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Faulting, fault sealing and fluid flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs:
an introduction

R. J. KNIPE, G. JONES & Q. J. F I S H E R

R o c k Deformation Research Group, The University o f Leeds, Leeds L S 2 9JT, UK

Abstract: A predictive knowledge of fault zone structure and transmissibility can have an
enormous impact on the economic viability of exploration targets and generate considerable
benefits during reservoir management. Understanding the effects of faults and fractures on
fluid flow behaviour and distribution within hydrocarbon provinces has therefore become
a priority. To model fluid flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs, it is essential to gain a detailed
insight into the evolution, structure and properties of faults and fractures. Generation of
realistic flow models also requires calibration with data on the fluid distributions and flow
rates from hydrocarbon fields. Most hydrocarbon geologists at one time or another have
asked the question 'What is the behaviour of this fault?'. This question, as emphasized by
the contributions to this volume, should more fundamentally be phrased; 'What is the
geometry of this fault zone, what are the nature and petrophysical properties of any fault
rocks developed and how are they distributed in the subsurface?'. An additional important
question is 'What impact could the fault zone have on fluid flow through time?'. The proper-
ties and evolution of fault zones can be evaluated using the combined results of structural
core and down-hole logging, microstructural and physical property characterization,
together with analysis of faults from seismic and outcrop studies and well test data. Success-
ful fault analysis depends upon the amalgamation of these data and incorporation into
robust numerical flow models.

Compared to many other areas of petroleum upon factors such as the host rock composition,
geoscience, studies on the structural controls on deformation mechanisms and the stress history,
fluid flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs are in their etc. Secondly, fault zones can have highly com-
infancy. As hydrocarbon reserves have become plex geometries, with strain being accommo-
depleted and the oil industry has become more dated not just on a single fault plane but within
competitive, the importance of cutting costs by a complex array of faults known as a damage
minimizing well numbers, optimizing production zone. A particular implication of this is that
and predicting the occurrence of subtle traps has existing reservoir models could not incorporate
highlighted the need for information on the way the real complexity of faults and even if they
in which faults and fractures affect fluid flow. could, fundamental gaps existed in our under-
Structural geologists are now becoming increas- standing of fault structure and fault properties.
ingly expected to provide answers to questions Recent progress in understanding faulting
such as: processes (Underhill & Woodcock 1987; Scholz
1989; Cowie et al. 1993; Sibson 1994), fault
• Are hydrocarbons likely to have migrated into
rock development (Knipe 1989), fault geometry
(or out of) the trap?
(Peacock & Sanderson 1994), fault populations
• What is the likely height of hydrocarbons that
(Gillespie et al. 1993; Cowie et al. 1996) and
a fault can support?
improved analysis of reservoir hydrodynamics
• Is it likely that compartments exist within a
as well as new core recovery techniques and the
field which have not been produced and
capabilities of 3D seismic, all provide a platform
will therefore require further drilling?
for improving fault analysis. In particular, in the
Early research laid a firm foundation with which last six years new data has become available to
to address many of these questions. For example, allow the problem of fault and fracture related
papers such as Smith (1966, 1980), Schowalter fluid flow to be addressed in a more sophisticated
(1979), Watts (1987), Allan (1989) and Bouvier manner (Knipe 1992a; Gauthier & Lake 1993;
et al. (1989) have presented and reviewed many Berg & Avery 1995; Moller-Pedersen & Koestler
of the fundamental principles which control 1997; Coward et al. 1998). For example, the
fault sealing within hydrocarbon reservoirs. availability of 3D seismic data has provided a
Knipe (1992a,b, 1994) also highlighted the wealth of information on the macro-structure
importance of two long-recognized observations. of faults. Integration of seismic, field and core
Firstly, the petrophysical properties of deforma- studies has allowed the detailed internal structure
tion features can vary significantly depending of faults to be investigated. There has also been a

KNIPE, R. J., JONES,G. &FlSHER, Q. J. 1998. Faulting, fault sealing and fluid flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs:
an introduction. In: JONES, G., F~SI4ER,Q. J. & KNIPE, R. J. (eds) Faulting, Fault Sealing and FluidFlow in Hydro-
carbon Reservoirs. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 147, vii-xxi.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 5, 2019

viii R.J. KNIPE E T A L .

fault array Establish sub-seismic fault

density and fault zone Assess sealing
structure mechanisms and fault
rock properties
II
kl
i I Evaluate critical
Map seal distributions on I J juxtapositions and seal ]
Test models against fault planes which might
hydrocarbon contact , ' form compartment distributions
levels if known boundaries

I Model reservoir flow and the impact of faults on drainage patternsl

i |

Fig. 1. Outline of the important stages in fault analysis and seal evaluation.

large increase in the characterization of the which was held at the University of Leeds in
microstructural and petrophysical properties of September 1996. The volume has been structured
fault rocks (Knipe 1989; Knipe et al. 1997; into four sections:
Gibson 1998).
• Fault zone mapping, geometry and evolution.
The data now available to the geoscientist, geo-
• Faulting processes and fault seal characteriza-
physicist and reservoir engineer allow a new level
tion.
of integration needed to develop and test different
• Experimental and numerical modelling of
methodologies of fault evaluation. The challenge
deformation and fluid flow.
is to make use of these advances and to identify
• Structure and seal analysis of hydrocarbon
the best practices which lead to a more cost-effec-
fields.
tive and accurate prediction of faulting related
influences on hydrocarbon reservoir behaviour. These sections are intended to cover the critical
Figure 1 outlines the important components areas that are important to advancing our under-
needed for fault evaluation. The evaluation standing of fault-related fluid flow, i.e. those
route emphasizes that a range of different ele- where there is the need to understand the structure
ments has to be combined in order to assess the and flow properties of fault rocks, the need to
fault sealing or leaking potential. Each of these model fluid flow, and finally the need to apply
components carries its own resolution limits and calibrate these findings against information
and sources of error. One of the limitations of on the distribution and rate of fluid flow in exist-
fault analysis has been the complex nature of ing hydrocarbon reservoirs. Each of these themes
the variables involved and the difficulty in accu- forms a sub-section of this introduction. A brief
rately defining each of the important factors. review of the recent advances in these areas, the
Calibration of any method is dependent upon requirements for future advances in these areas
the ability to separate the impact of individual and the likely limitations to present solutions are
components in the analysis and the need to discussed in the context of the volume contents.
include all the critical variables. The lack of It should be noted that part of this introduction
data on the accurate characterization of fault is based on a recent review written by the authors
zones and fault properties has resulted in the (Knipe et al. 1997), published by the Norwegian
adoption of a number of assumptions about Petroleum Society.
faults which are not always applicable and have
resulted in the exclusion of a number of impor-
tant factors from risk evaluations. Such omis- Fault zone mapping, geometry and evolution
sions have reduced the success of fault seal/leak
analysis and generated a perception that risk That fault zones are composed of deformation
evaluation is impossible rather than difficult. clusters which surround (or form halos to)
The present volume provides a broad sample large offset faults has been recognized for some
of the areas critical to fault analysis and resulted time (e.g. Engelder 1974; Aydin 1978; Chester &
from a conference entitled 'Faulting, Fault Seal- Logan 1986; Wallace & Morris 1986). Damage
ing and Fluid Flow in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs', zones represent the accommodation of strain
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INTRODUCTION ix

Fig. 2. An example of the complex architecture of a fault damage zone as imaged on a seismic attribute map (dip
magnitude). Note that the fault zone is composed of linked segments and domains where different sub-structures
are present. The simple interpretation of the fault zone (a) would be misleading if used as a basis for fault seal
analysis.

around large faults, and are the products of fault single fault plane, where the offset is assumed
propagation, displacement and linking processes to be equal to the seismic (cumulative) offset.
operating during the life of the fault zone. It is This is clearly not always valid as a representa-
important to recognize that the damage zone is tion of throw distributions for use in fault seal
the final product of the total history of strain analysis. Figure 2 also illustrates that sub-seismic
accumulation in the volume around a large fault populations may be clustered around larger
fault and should therefore be separated from faults with extensive areas of low fault densities
fault process zones (Cowie & Scholz 1992) away from the large faults. This has important
which develop at fault tips during propagation. implications for the spatial distribution of sub-
An example of the potential complexity of a seismic faults and emphasizes that uniform dis-
fault zone is shown in Fig. 2. The illustration is tributions of small faults are not always applic-
of a seismic attribute map (dip magnitude) and able (except perhaps in areas where more
shows that the fault zone is composed of linked uniform straining is associated with doming).
segments and domains where different sub-struc- The information contained in Fig. 2 reinforces
tures are present. The internal structure of the the results of other recent studies which have
northern and southern segments is made up of noted different fault architecture associated
anastomozing faults which enclose lenses of with fault segment structures or domains
more intact reservoir. The central segment (Cartwright et al. 1996), relay zones (Peacock &
appears to be composed of a smaller number of Sanderson 1994), and tip zones (McGrath &
faults with larger throws. It is also interesting Davison 1995). It is also clear that attribute
to note that a concentration of low-dip, short dis- mapping from high-quality 3D seismic surveys
continuities occur on the eastern side of the fault offers an important direction for the future
that probably represent the accommodation characterization of fault segment and damage
zone of small structures. The width of this zone zone geometries (see Jones & Knipe 1996).
increases towards the central (high displacement) The critical elements of fault damage zones
portions of individual segments. which are needed for fault seal evaluation and
Figure 2a illustrates the type of simple inter- for input into reservoir behaviour simulation
pretation of the fault structure often used as a include: (i) the dimensions of the damage zone;
basis of fault analysis. This interpretation is (ii) the fault clustering characteristics; (iii) the
based on the representation of the fault as a fault offset populations, which can control the
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x R. J. KNIPE E T AL.

STRUCTURAL FREQUENCY
10 20 30 40

Fig. 3. Cartoon of the main structural elements of a

fault damage zone. The zone is composed of a cluster of
deformation features around a large offset fault. Note
that the juxtapositions seen differ from those which
would be occur if only a single fault was present and
that the presence of an array of deformation features
can induce the development of micro-compartments or CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
sealed cells in the fault zone.
Fig. 4. Structural log of core entering a fault damage
distribution of fault rocks and juxtapositions; zone. The high structural frequency, faults and
(iv) the orientation distributions of deformation fractures concentrated at the base of the core, are
arranged in clusters which define steps in the
features present within damage zones; and (v)
cumulative frequency curves.
the total thickness of fault rocks. Each of these
aspects are reviewed in Knipe et al. (1997).
The importance of damage zones to fault seal faults with offsets of >75 m have damage zones
analysis in hydrocarbon reservoirs was high- which can extend for ~150m. The edge of the
lighted by Knipe (1992b, 1994). The impact of damage zone is taken here as twice the back-
the damage zones on fault seal are reviewed in ground structural density. An example of the
Fig. 3. The primary influences of damage zones variation in the frequency of structural features
on fault seal and reservoir behaviour analysis away from one fault (the Ninety Fathom fault
are: exposed in Whitley Bay, Tynemouth) is shown
in Fig. 5. These data highlight the degradation
• The juxtapositions inferred by using a single
of the reservoir properties close to the faults.
fault model are different from those associated
The size of the damage zone is also dependent
with a cluster of smaller faults.
upon the lithologies which have been faulted, the
• The volume of deformed rocks around faults
deformation conditions and the distribution of
can affect the volume of reservoir with recover-
strain between the hanging wall and footwall.
able hydrocarbons.
Figure 6 is a cartoon which reviews the main
• The presence of an array of deformation fea-
factors which may control the dimensions and
tures rather than a single fault can influence
shape of damage zones and illustrates how the
the changes in cross- or along-fault communi-
observed concentrations of deformation in
cation induced by reactivation events.
either the hanging wall and the footwall can
The development of an increased frequency of arise. It should be noted that these variations
structural features in the volume around large form part of the 3D variation in fault zone struc-
faults is a ubiquitous characteristic of the cores ture likely to occur along larger faults.
studied from the North Sea (Fig. 4). The fre- Most fault offset population analyses (see
quency of deformation features can increase Walsh & Watterson 1992; Cowie et al. 1996)
from background levels of <50/100m of core have concentrated on the prediction of the
to values exceeding 600/100m of core, close to number of sub-seismic faults over large areas
faults. The dataset reveals that the structural fre- (>1 km 2) rather than the distribution of the
quency increases with increasing offset and that faults within the fault damage zones themselves.
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INTRODUCTION xi

power-law, fractal relationship) for the central

120. • Number of Faults / m2 part of the measured populations.
E • Figure 8 shows a number of fault offset popu-
80"i lation data sets from cores through different
t~ faults and presents information on the growth
IJ- •
"~ 40" •
of fault populations. The figure shows that with
• •
• • increasing fault development (increasing total
0 • no
z • • population) there is a change in the fractal
| i | _
0 number or slope towards higher values (i.e.
0 40 ~ 120 160
Distance from Ninety Fathom Fault (m) fault populations are not simple fractal systems
where one fractal number can describe the fault
population characteristics). This indicates that
400"• Number of Nodes / m 2
, • • as the level of deformation increases (either
E300" with increasing fault offset magnitude or proxi-
~, • mity to a fault) the fault population grows to
~ 200 '. • contain a larger proportion of small offset faults.
z
The 3D orientation distributions of structural
o 100- m~l •
6 ,; == • • features within damage zones are also important
Z
-
•
: • •
•
: • :
in l-- i- for modelling of fluid flow as the non-parallel
00 4 8 120 160 members of the arrays induce an intersection
Distance from Ninety Fathom Fault (m) network which will control the connectivity of
barriers. It is insufficient to characterise the aver-
Fig. 5. Example of the increased structural frequency age fault orientations or to identify average fault
and number of fault intersection nodes present in a trends or families. A more detailed statistical
damage zone associated with the Ninety Fathom Fault, analysis of fault orientations is needed in order
Whitley Bay, Tynemouth, U.K.
to evaluate the 3D distribution and connectivity
of flow paths and barriers. An analysis of fault
In many cases a uniform distribution of faults dips from North Sea wells yields an average dip
across an area is assumed. The data from the of 59 ° . However, the standard deviations of
structural logging of North Sea wells illustrate these datasets, which will control the density
that the characteristics of faults found on a field and pattern of intersections, is typically between
scale are also present within individual fault 15 ° and 26 °. It is clear that the small scale struc-
zones identified on seismic or from well data. As tures exhibit more variation in orientation than
the population of small faults around larger struc- the larger scale structures, and demonstrates
tures will control the distribution of juxtapositions that seismic fault orientation distributions
and fault rocks, detailed characterization of the cannot be used in a simple way to predict sub-
offsets is important to seal analysis. Figure 7 illus- seismic fault patterns.
trates the population characteristics of three fault The model of fault damage zones which
zones with different offsets. The plot illustrates the emerges from the data presented above is of a
increasing population and a similar slope (a volume of deformed reservoir surrounding fault

Planar Fault Fault Steps Fault Splays Tip Strains Lithology Control

Fig. 6. Cartoon which reviews variations in the geometry of fault damage zones. The simple elliptical geometry
of the planar fault (i) is likely to be modified in reality by strain fields caused by: (i) fault steps, (ii) deviations
away from a plane, (ii) at fault splay points, (iv) from extensional tip strains and (v) fault offset populations in
damage zones.
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xii R. J. KNIPE E T AL.

Populations of Cores Intersected by Seismic Faults

-- 1000
[] 60m (49%)
o • 15m (56%)
[]
E~ [3
n
El [] [][]
[]
~ 7m(47%)
0 " - - 100 0 0 • • n_O[]DDr-~_
<> <> <>
0 o 0 • • ~qZ.,
O0 OlI u []O
0
I.L'~
2~'~_
10

Oo !
o 1
10 100
Offset (mm)
Fig. 7. The fault offset populations of three fault zones with different cumulative offsets. The plot illustrates the
increasing population and a similar slope (or power-law, fractal relationship) for the central part of the
measured populations.

zones, where with increasing proximity to the of these inner and outer regions of damage zones.
main fault, the structure of the fault zone alters The first section of this volume deals with the
(see also Knipe et al. 1997). The damage zone imaging, geometry and temporal and spatial evo-
can be viewed as being composed of 'onion lution of fault arrays. A feature of the papers in
skins' each with different densities, architectures this section is the wide range of approaches
and connectivities between potential barriers. taken in this area of study. Geometrical charac-
Damage zones can be considered to be made terization of fault arrays in the subsurface is
up of two main domains with different flow still a major challenge, especially in basins that
properties: an outer zone and an inner zone. are often seismically indistinct, such as the
The outer zone of the damage zone will be North Sea.
composed of a volume with a higher structural At the seismic scale, Townsend et aL discuss a
density (minor faults and fractures) than outside number of methods for the imaging and charac-
where, if the fault rocks are effective barriers, terization of small scale faults in reservoirs,
tortuosity controls the flow behaviour. The emphasizing the sensitivity of a number of seis-
inner zone is where the structural density and mic attributes, notably seismic amplitude, for
architecture (i.e. fault population, clustering resolving structures at the limits of the data.
and orientation characteristics present) generate These authors also address the important issues
a linked 3D array, which together form a contin- concerning the future directions to be taken in
uous barrier, where flow is controlled by the fault the structural analysis of seismic data, and the
rock properties. The challenge for fault analysis tools that will be needed to undertake these
is to be able to define the geometry and location tasks both rapidly and efficiently.
Steen et al. have attempted the difficult
approach of linking the detailed fault geometries
.._,.10000 obtained from field mapping with seismic attri-
0 butes, to produce predictive models for the
o 1000
densities and distributions of small faults in the
E
0 i subsurface. A number of synthetic horizon
0 100
0"
maps were generated based on outcrop and ana-
logue model data, and compared to those
,4,-.. 10
obtained from the Snorre Field in the northern
1
North Sea.
vo
Marehal et aL use X-ray tomography of scaled
0
0.1 physical models to elegantly illustrate how fault
0.1 1 10 100 arrays could initiate and propagate in three
log (offset (mm))
dimensions. Such analysis is an invaluable aid
Fig. 8. Fault offset populations from cores through to the interpretation of fault geometries in, for
different faults. Note that with increasing fault example, 3D seismic data. The paper suggests a
development, there is a change in the fractal number or means of reconciling presently recognized
slope towards higher values. models of fault propagation (radial tip zone
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INTRODUCTION xiii

propagation model, Cowie & Scholz 1992; seg- petrophysical property determination. Without
ment linkage model, Cartwright et al. 1995). such information, identifying the origin of the
petrophysical properties may be impossible,
because the type of (and timing of) deformation
processes which control the pore characteristics
Faulting processes and fault seal and the fault rock strength, of the fault rocks
characterization remain poorly defined.
In the second section of this volume, the iden-
A detailed understanding of the fundamental tification and characterization of faults and fault
processes which control the evolution of fault seals, including the microstructural, diagenetic
rocks and their properties is required in order and petrophysical properties of fault rocks, are
to predict their effect on fluid flow in hydro- considered in a series of papers.
carbon reservoirs. The deformation processes Adams & Dart review the characteristics of
which result in the development of fault-related likely sealing faults in the sub-surface, as deter-
permeability barriers or pathways have been mined from borehole imaging techniques. This
reviewed by Mitra (1988) and Knipe (1989, dataset bridges the important scale gap between
1992a, 1993a,b) and include: deformation- core and seismic data, and is of significant
induced porosity collapse by disaggregation, value in that it provides in situ data regarding
mixing and grain boundary sliding without the length, dip, orientation and fluid retardation
large scale cataclasis; diffusive mass transfer; properties of subsurface structures. The authors
cataclasis; cementation and clay/phyllosilicate emphasise the largely qualitative nature of the
smearing. Studies reporting the detailed physical sealing data generated and recommend an inte-
properties or microstructural evolution of fault grated approach to interpretation which incor-
rocks in hydrocarbon reservoirs include the porates core, conventional wireline log,
analysis of clay smears (Knipe 1992a, 1994; pressure and hydrocarbon production datasets.
Knipe & Lloyd 1994; Berg & Avery 1995), cata- Foxford et al. describe the results of their
clasites within clean sandstones (Pittman 1981; detailed field study of the geometry of the
Antonellini & Aydin 1994; Fowles & Burley Moab Fault zone in Utah and have discussed
1994), and faults within impure sandstones the implications that the observed fault geometry
(Sverdrup & Bjorlykke 1992; Gibson 1994, would have for the sealing properties of similar
1998). Despite these studies, the lack of data on structures in the subsurface. The authors con-
the petrophysical properties of deformed reser- clude that the fluid transmissibility properties
voir rocks has placed major constraints on the of such a fault zone would be essentially impossi-
ability of geologists to not only model fluid ble to predict, due to the heterogeneous nature of
flow, but also to interpret fluid and pressure the fault zone over short distances as a result
distributions, as well as fluid flow rates, within of fault propagation processes. However, their
hydrocarbon reservoirs. The lack of a detailed analysis has also revealed that shaley gouge is
link between the petrophysical properties of present all along the fault, except where the
deformed rocks and factors such as the sediment mudstone content of the faulted sequence is less
composition and lithification at the time of than 20%, and note that this conforms to
deformation or the stress and thermal history existing predictive models used for clay smear
experienced has also prevented the prediction analysis in the subsurface.
of fault rock properties prior to drilling. The contribution of Peacock et al. links detailed
Detailed evaluation of fault-rock properties outcrop work on fault geometries and propaga-
requires the integration of microstructural infor- tion processes in carbonate rocks with microstruc-
mation on the deformation mechanism history of tural analysis of the resultant fault rocks. They
fault rocks with porosity, permeability and conclude that pressure solution features may be
capillary entry pressure data. Such an analysis important fluid retardation barriers in contrac-
should involve the use of electron microscope tional regions of fault arrays in such sequences.
based techniques (especially BSEM and CL) They also note that phyllosilicate material
for detailed microstructural analysis (see Knipe becomes concentrated along faults in fine-grained
1992a). In addition, equipment capable of carbonates, which again may result from enhanced
accurately measuring low (>>0.01 mD) perme- pressure solution during or after faulting.
abilities is required. Some of the studies reported Fisher & Knipe focus on the microstructural
in the literature have not used techniques which controls on the petrophysical properties of defor-
allow clear resolution of the important micro- mation features obtained from cored reservoir
structural elements or have been restricted by units from the North Sea. These authors provide
the measurement ability of equipment used for the first comprehensive detailed classification of
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xiv R.J. KNIPE E T AL.

fault rock and fault seal types based on factors can evaluate the flow through complex fault net-
such as the clay content at the time of deforma- works in damage zones is an important compo-
tion, the amount of cataclasis experienced and nent of future fault analysis (see Knipe et al.
the extent of post-deformation lithification. The 1997).
paper also outlines many of the key factors There are a number of papers in this volume
which influence the petrophysical properties of which assess specific aspects of fault evolution
fault rocks. and the relationship of faulting to fluid flow.
Two experimental and analytical papers in this Matthai et al. use extensive outcrop data from
volume consider the efficiency of shales as faulted sandstones to construct a numerical
membrane seals. Krooss et aL have considered reservoir model that describes how joints and
in detail fluid transport in faulted and unfaulted deformation bands could affect radial drawdown
pelitic rocks and conclude that no systematic under production conditions. They show that
relationship could be found between permeabil- normal faults with highly permeable slip planes
ity and microfault frequency, the distance of a can compartmentalize fluid pressure in the
sample to a microfault plane, or to sonic velocity model over timespans greater than years and
anisotropy in the sampled mudrocks. Mean- also focus fluid flow.
while, Faulkner & Rutter have measured the The experimental approach of D'Onfro et al.
permeability of fine-grained fault gouge from a for identifying conductive fracture flow paths
compressional fault zone and found that the has used the extensive test facilities available to
gouge exhibited permeability anisotropies of up these researchers to attempt a complete geologi-
to three orders of magnitude. cal and geophysical characterization of the flow
characteristics of a subsurface fractured carbo-
nate unit. The results obtained from high resolu-
tion seismic surveys (pre- and post-air injection)
Experimental and numerical modelling of and interference tests, were then tested by dril-
deformation and fluid flow ling. This validated the presence of a previously
predicted open fracture in the sub-surface. The
The data presented above highlight the complex- paper of Maillot et aL describes a fully tensorial
ity of fault zones and that a detailed analysis of 3D model of fault growth in an elastic medium.
fault sealing can be of limited value if a simple These authors relate their findings to the assess-
fault zone structure is assumed. Despite these ment of anisotropic stresses around faults on
complexities, it is also clear that a more con- strain accumulation and consequently to the spa-
strained analysis of faulting and flow behaviour tial organization of crustal deformation.
is possible if the detailed fault zone architecture Fleming e t aL tackle the problem of fluid flow
is considered. both in and around open fault zones, and
Two variables are particularly fundamental to describe the associated thermal effects within
assessing the flow across complex fault zones. sedimentary basins. They suggest that large-
The first variable is the cumulative fault-rock scale buoyancy-driven circulation can occur
thickness across the flow path through the fault within fault damage zones in a normally pres-
zone, i.e. the total thickness of fault rock from sured basin situation, which is associated with
all faults along the flow path. This depends thermal anomalies. Henderson takes a slightly
upon the fault frequency along the flow path different slant on the problem of fluid flow in
and is not equivalent to the fault damage zone fault zones by discussing how compaction affects
thickness (cf. Knott 1993), unless the fault zone the degree and rate of fluid flow, using a finite ele-
is invaded by cements. The second variable is ment model. When compaction is slow, a power-
the connectivity of the faults or deformation fea- law relationship of earthquake event sizes occurs,
tures with low permeabilities in the fault zone. In whereas under rapid compaction, non power-law
the case of a completely connected array with no statistics apply. He suggests that the non power-
windows of undeformed material along possible law scaling of fault offsets often observed may be
flow paths, the flow is controlled by the perme- a real feature of the datasets, rather than a result
ability of the fault rocks. Where a more open net- of poor sampling, as is often assumed. Leary
work of faults is present, then the flow will observes that borehole logs of rock properties
depend upon the tortuosity associated with flow in the metre to kilometre scale range have
around the low permeability zones and the power-law Fourier spectra that scale inversely
ratio of matrix to fault-rock permeability. The with spatial frequency to a power near unity,
interaction of these two factors will control the with a narrow range of scaling components. He
effective transmissibility of the zone. The devel- suggests that if such 'long range' correlated
opment of reservoir simulation packages which random 'structures' control fluid flow, reservoir
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INTRODUCTION xv

management cannot be accurately achieved by of sub-seismic faults can reduce the risk asso-
using flow models constrained by small-scale ciated with fault analysis. How many fault seal
sampling of the reservoir rock. Lastly, Lesnic analyses or reservoir modelling attempts have
et al. discuss a mathematical solution for locating produced poor history matching because the
and assessing the hydraulic conductivity of a potential variation in fault juxtapositions arising
fault in a rock mass. from the combined impact of resolution limita-
tions and fault zone sub-structure have not
been considered?
The evaluation of fault-seal potential along
Structure and seal analysis of hydrocarbon individual faults can be time-consuming if each
fields fault has to mapped in enough detail to allow
accurate definition of reservoir and fault inter-
The final section of this volume deals with the use sections. It is often more efficient to divide the
of structural geological techniques in reservoir evaluation process into two phases.
characterization, and emphasizes with specific
examples, the practical and applied aspects of (a) Phase 1: involving a rapid assessment of the
fault and fracture characterization in the produc- impact of fault throw, sedimentary architecture
tion of hydrocarbons. and fault zone structure on the juxtapositions
The basic requirement for fault seal analysis is and sealing properties of faults in the field. This
the generation of a realistic, maximum proba- can be achieved by the use of simple juxta-
bility map of sealing capacities along individual position/fault seal diagrams (Knipe 1992b,
fault zones. This involves evaluation of the 1997) without the need for detailed seismic map-
possible juxtaposition patterns within the zone ping of either stratigraphic horizons or faults.
as well as an assessment of the variance of fault The advantage of this procedure is that critical
rock properties. The method most commonly fault throws, which create 'leaky' windows
used in evaluating fault seal distributions is the across faults, can be identified and then used to
construction of Allan maps (Allan 1989) which help locate areas of the field where more detailed
illustrate stratigraphic geometries of horizon/ analysis of the seismic data is needed.
fault plane intersections and are either drawn Figure 9a, b illustrates the basis of the juxtapo-
by hand or used in conjunction with fault sition and fault seal diagrams. The details of the
mapping software (such as FAPS) (Freeman construction of these diagrams are presented by
et al. 1989; Needham et al. 1996; Yielding et al. Knipe (1997). The figure plots the reservoir
1997). Construction of these maps can be an stratigraphies in the footwall and hanging wall
essential but difficult task, and the important along the vertical axes and increasing fault
limitations of these maps (e.g. seismic resolution, throw along horizontal axis. The diagrams can
interpretation error) are not always considered in be considered as a horizontal view of a 'trans-
detail. The assumption made in constructing parent' fault where the stratigraphy in the foot-
these fault plane maps is that the throw indicated wall is a horizontal and the hanging-wall
across a fault identified on seismic represents a inclined. The juxtapositions between the hang-
single fault plane. ing-wall and footwall are represented as either
Two factors are therefore critical in the triangles or parallelograms on the fault surface.
evaluation of the geometrical distribution of The range of juxtapositions along a fault with
seals in fault zones. The first relates to the constant or variable throw can be assessed
accuracy of mapping, the stratigraphic horizons, from the range of triangular and parallelogram
the fault zone location and the cumulative throw areas intersected by either a vertical or inclined
distributions. This is usually controlled by the line. The impact of seismic resolution can be
resolution of seismic data and is generally of assessed by considering the intersection of a
the order of 20-30m for high quality datasets band of throws with a thickness which accounts
in the North Sea. Such a resolution of both for the resolution. Damage zones can be evalu-
surface and fault mapping can introduce a large ated by considering an array of faults, where
range of possible juxtaposition patterns, even if the combined throw is equal to the cumulative
a fault zone with a single fault plane is present. throw interpreted from seismic. It is also useful
The second limitation centres around the prob- to include 'side-wall' plots of the critical depth
lem of characterizing the sub-seismic fault property data which help in the delineation and
damage zone architecture along the fault zones classification of fault rock types and properties.
and in tip areas. A previous section of the These side-wall plots can include porosity, per-
paper on fault structure reviewed how character- meability, net gross ratios, and various down-
ization and modelling of the critical parameters hole-tool log data sets (see Fig. 10a).
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xvi R.J. KNIPE E T AL.

Juxtaposition Diagram
a Faultplane- 1

Fault Throw (m)

Fig. 9. Juxtaposition diagrams for use in fault seal analysis. See text for details.

Fault seal types, based on the analysis of fault structure of tip areas and connectivity of
rock properties derived from the different host fault zones (tip-tapping) into stratigraphic
rocks as well as on the throw and juxtaposition horizons able to generate cements.
history, can be generated on a separate (fault (2) Assessment of data on the presence of fault
seal type) diagram. Areas on the diagram with damage zones and structural variation
different properties can then be identified (see along fault zones, from both individual seis-
Fig. 10b). this procedure allows the mapping or mic lines as well as attribute data, if available
contouring important sealing properties on the (see Jones & Knipe 1996). The aim is to iden-
diagrams. The fault properties which can be tify segments or domains, where different
mapped onto these diagrams include permea- fault patterns may be present. For example,
bilities, shale smear potential, transmissibilities, early relay zones, which mark the ends of
sealing capacities, and seal strengths. The linked fault segments, have a high probabil-
diagrams can also be used to correlate these ity of developing from overlapping faults
properties with well test or production data to and often represent areas where accommoda-
validate the analysis. tion of displacement is distributed on a
number of faults, i.e. these areas will be char-
(b) Phase 2: seismic based mapping (in selected
acterized by low throw juxtapositions (see
areas) of detailed fault and reservoir horizon
Knipe 1997).
geometries using Allan diagrams (see Fig. 11)
(3) Analysis of the location and heights of poten-
to constrain the depth and location of 'leaky'
tial leaky fault juxtaposition windows on
windows and to provide a platform for analysis
Allan diagrams which arise from variations
of the potential controls on hydrocarbon/water
in: (i) the possible depths, geometries and
contacts, pressure differences, production and
locations of stratigraphic horizons and
drainage patterns as well as field communication.
faults; (ii) the difference between cumulative
Phase 2 involves the detailed mapping of both
throws on individual fault zones, indicated
reservoir horizons and faults and requires
from seismic and the most likely size of the
assembling fault plane maps, as well as integra-
throw on the largest real fault in that zone;
tion with well data on hydrocarbon/water
and (iii) the sediment architecture and conti-
contacts, pressure distributions and production
nuity. The end result should be a probability
data (e.g. Jev et al. 1993). The following is a list
map of the distribution of sealed and leaky
of the important considerations which should
windows along the critical fault zones
be involved in this stage of the analysis:
which can be compared and evaluated using
(1) Evaluation of the coherency of fault offset pressure or production differences across
patterns and gradients (Walsh & Watterson faults (see also Yielding et al. 1997).
1991) to identify fault intersections, erosion (4) The generation of communication and drain-
of fault tops at unconformities, the sub- age maps for potential compartments and
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INTRODUCTION xvii

a sand n/g Phyllo Perm (mD) ,

Selected
. ,

i
5 •i

:;; :::

i
;i

m
0.5 25 50 75 hierarchy hierarchy average sand n/g phyllo perm (mD) pors (%)
sand n/g Porosity (%) Calculate host Basis for calculating
rock types host rock types

Host rock lithologies

High ~- ~ :e Low Med.
perm. perm.. perm. san(]Impure ~ S h a l e ~ Cementedunit
sane sane sand

Fault throw (m)

50 lOO 150

~otwall (FW)
0
inst high perm. sand

inst med. perm. sand

,gies)
IW or P-W

nst low perm. sand

gies)
N or FW

)ure sand
gies)
,r FW past
o
5 -rich
~= lC gies)
->~ -'W past

g
1.1_

15

Fig. 10. Juxtaposition diagrams illustrating the modelling of different litho-classification scheme (a) and areas of
different juxtapositions (b).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 5, 2019

xviii R.J. KNIPE E T AL.

SW NE
1 Km
I I
o / / . . . . . . ...,.. .J"
L~
CO

/ ,ll'/" l

0
0
r..O

//
/"
j/

/
/ /.-
/
/'
J
• ]
High Permeability fault rocks and stratigraphy juxtaposition
~ 1 Intermediate Permeability fault rocks due to mixed stratigraphy
producing phyllosilicate framework fault rocks
I Low Permeability fault rocks and shale / shale juxtaposition,
producing phyllosilicate framework fault rocks
[ ~ High Probabililty of low permeability clay smear fault rocks
.//
O1_ , /'/
~ Low Permeability cemented fault rocks and
stratigraphy juxtaposition
[ ~ High Probabililty of low permeability cemented fault rocks

Fig. 11. Example of an Allan diagram illustrating the juxtaposition and fault seal types likely on a single fault.

the correlation and integration of these with the production cycle of these two fields. The
hydrocarbon/water contacts, pressure test paper by Ericsson et al. draws on a large seismic
and production data. and well database available from a producing
(5) Input of the most robust reservoir character- field in the Arabian Gulf to illustrate how an
ization geometries and properties into simu- understanding of tectonic fracture systems can
lation models. significantly improve production and extend
field life. Detailed characterization of the frac-
Note that in the exploration situation, as
tures in this field has successfully been linked to
opposed to the field development case, the differ-
the geological structure.
ent levels of data availability will dictate which of
the above analytical procedures are possible and
which of the missing (or poorly defined) elements
represent the high risk factors. Summary
There are three papers in the volume which
describe the application of different fault analysis This paper and those contained in this volume
techniques to specific fields. Two of these hydro- highlight that a number of components are
carbon fields are located on the Norwegian important to the evaluation of fault flow beha-
Continental Shelf and are addressed in the viour. Some of these variables are often not
papers of Knai & Knipe and Ottesen et al. included or not quantified in sufficient detail to
These emphasize the impact that an integrated allow a robust fault evaluation. The main com-
programme of fault rock property and fault ponents which are not always considered in
zone characterization can have when used in detail are: (i) the errors in throw patterns which
reservoir prediction and management. A signifi- arise from seismic resolution and fault damage
cant finding of these studies was the ability to zone structures, (ii) the assumption that juxta-
use core-based studies as input for upscaling in position of reservoir against low permeability
reservoir simulations. The work undertaken has units and shale smear are the only sealing
had an important impact on planning early in mechanisms; and (iii) that fault behaviour data
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 5, 2019

INTRODUCTION xix

• 3-D Sediment • Poroperm • Damage Zone • Fault Activity,

Architecture Data Character Timing
• Pressure Test
Data

Fig. 12. Reviews of the critical factors needed for an integrated seal analysis. These include: (i) data on the 3D
sediment architecture, (ii) the petrophysical properties of the fault rocks present, (iii) the architecture of individual
fault zones and (iv) the fault array evolution.

from one area is directly applicable to any other transferring data or results from areas with dif-
sealing problem, i.e. that the geohistory is not cri- ferent geohistories, without consideration of the
tical to the seal evaluation. Each of these factors different geohistories involved.
can have a major impact on seal analysis, and if Despite the common assumption of fault seal-
not considered will induce a poorly constrained, ing in hydrocarbon fields, very few faults have
high risk model and render detailed reservoir been characterized in the degree of detail which
modelling of little value. categorically allows identification of the sealing
A number of. elements stand out as being mechanism (s) or controls. Without the construc-
important directions for future studies. These tion of a robust set of case histories from such
include incorporation of the geomechanical analysis, future seal evaluation will remain a
properties of fault rocks into analysis of reservoir high-risk venture. These case histories are also
behaviour and integration with present day needed to integrate seal behaviour with pressure
stress; assessment of the continuity, spatial test, production and in situ stress analysis. This
distribution and petrophysical properties of paper has highlighted the importance of an
fault rocks within fault zones and how these integrated approach from micro to macro and
data may be integrated into flow models; an stressed the value of core-based studies to
assessment of whether fault arrays are ordered quantify fault rock properties, sub-seismic fault
or chaotic and finally the validation of the applic- populations and sealing mechanisms. The aim
ability of fault seal risk assessment procedures. of this review has been to demonstrate that
The analysis presented here has highlighted the although a complex problem, there are tech-
need to integrate datasets from different scales niques which can be, and should be, applied to
into an amalgamated seal analysis (e.g. Leveille fault seal analysis as they allow a clearer under-
et al. 1997). Figure 12 reviews the four critical standing, quantification and therefore predict-
factors needed from the different scales. These ability of the factors involved.
include: (i) data on the 3D sediment architecture;
(ii) the petrophysical properties of the fault rocks Many people helped to make the conference a success,
present; (iii) the architecture of individual fault particularly Jayne Harnett, Ned Porter, Liz White,
zones; and (iv) the fault array evolution. It is Andy Farmer, Ewart Edwards and Kevin Leahy of
RDR and the Conference Secretariat of the University
the combined resolution and characterization of Leeds. We also thank the staff of the Geological
level of each of these which defines the risk Society and Bob Holdsworth of the Tectonic Studies
level of the seal analysis. There is an important Group for their contributions. Special thanks are due
geohistory component in each of these factors. to the long list of people who generously spent time
This emphasizes the problems associated with reviewing the manuscripts in this volume and of
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 5, 2019

xx R . J . KNIPE E T AL.

course to the authors for their efforts and patience. We ENGELDER,J. T. 1974. Cataclasis and the generation of
particularly thank the following companies for finan- fault gouge. Geological Society of America Bulle-
cial and logistical support for the conference: Arco tin, 85, 1515-1522.
British, BP Norge UA, British Gas E & P, Chevron FOWLES, J. & BURLEY, S. D. 1994. Textural and perme-
U.K., Conoco U.K., Elf Caledonia, Mobil U.K., Phil- ability characteristics of faulted, high porosity
lips Petroleum, Shell U.K. and Texaco U.K. Finally sandstones. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 11,
Alan Roberts is thanked for reviewing this introduction 608-623.
and, as editor of The Geological Society Special Publi- FREEMAN, B., YIELDING, G. & BADLEY, M. 1989. Fault
cation Series, for suggesting inclusion of parts of our correlation during seismic interpretation. First
early review to help set the scene for the contents of Break, 8 (3), 87 95.
this volume. GAUTHIER, B. D. M. & LAKE, S. D. 1993. Probabilistic
modelling of faults below the limit of seismic reso-
lution in Pelican Field, North Sea, Offshore
United Kingdom. American Association of Petro-
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