MECHATRONICS

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL CONDITIONING & OP-

AMP
PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK
MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

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 Mechatronic system components
ACTUATORS SENSORS
▪ Solenoids, voice coils ▪switches
INPUT SIGNAL
▪ DC motors ▪Potentiometer, Thermocouple CONDITIONING AND
▪ Stepper motors ▪Photoelectrics, Accelerometer INTERFACING
▪ Servo motors ▪Digital encoder ▪ Discrete circuits ▪ Filters
▪Hydraulics, Pneumatics ▪Strain gauge, MEMs ▪ Amplifiers ▪ A/D, D/D

OUTPUT SIGNAL
DIGITAL CONTROL ARCHITECTURES
GRAPHICAL CONDITIONING &
DISPLAYS ▪Logic circuits ▪Control algorithms
INTERFACING
▪LEDs, LCD, CRT ▪Microcontroller ▪communication
▪D/A, D/D ▪Power transistors
▪Digital display ▪Sequencing & Timing ▪SBC, PLC
▪Amplifiers ▪Power op amps
▪Logic & Arithmetic ▪A/D, D/D
▪PWM

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Introduction

• Signal conditioning needed because signal from sensors

– May be too small to be amplified
– Contains interferences which has to be removed
– Non linear signals require linearization.
– Be analogue and to be made digital.
– Be digital and to be made analogue
– Be resistance change and to be made current change
– Be voltage change and to be made current change.
Interfacing with a Microprocessor

• Simplest interface could be a piece of wire.

• Interface have signal conditioning and protection, to avoid
damage to microprocessor.
• Microprocessor needs to be protected against excessive
voltages or signals of wrong polarity.
• Microprocessor requires input to be digital so if sensor output
is analogue, it requires an analogue to digital conversion.
• We may require analogue signal to be amplified before
conversion to digital.
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• Even digital signals need to be conditioned for better quality.
• Actuator might require analogue signal so the digital output
from microprocessor needs to be converted into analogue
signal.
• Protection for any signal being inputted back to
microprocessor is also required.

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Signal Conditioning Processes

• Following processes may occur in conditioning a signal

• Protection to prevent damage to next element e.g., a
microprocessor as a result of high voltage or current. Ex.
– Series current limiting resistors.
– Fuses to break.
– Polarity protection.
– Voltage limitation circuit.
• Getting the signal to be right type of signal i.e., making the
signal into a DC voltage or current. Example:
 – Resistance change of strain gauge to be converted to voltage change
(by Wheatstone bridge and out of balance voltage)
– Making signal digital or analogue as the case may be.
• Getting the right level of signal. Example
– Thermocouple signal (milli volts) needs to be amplified (operational
amplifiers are widely used for this purpose)
• Eliminate or reduce the noise by using filters.
• Signal manipulation: making it linear of some variable. Example:
Flowmeter signal is non-linear and so a signal conditioner to be
used to make it linear.

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Operational Amplifiers

• Operational amplifier (often called op-amp), is a high gain DC

voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually a single
ended output.
• The gain is of the order of 100,000 or more.
• Ideally, it increases the amplitude of a signal without affecting
the phase relationship of different components of the signal.
• It is supplied as an integrated circuit (IC) on a silicon chip.
• It is packaged in eight-pin dual in-line package integrated
circuit chip.
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• Op-amp is available in packaging. 741 Op-amp is widely used.
• Internal design of a commercially available 741 IC, consists of
transistors, resistors and capacitors.
• Op-amp can be combined with external discrete components to
create a wide variety of signal processing circuits.
• It is the building block for more complex electronic circuits like
inverting amplifier, noninverting amplifier, summing amplifier,
integrating amplifier, differential amplifier, logarithmic amplifier,
comparator, A/D and D/A converters, active filters, and sample
and hold devices.
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Packaging and pin number of 741
op-amp

Pin descriptions of 741 op-amp Internal design of 741 op-amp

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Commercially available forms of 741 OP-amp
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Amplifier Model
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Generally, an amplifier is modeled as
a two-port device, with an input and + +
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
output voltage referenced to ground. - -
• The voltage gain 𝜇 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 / 𝑉𝑖𝑛
• The input impedance, 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 / 𝐼𝑖𝑛
• Most amplifiers are designed to have
a large input impedance so very little
current is drawn from the input.
• The output impedance of an amplifier, 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 / 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 is a measure of how + +
much the output voltage drops with output 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
current. - -
• Here the voltage drop ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is measured
relative to the output voltage with no
current.
• Most amplifiers are designed to have a very
small output impedance so the output
voltage will not change much as the output
current changes.
Ideal model for operational Amplifiers

• Ideal op-amp is a differential

input, single output amplifier
assumed to have infinite gain.
• Voltages are referenced to
common ground.
• Since it is an active device, it
requires connection to an Symbolic representation and
external power supply (usually terminal nomenclature for an
+15 and -15V). ideal op-amp
• Since op-amp is an active device, o/p
voltages and currents can be larger than
the values applied to the inverting and
non inverting terminals.
• An op-amp circuit usually has feedback
from the o/p to the inverting input. This
feedback results in stabilization of the
Op-amp with feedback
amplifier and helps in control of the gain.

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Op Amp Equivalent Circuit

1. It has infinite impedance at both inputs; hence,

no current is drawn from the input circuits.
Therefore, 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 = 0 𝐼out
2. It has infinite gain. As gain 𝜇 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 / 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , where
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 . So 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0, i.e. 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 . This is
denoted by the shorting of the two inputs.
Actually some small resistance will exist.
3. It has zero output impedance. Therefore, the
output voltage does not depend on the output
current. Op-amp may draw any current up to a
limit depending on its power handling capacity.
Inverting Amplifier

• An inverting amplifier
inverts and amplifies
the input voltage.
• To achieve this, two
external resistors are
connected to op-amp
as shown
Equivalent Circuit for an Inverting Amplifier

• KCL at C
• 𝐼in + 𝐼out = 0 (assumption 1, no
current can flow into i/p of op-
amp)
• So 𝐼in = −𝐼out
• 𝑉𝑐 = 0 (two i/p are shorted at C)
• Voltage across R1, 𝑉1 − 𝑉c = 𝐼in 𝑅1
• 𝑉1 = 𝐼in 𝑅1 (Since 𝑉c = 0)
• Voltage across resistance 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑉out − 𝑉c = 𝐼out 𝑅𝑓
• 𝑉out = 𝐼out 𝑅𝑓 (Since 𝑉c = 0)
• 𝑉out = −𝐼in 𝑅𝑓 (Since 𝐼in = −𝐼out ) 𝑉1
𝑉out 𝑅𝑓
• =− t
𝑉1 𝑅1
• So, voltage gain is determined by 𝑉out
external resistance 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅1
• Also it inverts the polarity of the t
i/p signal. Inversion and amplification of signal
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Noninverting Amplifier

• A non inverting amplifier

amplifies the signal without
inverting it.
• Here the input signal is applied
to the non inverting input.
• A portion of the output is fed
back to inverting input.
Equivalent Circuit For A Noninverting Amplifier

• Voltage at node C is 𝑉2
• Ohm’s law to resistor 𝑅1
0−𝑉2 𝑉2
• 𝐼in = =−
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑉 −𝑉
• At 𝑅𝑓 , 𝐼out = out 2
𝑅f
• 𝑉out = 𝑉2 + 𝑅f 𝐼out
• KCL at C, 𝐼in + 𝐼out = 0
• So 𝐼in = −𝐼out
• So 𝑉2 = 𝑅1 𝐼out
• 𝑉out = 𝑉2 + 𝑅f 𝐼out
𝑉out 𝑅f 𝐼out
• =1+
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑉out 𝑅f
• =1+
𝑉2 𝑅1
• The non-inverting amplifier
has a positive gain more than
or equal to one.
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Buffer or follower
• For non-inverting amplifier
𝑉out 𝑅f
• =1+
𝑉2 𝑅1
• If we take 𝑅f = 0 and 𝑅1 = ∞ (high input
impedance), then we get 𝑉out / 𝑉2 = 1, or
the output voltage is equal to the input
voltage.
• Here, the high input impedance isolates
the source from the rest of the circuit.
Thus, this circuit is called a buffer.
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Amplifier Errors

• Offset voltage
• Ideally if two input shorted –
There should be no output.
• Actually output is there.
• To compensate this apply
suitable voltage between two
𝑉−
terminals. Offset voltage correction
• This is offset voltage.
The Real OP AMP

• The actual op-amp deviates in characteristics from an ideal

op-amp.
• Real op-amp has
– Very high i/p impedance, so little current is drawn at its
i/p.
– There is little voltage difference between input terminals.
• Important terminal characteristic of real op-amp are
– Input impedance
– Maximum output voltage.
• Two other important characteristics of real op-amp are
associated with its response to square wave input.
• When we apply a square wave i/p to an amplifier circuit, the
o/p is not a square wave. It exhibits a ramp from one level to
the next.
• In order to quantify the op amp step response, two
parameters (i) slew rate and (ii) rise time are defined.

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• Slew rate: It is the maximum Δ𝑡
time rate of change possible for
Output
the output voltage, i.e., 𝑆𝑅 =
Δ𝑉 Δ𝑉
Δ𝑡
• Rise time: It is time required for
o/p to go from 10% to 90% of Input
its final value. It is specified by Effect of slew rate on a square wave.
manufacturers for specific load
and input parameters.
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• Frequency response is an important characteristic of real op-
amp.
• Ideal op-amp exhibits infinite band width.
• A real op-amp has a finite band width which is function of the
gain established by external components.
• To quantify the dependence of bandwidth on gain, another
definition GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT (GBP) is used.
• GBP of an op-amp = open loop gain × bandwidth at that gain.
• Typical op amps exhibit a linear loglog
relationship between open-loop gain
and frequency with the op amp’s gain
decreases with input signal frequency.
• Higher-quality op amps have larger
GBPs.
• The open-loop gain is a characteristic of
the op amp without feedback while the
closed loop gain is the overall gain of an Op-amp open and closed-loop
op amp circuit with feedback. response
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• The closed-loop gain is always limited
fall-off
by the open-loop gain of the op amp. closed-loop frequency
• The frequency where the open-loop
gain curve first starts to limit the
closed-loop gain is called the fall-off
frequency.
• As you increase the gain of a circuit,
you limit its bandwidth. Similarly if we
want a small bandwidth larger gains can Op-amp open and closed-loop
be used. response
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References

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in

Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson,
2015
• R. Merzouki, A. K. Samantaray, P. M. Pathak, B. Ould
Bouamama, Intelligent Mechatronic Systems: Modeling,
Control and Diagnosis, ISBN 978-1-4471-4627-8, 2013,
Springer, London
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to
Mechatronics, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2012.
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Thank You

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