SECTION 13.

5 + SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS 459

SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS

In Section 13.2 we learned that, in general, there is a limit to the amount of solute that can
be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent and also that a solution is said to be saturated
460 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

when this maximum amount of solute has been dissolved. The amount of dissolved solute
in a saturated solution is given by the solute's solubility.
Most solutions chemists deal with are unsaturated rather than saturated solutions. The
amount of solute present in an unsaturated solution is specified by stating the concentration
of the solution. The concentration c!f' a solution is the amount c!f' solute present in a speci­
fied amount c�f' solvent or a spec(tied amount of solution. Thus, concentration is a ratio of
two quantities, being either the ratio
Amount of solute Amount of solute
or
Amount of solvent Amount of solution
In specifying a concentration, what are the units used to indicate the amounts of solute
and solvent or solution present? In practice, a number of different unit combinations are
used, with the choice of units depending on the use to be made of the concentration units.
In each of the next four sections we shall discuss a commonly encountered set of units used
to express solution concentration. The concentration expressions to be discussed are (I)
percentage of solute (Sec. 13.6), (2) parts per million and parts per billion (Sec. 13.7), (3)
molarity (Sec. 13.8), and (4) molality (Sec. 13.9). A fifth concentration unit, normality,
which is used extensively in situations that involve the reactions of acids and bases, will be
discussed in the next chapter (Sec. 14.17) where the topic of acids and bases is considered.

CONCENTRATION: PERCENTAGE OF SOLUTE

F. Y.I. The concentration of a solution is often specified in terms of the percentage of solute in the
Normal saline used in hypo­ total amount of solution. Since the amounts of solute and solution present can be stated in
dermic solutions is 0.9% terms of either mass or volume, different types of percent units exist. The three most com­
NaCl (m/v).
mon are
1. Percent by mass ( or mass-mass percent).
F. Y.I. 2. Percent by volume (or volume-volume percent).
DSW solutions used in hos­ 3. Mass-volume percent.
pital IVs are 5% glucose
sugar (m/v). The percent unit most frequently used by chemists is percent by mass (or mass-mass
percent). Percent by mass is equal to the mass of solute divided by the total mass of solu­
tion multiplied by JOO (to put the value in terms of percentage). (Percentage is always part
of the whole divided by the whole times I 00; see Sec. 3.9.)
F. Y.I.
ma f lute
The karat system for gold Percent by mass = ------ x 100
solutions (alloys) is mass of solution
24 karat is 100% gold,
18 karat is 75% gold The solute and solution masses must be in the same units but any units are allowed. The
(m/m), a.nd mass of solution is equal to the mass of solute plus the mass of solvent.
14 karat is 58.5% gold
mas. of solute
(m/m). Percent by mass = X 100
mass or. olute + mass of solvent
A solution of 5.0% by mass concentration would contain 5.0 g of solute in 100.0 g of
solution (5.0 g of solute and 95.0 g of solvent). Thus, percent by mass gives directly the
number of grams of solute in 100 g of solution. The abbreviation for percent by mass
is % (m/m).
 SECTION 13.6 + CONCENTRATION: PERCENTAGE OF SOLUTE 461

Example 13.2
A solution of hydrogen sulfide, H2 S, in water is prepared by bubbling H2S gas into
water. Calculate the solution concentration, as percent by mass, given that 0.290 g of
H2S dissolves in 75.00 g of water.
Solution
To calculate percent by mass we need both mass of solute and mass of solution.
mas. f .olute
Percent by mass = ------ X 100
mas. of olution
The mass of solute is given (0.290 g) and the mass of solution is calculated by adding
together mass of solute and mass of solvent.
Mass of solution = 0.290 g + 75.00 g = 75.29 g (calculator and correct answer)

Substituting known values into the defining equation for percent by mass gives
0·290
Percent by mass == .g' X 100 == 0.38517731 % (calculator answer)
75.29 .g
== 0.385% (correct answer)

Practice Exercise 13 .2
What is the percent by mass, % (m/m), concentration of sucrose (table sugar) in a
solution made by dissolving 5.4 g of sucrose in enough water to give 87.3 g of solu­
tion?
An.I'. 6.2% (m/m)

Example 13.3
Lactose, C12H22O11 , is a naturally occurring sugar found in mammalian milk. How
many grams of lactose must be added to 25.0 g of water to prepare a 5.00% (m/m)
aqueous solution of lactose?
Solution
Often, when a solution concentration is given as part of a problem statement, the con­
centration information is used in the form of a conversion factor in solving the prob­
lem. That will be the case in this problem.
The given quantity is 25.0 g of H2O (grams of solvent), and the desired quantity
is grams of lactose (grams of solute).
25.0 g H2O == ? g lactose
The conversion factor relating these two quantities (solvent and solute) is obtained
from the given concentration. In a 5.00% (m/m) lactose solution there are 5.00 g of
lactose for every 95.00 g of H2 O.
462 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

100.00 g solution - 5.00 g lactose= 95.00 g H2O

This relationship between grams of solute and grams of solvent (5.00 to 95.00) gives
us the needed conversion factor.
5.00 g lactose
95.00 g H20
Dimensional analysis gives the problem setup, which is solved in the following man­
ner.
5.00 g lactose
25.0 -lS--u2v
� J.J-f"\
2 X = I.3 157894 g 1actose (calculator answer)
95.00 .g-i� 20
= J .32 g lactose (correct answer)

Practice Exercise 13. 3

How many grams of lithium nitrate, LiNO3 , must be added to 15.0 g of water to pre­
pare a 7.50% (m/m) solution of lithium nitrate?
All.I', 1.22 g LiNO,

Percent by volume (or volume-volume percent) finds use as a concentration unit when
both the solute and solvent are liquids or gases. In such cases it is often more convenient to
measure volumes than masses. Percent by volume is equal to the volume of solute divided
by the total volume of solution multiplied by JOO.
volume or solute
Percent by volume = X I 00
volume or solution
F. Y.I. Solute and solution volumes must always be expressed in the same units when this
The proof system used for expression is used. The abbreviation for percent by volume is % (v/v).
alcoholic beverages is twice
The numerical value of a concentration expressed as a percent by volume gives directly
the volume/volume percent.
40 proof is 20% alcohol
the number of milliliters of solute in 100 mL of solution. Thus, a 100-mL sample of a 5.0%
(v/v), 100 proof is 50% alcohol-in-water solution contains 5.0 mL of alcohol dissolved in enough water to give 100
(v/v) alcohol. mL of solution. Note that such a 5.0% by volume solution could not be made by adding 5
mL of alcohol to 95 mL of water, since volumes of liquids are not usually additive.
Differences in the way molecules are packed as well as in the distances between molecules
almost always result in the volume of a solution being different from the sum of the volumes
of solute and solvent. For example, the final volume resulting from the addition of 50.0 mL
of ethyl alcohol to 50.0 mL of water is 96.5 mL of solution.

Example 13.4
A windshield washer solution is made by mixing 37.8 mL of methanol with 56.2 mL
of water to produce 80.0 mL of solution. What is the concentration of methanol in the
solution expressed as percent by volume methanol?
Solution
To calculate a percent by volume, the volumes of methanol and solution are needed.
Both are given in this problem.
 SECTION 13.6 + CONCENTRATION: PERCENTAGE OF SOLUTE 463

Methanol volume = 37.8 mL

Solution volume = 80.0 mL
Note that the solution volume is not the sum of the solute and solvent volumes. As
previously mentioned, liquid volumes are generally not additive.
Substituting the given values into the equation
olum, or methnn 1
Percent by voI ume == . x 100
volume ol soluli n
gives

Percent by volume = 37·8 mL x 100 == 47 . 250A0 (calculator answer)

0,0 .R1'.L
= 47.2% (correct answer)

Practice Exercise 3.4

The final volume of a solution resulting from the addition of 50.0 mL of ethyl alcohol
to 50.0 mL of water is 96.5 mL. What is the volume percent of ethyl alcohol in the
solution?
Ans. 51.8% (v/v)

The third type of percentage unit in common use is mass-volume percentage. This unit,
which is often encountered in hospital and industrial settings, is particularly convenient to
use when working with a solid solute (which is easily weighed) and a liquid solvent.
Concentrations are specified using this unit when dealing with physiological fluids such as
blood and urine. Mass-volume percent is equal to the mass of solute (in grams) divided by
the total volume of solution (milliliters) multiplied by JOO.
L1Hl$S of solute (g)
�
Mass-voI ume percent == x 1 ()()
Vlllume of solution (mL)
Note that specific mass and volume units are given in the definition of mass-volume per­
cent. This is necessary because the units do not cancel as was the case with mass percent
and volume percent. The abbreviation for mass-volume percent is % (m/v).

Example 13.5
Vinegar is a 5.0% (m/v) aqueous solution of acetic acid (HC 2H 302 ). How much acetic
acid, in grams, is present in one teaspoon (5.0 mL) of vinegar?
Solution
The given quantity is 5.0 mL of vinegar, and the desired quantity is grams of acetic
acid.
5.0 mL vinegar == ? g acetic acid
The given concentration of 5.0% (m/v), which means 5.0 g acetic acid per 100 mL
vinegar, can be used as a conversion factor to go from milliliters of vinegar to grams
of acetic acid. The setup for the conversion is
464 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

------
. . •1,,vmegar 5.0 g ac Lie acid
5 . 0 .m- X . -----
1 00 m-b-vinegar
Doing the arithmetic, after cancellation of units, gives
5.0 X 5.0 .
g acetic ac1'd = 0 ·-?5 g acetic
. ac1.d (calculator and correct answer)
--1--
0 -
0

Practice Exercise 13. 5

Saline solution, a 0.92% (m/v) sodium chloride (NaCl) solution, is often administered
intravenously to hospital patients. How many grams of sodium chloride are required
to prepare 345 mL of saline solution?
Ans. 3.2 g NaCl

13. CONCENTRATION: PARTS PER MILLION AND PARTS

PER BILLION

The concentration units parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) find use when
dealing with extremely dilute solutions. Environmental chemists frequently use such units
in specifying the concentrations of the minute amounts of trace pollutants or toxic chemi­
cals in air and water samples.
F. Y.I. Parts per million and parts per billion units are closely related to percentage concentra­
A ppm is the equivalent of tion units. Not only are the defining equations very similar, but also various forms of the
one second in eleven days units exist. Because amounts of solute and solution present may be stated in terms of either
and twelve hours. mass or volume, there are three different forms for each unit: mass-mass (m/m), vol­
ume-volume (v/v), and mass-volume (m/v).
A part per million (ppm) is one part of solute per million parts of solution. In terms of
defining equations, we can write
F. Y.I.
A ppb is the equivalent of mass of solute
one second in thirty-one ppm (m/m) = ------ X 106
mass of solution
years and eight months.
volume of solute
ppm (v/v) = ------ - x I06
volume of solution
ma. r solute (g
F. Y.I. ppm ( m/v) = x 106
The maximum concentra­ volume of solution (mL)
tion of the pollutant vinyl
Note that the units of grams and milliliters are specified in the last of the three defining
chloride allowed by the EPA
in drinking water is 2 ppb equations, but that no units are given in the first two equations. For the first two equations,
(m/v). the only unit restriction is that the units be the same for both numerator and denominator.
A part per billion (ppb) is one part of solute per billion parts of solution. The mathe­
matical defining equations for the three types of part per billion units are identical to those
just shown for parts per million except that a multiplicative factor of I 09 instead of 106 is
F. Y.I. used.
Most municipalities that flu­
orinate their water add fluo­ The use of parts per million and parts per billion in specifying concentration often
ride at 1 ppm (m/v). avoids the very small numbers that result when other concentration units are used. For
example, a pollutant in water might be present at a level of 0.0013 g per 100 mL of solu-
 SECTION 13.7 + CONCENTRATION: PARTS PER MILLION AND PARTS PER BILLION 465
tion. In terms of mass-volume percent, this concentration is 0.0013%. In parts per million,
however, the concentration is 13.
0.0013 g
ppm (m/v) = --- X 106 = 13
lOOmL
The only difference in the ways in which percent concentration and parts per million
or billion are calculated is in lhe multiplicative factor used. For percentages it is 102 , for
parts per million 10 ', and for parts per billion 109 • An alternative name for percentage con­
centration unit, would be par(s per hundred.

Example 13.6
The concentration of sodium fluoride, NaF, in a town's fluoridated tap water is found
to be 32.2 mg of NaF per 20.0 kg of tap water. Express this NaF concentration in
(a) ppm (m/m) and (b) ppb (m/m).
Solution
(a) The defining equation for ppm (m/m) is

mass of solute x 106

ppm (m/m) =
mass of solution
The two masses in this equation must be in the same units. Let us use grams as
our mass unit. Expressing the given quantities in terms of grams, we have
32.3 mg NaF = 3.23 X 10- 2 g NaF
20.0 kg tap water = 2.00 x 104 g tap water
Substituting these gram quantities into the defining equation for ppm (m/m)
gives
3.23 X 10- 21{
ppm (m/m) = X I06
2.00 X 104,g
= 1.615 (calculator answer)
= l .62 (correct answer)

(b) For parts per billion we have

0
ppb (m/m) = 3.23 X 1 -2 ,g' X I 09
2.00 X 104,g
= 1615 (calculator answer)
= 1620 (correct answer)

Any time a concentralion is expressed in both parts per million and parts per bil­
lion the parts per bill Ion value will be 1000 times larger than the part per mil­
lion value.

Practice Exercise 13 .6
A 500.0-mg aspirin tablet is found to contain 19 µ.g of a nontoxic contaminant. What
is the concentration of the contaminant in (a) ppm (m/m) and (b) ppb (m/m)?
Ans. (a) 38 ppm (m/m); (b) 38,000 ppb (m/m)
466 CHAPTER 13 • SOLUTIONS

Example 13.7
Agent Orange, a defoliant used on a large scale during the Vietnam war, contains
about 2 ppm (m/v) of dioxin, a very toxic substance, as an impurity. How many mil­
liliters of Agent Orange would have to be used in order to place 0.01 g of dioxin in
the environment?
Solution
The given quantity is 0.01 g of dioxin, and the desired quantity is milliliters of Agent
Orange
0.01 g dioxin = ? mL Agent Orange
The given concentration of 2ppm (m/v), which means 2 grams of dioxin per 106 mL
of Agent Orange solution can be used as a conversion factor to go from grams of
dioxin to milliliters of Agent Orange. The setup for the conversion is
� � 106 mL Agent Orange
0.0 l �V/\.llJ X
2g_.dioJCin
Doing the arithmetic, after cancellation of units, gives
0.01 X 106
-- -- mL Agent Orange = 5000 mL Agent Orange (calculator and corrccl answer)
2

Practice Exercise 13. 7

The carbon monoxide, CO, content of the tobacco smoke that reaches a smoker's
lungs is estimated to be 200 ppm (v/v). At this concentration, how much CO, in mil­
liliters, would be present in a sample of air the size of a standard-sized basketball
(7.5 L)?
Ans. 1.5 mL CO

CONCENTRATION: MOLARITY

The molarity of a solution, abbreviated M, is a ratio giving the number of moles of solute
per liter of solution.
moles of solute
Mo1 anty
. (M) =
liters or solution
A solution containing 1 mole of KBr in I L of solution has a molarity of 1 and is said to be
a 1-M (I molar) solution.
When a solution is to be used for a chemical reaction, concentration is almost always
expressed in units of molarity. A major reason for this is the fact that the amount of solute
is expressed in moles, a most convenient unit for dealing with stoichiometry in chemical
reactions. Because chemical reactions occur between molecules and atoms, a unit that
counts particles, as the mole does, is desirable.
To find the molarity of a solution we need to know the number of moles of solute pres-
 SECTION 13.8 + CONCENTRATION: MAl.AruTY 467
ent and the solution volume in liters and then take the ratio of the two quantities. An alter­
native to knowing the number of moles of solute is knowledge about the grams of solute
present and the solute's molar mass.

Example 13.8 M = molarity; m = mass; M = molar mass

Determine the molarities of the following solutions.
(a) 1.45 moles of KCl dissolved in enough water to give 875 mL of solution a) M = n /V
(b) 57.2 g of NH4Br dissolved in enough water to give 2.15 L of solution b) M = n /V = m /M
Solution V
(a) The number of moles of solute is given in the problem statement. M = 97.9
Moles of solute = 1.45 moles KCl
The volume of the solution is also given in the problem statement, but not in the
right units. Molarity requires liters for volume units. Making the unit change
gives
10- 3 L
875 )l'll: X --- = 0.875 L (calculator and correct answer)
I .m
The molarity of the solution is obtained by substituting the known quantities
into the equation
. moles of solute
Mo1anty =
L of solut10n
which gives
1.45 moles KCI moles r�CI
M= = 1.6571428 (calculator answer)
0.875 L ·oluticm L solution

(correct answer)

Note that the units of molarity are always moles per liter.
(b) This time the volume of solution is given in the right units, liters.
Volume of solution = 2.15 L
The moles of solute must be calculated from the grams of solute (given) and the
solute's formula mass, which is 97.9 amu (calculated from a table of atomic
masses).
I mole NJ-1,i"Br
57.2.g.-Nl .1 r X ____....,___ = 0.58426966 mole NH4Br (calculator answer)
97.9 .gc-N:tt;Ifr"
= 0.584 mole NH4Br (correct answer)
Substituting the known quantities into the defining equation for molarity gives
.58 m le NH4B.r = mole N�,tBr
M= 0 4 0_2716279 (calculator answer)
2.15 L ,'olulion L solution
m le N�_,Br
= 0_272 (correct answer)
L solut10n
468 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

Practice Exercise 13. 8

What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 25.0 g of NaOH in enough
water to give 2.50 L of solution?
Ans. 0.250 M NaOH

As the previous example indicates, when you perform a molarity calculation the chem­
ical formula of the solute is always needed. You cannot calculate moles of solute without
knowing the chemical formula of the solute. In contrast, when you perform percent con­
centration calculations (or parts per million or billion)-Sections 13.6 and 13.7-the chem­
ical formula of the solute is not used in the calculation.
The moles of solute present in a known volume of solution is an easily calculated quan­
tity if the molarity of the solution is known. In doing such a calculation, molarity serves as
a conversion factor relating liters of solution to moles of solute.

Volume of solution molarity Moles

(liters) ._ • of solute

M = molarity; m = mass; M = molar mass

Example 13.9
Citric acid, C6H807, is the substance that gives lemon juice and other citrus fruit
juices a sour taste. How many grams of citric acid are present in 125 mL of a
0.400 M citric acid solution?

n = V M = m /M Solution
The given quantity is 125 mL of solution, and the desired quantity is grams of
=> m = VMM C6H807.

M = 192 125 mL solution = ? g C6H80 7

The pathway to be used in solving this problem is
mL solution � L solution � moles C6H80 7 � g C6H 8 07
The given molarity (0.400 M) will serve as the conversion factor for the second unit
change; the molecular mass of citric acid (which must be calculated as it is not given)
is used in accomplishing the third unit charge.
The dimensional analysis setup from this pathway is
_ __ • -�
125 .llH=r:SOlUUOn rn--
X-
3
L-selo ,on
----
0.400mol,e--�
X ------"--"--'-
X 192 g CeiH1101
! roLAt,-!uoon I L.seln . n l JJ}Ol.e-€151sCT7
Canceling units and doing the arithmetic gives

(calculator answer)

(correct answer)
 SECTION 13.8 + CONCENTRATION: MALARITY 469

Practice Example 13.9

How many grams of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), C6H8O6, are present in 125 mL of a
0.400-M vitaminC solution?

M = molarity; m = mass; M = molar mass

Example 13.10
The chemical formula for sucrose (table sugar) is C 12H22O 11 . How many liters of n = V M = m /M
2.00 M aqueous sucrose solution can be prepared from 25.0 g of sucrose?
m
Solution => V = ___
MM
The given quantity is 25.0 g of C12H220ll , and the desired quantity is liters of solu­
tion. M = 342
25.0 gC12H22 0 11 = ? LC12H22O 11 solution
The pathway to be used in solving this problem will involve the following steps.
gC12H22011 - moles C12H22 O 11 - LC12H22O1 1 solution
The first unit conversion will be accomplished by using the molar mass ofC 12H22 O11
(which must be calculated since it is not given) as a conversion factor. The second
unit conversion involves the use of the given molarity as a conversion factor.
l woJe-C,iHnOij X 1 LC12.H22O11 solution
25_0� X
342 � 2.00 m��
Canceling units and doing the arithmetic gives
25.0 X I X I
---'----- LC 12H22 O 11 solution= 0.036549707 LC 12 H22 O11 solution
342 X 2.00 (calculmor nnswer)

= 0.365 LC12H22 O11 solution (correct answer)

Practice Exercise 13 .10

How many liters of 0.100 M aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution can be pre­
pared from 10.0 g of sodium hydroxide?
Ans. 2.50 L solution

Molarity and mass percent are probably the two most commonly used concentration
units. The need to convert from one to the other often arises. Such a conversion can easily
be done provided the density of the solution is known. Figure 13.4 shows schematically the
steps involved in converting one of these concentration units to the other.
 470 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

Percent by mass
(g solutc/g solution)

��
- I take 100g solution

Mass of � Mass of
solution solute

l density l molar mass

Volume of
'y Moles of

!
solution solute
M = molarity; m = mass; M = molar mass
division

FIGURE 13.4 A "road-map" diagram showing the steps involved in converting from
Molarity percent by mass to molarity or vice versa. (For the reverse process, reverse the direction
(moles solute/L solution
of the arrows in the diagram.)

Example 13.11 A
The skin irritation that accompanies insect bites is often caused by ________
formic acid
M = nA / Vsol'n (H2CO2 ). A 40.00 percent by mass aqueous solution of formic acid has a density of
d = msol'n / Vsol'n 1.098 g/mL. What is the molarity of this solution?

wt% = (mA / msol'n) x 100 Solution

Calculate the moles of solute and liters of solution present in a sample of this
=> assume msol'n = 100 g solution. Since solution concentration is independent of sample size, any size sample
can be the basis for the calculation. To simplify the math take a 100.0-g sample of
so wt% = mA
solution.
STEP I Moles r�l solute. The given quantity is 100.0 g of solution, and the
mA / M
M = _________ desired quantity is moles of H2C02 .
100 g sol'n I 00.0 g solution = ? moles H2CO2
mL 103 The pathway to be used in solving this problem is
x (d ) x ______
L g solution - g solute - moles solute

M = 46.03 The known mass percent concentration will be the basis for the conversion
factor that takes us from grams of solution to grams of solute.

= 0.86899847 mole H2CO2 (calculator answer)

= 0.8690 mole H2CO2 (correct answer)
STEP 2 Liters of solution. The density of the solution is used as a conversion
factor in obtaining the volume of solution. The pathway for the calcula­
tion is
g solution - mL solution - L solution
The set up is
I mk-wh:rrion I 0-3 L .-;olution
100. 0_g..sehrtion X X
J .098-g--sohTl'f6n I .mb-w!TITIOn
= 0.091074681 L solution (calculator answer)
= 0.09 l 07 L solution (conect answer)
 SECTION 13.8 + CONCENTRATION: MALAIUTY 471

STEP 3 Molarity. With both moles of solute and liters of solution known, the
molarity is obtained by substitution into the defining equation for
molarity:

M=- -��
- H 2CO2 = -----�-�
mole: 0.8690 mole H2CO2
L solution 0.09107 L solution
9.5421104 moles H2CO2
(calculator answer)
L solution
9.542 moles H2.CO2
= (correct answer)
L solution

Practice Exercise 13 .11

A 15.00 percent by mass aqueous solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3) has a density of
1.141 g/mL. What is the molarity of this solution?
Ans. 1.007 M

Molar concentrations do not give information about the amount of solvent present. All
that is known is that enough solvent is present to give a specific volume of solution. The
amount of solvent present in a solution of a known molarity can be calculated if the density
of the solution is known. Without the density it cannot be calculated.

Sample 13.12 M = molarity; m = mass; M = molar mass

Large amounts of sulfuric acid (H2 SO4) are used in the production of phosphate fer­
tilizers. A 2.324 M H2 SO4 solution has a density of 1.142 g/mL. How many grams of
solvent (water) are present in 25.0 mL of this solution?
Solution A
_____
To find the grams of solvent present we must first find the grams of solute (H 2 SO4 )
nA = (VM)A = mA/M
and the grams of solution. The grams of solvent present is then obtained by calculat­
ing the difference. => mA = nAM
g solvent = g solution - g solute
d = msol'n / Vsol'n
STEP I Grams of solution. The volume of solution is given. Density, used as a
=> msol'n = dVsol'n
conversion factor, will enable us to convert this volume to grams of
solution.

I-+- g ::olution mH2O = msol'n - mA

_, -�
25.0 �uuuui on x I, .
= 28 . 55 g SOI ut1011 (calculator answer)
I JJJ1.-seilnrloii
M = 98.1
= 28.6 g solution (coirect answer)

STEP 2 Grams <!I' solute. We will use the molarity of the solution as a conver­
sion factor in obtaining the grams of solute. The setup for this calcula­
tion is similar to that in Example 13.9.
472 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

1
I 0- .l.--se+utionon ? 324 .nr 1 -....t.t,;SO:
""= r:! 4 X 98 . 1 0o H2 0
25.0�ehn:ionX ------ X -·
1 ..mb--solmion I l..-6e-ltittuif I _mele-t'l:iS{J.I
= 5.69961 g H2SO4 (calculator answer)
= 5.70 g H2 SO4 (correct answer)
STEP 3 Grams of solvent. The grams of solvent will be the difference in mass
between the grams of solution and the grams of solute.
28.6 g solution - 5.70 g solute = 22.9 g solvent (calculator and correct answer)

Practice Exercise 13.12

A 0.750--M acetic acid (HC2H3O2) solution has a density of 1 .01 g/mL. How many
grams of solvent are present in 1 25 mL of this solution?
A11s. 120 g solvent
476 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

�0 DILUTION

A common problem encountered when working with solutions in the laboratory is that of
diluting a solution of known concentration (usually called a stock solution) to a lower con­
centration. Dilution is the process in which more solvent is added to a solution in order to
lower its concentration. Dilution always lowers the concentration of a solution. The same
amount of solute is present, but it is now distributed in a larger amount of solvent (the orig­
inal solvent plus the added solvent).
Since laboratory solutions are almost always liquids, dilution is normally a volumetric
procedure. Most often, a solution of a specific molarity must be prepared by adding a pre­
determined volume of solvent to a specific volume of stock solution.
With molar concentration units, a very simple mathematical relationship exists between
the volumes and molarities of the diluted and stock solutions. This relationship is derived
from the fact that the same amount of solute is present in both solutions; only solvent is
added in a dilution procedure.
Moles solutestock solution = moles solute<liluted sol ution
The number of moles of solute in both solutions is given by the expression
Moles solute = molarity (M) X liters of solution (V)
(This equation is just a rearrangement of the defining equation for molarity to isolate moles
of solute on the left side.) Substitution of this second expression into the first one gives the
equation
M,,x v,.=M,1X V,1
In this equation Ms and Vs are the molarity and volume of the stock solution (the solution to
be diluted) and Md and Vd the molarity and volume of the solution resulting from the dilu­
tion. Because volume appears on both sides of the equation, any volume unit, not just liters,
may be used as long as it is the same on both sides of the equation. Again, the validity of
this equation is based on there being no change in the amount of solute present.

Example 13.16 V1 M1
What is the molarity of the solution prepared by diluting 65 mL of0.95 M sodium sul­
fate (Na2SO4) solution to a final volume of 135 mL?
V2
 SECTION 13.10 + DILUTION 477

Solution M = molarity
Three of the four variables in the equation
Ms X Y, = Md X Y d n1 = n2 =>
are known. (MV)1 = (MV)2
Ms= 0.95 M Mt1 = ?M (MV)
____1
Y, = 65 mL Yd= 135 mL M2 =
V2
Rearranging the equation to isolate Md on the left side and substituting the known
variables into it gives
Y,
Md= M,. X -
yd
65 ml::
= 0.95 M X --- = 0.4574074 M (calculator answer)
135 .ml:
= 0.46 M (correct answer)

Thus, the diluted solution's concentration is 0.46 M.

Practice Exercise 13 .16

What is the molarity of the solution prepared by diluting 75 mL of 1.50 M silver
nitrate (AgNO3) solution to a final volume of 225 mL?
A11.1·. 0.50 M

Example 13.17 V1 M1
How much solvent must be added to 200.0 mL of a 1.25 M sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution to decrease its concentration to 0.770 M?
M2
Solution
The volume of solvent added is equal to the difference between the final and initial n1 = n2 =>
volumes. The initial volume is known. The final volume can be calculated using the
(MV)1 = (MV)2
equation
Ms X Ys = Md X Y ct (MV)1
V2 = ____
Once the final volume is known, the difference between the two volumes can be M2
obtained.
Substituting the known quantities into the dilution equation, rearranged to isolate
V,1 on the left side, gives added = V2 - V1
M,
Yc1 =Y, x-
. Mc1
1.25M
= 200.0 mL X --- = 324.67532 mL (calculator answer)
0.770M
= 325 mL (correct answer)
The solvent added is
Yd - Y s = (325 - 200.0) mL = 125 mL (calculator and correct answer)
 ...
478 CHAPTER 13 • SOLUTIONS

Practice Exercise 13 .17

How much solvent must be added to 50.0 mL of 2.20 M potassium chloride (KC))
solution to decrease its concentration to 0.0113 M?
A11.v. 9680 mL

When two "like" solutions-that is, solutions that contain the same solute and the same
solvent-of differing known molarities and volumes are mixed together, the molarity of the
newly formed solution can be calculated by the same principles that apply in a simple dilu­
tion problem.
Again, the key concept involves the amount of solute present; it is constant. The sum
of the amounts of solute present in the individual solutions prior to mixing is the same as
the total amount of solute present in the solution after mixing. No solute is lost or gained in
the mixing process. Thus, we can write
Moles solute 1 irst solution + moles solutescconc.1 solution = m oles solutecombincc1 solution
Substituting the expression (M XV) for moles solute in this equation gives
(M 1 XV 1) + (M2 XY2) = M3 XV3
where the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the solutions to be mixed and the subscript 3 is the solu­
tion resulting from the mixing. Again, this expression is valid only when the solutions that
are mixed are "like" solutions.

Example 13.18
What is the molarity of the solution obtained by mmng 50.0 mL of 2.25 M
M = molarity
hydrochloric acid (HCI) solution with 160.0 mL of 1.25 M hydrochloric acid solu­
tion?
nTOT = n1 + n2 Solution
VTOT = V1 + V2 Five of the six variables in the equation

M = (n/V)TOT
are known:
(MV)1 + (MV)2 M 1 = 2.25 M V 1 = 50.0 mL
= ___________ M 2 = 1.25 M V2 = 160.0 mL
V1 + V2
V3 = 210.0 mL
Note that in the mixing process we consider the volumes of the solution to be addi­
tive; that is,
V3 = V 1 + V 2
This is a valid assumption for "like" solutions.
Solving our equation for M 3 and then substituting the known quantities into it
gives

= (M1 XV1)+(M2XY2) (2.25 M X 50.0 1:i.tl':) + ( 1.25 M X 160.0 tRt:)

M3
V3 (210.0.mL)
 SECTION 13 .11 + MOLARITY AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 479

1.4904761 M (calculator answer)

1.49 M (correct answer)

Practice Exercise 13 .18

What is the molarity of the solution obtained by mixing 50.0 mL of 1.25 M ammo­
nium chloride (NH4CI) solution with 175 mL of 0.125 M ammonium chloride solu­
tion?
An.I'. 0.375 M

In the solution of Example 13.18 the given liquid volumes were considered additive. In
Section 13.6, when discussing volume percent, it was stressed that volumes were not addi­
tive. Why the difference? Volumes of different liquids (Sec. 13.6) are not additive; volumes
of the same liquid (Example 13.18) are additive.

1 MOLARITY AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Section 10.8 introduced a general problem-solving procedure for setting up problems that
involve chemical equations. With this procedure, if information is given about one reactant
or product in a chemical reactjon (number of grams, moles, or particles), similar informa­
tion can easily be obtained for any other reactant or product.
In Section 12.13 this procedure was refined to allow us to do mass-to-volume or vol­
ume-to-mass calculations for reactions when at least one reactant or product is a gas.
This section further refines our problem-solving procedure in order to deal efficiently
with reactions that occur in aqueous solution. Of primary importance in this new area of
problem solving will be solution volume. In most situations, solution volume is more con­
veniently determined than solution mass.
When solution concentrations are expressed in terms of molarity, a direct relationship
exists between solution volume (in liters) and moles of solute present. The definition of
molarity itself gives the relationship; molarity is the ratio of moles of solute to volume (in
liters) of solution. Thus, molarity is the connection that links volume of solution to the other
common problem-solving parameters, such as moles and grams. Figure 13.6 shows dia­
grammatically the place that volume of solution occupies, relative to other parameters, in
the overall scheme of chemical-equation-based problem solving. This diagram is a simple
modification of Figure 12.9; "volume of solution" boxes have replaced "particles" boxes. It
is used in the same way as Figure 12.9 was.
 480 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

Volume Volume
of gasA of gas B

t
molar volume
t
molar volume
or or
i deal gas law ideal ga s law

i
Volume of molarity Moles equa tion Moles molar ity Volume of
solutionA ofA coefficients ofB solution B

t
molar molar
FIGURE 13.6 Conversion factor

t t
mass mass
relationships needed to solve
problems involving chemical
Grams reactions that occur in aqueous
ofA
�B solution.

Example 13.19
The fizz produced when an Alka-Seltzer tablet is dissolved in water is due to the reac­
M = molarity tion between sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, and citric acid, C6H 8O7.

nNaHCO3 = 3nC6H8O7 If this reaction were run in a laboratory, what volume, in liters, of 2.50 M NaHCO3
solution is needed to react completely with 0.025 L of 3.50 M C6H 8O7 solution?
(VM)NaHCO3 = 3(VM)C6H8O7
Solution
STEP I The given quantity is 0.025 L of C6H 8O7 solution, and the desired
3(VM)C6H8O7
V = __________ quantity is liters of NaHCO3 solution.
V 0.025 L C6H 8O7 = ? L NaHCO 3
STEP 2 This problem is a "volume of solution A" to "volume of solution B"
problem. The pathway used in solving it, in terms of Figure 13.6, is

Volume or molart
i y � _ _ ti on
equa _ _ � molarity Volume of
�so_ lu_ t_io_nA - i ents,. �
_ � ___,. � -co e ffic- solution B

STEP 3 The dimensional analysis setup for the calculation is

STEP 4 Combining all of the numerical factors gives

0.025 X 3.50 X 3 X I
-------- L NaHCO3 = 0.105 L NaHCO3 (calculator answer)
I X I X 2.-
= 0.10 L NaHCO3 (corr ect answer)
 SECTION 13.11 + MOLARITY AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 481

Practice Exercise 13 .19

What volume, in liters, of a 3.40 M potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution is needed to
react completely with 0.100 L of� 6.72-M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution according
to the following equation?
2 KOH(aq) + H2SOiaq) - K2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
Ans. 0.395 L KOH

Example 13.20
How many grams of lead(II) chloride can be produced from the reaction of 1.05 L of
0.470 M potassium chloride (KCl) solution with an excess of 4.00 M lead(II) nitrate
[(Pb (NO3 h] solution according to the following equation.

2 KCl(aq) + Pb (NO3 h(aq) - PbC12(s) + 2 KNOiaq)

Solution
STEP 1 The given quantity is 1.05 L of KCl solution, and the desired quantity is
grams of PbC12.
1.05 L KCl =? g PbC}z
STEP2 This is a "volume of solution A" to "grams of B" problem. The path­
way, in terms of Figure 13.6, is

I I
M = molarity; m = mass; M = molar mass

Volume of molarity Moles equnlion �� Grams

1 J
solution A of A c, enlcicnt, � mass of B

nPbCl2 = 1/2 nKCl = 1/2 (VM)KCl

STEP 3 The dimensional analysis setup for the calculation is = (m/M)PbCl2
0.470_l00le-I{Cl I .!)l.01@-Pb f2 278 g, PbCl 2
l .OS..L-1«1 X X X (VM)KCl M
1 .L-Iff1 2 mel-ettf 1 JD.Qle-PbCf2 V = ________
2
STEP4 The answer, obtained from combining all of the numerical factors, is
LOS X 0.470 X 1 X 278 M = 278
g PbCl2 = 68.5965 g PbClz (calculator answer)
1X2Xl

= 68.6 .g PbCl2 (correct answer)

Note that the concentration of Pb(NO3 h solution, given as 4.00 M in the problem
statement, did not enter into the calculation. This is because the Pb(NO3h solution is
present in excess; we know that we have enough of it. If a specific volume of
Pb(NO3 h solution had been given in the problem statement, we would have had to
determine the limiting reactant (Pb(NO3 h or KCl) as the first step in working the
problem. The concept of a limiting reactant was discussed in Section 10.9.
482 CHAPTER 13 + SOLUTIONS

Practice Exercise 13.20

How many grams of BaCrO4 can be produced from the reaction of 1.05 L of 0.470 M
BaC12, solution with an excess of 2.00 M K2CrO4 solution according to the following
equation?
BaClz(aq) + K2CrOiaq) - BaCrOis) + 2 KCl(aq)
Ans. 125 g BaCrO4