UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Medical Technology

The Endocrine System

The body contains two kinds of glands: exocrine and endocrine:

Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts and the ducts carry the secretions into body cavities,
into the lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body.

There glands include sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous and digestive glands.

Endocrine glands secrete their products (hormone) into the extracellular space around the secretory
cells rather than into ducts. The secretion then diffuses into capillaries and is carried away by the blood.
The endocrine glands of the body constitute the endocrine system and include the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal and pineal gland. In addition, several organs of the body contain cells that secrete
hormones but are not endocrine glands exclusively. These include the hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas,
ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestines, skin, heart, and placenta.

The science concerned with the structure and functions of the endocrine glands and the diagnosis and
treatment of disorders of the endocrine system is called ENDOCRINOLOGY.

The two physiologic regulatory systems of the body: the endocrine system and the nervous system. The
endocrine system consists of ductless glands that produce highly active chemical regulators called
hormones. These chemical messengers or messenger molecules (hormones) are secreted into the
bloodstream where they act upon all cells throughout the body by interacting with receptors. The
nervous system acts locally at tissues or cellular sites. It controls homeostasis through nerve impulses
(action potentials) conducted along the axons and neurons. At axon terminals, impulses trigger release
of neurotransmistter molecules results in either excitation or inhibition of specific other neurons, muscle
fibers or cells, or gland cells. Together thses two systems are coordinated as an interlocking super-
system often referred to as the neuro-endocrine system. Certain parts of the nervous system stimulate
or inhibit the release of hormones. Hormones, in turn, may promote or inhibit the generation of nerve
impulse.

Comparison of the Nervous and Endocrine Regulation of Homeostasis:

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CHARACTERISTICS NERVOUS SYSTEM

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Mechanism of control Neurotransmitters released in Hormones delivered to tissues
response to nerve impulses. throughout the body by blood.
2. Cells affected Muscle cells, Gland cells, other Virtually all body cells.
neurons.
3. Type of action that Muscular contraction or Changes in metabolic activities
results glandular secretion
4. Time to onset of action Typically within seconds Seconds to hours or days
5. Duration of action Generally briefer Generally longer

Clinical Chemistry 2 – The Endocrine System

Prof. Jacinta B. Cruz
Mary Christelle G. Aquitania (re-typed)
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Medical Technology
Function of Hormones

1. Regulate the chemical composition and volume of the extracellular fluid.

2. Help regulate metabolism and energy balance.
3. Help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers and secretion by glands.
4. Help maintain homeostasis despite disruptions such as infection, trauma, emotional stress,
dehydration, starvation, hemorrhage, and temperature extremes.
5. Regulate certain activities of the immune system.
6. Play a role in the smooth, sequential integration of growth and development.
7. Contribute to the basic processes of reproduction, including gamete (oocyte and sperm),
production, fertilization, nourishment of the embryo and fetus, delivery, and nourishment of the
newborn.

Circulating hormones or endocrines = hormones that pass into the blood and act on distant target cells.

Local hormones = hormones that act locally without first entering the bloodstream.

a. Paracrines – local hormones that act on neighboring cells

b. Autocrines – local hormones that act on the same cells that secreted them.

The four functional types of hormones:

1. Releasing hormones
2. Inhibitory hormones
3. Tropic hormones
4. Effector hormones

1. Releasing hormones are from the hypothalamus that promotes the secretion of the anterior
pituitary hormones.
2. Inhibitory hormones are from the hypothalamus or gastrointestinal tract that suppresses the
secretion of particular hormones.
3. Tropic hormones stimulate the growth and activity of other endocrine glands.
4. Effector hormones are secreted by all the endocrine glands other than the anterior pituitary and
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hypothalamus. The target cells of these type of hormones are the particular nonendocrine tissue
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cells upon which these hormones exert their metabolic effects.

From the chemical standpoint (structural classes) there are five (5) classes of hormones:

1. Steroids
2. Biogenic amines
3. Peptides and proteins
4. Glycoprotein
5. Eicosanoids (fatty acids)

Clinical Chemistry 2 – The Endocrine System

Prof. Jacinta B. Cruz
Mary Christelle G. Aquitania (re-typed)
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Medical Technology
Steroids

These are lipids derived from cholesterol and synthesized on the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. They are primarily involved in the regulation of sexual development and characteristics. They
require transport protein in order to travel through the bloodstream. Examples: aldosterone, cortical,
and androgens (male sex hormones) from the adrenal cortex; progesterone (female sex hormones) and
estrogen from the ovaries; testosterone from the testes; calcitrol from the kidneys.

Amino Acids

Structurally, these are the simplest hormone molecules. Several are synthesized by modifying
amino acid, tyrosine. Tyrosine serves as the precursor for the thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T 4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) which requires carried protein for transport. Tyrosine can also be directly
converted to the adrenal hormones: epinephrine and nonepinephrine (catecholamines). Histamines is
synthesized from the amino acid histidine by the mast cells in connective tissues. Serotonin from
platelets in the blood and melatonin from the pineal gland are derived from tryptophan.

Peptides and Protein

These hormones consist of 3 – 200 amino acids and are synthesized on rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Examples are all hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones (thyrotropin releasing
hormones); oxytocin and ADH; insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptides; parathyroid
hormones; calcitonin; gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin; and anterior pituitary hormones except TSH,
FSH, & LH.

Glycoproteins

Amino acid derivatives with attached carbohydrate group. Examples are the TSH, FSH, and LH
from the anterior pituitary gland.
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Eisonoids

They are derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid called arachidonic acid which is essential fatty acid
required as part of a healthy diet. Examples are the prostaglandins and leukotrienes.

Clinical Chemistry 2 – The Endocrine System

Prof. Jacinta B. Cruz
Mary Christelle G. Aquitania (re-typed)
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Medical Technology
Mechanism of Hormone Action

Hormones act in different ways on their target cells. Lipid soluble hormones, including steroid
hormones and thyroid hormones bind to receptors inside the target cells. The lipid-soluble hormone
diffuses into the cell. If the cell is a target cell, the hormone will bind to and activate receptors located
within the cytosal or nucleus. An activated receptor then alters gene expression: it turns specific genes
of the nuclear DNA on or off. The newly formed messenger RNA (mRNA) directs synthesis of specific
proteins on the ribosomes. The new proteins alter the cell’s activity and cause typical physiological
responses of that hormone.

Water soluble hormone (catecholamines, proteins, and peptides) bind to receptors embedded
in the plasma membrane of target cells. The receptors for these water –soluble hormones are plasma
membrane integral proteins that protrude into the interstitial fluid. Binding of the hormone (first
messender) to its receptors activates G-proteins, which activates adenylate cyclase. Activated adenylate
cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP). Cyclic AMP serves as a second messenger (it translated the
presence of the first messenger – the water soluble hormone – into a response inside the cell) to
activate protein kinases. Activated protein kinases then phopshorylate other enzymes. The millions of
phosphorylated enzyme catalyze reactions that produce physiological responses.

Three hormonal interactions are:

1. Permissive effect
2. Synergistic effect
3. Antagonistic effect

Permissive effect

The action of some hormones on target cells require a recent or simultaneous exposure to a
second hormone, the second hormone is said to have a permissive effect.

Synergistic effect

When the effect of two hormones acting together is greater or more extensive thatn the sum of
each hormone acting alone, the hormone are said to have synergistic effect.
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Antagonistic effect

When one hormone opposes the action of another hormone, the two hormone are said to have
antagonistic effect.

Control of Hormone Secretion

Regulation of secretion is designed to prevent over-secretion or under-section. Hormone secretion is

controlled by signals from the nervous system, chemical changes in blood and other hormones. Most

Clinical Chemistry 2 – The Endocrine System

Prof. Jacinta B. Cruz
Mary Christelle G. Aquitania (re-typed)
UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Medical Technology
often, negative feedback systems decreases the secretory activities of corticotrophic, thyrotrpohs, and
gonadotrophs when levels of their target gland hormone rise.

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Clinical Chemistry 2 – The Endocrine System

Prof. Jacinta B. Cruz
Mary Christelle G. Aquitania (re-typed)