate, and with
normal bagging techniques. The castings were more difficult, due to the
large resin mass. The 120 DC curing systems were brought up at the same
rate (f1T), but dwelled at 90 C until gelation. They were then cured (or post
D

cured) for I h at 120 DC.

Since morphology will change with significantly different heat up rates, 10
the castings were programmed as closely as possible to match the laminates.
Post-failure examinations of specimens were made using scanning electron
microscopy.
The laminates were tested at R T and 100°C in tension, flexure and
interlaminar shear for screening mechanical strengths and modulus. Short-
beam shear strength (SBS) was concentrated on because it is a total matrix
dominated property (with constant fiber geometry).
A Rheometries Dynamic Spectrometer (RDS) was used to show the
different viscosity time/temperature relationships between a control and a
toughened resin.
 0--
....,
00

TABLE 1
Elastomeric modifiers ~
;::;.
;:::-
2000X162 1300X15 1300X8 1300X13 1300X9 1300X18 1472 '...."
CTB CTBN CTBNX "'-
CTBN CTBN CTBNX ~

~
Viscosity, Brookfield, c
::::
MPa's or cP at 27°C (81°F) 60000 60000 150000 570000 160000 265000 B
;:,
Per cent carboxyl 1·9 2·5 2-4 2-4 2·9 3·0 ~2'5
;:,
Molecular weight 4800 3 500 3 500 3500 3500 3000 300000 '"'-"
Functionality 2·0 1·9 1·8 1·8 2·3 2·3 150 ~
c
Acrylonitrile content 0 10 18 26 18 21·5 27 <:>-

(%) '::;."
~
Specific gravity at
25°C (77°F) 0·907 0·924 0·948 0·960 0·955 0·958 ~
Solubility parameter 8·04 8-45 8·77 9·14 8·78 ? ""
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 679

Flexural fatigue studies were also performed on model laminate samples.

Flexure specimens were clamped on both ends of a fixture and then the
necessary load applied for a 0·5 in deflection at a known frequency. A cold
air jet was applied to minimize hysteresis heating effects. The samples were
tested to failure.
Impact testing was performed with an Effects Technology instrumented
drop weight system. 11 PI represents the incipient damage point on the
composite surface and P F is the maximum load a specimen can sustain in
thorough penetration testing.

RESULTS

Table 2 summarizes the nine epoxies used for this model study and lists the
Glc results of the neat resins.
In resins Band C (with A as control) 1300 x 13 CTBN (26 %C == N) was
used, while in all other resins 1300 x 8 CTBN (18 %C == N) was the liquid
elastomeric modifier of choice.
The 1300 x 13 CTBN was previously found to be the most effective
toughening liquid rubber in TGMDA based resins. 12 In the less polar
DGEBPA based system, the lower C == N per cent is adequate for initial
compatibility and is different enough in solubility parameter to precipitate
out during increasing matrix molecular weight, but prior to gelation.

TABLE 2
Model matrix resins with G/c values

Resin Type Mod.· % Second-phaset Other Glc

Liquid Solid nomenclature

A TGMDA/DDS High None None F-263,5208 0·08

3501, etc.
type
B TGMDA/DDS High 3·7 None 0·158
C TGMDA/DDS High 2·2 1·5 0·239
D DGBPA/PAP Medium 2·3 3·4 F-155 1·72
E DGBPA/BPF Low None None HX205 0·203
F DGBPA/BPF Low 8·1 None HX206 1·8
G DGBPA/BPF Low None 8·1 HX210 3·3
H DGBPA/BPF Low 8·1 5·4 F-185 5·8
I ? ? ? ? BP937 ?

• Relative first phase modulus.

t Assuming 100% precipitation.
680 Richard J. Moulton and Robert Y. Ting

FIG. 1. Fracture surface-Resin B. ( x5(0).

Different amounts of second phase morphology have been directly linked

to the polarity of the rubber (governed by % C == N) with constant
formulation and kinetics. 10
Resins E, F, G and H have been extensively studied by Bascom et at. 7 and
by Siebert and Rowe l3 in addition to the present authors, 14 and detailed
descriptions of the fracture mechanics, failure mechanisms, morphology
and physical structure/property relationships have been documented. Only
a very generalized summary will be presented here.
In the A, B, C series one SEM picture of the fracture surface was taken of
the B resin. Figure I clearly shows the second phase precipitation, out of the
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 681

TGMDA/DDS first phase. An important observation is the total lack of

cavitation, and apparent absence of shear band deformation, both ofwhich
are evident in DGEBPA based systems (Resins D-H) and are necessary for
significant toughening improvement. Only slight GIc improvement was
evident in this case.
Figure 2 shows six morphology pictures which clearly show the
heterogeneous second phase results of the failed fracture surface. Pictures I
and 2 in Fig. 2 are of resin F (low My; liquid rubber only). A very uniform
dispersion of particles in the o· 3-0· 5 Jim range is clearly evident. Pictures 3,
4, 5 and 6 are of resin H. The 40 Jim scale of Pictures 3 and 4 clearly shows
the large resulting cavities caused by the solid rubber which are not evident
in Pictures I and 2. Heavy shear band deformation is also observed.
Pictures 5 and 6, with higher magnification, show the presence of the
smaller cavitation, as in Pictures I and 2, in addition to this large cavitation.
It is believed that the large elastomer particles nucleate local shear
yielding to distribute stress over a larger area which allows more energy to
be dissipated through various mechanisms, the exact nature of which is still
controversial. Resin E, which is the control, is not shown here, but the
fracture surface from this resin sample showed a very smooth brittle
fracture with no cavities.
All G1c values and morphology photographs in this chapter were taken
from samples fractured at a constant strain rate of 2·0 x 10- 3 cm/sec. The
following observations can be made:
For the DGEBPA series:

(I) Both liquid and solid elastomer additives increase the fracture
energy of the epoxy by orders of magnitude.
(2) When used alone, the solid and liquid (low and high M.J elastomers
have about the same effect on toughness.
(3) When both are present, the fracture energy is increased by as much
as x 2. There is a synergistic toughening mechanism in this
formulation containing a bimodel particle size distribution.

For the TGMDA/DDS series

(I) There was only slight toughening over the controls (x 2 for Band
x 3 for C).
(2) Lack of apparent plastic flow or shear band deformation in the first
phase resulted in no cavitation, which is required for significant
toughening. No stress whitening was evident.
682 Richard J. Moulton and Robert Y. Ting

~ III
:t
"0

I!
c:
'"
I~ !J.
'"
c:
.;;;
0)

... I
0)
<.)
!!!
.,., ...~
~
....
..J
U
<IJ
....x
)(
5
u
tt'"
N
0
0
G) u:

I: a..
E
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 683

In addition to the above, very recent work has been done showing the
effect of neat G,c as a function of strain rate. 14 Notched Izod data were
converted to G,c for high rate results. All elastomer epoxy compositions
showed a general decrease in fracture energy with increasing strain rate.
There was no rate effect evident for the DG EN PA control (resin E). For resin
H, stress whitening decreased significantly as strain rate increased, which
correlated with lower GIc • The impact specimens show no evidence of stress

F'G. 3. Stress whitening versus strain rate. Strain rate increases from left to right.

whitening. It appears that the second phase is time dependent in the ability
to distribute stress and 'toughen' .4 In Fig. 3 the stress whitening of the
fracture surfaces is shown, the extent of which is approximately
proportional to the G,c of the resin.
Although the neat resin data have been previously shown to be very rate
dependent, resins A, D and H were shown to be rate independent when
manufactured into a composite. The presence of fibers and/or the fiber
spacing appears to counteract the base resin sensitivity.3
In Fig. 4 the G1c (log) values of neat resin were plotted against 200 OF
interlaminar shear strength (SBS). 200°F was chosen as the temperature
because that is the current upper limit design temperature for commercial
aircraft. Figure 5 is one of the first (probably of many) showing the
quantitative inverse relationship between matrix dominated mechanical
strength versus neat resin toughness (as measured by G,J. Today, any of the
current available composites will most likely give data that plot very closely
to this straight line. Other mechanical tests, temperatures and en-
vironmental conditioning values could be used on the vertical axis. The
inverse relationship will be similar although the slopes will obviously differ.
Figure 5 shows that P, and P F impact data versus the same 200 OF SBS
value. Here the data are much more scattered and there appears to be only
minor second-phase dominated influence. The behaviors of resins C and I
684 Richard J. Moulton and Robert Y. Ting

4
200 of SIS vs GIC NEAT RESIN

SBS(KSI) 8 0 ..
2OO 'F DRY 08
12 "12 Pt.AIN
HMG 6 oc

4
OE
- - - - -: TS - - - - - - -- ---------- -- 0- 00 1 ------ -
2 Of
OG
OH

-
,..
.01 .1 1
GIC NEAT RESIN (KJ /m2)
10

FIG. 4. Interlaminar shear versus Gk .

P. & Pf IMPACT vs 200 OF SBS

9
8 0 11
7 GC
6
SBS (kill 5
~~2~1n
HMO 4
DO 00
01 01
3
- I
- -- ------------------ - - --- ---------
2
ON ON

OL-~4
~OO
~--~--~500~~~--~600~~~--~7=OO
=---~
IMMCT lib•• ) - fABRIC (Tape I. Similat-)
PI& P,
FIG. 5. Impact versus interlaminar shear.
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 685

14.--_ __ ~ 2=OO
r_=_--=°F---=-
SB=S
=---v-S. . .G
: r_'l~
C _ _ _- .
Compari of Neat Resin & W Yen Graphite
12 ;J Neal ...in
D Compo.i,.

10 _G ~ fAallIC COMI'OSITI

NO I'IIL - - - + -- .... ? + _ - - - HIGHI'IR

SBS (KSJ) 8 QA·-!-- -_O A

2QO ' f DRY
12x 12 PLAIN
HMG 6

4
o D I I
---- ~Ti -- --- -------------------------
2
H H

GIC <KJ /m2)

FIG. 6. Comparison of neat resin and woven graphite Gic versus interlaminar shear.

versus that of resin H clearly show that the high G1c value of a resin does not
necessarily translate into high impact strength.
Figure 6 shows the effects of G1c of neat resin and GIc of woven graphite
composite on 200 OF SBS. An added 'peel' property was evident. Note that
the more brittle matrix resin, i.e. the resins with G1c less than about 1 kJ/m2,
have composite fracture toughnesses greater than that of the neat resin. In
these systems the tortuous path of the weave aids in the toughness. About
1 kJ/m2 is a threshold where a suppression of toughness occurs from neat
resin to composite. The reason for toughness suppression is most probably
geometry dominated and, if so, would be 'consistent with the work of
Bascom and Cottington 15 indicating that the toughness of two-phase
adhesives is thickness dependent. The spacing of the distance between
graphite fibers is consistent with what these authors demonstrated with
aluminum adherents, although, in composites with a high GIc matrix, some
of the stress distribution translates intraply.2
Figure 7 descriptively shows the rheology difference between an 'A' resin
and an 'H' type resin. The excessive flow during processing due to this low
minimum viscosity of approximately 400 cps is causing a high reject rate
(even when flow is constrained) because of high void content. The problem
is compounded in large parts with complex shapes. The added toughness,
686 Richard J. Moulton and Robert Y. Ting

Minimum Allowed
Resin ViKOJity At
RT ~50,OOO Poi ..

:
.- 2
:. 10 ------ -- -- -- ----------- --- ----

Mi~utes 20 40 60 80 100
Temp. ·C 90 130 170 210 250
(COnSlOn' Heat-up Rate of 2 ·CIMin.)

FIG. 7. Process rheology curve.

combined with the resulting controlled flow, provides co-curable

honeycomb sandwich structure (providing approximately 5 %more resin is
used on prepreg for adequate filleting). Core failures with flatwise tensiles of
greater than 600 psi are not uncommon on non-metallic core. The cost
savings due to adhesive elimination are significant.
Figure 8 shows the effect of three model systems in flexural fatigue. (It is
hypothesized that little effect, if any, would be evident in tension fatigue.)
Elastomer modifications were found to increase the laminar fatigue life by a
factor of 10. Fatigue data for the modified system also showed less
scattering. Highly stressed composites often fail in interlaminar shear
fatigue (leaf springs, for example), although engineers hardly ever design
for it. Both these effects show that the modified composite systems would
offer a considerably higher design limit for fatigue, provided the high values
of initial matrix dominant strengths could be relaxed.
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 687

56r---------~----~--------~----~--------~----~
FLEXURAL FATIGUE
P.IUMI~T .&.0 DATA

54

H
DGiaM / lPf DICV
MODlJ'lD • LOW MOD.

"0 ~IGH MOD. CARBON

..
~ 50
w
w::
•• E •
001"" /p,., D'CY
MODifiED· MED. MOD.

..
..
105 106 10'
Cycles To failure (Deflection >.5")

FIG. 8. Flexural fatigue comparison.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE

The requirements for composites are becoming more sophisticated as they

get closer towards primary structural applications in commercial aircraft.
The future could require a minimum '-average ten~ile and compressive
strain-to-failure of 20000 micro-in/in. In addition, the current modulus
and other mechanical properties must be met after increased strain at the
required service temperature in a moisture saturated condition.
200°F wet (saturated) mechanical strength, flaw sensitivity and impact
are three design 'knock-down' factors. Significant weight reduction in
aircraft by incorporating composites will not be achieved unless more of the
initial strength can be utilized. These 'knock-down' factors must be
reduced.
The toughness and matrix strain properties can be significantly improved
today, but only at prohibitive sacrifice of the required mechanical
properties. The fiber manufacturers are making significant progress for
their higher strain requirements. According to the independent calculations
of Chamis et al. 6 and Christensen and Wu, 16 a magnification factor of x 5
to x lOis needed for matrix in a (0·90) composite over the strain of the fiber.
To the present authors the goals seem quite clear. Schematically one may
modify Fig. 5 to establish desirable property domains, such as those shown
688 Richard J. Moulton and Robert Y. Ting

Wet
~~~~
I
~
Mechanical
Strength
Acceptable
at Service
Level
Temp.

.01 .1 1 10

Matrix Strain 5%

Impact > x 3 over "A" Resin

FIG. 9. Future targets.

in Fig. 9. The toughness of the neat resin should be at least 1 kJ/m2 so that,
when a composite with woven fiber is made, the lay up geometry and fiber
volume will not affect the flaw sensitivity. The 5 % matrix strain will be
required to prevent premature interface failure due to uneven stress
concentration factors between fibers under transverse stress conditions.
The second phase appears to be very Glc dominant, but only marginally
affects the high rate stresses, such as impact. This is because the second
phase needs 'time' to allow its various failure mechanisms to become
operative for energy dissipation. On the other hand, the first phase must
also be significantly improved to reach the top right hand corner of Fig. 9.
Thermoplastics or thermoset resins that contain linear blocks or domains
may possibly be needed for the improved first phase. The acrylonitrile
butadiene elastomers that are currently used for the second phase will most
probably be used in future thermosets, with the modified first phase. Less
than 10% of these modifiers will be in the final matrix. Whether the future
involves thermoplastics, combinations, hybrids, one phase, two phase,
three phase or whatever, the polymer chemists need to molecularly design
resins to reach the top right hand corner of Fig. 9. Only then can the aircraft
industry efficiently utilize the attractive potential of organic matrix
composites.
 Effects of Elastomeric Additives on the Properties of Composite Systems 689

REFERENCES

1. Buss, N., Technical Report AFML-TR-68-286, Part I, September, 1968.

AFML-TR-69-238, Part II, January, 1970.
2. BASCOM, W. D., BITNER, J. L., MOULTON, R. J. and SIEBERT, A. R., Composites,
1 (1980) 9.
3. MILLER, A. and HERTZBURG, P. E., Toughness testing of composite materials,
S.A.M.P.E. preprints, October, 1980, Tech. Conf., Seattle, WA.
4. BASCOM, W. D., MOULTON, R. J. and TING, R. Y., The fracture of an epoxy
polymer containing elastomeric modifiers, Journal of Materials Science. (In
press.)
5. OPHIR, Z. H., EMERSON, J. A. and WILKES, G. L., Sub-annealing studies of
rubber-modified and unmodified epoxy systems, J. Appl. Phys., 49(10)
(October, 1978).
6. CHAMIS, C. c., HANSON, M. P. and SERAFINI, T. T., Modern Plastics, 5 (1973)
90.
7. BASCOM, W. D., MOULTON,R. J.,ROWE, E. H. and SIEBERT,A. R., ACSOrganic
Coating and Plastics Preprint, 39 (1978) 164.
8. BUCHNELL, C. B. and SMITH, R. R., Polymer, 6 (1965) 437.
9. MOSTOVOY, S. and RIPLING, E. J., Appl. Polymer Sym., 19 (1972) 395.
10. MANZIONE, L. T., GILLHAM, J. K. and MCPHERSON, C. A., Rubber-modified
epoxies: Transitions and morphology, Princeton Univ. NJ Dept. of Chemical
Engineering, 1 September, 1980.
11. WOGULIS, S. G., WHITNEY, B. W. and IRELAND, D. R., Automated data
acquisition and analysis for the instrumented impact test, Effects Technology
Technical Report TR-78-13, 1979.
12. LEE, B. L., LIZAK, C. M., RIEW, C. K. and MOULTON, R. J., Rubber toughening
of tetrafunctional epoxy resin, S.A.M.P.E. preprints, December, 1980.
13. SIEBERT, A. R. and ROWE, E. H., Paper presented at the 161st ACS Mtg. Org.
Coat. Plast. Div., Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1971.
14. TING, R. Y. and MOULTON, R. J., S.A.M.P.E. Tech. Ser., 12 (1980) 265.
15. BASCOM, W. D. and COTTINGTON, R. L., J. Adhesion, (1976) 333.
16. CHRISTENSEN, R. M. and Wu, E. M., Optical design of anisotropic (fiber-
reinforced) flywheels, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, November, 1976.
 47

A Comparison of the Failure Pressure as Predicted

by Finite Element Stress Analysis with the Results
of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges
A. MUSCAT! AND R. BRADFORD
Central Electricity Generating Board (South Western Region),
Bedminster Down, Bridgwater Road, Bristol BSJ3 8AN, England

ABSTRACT

The burst pressure from full scale burst tests on GRP pipes with integral
GRP flanges is compared with the predicted failure pressure using glass
content analysis and material strength data for the different composite
layers. Two theoretical models were used to predict the failure load; a simple
analytical solution for a plain pipe and a detailed finite element stress
analysis including the flange geometry and loading. In both cases, the failure
pressure was generally overestimated and it is suggested that this may be due
to difficulties in construction resulting in the composite layers close to the
flange having inferior strength as compared with a basic pipe with the same
glass content.

1. INTRODUCTION

An experimental programme of full scale burst tests was carried out to

assess the long term integrity of a glass reinforced plastic (GRP) pipe
installation. The results of earlier burst tests 1 showed the flanges to have a
much lower strength than the basic pipes. This was attributed to the
difficulties in construction resulting in inadequate roving reinforcement at
the flanged joint.
Further burst tests were carried out after the publication of Ref. 1 to test
flanges extracted from the installation. Using the results of all the burst
tests, an attempt was then made to correlate the burst pressure with the glass
content for some of the test specimens using both analytical and finite
690
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 691

element stress analysis techniques. Also, a practical method for reinforcing

these flanges on site was developed in the laboratory and applied to full
scale flanged joints, which were pressure tested to failure.
Details of the experimental programme and the stress analysis are given
here with the emphasis on a comparison between the predicted and actual
failure pressures.

2. PIPE GEOMETRY AND CONSTRUCTION

A full description of the pipe and flange construction is given in Ref. I.

Basically, it is a GRP pipe with integral GRP flanges. The pipe is lined with
unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (U PVC) and made up of layers of chopped
strand mat (CSM) and rovings. The CSM layers consist of randomly
orientated glass fibres providing reinforcement in both axial and hoop
directions whilst the rovings have unidirectional fibres along the hoop

C S M MOULD
METAL BACKING RING
FLANGE OUTER
SURFACE

FIG. I. A schematic diagram for the flange construction.

TABLE 1
Nominal properties" of different layers of the composite pipe (J.D. 304 mm)

Layer Thickness Young's UTS Designed

(mm) modulus (N/mm2) glass
(N/mm2) content
kg/m2

UPVC 3·1 2·76 X 10 3 48

CSM 4'0 b 6041 X 10 3 93 2·14
Rovings 3·2 3·45 X 10 4 827 3·89

aPoisson's ratio assumed to be 004.

bLocally thicker near flange (up to 6· 3 mm) corresponding to an increased designed
glass content of 3·36kg/m 2.
692 A. Muscati and R. Bradford

direction only. Details of the dimensions and material properties, as

supplied by the manufacturers, are given in Table 1 for each layer. A
schematic diagram showing the flange construction is shown in Fig. 1.

3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

3.1. The Burst Tests

Details of the testing rig and the results of the earlier tests are given in Ref.
1. In brief, the specimen is a full scale pipe with an integral GRP flange at
each end bolted to a steel plate. The specimens were tested inside a cage
which can provide practically full axial restraint.
Table 2 gives the results for all the tests including those published earlier.
Note that some of the test results are not relevant for the comparison with
the theoretical calculations but are given here for completeness.

TABLE 2
Results of burst tests

Specimen TypeD End conditions Failure Description Crack position

no. pressure
(N/mm2)

1 A fully restrained 4·5 burst at flange

2 A fully restrained 5·4 leak at flange
3 A fully restrained 5·4 leak at flange
4b A fully restrained 2·4 leak at flange
11·7 burst
5 C 7·6mm axial gap 3·4 burst at flange
6 A 7·6mm axial gap 5·2 burst at flange
7 C 7·6mm axial gap 1·7 burst at flange
8 E 7·6mm axial gap 3·96 burst at pipe joint
9 B fully restrained 3·63 leak at flange
10 E fully restrained 4·64 burst at pipe joint
11 B 2·5mm axial gap 4·51 burst at flange
12 D fully restrained 6·20 burst at flange
13 D free 5·44 burst at flange
14 B 2·5mm axial gap 5·57 burst at flange

DType A: Pipes manufactured for testing but intended to simulate site flanges.
Type B: Pipes extracted from site. TypeC: Specially manufactured pipes with
substandard flanges. Type D: Specially manufactured with strong flanges. Type E:
Failure occurred at the pipe away from the flange.
bSpecimen No.4 is 250mm diameter.
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 693

3.2. Glass Analysis

Glass content analysis was carried out on most of the specimens but only
10 of them are relevant for the comparison with the theoretical predictions.
The procedure was simply to burn the polyester resin in a furnace and weigh
the remaining glass. The results were then used to predict the failure
pressure based on the materials data and stress calculations.
In two specimens (Nos. 8 and lO), failure occurred at a hand-laid butt
joint in the pipe away from the flange. In this case, the glass analysis was
carried out on two samples for each specimen taken at the butt joint. In each
of the remaining eight specimens, failure occurred at one of the flanges and
the area of interest is the pipe immediately adjacent to the failed flange. The
glass analysis showed that the glass content for the rovings in the pipe
decreases as the GRP flange is approached. The stress calculations were
therefore based on the glass content analysis of the pipe immediately
adjacent to the GRP flange, up to about 20 mm from it.
Table 3 gives the relevant results of the glass content analysis which
correspond to the minimum values.

TABLE 3
Details of glass analysis (kg/m2)

Specimen CSM Rovings Failure pressure Crack

no. Hoop Axial (N/mm2) orientation
Actual Predicted a

1 3·04 2·11 4·5 9·1 axial b

2 2·87 1·63 5-4 7·8 axial
3 3·36 2·61 5-4 10·6 axial
5 2·80 0 H 4·1 axial b
6 4·03 0 5·2 5-4 axial b
7a c 1-44 0·19 2·9
7b 1·09 0·83 1·7 3·6 circumferential
8d 1·86 0·6 4-45 4·0 4·2 axial
10d 1·97 0·6 4·67 4·6 4·3 axial
11 1·93 1·90 4·5 6·9 axial b
14 1·94 2·15 6·0 H axial b

a The predicted failure pressure was based on the analytical solution.

b Although these cracks initiated in the axial direction the crack orientation
changed after it propagated away from the flange to a circumferential crack.
c a and b are top and bottom flanges, the crack from the burst test was at the bottom
flange.
d Data refer to butt joint away from the flange.
694 A. Muscati and R. Bradford

4. STRESS ANALYSIS

4.1. Analytical Solution

A simple analytical solution, for the stresses in different layers of a
composite pipe under pressure, may be obtained using the properties of
each layer. Such a solution is given in the appendix for the present pipe
under both fully restrained and free end conditions. Note that this analysis
ignores the flange geometry and only considers a composite pipe. This is
applicable to specimens Nos. 8 and 10 where failure occurred at the
composite pipe. However, for the remaining specimens the failure was at
the flange but the analysis treats the pipe adjacent to the flange in a similar
manner to the basic pipe, ignoring the flange geometry.
In using the solution given in the appendix to predict the failure pressure,
the following points should be noted:
(1) Failure was assumed to occur when the maximum principal stress in
any layer exceeded the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the
material. For all these specimens, the critical values correspond to
the hoop stress in the CSM layer.
(2) In the majority of the burst tests considered, an axial gap was left
between the specimen and the cage resulting in only a partial axial
restraint. For the purpose of the calculations, the end conditions
were assumed to be free up to the pressure necessary to close the
gap. This pressure was found from the axial stiffness of the
specimen which was determined experimentally to be about
0·8 N/mm2 per mm. Once the gap is closed the cage was assumed to
provide full axial restraint.
(3) The thickness of the CSM and roving layers was calculated from the
data given in Table I for the basic pipe and the results of glass
content analysis in Table 3. This was simply done by scaling the
thickness by the ratio of the glass contents as compared to the basic
pipe.
The calculated failure pressures based on the above procedure are given
in Table 3 and compared with the actual failure pressures.
It is interesting to note that the agreement between the calculated and
actual failure pressures is very good for specimens Nos. 8 and 10 (within
±10%) where failure occurred away from the flange. However, for the
remainder of the specimens, the calculations tend to overestimate the
failure pressure by a factor of up to two even though the agreement for some
of the specimens is quite good, e.g. Nos. 5 and 6. At this stage, it was difficult
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 695

to judge whether this difference between the actual and calculated failure
pressure is due to the geometrical approximations in the analytical solution
or simply a function of scatter in material properties. A more accurate
solution using finite element stress analysis was therefore attempted, to
model the actual flange geometry.

4.2. Finite Element Analysis

The 'plain pipe' model outlined in the appendix, and whose predictions
are given in Table 3, may be improved by taking into account; (a) the flange
geometry, and (b) stresses arising other than from pressurisation. In
addition, the effects of anisotropy and inhomogeneity must clearly also be
taken into account.

4.2.1. Method of analysis

The computer programs used were BERSAFE 2 and its associated
programs. An outline of the boundary of the mesh employed is shown to
scale in Fig. 2 and the flange region is shown in detail in Fig. 3. The
refinement in this region is considerable. The elements are axisymmetric,
isoparametric elements with 16 degrees of freedom (8 nodes). Only half the
pipe is modelled, the remainder being symmetrical. The steel backing plate,
backing ring and bolts are included in the mesh. The mesh therefore
consists of five different materials, these being steel, UPVC, CSM, rovings
and a filler for the flange body. The latter has a Young's modulus of
3·5 x 10 3 N/mm2.
The only medium treated as anisotropic was the roving layer. At the time
that this analysis was carried out, axisymmetric anisotropic elements were
not available in BERSAFE and so the anisotropy was modelled by
decoupling the axial degrees of freedom between the roving and CSM
layers. Since the layer of rovings is then free to slide axially along the pipe,
no axial stresses can occur in the rovings. Note that for convenience in
GRP FLANGE

BACKING RING

FIG. 2. Scale plot of the outline of the mesh.

696 A. Muscali and R. Bradford

FIG. 3. Scale plot of the mesh in the flange region showing individual elements.

defining the mesh the roving layer has been modelled as being thinner than
its actual value, but with an appropriately scaled Young's modulus. Since
hoop bending stresses cannot occur, this is of no consequence.
The paucity of rovings close to the flange was modelled by omitting the
initial roving elements up to a distance of 74 mm from the back face of the
flange . This is admittedly a crude procedure, in that the specimens actually
exhibited a gradual increase in the amount of rovings with axial position.
Consideration of the extent of roving depletion along the axial length for
each specimen, implies that the model is a good approximation for
specimen 6, whilst being optimistic for specimens 5 and 7. For the
remaining specimens, however, the model is clearly pessimistic, i.e. the
model should underestimate the failure pressure, since the actual roving
depletion was not as severe as that of our model.
Finally note that the backing plate and the flange are topologically
distinct, so that a gap may open between them.

4.2.2. Loadings
Three loads were applied separately to the mesh, as described below:
(1) Pressure was applied to the cylindrical surface with the ends of the
mesh axially restrained. This corresponds to the 'restrained' case of
the appendix. The front face of the flange is left radially free during
this loading. The radial freedom of the flange is further ensured
during this loading by assigning zero stiffness to the 'steel' sealing
arrangement.
(2) An axial displacement of the pipe of 7·6mm was simulated by
applying half this displacement to the steel backing plate whilst
axially restraining the plane of symmetry.
(3) A pressure equivalent to the bolt load due to tightening was applied
to the steel backing ring at the bolt radius.
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 697
~---------------------,
I I
: I
I
- - ORIGINAL
- - - DEFORMED

-----------------------7
----~ )
FIG. 4. Deformation plot for the mesh with complete ravings (pressure load, I N /mm 2 ).
Scale x 2-41 for mesh and additional x 50 for displacement.

These loads were applied both to the mesh representing the as-designed pipe
and to the mesh without the initial 74 mm of rovings. Linear elasticity was
assumed throughout and hence the effects of combined loads are additive.

4.2.3. Results
A brief summary of the results of the finite element analysis are as
follows:
(I) For pressure loading only and with all rovings present it was found
that axial bending stresses were absent. This is illustrated by the
exaggerated displacement plot of Fig. 4. The radial stiffness of the
flange is balanced by the radial stiffness of the rovings. This is in
contrast to the result obtained from the mesh without the initial
rovings, the displacement plot being shown in Fig. 5. The
corresponding stresses in the CSM layer are shown in Fig. 6for unit

ORIGINAL
r - - - - - - - - ---., DEFORMED
I I
I I
I

---------
r---
------- ---
------ ------ --------- ----~,
--
~--------~yr----------~

REGION OF OMITIED ROVINGS

FIG. 5. Deformation plot for the mesh without initial ravings (pressure load, I N/mm2).
Scale x 1-48 for mesh and additional x 50 for displacement.
698 A. Muscali and R. Bradford

N
E
.§
z
15

10

HOOP All ROVINGS

PRESENT

AXIAL NEAR ROVINGS

0+-~Fl-~
~ G~
E --~--~~~~~------~~15~-------r.2~0--------~25
-1 AXIAL DISTANCE em
FIG. 6. CSM stresses (pressure load, 1 N/mm2), initial rovings missing.

pressure (1 N/mm 2). The increase in the hoop stress caused by the
absence of the rovings is clearly considerable. The axial bending
stresses which occur are sufficiently small such that the hoop stress
is the dominant effect.
(2) The axial displacement load causes compressive stresses in the
fOvings. The CSM and UPVC stresses, other than in the flange
body, for the as-designed pipe are:
CSM 18·9 N/mm2 (axial), 5-4 N/mm2 (hoop)
UPVC 9·1 N/mm2 (axial), 2·6 N/mm2 (hoop)
Slight changes from these values occur when the initial rovings are
omitted. In particular the hoop stresses near the flange decrease
when the rovings are omitted.
(3) The stresses due to bolt loading may be up to 6 N/mm2 in the body
of the flange but are small in the pipe itself, typically I N/mm2.

4.2.4. Estimate of the failure pressure

To estimate the failure pressure, the stresses resulting from the three
loading cases are added together and each component of stress for each
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 699

medium is compared with the UTS given in Table I. Moreover, this must be
done at several characteristic axial positions, since the stresses vary with
position. This leads to the following conclusions:

(I) The enhanced CSM hoop stress of Fig. 6 dominates, and it is

concluded that this stress component leads to failure.
(2) On the basis of the data of Table I failure pressures of 5·0 N/mm2
(with axial displacement), or 5·2 N/mm2 (fully restrained) are
estimated.
(3) The bolt loading has negligible effect on the failure pressure,
whereas the axial displacement reduces the failure pressure by
about 4%.

4.2.5. Discussion of the analysis

The finite element analysis models a specimen of CSM glass content of
3· 36 kg/m2 with and without rovings. Taking the case of no rovings and full
axial restraint, the simple analytical method described earlier would predict
a failure pressure of 4·7 N/mm2, (II % lower than the finite element
prediction). The main conclusion of our finite element analysis is therefore
to validate the assumptions made in the simplistic analytic model. The
apparently complicating features of the flange geometry and the extra
loading due to bolt tightening do not lead to changes in the estimated failure
pressure. The fact that the rovings are omitted only for a 74 mm length in
the finite element model, whilst the simple method assumes a plain pipe with
the rovings missing along its entire length, explains the small difference in
the predicted failure pressures.
The finite element analysis has therefore failed to improve the agreement
between the predicted and observed failure pressures quoted in Table 3.
Rather it has confirmed that the predicted failure pressures are slightly on
the low side. In as far as this analysis is believed to be complete, it may be
concluded that the disparity between predicted and actual failure pressures
is a result of the material data or the failure criterion employed. The
disparities cannot be explained in terms of simple material scatter since the
burst pressures are consistently lower than the predicted values. This points
to a greater preponderance of inherent weaknesses in the tested pipes than
in the specimens used in the tensile tests to deduce the data of Table I. This
may be either a consequence ofthe geometry of the flange leading to poorer
lay-up and hence a greater number of voids, etc., per unit volume, or simply
a statistical effect due to the larger volume of material under stresses of
failure magnitude in the pipes as compared with the tensile tests.
700 A. Muscati and R. Bradford

5. REINFORCEMENT OF SITE FLANGES

Fortunately, although the results of the burst tests showed that the GRP
flanges had inadequate strength as compared to the design calculations,
they were still considered acceptable under the operating conditions. This is
mainly because the system was operated at a much reduced pressure
(40 % below design). Nevertheless, it was still necessary to develop a
reinforcement technique for application on site should the system be
uprated to the design conditions.
Two reinforcement techniques (A and B) were developed in the
laboratory and applied to full scale pipe specimens with flanged joints.
These specimens were pressure tested to failure to determine the effect of the
reinforcemen t.
(A) In this case, the approach was to constrain the radial displacement
of the flange by using GRP blocks placed on the flange outer surface
between the flange bolts (see Fig. I). These blocks were held in
position by a metal split ring which provided the radial constraint.
The two halves of the split ring were joined together by two bolts
which were tightened up sufficiently to hold the assembly without
imposing a significant preload on the flange.
(B) The objective of the second reinforcement technique was to
compensate for the lack of sufficient rovings in the pipe adjacent to
the flange by providing additional restraint at this position. The
method was to inject epoxy resin to fill the gap between the backing
ring and the flange (see Fig. I) so that the backing ring can provide
the required reinforcement. This technique was applied to the test
specimen with the flange joints assembled and bolted, to simulate
site conditions. The main problem was to find a suitable resin that
could be used to fill a variable gap (0' 25 mm to 3·0 mm), remaining
in the gap until it hardens. After a number of trials, the method used
was as follows: A standard high pressure grease gun with a specially
made flat nozzle was used to inject the resin into the gap. The
compound used was a commercial epoxy resin made by CIBA-
GEIGY consisting of a resin, 'A VI38', and a hardener, 'HV998', the
ratio in weight of resin to hardener being 2·5.
A total of four burst tests were carried out, one on a standard specimen
without reinforcement, two on specimens with reinforcements of type A
and one on a specimen with both types of reinforcements, A and B. The use
of reinforcement A alone increased the burst pressure at the flange by a
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 701

small amount (15 %) but the application of both reinforcement techniques

resulted in an increase in the burst pressure by a factor of approximately
two. The latter was therefore recommended should the system be uprated to
the design conditions.

6. CONCLUSIONS

A study of the results of the full scale burst tests together with the associated
theoretical analysis leads to the following conclusions.
(1) It is possible to model the anisotropic properties of the rovings in
the finite element analysis by using isotropic elements but partially
decoupling along the boundary nodes of the roving layer.
(2) The lack of sufficient rovings in the pipe adjacent to the flange can
cause a serious reduction in the burst pressure.
(3) The local bending stresses resulting from the flange geometry and
loading has little effect on the burst pressure even though it can
cause a significant increase in the axial stress.
(4) Both finite element and simple analytical solutions tend to
overestimate the failure pressure. It is suggested that this is mainly
due to the difficulties in construction resulting in a reduction in the
strength of the different composite layers in the pipe adjacent to the
flange as compared to a basic pipe with the same glass contents.
The above conclusions are only applicable to the particular geometry and
loading conditions described in the present paper. The last conclusion,
however, implies some caution is needed in assessing the load-bearing
capacity of GRP structures.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The permlSSlOn of the Director General of the Central Electricity

Generating Board, South Western Region for publication of this paper is
acknowledged.

8. REFERENCES

1. MUSCAT!, A. and BLOMFIELD, J. A., Full scale burst tests on GRP pipes. In:
Designing with fibre reinforced materials, London and New York, Mechanical
Engineering Publication Ltd for the Institution of Mech. Engineers, 1977.
2. HELLEN, T. K. and PROTHEROE, S. E., BERSAFE finite element system,
Computer Aided Design, 6 (1974) 15-24.
702 A. Muscati and R. Bradford

APPENDIX: STRESS ANALYSIS FOR TEST SPECIMEN

(NOMINAL PIPE)

Notation
P pressure
D pipe diameter
E Young's modulus
v Poisson's ratio
thickness of different layers
B strain
u stress

Subscripts
I UPVC
2 CSM
3 rovings circumferential
x hoop direction
y axial direction

The problem is that of a composite pipe made of 3 layers; UPVC, chopped

strand mat (CSM) and rovings. Whilst UPVC and CSM are considered to
be isotropic, the rovings are unidirectional providing reinforcement in the
hoop direction only. Two cases are considered, fully restrained and
unrestrained end conditions.

(a) The Unrestrained Case

Equilibrium

(la)

PD
T=u1y·t1 +U2y ·t 2 (lb)
(U3y = 0)
Compatibility
(2a)
(2b)
 Results of Full Scale Burst Tests on GRP Flanges 703

Stress-strain relations
For UPVC and CSM
E
(Ix = -1--
2 (ex
-v
+ Ve) (3a)

(3b)

F or the rovings
(3c)
Solving eqns (1), (2) and (3) gives

PD ( 2- v ) (4)
eX = 4 MI - vZMz
and
PD ( (2-V)M I )
(5)
eY =4vM z 2-MI-V2Mz

where

and
1
M2 =--2
1- v
(Eltl + Ezt z )
All Poisson's ratios are taken as being equal to 0'4, and the thicknesses, t, are
scaled according to the glass content. The Young's moduli and ultimate
strengths used are those of Table 1.

(b) Full Axial Restraint

The analysis is similar to the previous case. Only one equilibrium
equation is required, e.g. eqn. (la), the same compatibility equations can be
used with ey = 0 and the same stress-strain relations as before. This gives
PD
ex = 2M (6)
I

and
ey = 0 (7)
The same approach was adopted to obtain a solution for the case of a 4-
layer pipe which includes axial rovings; see Table 3 for specimens Nos 8
and 10.
 48
Elastic- Plastic Flexural Analysis of Laminated
Composite Plates by the Finite Element Method

F ATEN F. MAHMOUD*
Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University,
Zagazig, Egypt

ABSTRACT

The needfor elastic-plastic flexural analysis of ductile composites continues

to grow with the development of new laminated systems and applications
which, in turn, often require more demanding performance specifications. To
address this need, an economical elastic-plastic laminated finite element is
formulated by combining the theory ofplasticity for homogeneous materials
with the classical laminated plate theory. The outcome is a plate element,
rectangular by choice, capable of representing the flexural behaviour of the
laminated system.

NOTATION

[B] Strain--displacement matrix operator.

[ce] Elastic compliance matrix.
[CP] Plastic compliance matrix.
[D] Stress-strain matrix operator.
{d} Displacement vector.
H Slope of equivalent stress-plastic strain curve.
[K] Element stiffness matrix.
{M} Bending moment vector.
{X} Laminate middle surface curvature vector.
* Formerly Visiting Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, University
of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA.
704
 Elastic-Plastic Flexural Analysis by the Finite Element Method 705

Z Geometric co-ordinate along the thickness.

A Increment symbol.
{s} Total strain.
{sP} Plastic strain vector.
{se} Elastic strain vector.
{a} Stress matrix.
rae] Equivalent stress.

INTRODUCTION

Flexural problems associated with the elastic analysis of composite

laminates have been investigated by several research workers. Classical
laminated plate theory based on the Kirchhoff hypothesis has been well
established. 1.2 However, the solutions obtained from this theory are limited
to simple geometry, load and boundary conditions. Recently, elastic
analysis for laminated composite plates using the finite element method has
been presented. 3 - 6
With the increasing use of composite materials in structural applications,
the need for elastic-plastic flexural analysis of ductile composites grows
with the development of new laminated systems and applications which
often require more demanding and different performance specifications. To
address this need, an economical elastic-plastic laminated finite element is
formulated by combining the theory of plasticity for homogeneous
materials with the classical laminated plate theory. In the present study, a
two-dimensional element, rectangular by choice, capable of representing the
flexural behaviour of the laminated system, is presented. Despite the fact
that the present formulation is based on the non-conforming rectangular
plate bending element, the model can be extended to cover a general
formulation for a quadratic, isoparametric, laminated plate element.

THEORY

The theory is patterned after the classical elastic laminated plate theory for
composite systems,7 but has been extended to include plastic analysis. A
laminated plate element, shown in Fig. I, consists of a finite number of
layers bonded together so that the element kinematically behaves as a unit.
Each layer making up the element is unique and is assumed to exhibit
effective material properties such that it can be treated as homogeneous.
706 Faten F. Mahmoud

z
3

FIG. I. Laminated plate element.

These properties may be anisotropic , non-linear and different. The study is

concerned only with isotropic materials. Also, the analysis is based on the
classical Kirchhoff hypothesis. 8 An incremental analysis is used and the
incremental total strain vector for the mth layer of composite laminate for
each increment ofload causing strain beyond the linear elastic limit is given
by:
(1)

where {Ase}m and {AsP}m are the incremental elastic and plastic strain
vectors of the mth layer.
The piecewise constitutive relationships for the mth layer of the
composite laminate have the form:

(2)

where [c e] is the elastic compliance matrix and [CP] is the plastic

compliance matrix, based on Prandtl- Reuss relations and Von Mises yield
criterion 9 and given by:

«(Jx -1 /2(Jy)«(Jy - 1/2(JJ

«(Jy - 1/2(JJ2

Where H is the slope of the equivalent stress, (Je' versus the equivalent
plastic strain with:
(4)
 Elastic-Plastic Flexural Analysis by the Finite Element Method 707

The stresses (Jx' ••• ' (Jxy' are the total stresses acting in each layer. The
applications of the Kirchhoff- Love hypothesis to the flexure of symmetric
composite laminates is now considered. The laminate incremental strain
can be expressed in terms of the middle surface curvatures at any point, Z,
through the laminate thickness as:
{~c} = Z{~X} (5)
where: {~X} is the incremental middle surface curvature vector.
By substitution of the strain variation through the thickness, eqn. (5), in
the strain-stress relations, eqn. (2), the stresses in the mth layer can be
expressed in terms of laminate middle surface curvature as:
(6)

where:

Integration of the stresses in each layer through the laminate thickness, eqn.
(6), gives the plate constitutive relations in terms of the bending moment in
the following form:
{~M} =D{~X} (7)
where:
m

(8)
m=l

In which the integration in curly brackets represents the combination of

each layer with the overall material stiffness. In the context of the finite
element method, one has:
{~X} = B{~d} (9)

where: {~d} contains the nodal degrees of freedom of the non-conforming

rectangular plate element. 1 0 This study is concerned with three degrees of
freedom per node, the transverse displacement, W, and the total normal
rotations,ex and Oy; however, the theory can be extended to include other
types of finite element or more degrees of freedom per node. 3 . 5
The element stiffness matrix [K] is given by:

[K]= L[BV[D][B]dV (10)

708 Faten F. Mahmoud

where the matrix [K] defines the stiffness of a single elastic-plastic,

composite rectangular element.
Completion of the finite element formulation over the global domain
follows conventional procedure 10 and the solution of the resulting system
of linear algebraic equations of equilibrium is carried out by employing the
incremental method described in reference II.
After the application of every load increment, the layers of each element
are checked to determine their behaviour status (elastic-plastic transition
or plastic) in order to update the constitutive matrix and recompute the
proper stiffness matrix. If an element layer obeys the ideal elastic, perfectly
plastic material law and deforms beyond the elastic limit, its stiffness is
composed of the remaining layer contributions. If all layers are perfectly
plastic and yield, then the entire element stiffness matrix is null. The same
will apply to elements whose layers are strain-hardening materials but
where the total strains are at, or beyond, their rupture limit. Less effort is
expended by recomputing [K] for those elements whose layers are
plastically affected.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

Two examples are now considered.

Example 1. Aluminum-Aluminum Oxide Sandwich Composites

The validity test of the elastic-plastic laminated plate element is carried
out by analyzing the flexural properties of aluminum-aluminum oxide
sandwich composites for which experimental results are available.
A thin strip specimen of 1100-0 aluminum, O' 5 in wide, bare thickness,
0·0118 in, hard oxide coating thickness, 0·0090 in, is subjected to a three-
point bending load and the span is 1 in. A computed load-deflection curve
is obtained and compared with the experimental results reported by
Thornton et al. 12 in Fig. 2. The numerical and experimental results are in
good agreement. The differences in results may be explained by the complex
nature of the actual yielding which the present finite element model is
incapable of representing.

Example 2. Five-Layer Laminated System

A 2 in long, 0·5 in wide, five-layer composite system composed of hard
aluminum face sheets, 0·002 in thick, adhesive interlayers, 0·002 in thick,
and Mylar film, 0·01 in thick, is subjected to three-point bending. The
 Elastic-Plastic Flexural Analysis by the Finite Element Method 709
2.0 ..-------------------:~

1.5

EXPERIMENTAL
cD
1.0
0
~
-'

0.5

0
0.0\ 0 .02 0.03 0.05
DEFLECTION IN.
FIG. 2. Numerical and experimentalload-deflection curves for aluminum-aluminum oxide
sandwich composite.

HARD ALUMINUM
J2

28

24

20

VI
~ 16
VI
VI
!oJ
....VI
0::
12

ADHES IVE

o
.25 . 50 .75 1.00
STRAIN (IN/lN)
FIG. 3. Stress versus strain for the constituent materials of the multilayered system.
710 Faten F. Mahmoud
.20 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

.15

(l)
...J

~ .10
o
...J

.05

o L-____L -____L -____L -____L -__ ~

.01 .02 .03 .04 .05

DEFLECTION IN.

FIG. 4. Load versus deflection for the multilayered system.

stress-strain curves for the hard aluminum, adhesive film and Mylar film
are shown in Fig. 3. Results computed by means of the finite element model
are shown in Fig. 4.

CONCLUSIONS

A finite element model has been applied to the problem of the elastic-plastic
flexure of laminated plates. The theory has been demonstrated through the
use of a simple, non-conforming rectangular plate element but it may be
extended to include more accurate elements and more nodal degrees of
freedom. Good agreement between experimental and numerical results is
obtained.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the University of

Wisconsin-Milwaukee for computing funds.

REFERENCES

1. REISSNER, E. and STAVSKY, Y., Bending and stretching of certain types of

heterogeneous aeolotropic elastic plates, J. Appl. Mech., 28 (1961) 402-8.
2. WHITNEY, J. M. and LEISSA, A. W., Analysis of heterogeneous anisotropic
plates, J. Appl. Mech., 36 (1969) 262-6.
 Elastic-Plastic Flexural Analysis by the Finite Element Method 711

3. MAWENYA, A. S. and DAVIES, J. D., Finite element bending analysis of

multilayer plates, IJNME, 8 (1974) 215-25.
4. OWEN, D. R., PRAKASH, A. and ZIENKIEWICZ, O. c., Finite element analysis of
non-linear composite materials by use of overlay systems, Computers and
Structures, 4 (1974) 1251-67.
5. HINTON, E., The flexural analysis of laminated composite using a parabolic
isoparametric plate bending element, IJ N M E, 11 (1977) 174-9.
6. PANDA, S. C. and NATARAJAN, R., Finite element analysis of laminated
composite plates, IJNME, 14 (1979) 69-79.
7. JONES, R. M., Mechanics of composite materials, New York, McGraw-Hill,
1973.
8. TIMOSHENKO, S. and WOINOWSKY, S., Theory of plates and shells, New York,
McGraw-Hill, 1959.
9. HILL, R., The mathematical theory of plasticity, London, Oxford University
Press, 1950.
10. ZIENKIEWICZ, O. c., The finite element method, London, McGraw-Hill, 1977.
11. MARCAL, P. V. and KING, I. P., Elastic-plastic analysis of two-dimensional
stress systems by the finite element method, International Journal of the
Mechanical Sciences, 9 (1967).
12. THORNTON, J. S., YENAWINE, D. L. and THOMAS, A. D., Flexural properties of
aluminum-aluminum oxide sandwich composites, J. Composite Materials, 3
(1969).
 Index

Accelerated characterization Automotive industry-contd.

procedure, 286 electrical components, 19
Acoustic emission, 450-62 highly stressed body and
Acrylonitrile butadiene, 677 mechanical parts, 20-1
ADX 16/AP-22, 589 interior components, 19
Aircraft materials characterisation, 22-4
applications, 687 penetration diagram, 21
skin repair, 555 plastic engine, 20
structures, 656, 676 technology transfer, 18-21
Airy stress function, 264 Average stress criterion, 539, 548
Alkali-resistant fibres, 496-7, 501 Avtur contamination, 565-8
Aluminium-aluminium oxide Axial stresses, 393-7
sandwich composites, 708
Aluminium coated glass fibres, 431
Analysis techniques, 438-49 Bagasse fibre-formaldehyde
Analytical solution, 694 composites, 620
Angle-ply Banana, 620
composite skins, 634 fabric-polyester, 629, 630
laminates, 51, 656-73 Bearing behaviour, 69
immovable edges, with, 660, 661 Bending, strain energy of, 338
movable edges, with, 659, 660 Bending moments, 397
Anisotropy effects, 26, 35, 315,489, mid length of skeletal members, at,
539, 636-44, 648, 701 395
Autoclave processing, 593-6 secondary, 396
Automobiles, minimum energy skeletal members and continuum,
concept, 475-83 in, 396
Automotive industry Bending strains, 526
body appearance, panels, lightly Bending stresses, 396, 526
stressed mechanical parts, 19 Bifurcation, 355, 392, 396
713
714 Index

Bolt tests CAPGLIDE (Composite Aircraft

multiple, 71 Program Glider) project, 6
single, 69 Carbon-epoxy laminates, 512-35
Bolted joints, 34-49 Carbon fibre
composite laminates, 50-62 laminates, 537, 540
graphite cloth epoxy, 63-78 reinforced plastics, 389
shearout strength, 35 Carbon fibre/polyimide matrix
strength analysis, 50-1 composites, 592-601
Boundary autoclave processing, 593-6
conditions, 249 hydroclave processing, 598
layer press moulding, 596-8
approach, 247-61 raw material selection, 599-60 I
equations, 248, 250 Cauchy stress tensor, 264
stresses, 253-5 Cement based materials, 602-17
Box sections, post buckling, 402-14 fibre reinforcement, 602-3
Buckling fungal decay, 607-8, 613
classical analysis, 323~ 5 sisal reinforcement, 608-14
coefficient, 340, 404, 406, 412 termite attack, 607-8, 613
composite plates, 322-6, 343-5 theoretical considerations, 603-8
complicating effects, 326 variability in fibre properties, 608
nonclassical phenomena, 326 water absorption, 606-7, 611
connected plates or sections, 412 Young's modulus, 603-6, 608
edge slope coefficient, 407-8 Characteristic distance, 35
effects of local imperfections, 376 Characteristic-limiting dimension,
load, 516, 521-2 650
calculation, 521-2 Classical Laminate Theory (CLT),
experimental, 396 248, 250, 254, 255
local, 368-70, 377, 380 Coir fabric-polyester, 629
mode expression, 387 Coir fibre, 620, 628
platestrips, 512-35 Columns
post-local, 370-2 centroidally loaded, 377-8
interaction, 373-5 design characteristics, 582-3
prediction of, computer program, fabrication, 580-91
392 imperfection sensitivity curves, 380
reinforced plastic plates, 403-6 load-deflection equilibrium, 378-80
relative stiffness at, 406 manufacturing process, 585
resistance to, 397 mode interaction in, 366-82
section analysis, 410 process selection rationale, 583
stress, 412 COMPAD program, 12
theoretical load, 396 Compatibility equation, 339
unsymmetrical, 352-65 Complex stitched cloth, 185
variation in locally buckled form Complex stitched cloth/high
after, 375-6 toughness matrix, 185
see also Postbuckling Composite
Burst tests, 690, 692, 700 plates, 312-34
classical theory, 314
effective width concept, 335-51
CAPCOMP program, II governing plate equations, 338
 Index 715

Composite-contd. Cylindrically orthotropic model

plates-contd. material, 224-34
simply supported plate with discussion of results, 228-33
unloaded edges free to wave preparation, 225-6
in-plane, 346-7 properties, 226-8
simply supported plate with selection criteria, 228-33
unloaded edges restrained in-
plane, 339-46
Damage tolerance, 536-54
suitable effective width curves for
assessment, 633-4, 647
design use, 349-50
Damping factor, 662
use of term, 312
Data acquisition and procedures, 516
see also Laminated plate(s)
DDS, 675, 681
structural model, 389-91
Deflection
Compressive strength, 506
analysis, 123-34
Computer Aid Design (CAD)
function coefficients, 358, 359
techniques, 135
Deformation
Computer programs, 387, 392, 524,
symmetrical initial, 359
653, 695
unsymmetrical initial, 360
Constituent angle ply laminates, 51
Degrees of freedom
Continuum/skeletal fibre matrix
plate elements, for, 385
system, 383-401
skeletal member, for, 385
Copper coatings, 628 .
Delayed failure model, 294
Corrosion, stress. See Stress corrosIOn
Design implications, platework, 362-4
Corrosive environments, GRP failure DGEBPA,681
in, 106-22 Dielectric constant, 627, 629
Crack propagation by fibre fracture, 119 Dielectric strength, 627, 629
Cracking Differential scanning calorimetry
environment effect, 493 (DSC), 439, 447
stress corrosion. See Stress Diffusion models, 94
corrosion cracking Dimensional analysis, 575-8
Creep Discs, variable thickness, 135-43
rupture Displacement transducer, 516
experimental results, 295 Dough moulding compounds (DMC),
prediction, 297 19,24
strength, 493 Drilling of small holes, 236-9
Cross-ply laminated bimodular strips, Ductility effects, 538
123-34 Durability evaluation, 647
boundary conditions, 129 Dynamic mechanical analysis, 438-49,
compatibility equations, 128 442-7
constitutive equations, 128 Dynamic Relaxation (DR) method,
deflection results, 129-33 123-34
DR solution procedure, 129 Dynamic thermomechanometry,
equilibrium equations, 128 438-49
lamina properties, 125
stiffnesses, 126-8
strip geometry, 125 Edge slope coefficient, 407-8
Crystic resins, 161, 169, 172,212,416, Education
418-22,426 after graduation, 13
716 Index

Education-contd. Fatigue
bibliography of textbooks, 15 properties, 506, 569, 686
combined coursework and design resistance of aircraft structures, 656
project experience, 6-7 strength, 493
design project experience, 6 testing, 560, 573-9,679
elements of, 3-5 Felicity Effect, 453
facilities necessary for, 5 Felicity Ratio, 455
formal coursework, 6 Fiberite HMF330q34 graphite cloth
graduate, 7-13 epoxy, 65
major programs, 9-12 Fibre(s)
nonmajor programs, 12-13 alkali-resistant (AR), 496-7, 50 I
philosophies of, 5-9 angled,491
undergraduate, 2-7 cross, 491
United States, in, 1-15 glass, 165-8
Effective width concept, composite orientation effects, 26
plates, 335--51 Fibredux, 439, 441, 442, 445, 446
E-glass fibre, 159 Fibre-reinforced composites, 170--4
Elastic hulls, 204-9
compliance matrix, 706 laminates. See Laminated plate(s)
properties, rubber composites, 270 Fibre-reinforced structures, 484
Elastic-plastic flexural analysis, Finite element analysis, 385, 695, 699,
704-11 704-11
Elastomeric additives, 674-89 Flame propagation, 628
Electrical properties, natural fibres, Flange reinforcement, 700
623 Flexural problems, 705
Electncal requirements, Thorstrand Flexural stiffness, 560
systems, 434-5 Fourier series, 356-8
Electrically conductive prepreg Fracture
systems, 430--7 energy, 641
Element stiffness matrix, 707 mechanics, 541, 680
Engineering plastics, 16-33 models, 537-40
Environment effects, 493 morphology, 547
Epikote 808/Ancamine AC resin, 565 resistance, 537
Epikote 828/Ancamine AC resin, 565 stresses, 644-5
Epoxy resins, 674 surface(s), 680
Equations of motion, 658 energy, 635, 636
Equivalent linearization method, 662 toughness, 541, 543, 552, 644, 676,
Expansion coefficient, 441, 594, 596, 677
599 Freeze-thaw effects, GRC, 507
Fungal decay, 607-8, 613
Failure
criteria, 35, 44, 235, 538, 634
mechanisms, 680 Galerkin integration technique, 346,
model, 646-55 358
modes, 34 Generalised Plane Stresses, 249
prediction procedures, 287, 634 Geometric matrix, 387
pressure, 690--703 Glass
under applied load, 28 analysis, 693
 Index 717

Glass-contd. Halpin-Tsai equations, 303

fibre, 165-8 HMF330Cj34 graphite cloth epoxy,
epoxy resin, water absorption by, 71
92-105 Honeycomb core, 634
reinforced cement (GRC), Hydraulic fluid contamination, 565-8
496-511 Hydroclave processing, 598
accelerated durability testing, Hyfil-Torayca carbon fibres, 303
501-3
behaviour under continuous
long term loading, 503-6 Impact
compressive strength, 506 testing, 679
design stress values, 508-10 toughness of reinforced tiles, 610
development, 496-8 Inherent flaw model, 548
fatigue, 506 Initial displacement matrix, 387
freeze-thaw effects, 507 Initial stress matrix, 387
low temperature behaviour, Isochromatic fringe patterns, 242-4
507
shear strength, 506
spray dewatered, 504 K-calibration, 636-44
strength effects, 502 function, 635, 636
ultimate strength, 497 polynomials, 636
weathering studies, 498-501 Kaiser Effect, 452, 455, 456
working stress levels, 508-10 Kevlar
transition temperatures, 66 structures, 436
Glass fibre/polyester resin, 106-22, systems, 168-80, 435
182-201 Kirchoff hypothesis, 705, 706
ring compression tests, 107 Kirchoff-Love hypothesis, 707
Glass fibre/PVC foam sandwich,
480
Glass-reinforced plastics, 22, 202-4, Laminate strength model, 646-55
215 Laminated conical shells
continuum/skeletal fibre matrix fabrication constraints, 144
system, 383-401 optimization, 144-57
microcracking, 415-29 Laminated plate(s)
pipe installation, 690 angle-ply, 51, 65,6-73
seawater immersion effects, 221 bolted joints, 50-62
stress corrosion, 415-29 containing circular hole, 50-62,
thermal strain, 415-29 646-55
Vee sections, 389-92 elastic-plastic flexural analysis,
Global stiffness matrix, 387 704-11
Grafil EHM-S, 540 element, 706
Grafil EHT-S, 540 fibre-reinforced, 202-23
Graphite cloth epoxy bolted joints, five-layer system, 708
63-78 future work, 220-1
Graphite/epoxy columns, 580 material properties, 54-61, 463-74
Graphite/epoxy laminate, 285-300 mixed fibre, 205
Graphite/polyimide composite panels, notched, 538, 549
457 seawater immersion effects, 214-15
718 Index

Laminated plate(s)-contd. Mechanical properties-contd.

secondary bonding, 209-14 mixed fibre laminates, 205-9
stress rupture, 79-91 natural fibres, 623
test Mechanical/sandwich connection, 482
procedure, 216 Membrane
results, 217-20 actions, strain energy of, 338
through thickness, 209-14 strains, 517, 526, 534
under in-plane loading, 247 stresses, 525
Laplace's equation, 253 Metafil G fibre, 434, 435
LARC-160 resin, 593, 594, 596, 598 Microcracking, 415-29, 603
Large deformation matrix, 387 Micromechanics analysis, 235
Lekuetherm X-50, 589 Minimum energy vehicle (MEV),
Limit of Proportionality (LOP), 497, 475-83
503,509 competition guidelines, 477
Linear elastic fracture mechanics mechanical/sandwich connections,
(LEFM), 536-8, 541, 549, 482
634-6 preliminary design, 478
Linear elastic stiffness matrix, 387 unitized body, 480
Linearization error, 662 Mixed fibre laminates, mechanical
Load properties, 205-9
design factor, 80 Modulus (compliance) master curves,
factor, 387 288
Load-bearing lamina, 650 Mohr circle of birefringence, 240
Load-deflection data, 67 MynO-DDS system, 589
Load-end displacement plot, 517
Load-strain plot, 517
Loaded hole laminates, 52 NASA-AFOSR program, 11
Low temperature behaviour, 507 NASA-Virginia Tech. Composites
Program, 10
NASTRAN,52-3
Mandrel winding, 587 Natural fibre reinforced composites,
Marine applications, 158-81 618-32
choice of construction materials discussion, 621-30
for, 160-70 experimental methods, 1620-1
design characteristics, 174-80 future work, 630-1
hull laminates, 214-15 preparation and properties, 621
reinforcement system, 165-70 price comparisons, 619
resin system, 160-2 production statistics, 619
Master curves, 288, 290 properties, 620
MDA,675 test results, 621-30
Mean-square error, 663 Natural organic fibres, 602-17
Mean-square modal amplitude, 663 Nonlinearity coefficient, 659
Mechanical properties Notch
effects of elastomeric additives, depth, 644
674-89 length, 538, 541
high performance composites, 537 sensitivity, 35, 541-54, 549, 551-3
hull laminates, 214-15 tip radius effects, 545
laminated plates, 463-74 Notched laminates, 538, 549
 Index 719

Notched specimens, 541 Polyester Compounds Group, 21

Notched strength, 540, 553 Polyester/glass composites,
microcracking, 421-2
Polyester/glass laminates, stress
Optical isoclinic parameter, 240 corrosion, 422-8
Optimization model, 151 Polyester /Kevlar composites, 158-81
Organic composite systems, 674 Polyester resin A/Lucidol
Orthotropic birefringent models, 239 CH50/DMpT,567
Orthotropic elastic behaviour, 262-84 Polyester systems
Orthotropic elastic halfplane, 265 fatigue properties, 569
Orthotropic elastic properties, 271 fibre-reinforced, 175
Orthotropic elastic quaterplane, Polyimides, 674
267-70 see also Carbon fibre/polyimide
Orthotropic plates, 352 matrix composites
governing equations, 355 Polymer Engineering Directorate, 21
imperfections in, 353 Polyvinylchloride foam, 480
load-deflection relationship, 354 Postbuckling, 523-6
theoretical analysis, 355-9 box sections, 402-14
unsymmetrical buckling, 352 calculations, 523-6
composite plates, 327-8, 340,
343-5, 347
Painting, 31 connected plates or sections,
Palmyra, 620 412-14
Pineapple leaf, 620 reinforced plastic plates, 406-8
Pipe section analysis, 410-11
geometry and construction, 691 Prandtl-Reuss relations, 706
installation, 690 Predictive models, 547
Plane-strain testing, 272 Prepreg systems, electrically
Plastic conductive, 430-7
analysis, 705 Press moulding, 596-8
compliance matrix, 706 Pressure spectral density (PSD), 657,
Platestrips, buckling of, 512-35 663
Platework design implications, 362-4 Pressure tests, GRP pipes, 691
Plied reinforcement, 547 Principle of Minimum Potential
Ply Energy, 339
constraints, 549-51
orientation effects, 553
stacking sequence, 545 Quickcure QC/Lucidol CH50/DMpT
thickness effects, 552-3 resin, 566
Point stress failure criterion, 35, 44, Quickcure QC3/Butanox M50 resin,
538 566,568
Poisson Quickcure QC3/Lucidol
ratio, 551 CH50/DMpT resin, 567
splitting, 419
stresses, 550
Polaris rocket motor case project, 451 Rayleigh-Ritz method, 467
Polarized light, 236 Recommended Practice for Acoustic
Polyaramid fibre, 168-70, 174 Emission Testing, 453-5
720 Index

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Ship construction-contd.

(RPI), 11-12 top-hat stiffener fabrication
Repair schemes, 555-72 methods for GRP, 182-201
control tests, 561 see also Marine applications
discussion of test results, 565 Silenka 1200 tex 'E' glass fibres, 416
simulation-repair, 558-9 Sisal
specimen preparation, 560 fibres, 620
test reinforced specimens, 608-14
procedure, 560 Snap-buckling effect, 354-5
programme, 556-- 8 Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI),
results, 561 453
Residual strength, 614 Southwell-plot, 517
Resin Space
injection and cure process, 588 platforms, 580, 583
system selection and management, structures elements, 580-91
589 Space Shuttle, 582
Restraint coefficient, 404, 409 Stability analysis, 383-401
Rheological properties, 685 basic concepts, 384-7
Rigid punch problem, 277 comparison between experimental
Ring compression tests, 107-9 and theoretical results, 393-6
Ritz-Galerkin methods, 315 experimental procedure and results,
Ritz technique, 356 392
Roofing sheets, 614 finite element formulations
Roofing tiles, 608 considering non-linear
Root-mean-square deflection, 657, behaviour, 387
667,670, 671 low load levels, 399
Root-mean-square stresses, 657, 666, theoretical procedure and results,
670 392-6
Royal Aircraft Establishment, 556 theory, 384-7
R-RIM urethanes, 19,26 types of elements, 384-7
Rubber composites, 262-84 Stacking sequence effects, 553
elastic properties, 270 Stainless steel screw reinforcement,
orthotropic elastic properties, 271 185
Rupture modulus, 613 Stiffness matrix, 142, 386, 387, 707
Strain
concentrations, 488
corrosion, 108
Sandwich plate, 312 energy, 469, 551
Seawater immersion effects, 214-15 bending, 338
Section analysis, 408-11 function, 264
Shear strength, GRC, 506 membrane actions, 338
Shearout failure mode, 34-49 gauges, 516
Shearout point stress failure criterion, magnification factor (SMF), 492
39 Strength
Sheet moulding compounds (SMC), criteria, 537-40
19,23, 24, 27, 31, 573-9 master curves, 288
Ship construction Stress
hull construction, 202-23 analysis, 235-46, 694, 702-3
 Index 721

Stress-contd. Temperature
concentrations, 34, 487-8, 536, 539, distribution, 577
647 effects, SMC-R30, 573-9
corrosion, 108, 415-29 Tensile fatigue assessment, 555-72
biaxial, 111-21 Tensile testing, 560
cracking, 106, 118, 422-8 Tension plate loading, 585-7
polyester/glass laminates, 422-8 Termite attack, 607-8, 613
service failures, 109-11 TGMDA, 675, 681
distribution, 51, 53, 484, 485, 487, Thermal load vector, 139, 142
488, 490, 537 Thermal strain, 415-29
field, 648 vector, 139
function, 253, 338, 346, 358, 657 Thermal stresses, 135-43, 550
coefficients, 358 Thermally conductive prepreg
intensity factor, 538, 633-45 systems, 431
levels for multidirectional Thermomechanical analysis, 441, 442
laminates, 53 Thermosetting resins, 159
response, 664 Thorstrand prepreg systems, 431-2
rupture electrical requirements, 434-5
behaviour of GRP laminates in manufacture, 435-6
aqueous environments, Through-thickness constraint effects,
79-91 550
failures, 505 Time-temperature-stress
tests, 504 superposition principle
shift factor, 290 (TTSSP), 288-90
state, 648-50 Time-temperature superposition
tensor, 248 principle (TTSP), 286, 288
Stress-strain relationships, 465-6, 491, Titanium bolt reinforcement, 185
623-7, 703, 707, 710 Top-hat stiffener fabrication methods,
Stress-wave-factor, 450-62 182--201
Structural Analysis Program SAPV, centre clamp loading, 195
36 comparison of loading modes, 198
Structural applications, 580-91, 676, discussion of results, 193-4
687 effect of clamping mode on stress
Structural design, 484-95 distribution, 195-200
fabrication effects, 485-9 experimental results, 187-94
loading effects, 489 reinforced specimens
strength aspects, 489-95 centre clamp loaded, 192
structures and materials, 485 three-clamp loaded, 193
Structural response surfaces, 148 specimen testing, 186-7
Symmetric matrix, 387 test-specimen fabrication methods,
184-6
three-clamp loading, 193, 197
two-clamp loading, 196
Tangent Stiffness Matrix, 387 unreinforced specimens, 189
Technology transfer, 16-33 Torsional braid analysis (TBA), 442
automotive industry, 18-21 Toughness properties, 685
examples, 22-31 Toughness values, 676
overview, 17-18 Transformation equation, 286
722 Index

Transmission photoelasticity, 224-46 Viscoelastic properties, 301-11

Transmitted isochromatic fringe experimental problems, 303-6
order, 242 experimental results, 308
Transverse cracking, 120, 121 Viscoelastic response, 285-300
Tsai-Hill-Zhurkov type failure Viscosity time/temperature
theory, 298 relationship, 677
Voltage measuring circuits, 451
Von Mises yield criterion, 706

United States, education in. See

Water
Education
absorption
University of Delaware, 10-11
cement based materials, 606-7,
611
glass fibre reinforced epoxy resin,
Vertical winding machine, 585 92-105
Vibration, 314-22 effects on GRP laminates, 79-91
complicating effects, 318-22 immersion tests, 170--74
equation of motion, 467 Weight reduction, 20
natural frequencies and mode Width correction factor, 538
shapes of rectangular plates, Wilton, HMS, 205, 220
467-74 Woven fabric reinforcement, 600
natural frequency expression for Woven fibre reinforcement, 547
orthotropic rectangular Woven graphite composite, 685
plates, 468-71
testing, 463-74 Y920, 212
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Young's modulus, 473, 497,521-2,
State University (VPI), 9 603-6, 608, 636 .