4.

3 Particle model of matter

The particle model is widely used to predict the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases and this has
many applications in everyday life. It helps us to explain a wide range of observations and
engineers use these principles when designing vessels to withstand high pressures and
temperatures, such as submarines and spacecraft. It also explains why it is difficult to make a good
cup of tea high up a mountain!

4.3.1 Changes of state and the particle model

4.3.1.1 Density of materials

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

MS 1a, b, c, 3b, c
The density of a material is defined by the equation:
density =
mass Students should be able to
volume
recall and apply this
m equation to changes where
ρ= V
mass is conserved.
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed,
kg/m3 mass, m, in kilograms, kg volume, V, in
metres cubed, m3
The particle model can be used to explain
• the different states of matter
• differences in density.

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

WS 1.2
Students should be able to recognise/draw simple diagrams to
model the difference between solids, liquids and gases.

WS 1.2
Students should be able to explain the differences in density
between the different states of matter in terms of the arrangement
of atoms or molecules.
Required practical activity 5: use appropriate apparatus to make and record the measurements
needed to determine the densities of regular and irregular solid objects and liquids. Volume should
be determined from the dimensions of regularly shaped objects, and by a displacement technique
for irregularly shaped objects. Dimensions to be measured using appropriate apparatus such as a
ruler, micrometer or Vernier callipers.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: AT 1.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 94).
4.3.1.2 Changes of state
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe how, when substances change

state (melt, freeze, boil, evaporate, condense or sublimate), mass
is conserved.
Changes of state are physical changes which differ from chemical
changes because the material recovers its original properties if the
change is reversed.

4.3.2 Internal energy and energy transfers

4.3.2.1 Internal energy

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and

molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all
the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing
the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either
raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.

4.3.2.2 Temperature changes in a system and specific heat capacity

Content
Key opportunities for skills
development

If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in

temperature depends on the mass of the substance heated, the
type of material and the energy input to the system.
 MS 1a, 3b, c, d
The following equation applies:
Students should be able to
change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × apply this equation, which
temperature change is given on the Physics
equation sheet, to calculate
∆ E = m c ∆θ the energy change involved
change in thermal energy, ∆E, in joules, J when the temperature of a
material changes.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
This equation and specific
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree heat capacity are also
Celsius, J/kg °C temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C. included in Energy changes
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy in systems (page 19).
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance
by one degree Celsius.

4.3.2.3 Changes of heat and specific latent heat

Content
Key opportunities for skills
development

If a change of state happens:

The energy needed for a substance to change state is called latent
heat. When a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes
the energy stored (internal energy) but not the temperature.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy
required to change the state of one kilogram of the substance with
no change in temperature.

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

energy for a change of state = mass × specific latent heat

MS 1a, 3b, c, d
E=mL Students should be able to
energy, E, in joules, J apply this equation, which
is given on the Physics
mass, m, in kilograms, kg equation sheet, to calculate
specific latent heat, L, in joules per kilogram, J/kg the energy change involved
in a change of state.
Specific latent heat of fusion – change of state from solid to liquid
MS 4a
Specific latent heat of vaporisation – change of state from liquid to
vapour AT 5
Perform an experiment to
measure the latent heat of
fusion of water.
 WS 3.5
Students should be able to interpret heating and cooling graphs that
include changes of state.
Students should be able to distinguish between specific heat
capacity and specific latent heat.

4.3.3 Particle model and pressure

4.3.3.1 Particle motion in gases

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

WS 1.2
The molecules of a gas are in constant random motion. The
temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules.
Changing the temperature of a gas, held at constant volume,
changes the pressure exerted by the gas.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how the motion of the molecules in a gas is related to

both its temperature and its pressure
• explain qualitatively the relation between the temperature of a
gas and its pressure at constant volume.
4.3.3.2 Pressure in gases (physics only)
Content
Key opportunities for skills
development

WS 1.2
A gas can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes. The
pressure produces a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas
container (or any surface).
Students should be able to use the particle model to explain how MS 3b, c
increasing the volume in which a gas is contained, at constant Students should be able to
temperature, can lead to a decrease in pressure. apply this equation which is
For a fixed mass of gas held at a constant temperature: given on the Physics
equation sheet.
pressure × volume = constant

p V = constant
pressure, p, in pascals, Pa
volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
Students should be able to calculate the change in the pressure of
a gas or the volume of a gas (a fixed mass held at constant
temperature) when either the pressure or volume is increased or
decreased.
4.3.3.3 Increasing the pressure of a gas (physics only) (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Work is the transfer of energy by a force.

Doing work on a gas increases the internal energy of the gas and
can cause an increase in the temperature of the gas.

WS 1.2
Students should be able to explain how, in a given situation eg a
bicycle pump, doing work on an enclosed gas leads to an increase
in the temperature of the gas.