Network Standards

Layered Protocols
Architectures

Assist. Prof. Dr. Khalid Al-Hussaini

Reference: Ch. 2 : Panko’s Business Data

Networks and Telecommunications, 6th edition
Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall
1.
Message Standards
(Protocols)
 Standards

Standards are rules of operation

that allow two hardware or software processes
to work together

Even if they are from different vendors

2-3
 Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the
Exchange of Messages

• Standards Govern the Exchange of Messages

– Messages must be governed by strict rules
– Because computers are not intelligent

Message

2-4
 Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the
Exchange of Messages (Continued)

• Standards Govern Syntax

– Syntax: the organization of the message
– Human example: “Susan thanked Tom”
– This sentence has a subject-verb-object syntax

• Standards Govern Semantics

– Semantics: The meaning of the message
– Human example: “Susan thanked Tom”
– Humans understand this message easily

2-5
 Figure 2-2: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Interactions

1.
HTTP Request Message
Asking for a File

Browser Webserver
Application

Client PC Webserver
2.
HTTP Response Message
Delivering the File

Semantics in HTTP, which governs the Web

2-6
 Figure 2-3: Syntax of HTTP Request and
Response Messages

• [CRLF]
– Carriage return and line feed (starts a new line)
– ASCII codes: CR: 13, LF: 10 (decimal)
• HTTP Request Message
– GET /reports/project1/final.htm HTTP/1.1[CRLF]
• GET is the method (others exist)
• Next comes the path to the file to be retrieved
• Last comes the version of the HTTP standard
– Host: voyager.cba.Hawaii.edu[CRLF]
• The host to be sent the request message
2-7
 Figure 2-3: Syntax of HTTP Request and
Response Messages, Continued

• HTTP Response Message

– HTTP/1.1 200 OK[CRLF]
– Date: Tuesday, 20-JAN-2006 18:32:15 GMT[CRLF]
– Server: name of server software[CRLF]
– MIME-version: 1.0[CRLF]
– Content-type: text/plain[CRLF]
– [CRLF]
– File to be downloaded (byte stream)
• Syntax of fields (lines) after first line:
– Keyword : Content [CRLF]
2-8
http://www.im.ncnu.edu.tw/ycchen/rlink.html

2-9
 Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the
Exchange of Messages, Continued

• General Message Syntax (Organization)

– General Message Organization (Figure 2-4)
– Primary parts of messages
• Data Field (content to be delivered)
• Header (everything before the data field)
• Trailer (everything after the data field)
– The header and trailer act like a delivery envelope for
the data field.

Trailer Data Field Header

2-10
 Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the
Exchange of Messages, Continued
• General Message Syntax (Organization)
– Header and trailer are further divided into fields

Trailer Data Field Header

Other
Header Destination
Message with
Field Address
all three parts
Field is
Used by Switches and Routers
Like the Address on an Envelope

2-11
 Figure 2-4: General Message Organization,
Continued

Data Field Header

Other Destination
Message without
Header Address
a trailer
Field Field
Usually only data link
layer messages have trailers

2-12
 Figure 2-4: General Message Organization,
Continued

Header

Message with
only a header Other Destination
Header Address
e.g. Field Field
TCP supervisory
messages are
pure headers
(there is no data field content to deliver)

2-13
2.
Reliability
 Figure 2-5: Reliable Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) Session

• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an

important standard in Internet transmission

• TCP
– If acknowledgments are not sent by the receiver, the
sender retransmits the TCP message (called a TCP
segment)
– This gives reliability: error detection and error
correction

2-15
 Figure 2-5: Reliable TCP Session, Continued

Client PC Webserver
TCP Process TCP Process
4. Data = HTTP Request

Carry 5. ACK (4)

HTTP
Req &
6. Data = HTTP Response
Resp
(4) TCP Segment (Message) 4
Carries an HTTP Request
7. ACK (6)
Segment 5 Acknowledges It
Request-Response There Is No Need to Resend
Cycle for Data Transfer

2-16
 Figure 2-5: A TCP Session, Continued

Client PC Webserver
TCP Process TCP Process
8. Data = HTTP Request (Error)

9. Data = HTTP Request (No ACK so Retransmit)

Carry
HTTP
Req & 10. ACK (9)
Resp
TCP Segment (Message) 8
(4)
11. Data = HTTPIsResponse
Lost in Transmission
There Is No Acknowledgment
12. ACK (11)
Error Handling So the Sender Retransmits It

2-17
3.
Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Protocols
 Figure 2-6: Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Protocols

Connection-Oriented Protocol Connectionless Protocol

A B A B
Open Connection Message
(No Sequence Number)
Message 1 (Seq. Num = A1)
Connection-oriented protocols
Formal openings and closings
Message 3 (Seq. Num B1)
Also have sequence numbers
Message 2 (Seq. Num = A2) so that the receiver can put
messages in order
Close Connection
And so the receiver can send
Acknowledgments for specific
messages 2-19
 Figure 2-6: Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Protocols, Continued

Client PC Webserver
Browser Application

HTTP Request

HTTP is connectionless

No Openings
No Closings
No Sequence Numbers
No Acknowledgments

2-20
 Figure 2-6: Connection-Oriented and
Connectionless Protocols, Continued

Client PC
In TCP Webserver
TCP Process TCP Process

Connection-Opening Messages

Messages During the Connection

Time

Connection-Closing Messages

2-21
 Figure 2-7: Advantages and Disadvantages
or Connection-Oriented Protocols

• Advantages
– Thanks to sequence numbers, the parties can tell if a
message is lost.

– Error messages, such as ACKs can refer to specific

messages.

– Long messages can be fragmented into many smaller

messages that can fit inside packets.
• Fragmentation followed by reassembly on the
destination host is an important concept in networking.

2-22
 Figure 2-7: Advantages and Disadvantages
or Connection-Oriented Protocols, Cont.

• Disadvantages
– The presence of many supervisory messages
consumes existing bandwidth
– The processing of connection information places a
heavy processing load on computers connected to the
network

2-23
4.
The Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI
Standards Architecture
 Standards Architecture

• A Standards Architecture is a Broad Plan for

Creating Standards
– Break the problem of effective communication into
smaller pieces for ease of development
– Develop standards for the individual pieces
– Just as a building architect creating a general plan for a
house before designing the individual rooms in detail
– The dominant architecture today is the hybrid TCP/IP-
OSI standards architecture shown in the next slide

2-25
 Figure 2-8: Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture

General Purpose Layer Specific Layer

Purpose
Application-application Application (5) Application-application
communication interworking
Transmission across an Transport (4) Host-host
internet communication
Internet (3) Packet delivery across
an internet
Transmission across a Data Link (2) Frame delivery across
single network (LAN or a network
WAN)
Physical (1) Device-device
connection

2-26
 Figure 2-8: Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture,
Continued

• Physical and Data Link Layer Standards

– Govern Communication Through a Single Network
– LAN or WAN

2-27
 Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link
Layer Standards in a Single Network

• Physical Layer
– Physical layer standards govern transmission
between adjacent devices connected by a
transmission medium

Physical Link
A-X1 Switch X1
Host A

Physical Link Switch X2

X1-X2

2-28
 Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer
Standards in a Single Network, Continued

• Data Link Layer

– Data link layer standards govern the transmission
of frames across a single network—typically by
sending them through several switches along the
data link

Data Link Host B

A-B

Switch X1
Host A
Switch X2
2-29
Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer
Standards in a Single Network, Continued

• Data Link Layer

– Data link layer standards also govern

• Frame organization
• Switch operation

2-30
 Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer
Standards in a Single Network, Continued

3 Physical Links
Host A 1 Data Link
Switch 2 Switches
Data Link
A-R1
Physical Link Switch
Server
A-X1 Station
Switch X1

Physical
Link
X1-X2 Physical
Switch Link
Mobile Client X2 Router R1
Station X2-R1
2-31
 Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers
in an Internet

• Internet and Transport Layers

– An internet is a group of networks connected by
routers so that any application on any host on any
network can communicate with any application on
any other host on any other network

– Internet and transport layer standards govern

communication across an internet composed of two
or more single networks

2-32
 Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers
in an Internet, Continued

• Internet Layer
– Internet layer standards govern the transmission of
packets across an internet—typically by sending them
through several routers along the route
– Messages at the internet layer are called packets
– Internet layer standards also govern packet
organization and router operation

Router 1 Router 2 2-33

 Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an
Internet, Continued

Host
A Data Link A-R1

R1
Network X
3 Data Links: One per Network Network Y
1 Route per Internet Data
Link
Network Z Route A-B R1-R2
R2

Host
B Data Link R3-B

2-34
 Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an
Internet, Continued

Frame X
Packet
Data Link
Switch
A-R1 In Network X:
Host A Two Destination
Switch Addresses:
Server
Packet: Host B (Destination Host)
Station
Frame: Router R1
Switch
X1
Mobile Client
Station Switch Route
X2 Router R1
A-B
Network X
2-35
 Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an
Internet, Continued

To
Network X
Route
A-B Router R1
Frame Y
Data Link
In Network Y: Packet
R1-R2
Two Destination Addresses:
Packet: Host B (Destination Host)
Frame: Router R2

To Router R2 Network Y
Network Z

2-36
 Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an
Internet, Continued

Frame Z
Packet
Data Link
R2-B

Host Switch
Z1 Router R2
B
In Network Z:
Two DestinationSwitch
Addresses:
Packet: Host B (Destination
Z2 Host)
Frame: Host B

Mobile Client Switch

Stations X2 Router

Network Z
2-37
 Frames and Packets

• In an internet with hosts separated by N

networks, there will be:
– 2 hosts
– One packet (going all the way between hosts)
– One route (between the two hosts)
– N frames (one in each network)
– N-1 routers (change frames between each pair of
networks)
– There usually are many switches within single
networks
– There usually are many physical links within
networks
2-38
 Figure 2-11: Internet and Transport Layer
Standards

• Transport Layer
– Transport layer standards govern aspects of end-to-
end communication between two end hosts that are
not handled by the internet layer
– These standards allow hosts to work together even if
the two computers are from different vendors and
have different internal designs

2-39
 Figure 2-11: Internet and Transport Layer
Standards, Continued

Transport Layer
end-to-end (host-to-host)
TCP is connection-oriented, reliable Server
Client PC
UDP is connectionless and unreliable

Internet Layer
(usually IP)
hop-by-hop (host-router or router-router)
connectionless, unreliable

Router 1 Router 2 Router 3

2-40
 Figure 2-12: Application Layer Standards

• Application Layer
– The application layer governs how two applications
work with each other, even if they are from different
vendors

Browser Webserver
Application

Client PC Webserver

2-41
 Figure 2-12: Application Layer Standards

• There are more application layer standards

than any other type of standard because there
are many applications
– HTTP
– E-Mail
– Database
– Instant Messaging
– FTP
– Etc.

2-42
Standards Layers: Recap

• Application (5)
• Transport (4)
• Internet (3)
• Data Link (2)
• Physical (1)

2-43
 Figure 2-13: Why Layer? Box

• Breaking up large tasks into smaller tasks and

assigning tasks to different individuals is
common in all fields
• Specialization in standards design (EEs for
physical layer, application specialists for
application layer, etc.)
• Simplification in standards design for individual
standards
• If you change a standard at one layer, you do
not have to change standards at other layers
2-44
5.
Syntax Examples for
Some Layer Messages
 Octets

• Field length may be measured in octets

• An octet is a group of eight bits
• In computer science, an octet is called a byte

Octet = 8 Bits
10010111
2-46
 Figure 2-14: Ethernet Frame

Preamble (7 octets) 10101010 …

Start of Frame Delimiter

(1 octet) 10101011
Header
Destination Ethernet (MAC) Address (48 bits)

Source Ethernet (MAC) Address (48 bits)

Length (2 octets) Length of Data Field

2-47
 Figure 2-14: Ethernet Frame, Continued

LLC Subheader
Data Field
(usually 7 octets)
(variable
length) Encapsulated
Usually
IP Packet Packer

PAD (added if data field < 46 octets)

Trailer Frame Check Sequence (32 bits)

2-48
 Figure 2-14: Ethernet Frame, Continued

Frame Check Sequence (32 bits)

• Sender computes the frame check sequence

field value based on contents of other fields
– Receiver recomputes the field value
• If the values match, there have been no errors
• If the values do not match, there has been an
error
– The receiver simply discards the frame
• Unreliable: error detection but not error
correction
2-49
 Ethernet Frame

Max. frame size:

1518 = 18 + 1500
Preamble: 10101010…10101010
SFD: 10101011

2-50
 Figure 2-15: Internet Protocol (IP) Packet,
Continued

Bit 0 The IP packet is drawn 32 bits to a line Bit 31

Header
Version Diff-Serv Total Length
Length
(4 bits) (8 bits) (16 bits)
(4 bits)
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
(16 bits) (3 bits) (13 bits)
Time to Live Protocol
Header Checksum (16 bits)
(8 bits) (8 bits)

Version is Bits 0-3 Identification is Bits 32-47

Header length is Bits 4-7
Diff Serv is Bits 8-15 Time to live is Bits 48-55
Total Length is Bits 16-31
2-51
 Figure 2-15: Internet Protocol (IP) Packet

Bit 0 Bit 31

Header
Version Diff-Serv Total Length
Length

Identification Flags Fragment Offset

Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source IP Address (32 bits)

Destination IP Address (32 bits)
Padding
Options (if any)
(to 32-bit boundary)
Data Field
(dozens, hundreds, or thousands of bits)
Often contains a TCP segment
2-52
2-53
 Figure 2-16: TCP and UDP at the Transport
Layer

• TCP is reliable
• Not all applications need reliability
– Voice over IP cannot wait for lost or damaged packets
to be transmitted
– Network management protocols need to place as low
a burden on the network as possible
– Both types of applications use the simpler User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) instead of TCP

2-54
 Figure 2-16: TCP and UDP at the Transport
Layer, Continued

Protocol TCP UDP

Layer Transport Transport

Connection-Oriented? Yes No

Reliable? Yes No

Burden on the two hosts High Low

Burden on the network High Low

2-55
 Why Make TCP Reliable?

• Reliability is a heavy process. The transport

layer only involves processing on the two hosts.
It would be far more expensive to make the
internet or data link layer reliable because this
would require complex processing on many
routers or switches, respectively.

• The transport layer is the highest layer below

the application layer. TCP’s reliability fixes
errors at the transport layer and all lower layers
in the process. This allows the transport layer to
give the application clean data.
2-56
 Figure 2-17: A Complex Application
Protocol: The Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP)
• Some application protocols are simple
– HTTP: Simple request-response message cycle shown
in Figure 2-2

• Some application protocols are complex (Figure 2-

17)
– Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for e-mail
– More than a dozen messages must be exchanged to
send an e-mail message

2-57
6.
Vertical
Communication
Between Layer
Processes on the
Same Host
 Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the
Source Host

The process begins when a browser creates an HTTP request message

Application HTTP
Process Message

Passes Message
Down to Transport Process

Transport HTTP TCP

Process Message Hdr

Encapsulation of HTTP Message

in Data Field of TCP Segment
2-59
 Figure 2-18: Layered Communication
on the Source Host, Continued

• When a layer process (N) creates a

message, it passes it down to the next-
lower-layer process (N-1) immediately
• The receiving process (N-1) will
encapsulate the Layer N message, that is,
place it in the data field of its own (N-1)
message

2-60
Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the
Source Host, Continued

Transport HTTP TCP

Process Message Hdr

Internet HTTP TCP IP

Process Message Hdr Hdr

Encapsulation of TCP Segment

in Data Field of IP Packet

2-61
Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the
Source Host, Continued

Internet HTTP TCP IP

Process Message Hdr Hdr

Data Link Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth

Process Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

Encapsulation of IP Packet
in Data Field of Ethernet Frame

2-62
Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the
Source Host, Continued

Data Link Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth

Process Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

Physical
Process

Physical Layer converts the bits of the frame into signals.

2-63
 Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the
Source Host, Continued

The following is the final frame for a

an HTTP message on an Ethernet LAN

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth

Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

L2 L5 L4 L3 L2

Notice the Pattern: From Right to Left: L2, L3, L4, L5, maybe L2
This makes it easier to remember the order of headers and
messages
Don’t forget the possible trailing L2 trailer
2-64
 Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination
Host

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Data Link

Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr Process

Physical
Process

2-65
 Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination
Host, Continued

HTTP TCP IP Internet

Message Hdr Hdr Process

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Data Link

Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr Process

Decapsulation of IP Packet
from Data Field of Ethernet Frame

2-66
Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination
Host, Continued

HTTP TCP Transport

Message Hdr Process

HTTP TCP IP Internet

Message Hdr Hdr Process

Decapsulation of TCP Segment

from Data Field of IP Packet

2-67
Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination
Host, Continued

HTTP Application
Message Process

HTTP TCP Transport

Message Hdr Process

Decapsulation of HTTP Message

from Data Field of TCP Segment

2-68
 Figure 2-20: Layered End-to-End Communication

Routers
Switches Have Three
Source and Have Two Layers
Destination Layers ---
Hosts Have --- Each Router
5 Layers Each Switch Port
Port Has Two
App
Has One Layers (1&2)
Trans
Layer (1)
Int
DL
Phy
Source Switch Switch Router Switch Router Destination
Host 1 2 1 3 2 Host

2-69
 Figure 2-21: Combining Horizontal and Vertical
Communication

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

App
Transmission Control Protocol
Trans
Internet Protocol
Int

DL

Phy

Source Switch Switch Router Switch Router Destination

Host 1 2 1 3 2 Host

2-70
7.
OSI, TCP/IP, and Other
Standards Architectures
 Figure 2-22: The Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture

Broad Purpose Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI OSI TCP/IP

Application
Communication
Application
between Presentation Application
(Layer 5)
applications
Session
Transport (Layer 4) Transport Transport
Internetworking
Internet (Layer 3) Network Internet
Transmission Data Link (Layer 2) Data Link Use OSI
within a single
Physical (Layer 1) Physical Standards Here
LAN or WAN

2-72
 Figure 2-23: OSI and TCP/IP

OSI TCP/IP

Standards ISO (International IETF (Internet

Agency or Organization for Engineering Task
Agencies Standardization) Force)

ITU-T (International
Telecommunications
Union—
Telecommunications
Standards Sector)

2-73
 Figure 2-23: OSI and TCP/IP, Continued

OSI TCP/IP
Dominance Nearly 100% 70%-80% dominant
dominant at at the internet and
physical and data transport
link layers layers.

Documents are Various Mostly RFCs (requests

Called for comments)

2-74
 Figure 2-23: OSI and TCP/IP, Continued

• Notes
– Do not confuse OSI (the architecture) with ISO (the
organization)

– The acronyms for ISO and ITU-T do not match their

names, but these are the official names and
acronyms

2-75
 Figure 2-24: OSI Layers

• Layer 1: OSI Physical Layer Standards

– Nearly always used in the hybrid TCP/IP-OSI
architecture

• Layer 2: OSI Data Link Layer Standards

– Nearly always used in the hybrid TCP/IP-OSI
architecture

2-76
 Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

• Layer 3: OSI Network Layer Standards

– Same function as internet layer standards in TCP/IP
– But OSI network layer standards are incompatible with
TCP/IP internet layer standards
– Rarely used

• Layer 4: OSI Transport Layer Standards

– Same function as transport layer in TCP/IP
– But OSI transport layer standards are incompatible with
TCP/IP transport layer standards
– Rarely used

2-77
 Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

• Layer 5: OSI Session Layer Standards

– Initiate and maintain a connection between application
programs on different computers
– Nothing like this layer in TCP/IP
– Rarely used because OSI is rarely used above the data
link layer and below the application layer

2-78
 Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

• Layer 6: OSI Presentation Layer Standards

– Designed to handle data formatting differences between
the computers, data compression, and encryption.
• Rarely used this way because OSI standards are
rarely used above the data link layer and below the
application layer
– In practice, a category for general OSI file format
standards used in multiple applications
• JPEG, etc.
• These standards are widely used

2-79
 Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

• Layer 7: OSI Application Layer

– For other application-specific matters

– Some OSI application layer standards are used

• Run over TCP/IP transport/internet layer processes
• Almost always without actual session and
presentation layer processes

2-80
 Figure 2-25: Other Major Standards
Architectures

• IPX/SPX
– Used by older Novell NetWare file servers
– Popular option for newer Novell NetWare file
servers

• SNA (Systems Network Architecture)

– Used by IBM mainframe computers

• AppleTalk
– Used by Apple Macintoshes

2-81
 Figure 2-26: Characteristics of Protocols
Discussed in the Chapter

Layer Protocol Connection- Reliable/

Oriented Unreliable
/Connectionless

5 (App) HTTP Connectionless Unreliable

Connection-
4 (Transport) TCP Reliable
oriented
4 (Transport) UDP Connectionless Unreliable

3 (Internet) IP Connectionless Unreliable

2 (Data Link) Ethernet Connectionless Unreliable

Note: Only TCP is connection-oriented and reliable

2-82
8.
Topics Covered
 Topics Covered

• Standards govern the semantics and syntax of

messages
– HTTP: Text request and response messages
– Data field, header, and trailer
– Header and trailer subdivided into fields

• Reliability
– In TCP, receiver sends ACKs
– Senders retransmit non-acknowledged segments

2-84
 Topics Covered

• Connection-oriented versus connectionless

– TCP is connection-oriented
– HTTP is connectionless

• Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture

– OSI is nearly 100% dominant at Layers 1 and 2
– TCP/IP is 70% to 80% dominant at Layers 3 and 4
– Situation at Layer 5 is complex

2-85
 Topics Covered

• Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Standards Architecture

– 1. Physical layer (between adjacent devices)

– 2. Data link layer (across a switched network)

– 3. Internet layer (across an internet)

– 4. Transport layer (host-to-host)

– 5. Application layer (application-to-application)

2-86
 Topics Covered

• Ethernet
– Source and destination addresses are 48 bits long
– Switches forward packets by destination addresses
– Data field encapsulates an IP packet
– Unreliable: if detects an error, drops the frame

• Internet Protocol (IP)

– 32-bit addresses
– Show 32 bits on each line
– Unreliable: checks headers for errors but discards
2-87
 Topics Covered

• Vertical Communication on the Source Host

– Layer process creates message and then sends the
message to the next-lower layer
– Next-lower layer encapsulates the message in its
own message
– This continues until the final frame at the data link
layer

• Vertical Communication on the Destination

Host
– Decapsulation and passing up
2-88
 Topics Covered

• Not All Devices Have All Layers

– Hosts have all five
– Routers have only the lowest three
– Switches have only the lowest two

2-89
 Topics Covered

• OSI Architecture
– Divides application layer into three layers
• Session
• Presentation
• Application

• Other Standards Architectures

– IPX/SPX
– SNA
– AppleTalk

2-90