C h a p t e r IV

Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

This chapter describes the details of the structural steel design and stress check al-
gorithms that are used by SAP2000 when the user selects the AISC-LRFD93 de-
sign code (AISC 1994). Various notations used in this chapter are described in
Table IV-1.
For referring to pertinent sections and equations of the original LRFD code, a
unique prefix “LRFD” is assigned. However, all references to the “Specifications
for Load and Resistance Factored Design of Single-Angle Members” carry the pre-
fix of “LRFD SAM”.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program pro-
vides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the de-
sign of most building type structures.

In the evaluation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios at a station along
the length of the member, first the actual member force/moment components and
the corresponding capacities are calculated for each load combination. Then the ca-
pacity ratios are evaluated at each station under the influence of all load combina-
tions using the corresponding equations that are defined in this chapter. The con-
trolling capacity ratio is then obtained. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates
exceeding a limit state. Similarly, a shear capacity ratio is also calculated sepa-
rately.

45
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual
A = Cross-sectional area, in2
2
Ae = Effective cross-sectional area for slender sections, in
Ag = Gross cross-sectional area, in2
2
Av 2 , Av 3 = Major and minor shear areas, in
Aw = Shear area, equal dt w per web, in2
B1 = Moment magnification factor for moments not causing sidesway
B2 = Moment magnification factor for moments causing sidesway
Cb = Bending coefficient
Cm = Moment coefficient
6
Cw = Warping constant, in
D = Outside diameter of pipes, in
E = Modulus of elasticity, ksi
Fcr = Critical compressive stress, ksi
Fr = Compressive residual stress in flange assumed 10.0 for rolled
sections and 16.5 for welded sections, ksi
Fy = Yield stress of material, ksi
G = Shear modulus, ksi
4
I 22 = Minor moment of inertia, in
I 33 = Major moment of inertia, in4
J = Torsional constant for the section, in4
K = Effective length factor
K 33 , K 22 = Effective length K-factors in the major and minor directions
Lb = Laterally unbraced length of member, in
Lp = Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic capacity, in
Lr = Limiting laterally unbraced length for inelastic lateral-torsional
buckling, in
M cr = Elastic buckling moment, kip-in
M lt = Factored moments causing sidesway, kip-in
M nt = Factored moments not causing sidesway, kip-in
M n33 , M n22 = Nominal bending strength in major and minor directions, kip-in
M ob = Elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment for angle sections, kip-in
M r 33 , M r 22 = Major and minor limiting buckling moments, kip-in
Mu = Factored moment in member, kip-in
M u 33 , M u 22 = Factored major and minor moments in member, kip-in
Pe = Euler buckling load, kips
Pn = Nominal axial load strength, kip
Pu = Factored axial force in member, kips
Py = A g F y , kips
Q = Reduction factor for slender section, = Qa Qs

Table IV-1
AISC-LRFD Notations
46
 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93
Qa = Reduction factor for stiffened slender elements
Qs = Reduction factor for unstiffened slender elements
S = Section modulus, in3
3
S 33 , S 22 = Major and minor section moduli, in
S eff ,33 , S eff ,22 = Effective major and minor section moduli for slender sections, in3
3
Sc = Section modulus for compression in an angle section, in
Vn2 ,Vn3 = Nominal major and minor shear strengths, kips
Vu 2 ,Vu 3 = Factored major and minor shear loads, kips
3
Z = Plastic modulus, in
3
Z 33 , Z 22 = Major and minor plastic moduli, in
b = Nominal dimension of plate in a section, in
longer leg of angle sections,
b f 2t w for welded and b f 3t w for rolled box sections, etc.
be = Effective width of flange, in
bf = Flange width, in
d = Overall depth of member, in
de = Effective depth of web, in
hc = Clear distance between flanges less fillets, in
assumed d 2k for rolled sections, and d 2t f for welded sections
k = Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet, in
kc = Parameter used for section classification,
4 h tw , kc
l33 , l22 = Major and minor direction unbraced member lengths, in
r = Radius of gyration, in
r33 , r22 = Radii of gyration in the major and minor directions, in
t = Thickness, in
tf = Flange thickness, in
tw = Thickness of web, in
w = Special section property for angles, in
= Slenderness parameter
c , e = Column slenderness parameters
p = Limiting slenderness parameter for compact element
r = Limiting slenderness parameter for non-compact element
s = Limiting slenderness parameter for seismic element
slender = Limiting slenderness parameter for slender element
b = Resistance factor for bending, 0.9
c = Resistance factor for compression, 0.85
t = Resistance factor for tension, 0.9
v = Resistance factor for shear, 0.9

Table IV-1
AISC-LRFD Notations (cont.)
47
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Kip-Inch-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions pre-
sented in this chapter correspond to Kip-Inch-Second units unless otherwise
noted.

Design Loading Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the load cases for
which the structure needs to be checked. For the AISC-LRFD93 code, if a structure
is subjected to dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind load (WL), and earthquake in-
duced load (EL), and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible,
then the following load combinations may have to be defined (LRFD A4.1):

1.4 DL (LRFD A4-1)

1.2 DL + 1.6 LL (LRFD A4-2)

0.9 DL 1.3 WL (LRFD A4-6)

1.2 DL 1.3 WL (LRFD A4-4)
1.2 DL + 0.5 LL 1.3 WL (LRFD A4-4)

0.9 DL 1.0 EL (LRFD A4-6)

1.2 DL 1.0 EL (LRFD A4-4)
1.2 DL + 0.5 LL 1.0 EL (LRFD A4-4)

These are also the default design load combinations in SAP2000 whenever the
AISC-LRFD93 code is used. The user should use other appropriate loading combi-
nations if roof live load is separately treated, if other types of loads are present, or if
pattern live loads are to be considered.
Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case
on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the
factored loading.

When using the AISC-LRFD93 code, SAP2000 design assumes that a P- analysis
has been performed so that moment magnification factors for moments causing
sidesway can be taken as unity. It is recommended that the P- analysis be done at
the factored load level of 1.2 DL plus 0.5 LL (White and Hajjar 1991).

Classification of Sections
The nominal strengths for axial compression and flexure are dependent on the clas-
sification of the section as Compact, Noncompact, Slender or Too Slender.

48 Design Loading Combinations

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Figure IV-1
AISC-LRFD Definition of Geometric Properties

Classification of Sections 49
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Description Check COMPACT NONCOMPACT SLENDER

of Section ( p) r
( slender )

bf 2t f 65 Fy 141 Fy - 10.0 No limit

(rolled)

bf 2t f Fy -
65 Fy 162 No limit
(welded) kc

For Pu P
b y ,
640 Pu
1-
I-SHAPE Fy b Py

For Pu P 970 Pu Fy Fy
hc tw b y

Fy b Py
191 Pu
-
Fy b Py

253
Fy

b tf 190 Fy 238 Fy No limit

BOX hc tw As for I-shapes As for I-shapes Fy

bf tf As for I-shapes As for I-shapes No limit

CHANNEL
hc tw As for I-shapes As for I-shapes As for I-shapes

bf 2t f As for I-Shapes As for I-Shapes No limit

T-SHAPE d tw 127 Fy
Not applicable No limit

ANGLE b t Not applicable 76 Fy No limit

DOUBLE-
ANGLE b t Not applicable 76 Fy No limit
(Separated)
Fy
PIPE D t Fy Fy (Compression only)
No limit for flexure
ROUND BAR  Assumed Compact
RECTAN-
 Assumed Noncompact
GULAR
GENERAL  Assumed Noncompact

Table IV-2
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for
Classification of Sections in Flexure based on AISC-LRFD
50 Classification of Sections
 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Description Width- COMPACT NONCOMPACT

of Section Thickness (SEISMIC ZONE) (Uniform Compression)
Ratio (M 22 M 33 0)
( s ) ( r)
bf 2t f 52 Fy 95 Fy
(rolled)
bf 2t f 52 Fy 95 Fy
(welded)
For Pu b yP ,
I-SHAPE 520 Pu
1-
Fy b Py

hc tw For Pu P
b y
253 Fy
191 Pu 253
-
Fy b Py Fy

b tf Not applicable 238 Fy

BOX hc tw Not applicable 253 Fy

bf tf As for I-shapes As for I-shapes

CHANNEL
hc tw As for I-shapes As for I-shapes

bf 2t f Not applicable As for I-shapes

T-SHAPE d tw 127 Fy
Not applicable

ANGLE b t Not applicable 76 Fy

DOUBLE-ANGLE b t 76 Fy
Not applicable
(Separated)
PIPE D t Not applicable 3300 Fy

ROUND BAR  Assumed Compact

RECTANGULAR  Assumed Noncompact

GENERAL  Assumed Noncompact

Table IV-3
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for
Classification of Sections (Special Cases) based on AISC-LRFD
Classification of Sections 51
SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

SAP2000 classifies individual members according to the limiting width/thickness

ratios given in Table IV-2 and Table IV-3 (LRFD B5.1, A-G1, Table A-F1.1). The
definition of the section properties required in these tables is given in Figure IV-1
and Table IV-1. Moreover, special considerations are required regarding the limits
of width-thickness ratios for Compact sections in Seismic zones and Noncompact
sections with compressive force as given in Table IV-3. If the limits for Slender
sections are not met, the section is classified as Too Slender. Stress check of Too
Slender sections is beyond the scope of SAP2000.

In classifying web slenderness of I-shapes, Box, and Channel sections, it is as-

sumed that there are no intermediate stiffeners. Double angles are conservatively
assumed to be separated.

Calculation of Factored Forces

The factored member loads that are calculated for each load combination are Pu ,
M u 33 , M u 22 , V u 2 and V u 3 corresponding to factored values of the axial load, the
major moment, the minor moment, the major direction shear force and the minor di-
rection shear force, respectively. These factored loads are calculated at each of the
previously defined stations.

For loading combinations that cause compression in the member, the factored mo-
ment M u (M u 33 and M u 22 in the corresponding directions) is magnified to consider
second order effects. The magnified moment in a particular direction is given by:

M u = B1 M nt + B 2 M lt , where (LRFD C1-1, SAM 6)

B1 = Moment magnification factor for non-sidesway moments,

B2 = Moment magnification factor for sidesway moments,
M nt = Factored moments not causing sidesway, and
M lt = Factored moments causing sidesway.

The moment magnification factors are associated with corresponding directions.

The moment magnification factor B1 for moments not causing sidesway is given by
Cm
B1 = , where (LRFD C1-2, SAM 6-2)
1 Pu Pe

Ag F y Kl Fy
Pe is the Euler buckling load (Pe 2
, ), and
r E

52 Calculation of Factored Forces

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

C m 33 and C m 22 are coefficients representing distribution of moment along the

member length.

Cm Ma (LRFD C1-3)
,
Mb

M a M b is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the ends of the mem-
ber, M a M b being positive for double curvature bending and negative for sin-
gle curvature bending. For tension members C m is assumed as 1.0. For com-
pression members with transverse load on the member, C m is assumed as 1.0
for members with any unrestrained end and as 0.85 for members with two unre-
strained ends. When M b is zero, C m is taken as 1.0. The program defaults C m
to 1.0 if the unbraced length factor, l, of the member is redefined by either the
user or the program, i.e., if the unbraced length is not equal to the length of the
member. The user can overwrite the value of C m for any member. C m assumes
two values, C m 22 and C m 33 , associated with the major and minor directions.
The magnification factor B1 , must be a positive number. Therefore Pu must be less
than Pe . If Pu is found to be greater than or equal to Pe , a failure condition is de-
clared.

SAP2000 design assumes the analysis includes P- effects, therefore B 2 is taken as

unity for bending in both directions. It is suggested that the P- analysis be done at
the factored load level of 1.2 DL plus 0.5 LL (LRFD C2.2). See also White and
Hajjar (1991).

For single angles, where the principal axes of bending are not coincident with the
geometric axes (2-2 and 3-3), the program conservatively uses the maximum of
K 22 l 22 and K 33 l 33 for determining the major and minor direction Euler buckling ca-
pacity.

If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular structural model or
member, the user has a choice of explicitly specifying the values of B1 and B 2 for
any member.

Calculation of Factored Forces 53

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Calculation of Nominal Strengths

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed
for Compact, Noncompact, and Slender sections according to the following subsec-
tions. The nominal flexural strengths for all shapes of sections are calculated based
on their principal axes of bending. For the Rectangular, I, Box, Channel, Circular,
Pipe, T, and Double-angle sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric
axes. For the Angle sections, the principal axes are determined and all computa-
tions except shear are based on that.
For Single-angle sections, the shear stresses are calculated for directions along the
geometric axes. For all other sections the shear stresses are calculated along their
geometric and principle axes.

The strength reduction factor, , is taken as follows (LRFD A5.3):

t = Resistance factor for tension, 0.9 (LRFD D1, H1, SAM 2, 6)

c = Resistance factor for compression, 0.85 (LRFD E2, E3, H1)
c = Resistance factor for compression in angles, 0.90 (LRFD SAM 4, 6)
b
= Resistance factor for bending, 0.9 (LRFD F1, H1, A-F1, A-G2, SAM 5)
v = Resistance factor for shear, 0.9 (LRFD F2, A-F2, A-G3, SAM 3)

If the user specifies nominal strengths for one or more elements in the “Redefine
Element Design Data” form, these values will override the above mentioned cal-
culated values for those elements as defined in the following subsections. The
specified nominal strengths should be based on the principal axes of bending.

Compression Capacity
The nominal compression strength is the minimum value obtained from flexural
buckling, torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling. The strengths are de-
termined according to the following subsections.

For members in compression, if Kl r is greater than 200, a message to that effect is

printed (LRFD B7, SAM 4). For single angles, the minimum radius of gyration, r z ,
is used instead of r22 and r33 in computing Kl r .

Flexural Buckling
The nominal axial compressive strength, Pn , depends on the slenderness ratio, Kl r,
and its critical value, c , where

54 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Kl K 33 l 33 K 22 l 22
max , , and
r r33 r22

Kl Fy
c . (LRFD E2-4, SAM 4)
r E

For single angles, the minimum radius of gyration, r z , is used instead of r22 and r33
in computing Kl r .

Pn for Compact or Noncompact sections is evaluated for flexural buckling as fol-

lows:

Pn = Ag Fcr , where (LRFD E2-1)

l2c
Fcr = Fy , for c , and (LRFD E2-2)

Fcr = 2
Fy , for c . (LRFD E2-3)
c

Pn for Slender sections is evaluated for flexural buckling as follows:

Pn = Ag Fcr , where (LRFD A-B3d, SAM 4)

Ql2c
Fcr = Q F y , for c Q , and (LRFD A-B5-15, SAM 4-1)

Fcr = 2
Fy , for c Q . (LRFD A-B5-16, SAM 4-2)
c

The reduction factor, Q, for all compact and noncompact sections is taken as 1. For
slender sections, Q is computed as follows:

Q Q s Q a , where (LRFD A-B5-17, SAM 4)

Q s = reduction factor for unstiffened slender elements, and (LRFD A-B5.3a)

Q a = reduction factor for stiffened slender elements. (LRFD A-B5.3c)

The Q s factors for slender sections are calculated as described in Table IV-4 (LRFD
A-B5.3a). The Q a factors for slender sections are calculated as the ratio of effective
cross-sectional area and the gross cross-sectional area (LRFD A-B5.3c).
Ae
Qa (LRFD A-B5-14)
Ag

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 55

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Section Reduction Factor for Unstiffened Slender Elements Equation

Type (Q s ) Reference

if b f 2t f Fy ,
Qs b f 2t f Fy , if Fy b f 2t f Fy , LRFD A-B5-5,
2 LRFD A-B5-6
b f 2t f Fy , if b f 2t f Fy .

I-SHAPE (rolled)

if b f 2t f Fy k c ,
Qs b f 2t f Fy k c if Fy k c bf 2t f Fy k c , LRFD A-B5-7,
2
kc b f 2t f Fy if b f 2t f Fy k c . LRFD A-B5-8
(welded)

BOX Qs 1 LRFD A-B5.3d

LRFD A-B5-5,
As for I-shapes with bf 2t f replaced by bf t f . LRFD A-B5-6,
CHANNEL
LRFD A-B5-7,
LRFD A-B5-8

For flanges, as for flanges in I-shapes. For web see below. LRFD A-B5-5,
LRFD A-B5-6,
if d tw Fy , LRFD A-B5-7,
T-SHAPE
Qs d tw Fy , if Fy d tw Fy , LRFD A-B5-8,
d t w Fy ,
2
if d tw Fy . LRFD A-B5-9,
LRFDA-B5-10

DOUBLE- if b t Fy ,
Qs b t Fy , if Fy b t Fy , LRFD A-B5-3,
ANGLE
2 LRFD A-B5-4
(Separated) b t Fy , if b t Fy .

if b t Fy E ,
ANGLE Qs b t Fy E , if Fy E b t Fy E , LRFD SAM4-3
2
bt Fy E , if b t Fy E .

PIPE Qs 1 LRFD A-B5.3d

ROUND Qs 1 LRFD A-B5.3d
BAR
RECTAN- Qs 1 LRFD A-B5.3d
GULAR
GENERAL Qs 1 LRFD A-B5.3d

Table IV-4
Reduction Factor for Unstiffened Slender Elements, Q s

56 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Section Effective Width for Stiffened Sections Equation

Type Reference

h
h, if ,
I-SHAPE tw f P LRFD A-B5-12
he (compression only, f )
tw h Ag
1 , if .
f (h tw ) f tw f

h
h, if ,
tw f P
he (compression only, f ) LRFD A-B5-12
tw h Ag
1 , if .
f (h tw ) f tw f
BOX
b
b, if ,
tf f
be (compr. or flexure, f Fy )
tf b LRFD A-B5-11
1 , if .
f (b t f ) f tf f

h
h, if ,
tw f P
CHANNEL he (compression only, f ) LRFD A-B5-12
tw h Ag
1 , if .
f (h tw ) f tw f

T-SHAPE be b LRFD A-B5.3b

DOUBLE-
ANGLE be b LRFD A-B5.3b
(Separated)
ANGLE be b LRFD A-B5.3b
D
1, if ,
t Fy
PIPE Qa (compression only) LRFD A-B5-13
D
, if .
D t Fy t Fy

ROUND
Not applicable 
BAR
RECTAN- be b LRFD A-B5.3b
GULAR
GENERAL Not applicable 

Table IV-5
Effective Width for Stiffened Sections

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 57

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

The effective cross-sectional area is computed based on effective width as follows:

Ae Ag b be t

b e for unstiffened elements is taken equal to b, and b e for stiffened elements is

taken equal to or less than b as given in Table IV-5 (LRFD A-B5.3b). For webs in I,
box, and Channel sections, h e is used as b e and h is used as b in the above equation.

Flexural-Torsional Buckling
Pn for flexural-torsional buckling of Double-angle and T-shaped compression
members whose elements have width-thickness ratios less than r is given by

Pn = Ag Fcrft , where (LRFD E3-1)

Fcr 2 Fcrz 4 Fcr 2 Fcrz H

Fcrft = 1 1 2
, where (LRFD E3-1)
2H Fcr 2 Fcrz
GJ
Fcrz ,
Ar02

x 02 y 02
H 1 ,
r02

r0 = Polar radius of gyration about the shear center,

x 0 , y 0 are the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid,
x 0 0 for double-angle and T-shaped members (y-axis of symmetry),

Fcr 2 is determined according to the equation LRFD E2-1 for flexural

Kl F y
buckling about the minor axis of symmetry for c .
r22 E

Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling

The strength of a compression member, Pn , determined by the limit states of tor-
sional and flexural-torsional buckling is determined as follows:

Pn = Ag Fcr , where (LRFD A-E3-1)

58 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Ql2e
Fcr = Q F y , for e Q , and (LRFD A-E3-2)

Fcr = 2
Fy , for e Q . (LRFD A-E3-3)
e

In the above equations, the slenderness parameter e is calculated as

Fy
e , (LRFD A-E3-4)
Fe

where Fe is calculated as follows:

• For Rectangular, I, Box, and Pipe sections:
2
EC w 1
Fe 2
GJ (LRFD A-E3-5)
K z lz I 22 I 33

• For T-sections and Double-angles:

Fe 22 Fez 4 Fe 22 Fez H
Fe = 1 1 2
(LRFD A-E3-6)
2H Fe 22 Fez

• For Channels:

Fe 33 Fez 4 Fe 33 Fez H
Fe = 1 1 2
(LRFD A-E3-6)
2H Fe 33 Fez

• For Single-angles sections with equal legs:

Fe 33 Fez 4 Fe 33 Fez H
Fe = 1 1 2
(LRFD A-E3-6)
2H Fe 33 Fez

• For Single-angle sections with unequal legs, Fe is calculated as the minimum

real root of the following cubic equation (LRFD A-E3-7):

2 x 02 2 y 02
( Fe Fe 33 )( Fe Fe 22 )( Fe Fez ) F ( Fe Fe 22 ) e F ( Fe Fe 33 )
e 0,
r02 r02

where,

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 59

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

x 0 , y 0 are the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid,
x 0 0 for double-angle and T-shaped members (y-axis of symmetry),

I 22 I 33
r0 x 02 y 02 = polar radius of gyration about the shear center,
Ag

x 02 y 02
H 1 2
, (LRFD A-E3-9)
r 0

2
E
Fe 33 2
, (LRFD A-E3-10)
K 33 l 33 r33
2
E
Fe 22 2
, (LRFD A-E3-11)
K 22 l 22 r22

2
EC w 1
Fez 2
GJ 2
, (LRFD A-E3-12)
K z lz Ar0

K 22 , K 33 are effective length factors in minor and major directions,

K z is the effective length factor for torsional buckling, and it is taken equal
to K 22 in SAP2000,

l 22 , l 33 are effective lengths in the minor and major directions,

l z is the effective length for torsional buckling, and it is taken equal to l 22 .

For angle sections, the principal moment of inertia and radii of gyration are used for
computing Fe . Also, the maximum value of Kl, i.e, max( K 22 l 22 , K 33 l 33 ), is used in
place of K 22 l 22 or K 33 l 33 in calculating Fe 22 and Fe 33 in this case.

Tension Capacity
The nominal axial tensile strength value Pn is based on the gross cross-sectional
area and the yield stress.

Pn Ag F y (LRFD D1-1)

It should be noted that no net section checks are made. For members in tension,
if l r is greater than 300, a message to that effect is printed (LRFD B7, SAM 2). For

60 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

single angles, the minimum radius of gyration, r z , is used instead of r22 and r33 in
computing Kl r .

Nominal Strength in Bending

The nominal bending strength depends on the following criteria: the geometric
shape of the cross-section, the axis of bending, the compactness of the section, and
a slenderness parameter for lateral-torsional buckling. The nominal strengths for all
shapes of sections are calculated based on their principal axes of bending. For the
Rectangular, I, Box, Channel, Circular, Pipe, T, and Double-angle sections, the
principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For the Single Angle sections,
the principal axes are determined and all computations related to flexural strengths
are based on that. The nominal bending strength is the minimum value obtained ac-
cording to the limit states of yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, flange local buck-
ling, and web local buckling, as follows:

Yielding
The flexural design strength of beams, determined by the limit state of yielding is:

Mp Z Fy S Fy (LRFD F1-1)

Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Doubly Symmetric Shapes and Channels
For I, Channel, Box, and Rectangular shaped members bent about the major axis,
the moment capacity is given by the following equation (LRFD F1):
M p 33 , if Lb Lp ,

Lb - L p
M n 33 = C b M p 33 - M p 33 - M r 33 M p 33 , if Lp Lb Lr ,
Lr - L p

M cr 33 M p 33 , if Lb Lr .
(LRFD F1-1, F1-2, F1-12)

where,

M n 33 = Nominal major bending strength,

M p 33 = Major plastic moment, Z 33 F y S 33 F y , (LRFD F1.1)

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 61

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

M r 33 = Major limiting buckling moment,

( F y Fr )S 33 for I-shapes and channels, (LRFD F1-7)
and F y S eff , 33 for rectangular bars and boxes, (LRFD F1-11)
M cr 33 = Critical elastic moment,
2
Cb E
EI 22 GJ + I 22 C w
Lb Lb
for I-shapes and channels, and (LRFD F1-13)
57 000 C b JA
for boxes and rectangular bars, (LRFD F1-14)
Lb r22

Lb = Laterally unbraced length, l 22 ,

Lp = Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic capacity,

300 r22
for I-shapes and channels, and (LRFD F1-4)
Fy
3 750 r22
JA for boxes and rectangular bars, (LRFD F1-5)
M p 33
Lr = Limiting laterally unbraced length for
inelastic lateral-torsional buckling,
1
r22 X 1 1 2

1 + X 2 F y - Fr 2
2

F y Fr
for I-shapes and channels, and (LRFD F1-6)

57 000 r22 JA
for boxes and rectangular bars, (LRFD F1-10)
M r 33
EGJA
X1 = , (LRFD F1-8)
S 33 2
2
C S 33
X2 = 4 w , (LRFD F1-9)
I 22 GJ
M max
Cb = , and (LRFD F1-3)
M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 MC

M max , M A , M B ,and M C are absolute values of maximum moment, 1/4 point, cen-
ter of span and 3/4 point major moments respectively, in the member. C b should be
taken as 1.0 for cantilevers. However, the program is unable to detect whether the
member is a cantilever. The user should overwrite C b for cantilevers. The pro-
gram also defaults C b to 1.0 if the minor unbraced length, l 22 , of the member is re-

62 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

defined by the user (i.e. it is not equal to the length of the member). The user can
overwrite the value of C b for any member.

For I, Channel, Box, and Rectangular shaped members bent about the minor axis,
the moment capacity is given by the following equation:

M n 22 = M p 22 = Z 22 F y S 22 F y (LRFD F1)

For pipes and circular bars bent about any axis,

M n = M p = Z Fy S Fy . (LRFD F1)

T-sections and Double Angles

For T-shapes and Double-angles the nominal major bending strength is given as,

EI 22 GJ
M n 33 = B + 1 + B 2 , where (LRFD F1-15)
Lb

M n 33 F y S 33 , for positive moment, stem in tension (LRFD F1.2c)

M n 33 F y S 33 , for negative moment, stem in compression (LRFD F1.2c)

d I 22
B . (LRFD F1-16)
Lb J

The positive sign for B applies for tension in the stem of T-sections or the out-
standing legs of double angles (positive moments) and the negative sign applies for
compression in stem or legs (negative moments).
For T-shapes and double angles the nominal minor bending strength is assumed as,

M n 22 = S 22 F y .

Single Angles
The nominal strengths for Single-angles are calculated based on their principal axes
of bending. The nominal major bending strength for Single-angles for the limit
state of lateral-torsional buckling is given as follows (LRFD SAM 5.1.3):

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 63

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

M ob
M n , major = M ob M y , major , if M ob M y , major ,
M y , major
M y , major
M n , major = M y , major M y , major , if M ob M y , major ,
M ob

where,

M y , major = yield moment about the major principal axis of bending,

considering the possibility of yielding at the heel and both of the
leg tips,

M ob = elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment as calculated below.

The elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, M ob , for equal-leg angles is taken as

E b2t2
M ob Cb , (LRFD SAM 5-5)
l

and for unequal-leg angles the M ob is calculated as

I min 2
M ob EC b 2 w ( lt rmin ) 2 w , (LRFD SAM 5-6)
l

where,

t min t w , t f ,

l max l 22 , l 33 ,

I min = minor principal axis moment of inertia,

I max = major principal axis moment of inertia,

rmin = radius of gyration for minor principal axis,

1
w z( w 2 z 2 )dA 2z 0 , (LRFD SAM 5.3.2)
I max A

z = coordinate along the major principal axis,

w = coordinate along the minor principal axis, and

z 0 = coordinate of the shear center along the major principal axis with respect
to the centroid.

64 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

w is a special section property for angles. It is positive for short leg in compression,
negative for long leg in compression, and zero for equal-leg angles (LRFD SAM
5.3.2). However, for conservative design in SAP2000, it is always taken as negative
for unequal-leg angles.

General Sections
For General sections the nominal major and minor direction bending strengths are
assumed as,

M n = S Fy .

Flange Local Buckling

The flexural design strength, M n , of Noncompact and Slender beams for the limit
state of Flange Local Buckling is calculated as follows (LRFD A-F1):

For major direction bending,

M p 33 , if p ,

p
M n 33 = M p 33 M p 33 M r 33 , if p r , (A-F1-3)
r p

M cr 33 M p 33 , if r .

and for minor direction bending,

M p 22 , if p ,

p
M n 22 = M p 22 M p 22 M r 22 , if p r , (A-F1-3)
r p

M cr 22 M p 22 , if r .

where,

M n 33 = Nominal major bending strength,

M n 22 = Nominal minor bending strength,
M p 33 = Major plastic moment, Z 33 F y S 33 F y ,
M p 22 = Minor plastic moment, Z 22 F y S 22 F y ,

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 65

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

M r 33 = Major limiting buckling moment,

M r 22 = Minor limiting buckling moment,
M cr 33 = Major buckling moment,
M cr 22 = Minor buckling moment,
= Controlling slenderness parameter,
p = Largest value of for which M n M p , and
r = Largest value of for which buckling is inelastic.

The parameters , p , r , M r 33 , M r 22 , M cr 33 , and M cr 22 for flange local buckling

for different types of shapes are given below:

I Shapes, Channels
bf
, (for I sections) (LRFD B5.1, Table A-F1.1)
2t f

bf
, (for Channel sections) (LRFD B5.1, Table A-F1.1)
tf

p , (LRFD B5.1, Table A-F1.1)

Fy

,
Fy Fr
r (LRFD Table A-F1.1)
,
Fy Fr kc
M r 33 (Fy Fr )S 33 , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

M r 22 F y S 22 , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

2
S 33 ,
M cr 33 (LRFD Table A-F1.1)
kc
2
S 33 ,

2
S 22 ,
M cr 22 (LRFD Table A-F1.1)
kc
2
S 22 ,

66 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Fr (LRFD A-F1)

Boxes
bf 3 tw
,
tf
(LRFD B5.1, Table A-F1.1)
bf 2 tw
,
tf

p , (LRFD B5.1, Table A-F1.1)

Fy

r , (LRFD B5.1, Table A-F1.1)

Fy
M r 33 (Fy Fr )S eff , 33 , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

M r 22 (Fy Fr )S eff , 22 , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

M cr 33 F y S eff , 33 S eff , 33 S 33 , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

M cr 22 F y S eff , 22 , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

Fr (LRFD A-F1)

S eff , 33 = effective major section modulus considering slenderness, and

S eff , 22 = effective minor section modulus considering slenderness.

T-sections and Double Angles

No local buckling is considered for T sections and Double angles in SAP2000. If
special consideration is required, the user is expected to analyze this separately.

Single Angles
The nominal strengths for Single-angles are calculated based on their principal axes
of bending. The nominal major and minor bending strengths for Single-angles for
the limit state of flange local buckling are given as follows (LRFD SAM 5.1.1):

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 67

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

b
Fy S c , if ,
t Fy

b
M n= F y S c 1 , if ,
Fy t Fy
Fy
b
Fy S c , if ,
t Fy

where,

S c = section modulus for compression at the tip of one leg,

t = thickness of the leg under consideration,

b = length of the leg under consideration, and

Q = strength reduction factor due to local buckling.

In calculating the bending strengths for Single-angles for the limit state of flange lo-
cal buckling, the capacities are calculated for both the principal axes considering
the fact that either of the two tips can be under compression. The minimum capaci-
ties are considered.

Pipe Sections

, (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

t
p , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)
Fy

r (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

Fy

M r 33 = M r 22 = + Fy S , (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

D t

M cr 33 = M cr 22 = S, (LRFD Table A-F1.1)

D t

68 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Circular, Rectangular, and General Sections

No consideration of local buckling is required for solid circular shapes, rectangular
plates (LRFD Table A-F1.1). No local buckling is considered in SAP2000 for cir-
cular, rectangular, and general shapes. If special consideration is required, the user
is expected to analyze this separately.

Web Local Buckling

The flexural design strengths are considered in SAP2000 for only the major axis
bending (LRFD Table A-F1.1).

I Shapes, Channels, and Boxes

The flexural design strength for the major axis bending, M n , of Noncompact and
Slender beams for the limit state of Web Local Buckling is calculated as follows
(LRFD A-F1-1, A-F1-3, A-G2-2):
M p 33 , if p ,

p
M n 33 = M p 33 M p 33 M r 33 , if p r ,(A-F1,A-G1)
r p

S 33 R PG R e Fcr , if r ,

where,

M n 33 = Nominal major bending strength,

M p 33 = Major plastic moment, Z 33 F y S 33 F y , (LRFD F1.1)
M r 33 = Major limiting buckling moment,R e S 33 F y ,(LRFD TableA-F1.1)
= Web slenderness parameter,
p = Largest value of for which M n M p ,
r = Largest value of for which buckling is inelastic,
R PG = Plate girder bending strength reduction factor,
Re = Hybrid girder factor, and
Fcr = Critical compression flange stress, ksi.

The web slenderness parameters are computed as follows, where the value of Pu is
taken as positive for compression and zero for tension:
hc
,
tw

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 69

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Pu Pu
1- ,
Fy P
b y
P
b y
p
Pu 253 Pu
- ,
Fy P
b y Fy P
b y

Pu
r 1- .
Fy P
b y

The parameters R PG , R e , and Fcr for slender web sections are calculated in
SAP2000 as follows:

ar hc
R PG , (LRFD A-G2-3)
ar tw Fcr

ar m m3
Re (for hybrid sections), (LRFD A-G2)
ar

Re , (for non-hybrid section), where (LRFD A-G2)

ar , and (LRFD A-G2)

Fy
m , taken as 1.0. (LRFD A-G2)
min( Fcr , F y )

In the above expressions, R e is taken as 1, because currently SAP2000 deals

with only non-hybrid girders.
The critical compression flange stress, Fcr , for slender web sections is calculated
for limit states of lateral-torsional buckling and flange local buckling for the corre-
sponding slenderness parameter in SAP2000 as follows:

70 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

Fy , if p ,

1 p
C b Fy 1 F y , if p r ,
Fcr = 2 r p
(LRFD A-G2-4, 5, 6)

C PG
2
, if r ,

The parameters , p , r , and C PG for lateral-torsional buckling for slender web I,

Channel and Box sections are given below:
Lb
, (LRFD A-G2-7)
rT

p , (LRFD A-G2-8)
Fy

r , (LRFD A-G2-9)
Fy
C PG C b , and (LRFD A-G2-10)

rT = radius of gyration of the compression flange plus one-third of the

compression portion of the web, and it is taken as b f 12 in SAP2000.

C b = a factor which depends on span moment. It is calculated using

the equation given in page 62.

The parameters , p , r , and C PG for flange local buckling for slender web I,
Channel and Box sections are given below:
b
, (LRFD A-G2-11)
t
p , (LRFD A-G2-12)
Fy

r , (LRFD A-G2-13)
Fy kc
C PG k c , and (LRFD A-G2-14)

Cb 1. (LRFD A-G2-15)

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 71

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

T-sections and Double Angles

No local buckling is considered for T-sections and Double-angles in SAP2000. If
special consideration is required, the user is expected to analyze this separately.

Single Angles
The nominal major and minor bending strengths for Single-angles for the limit state
of web local buckling are the same as those given for flange local buckling (LRFD
SAM 5.1.1). No additional check is considered in SAP2000.

Pipe Sections
The nominal major and minor bending strengths for Pipe sections for the limit state
of web local buckling are the same as those given for flange local buckling (LRFD
Table A-F1.1). No additional check is considered in SAP2000.

Circular, Rectangular, and General Sections

No web local buckling is required for solid circular shapes and rectangular plates
(LRFD Table A-F1.1). No web local buckling is considered in SAP2000 for circu-
lar, rectangular, and general shapes. If special consideration is required, the user is
expected to analyze them separately.

Shear Capacities
The nominal shear strengths are calculated for shears along the geometric axes for
all sections. For I, Box, Channel, T, Double angle, Pipe, Circular and Rectangular
sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For Single-angle
sections, principal axes do not coincide with their geometric axes.

Major Axis of Bending

The nominal shear strength, V n 2 , for major direction shears in I-shapes, boxes and
channels is evaluated as follows:
h
For ,
tw Fy

V n2 = F y Aw , (LRFD F2-1)
h
for < ,
Fy tw Fy

72 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

 Chapter IV Check/Design for AISC-LRFD93

h
V n2 = F y Aw , and (LRFD F2-2)
Fy tw

h
for < ,
Fy tw

Aw
V n2 = 2
. (LRFD F2-3 and A-F2-3)
h tw

The nominal shear strength for all other sections is taken as:

V n2 = F y Av 2 .

Minor Axis of Bending

The nominal shear strength for minor direction shears is assumed as:

V n3 = F y Av 3

Calculation of Capacity Ratios

In the calculation of the axial force/biaxial moment capacity ratios, first, for each
station along the length of the member, the actual member force/moment compo-
nents are calculated for each load combination. Then the corresponding capacities
are calculated. Then, the capacity ratios are calculated at each station for each mem-
ber under the influence of each of the design load combinations. The controlling
compression and/or tension capacity ratio is then obtained, along with the associ-
ated station and load combination. A capacity ratio greater than 1.0 indicates ex-
ceeding a limit state.

During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not considered.
Also, the joints are not designed.

Axial and Bending Stresses

Pu
The interaction ratio is determined based on the ratio . If Pu is tensile, Pn is the
Pn
nominal axial tensile strength and t ; and if Pu is compressive, Pn is
the nominal axial compressive strength and c , except for angle sec-
tions c (LRFD SAM 6). In addition, the resistance factor for bend-
ing, b .

Calculation of Capacity Ratios 73

SAP2000 Steel Design Manual

Pu
For , the capacity ratio is given as
Pn

Pu 8 M u 33 M u 22
+ + . (LRFD H1-1a, SAM 6-1a)
Pn 9 b
M n 33 b
M n 22

Pu
For < , the capacity ratio is given as
Pn

Pu M u 33 M u 22
+ + . (LRFD H1-1b, SAM 6-1a)
2 Pn b
M n 33 b
M n 22

For circular sections an SRSS (Square Root of Sum of Squares) combination is first
made of the two bending components before adding the axial load component in-
stead of the simple algebraic addition implied by the above formulas.

For Single-angle sections, the combined stress ratio is calculated based on the prop-
erties about the principal axis (LRFD SAM 5.3, 6). For I, Box, Channel, T, Double
angle, Pipe, Circular and Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with
their geometric axes. For Single-angle sections, principal axes are determined in
SAP2000. For general sections it is assumed that the section properties are given in
terms of the principal directions.

Shear Stresses
Similarly to the normal stresses, from the factored shear force values and the nomi-
nal shear strength values at each station for each of the load combinations, shear ca-
pacity ratios for major and minor directions are calculated as follows:
V u2
, and
V
v n2

V u3
,
V
v n3

where v .
For Single-angle sections, the shear stress ratio is calculated for directions along the
geometric axis. For all other sections the shear stress is calculated along the princi-
ple axes which coincide with the geometric axes.

74 Calculation of Capacity Ratios