GHT S1 01

(HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE

BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E)

SEMESTER-I

HISTORY
BLOCK-1

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Subject Expert
1. Dr. Sunil Pravan Baruah, Rt. Principal, B.Barooah College, Guwahati
2. Dr. Gajendra Adhikari, Principal, D.K.Girls’ College, Mirza
3. Dr. Maushumi Dutta Pathak, HOD, History, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati

Course Coordinator : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, K.K.H.S.O.U

SLM Preparation Team

Units Contributors
1, 3 & 4 Pradyumna Sarma, Nalbari College
& Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU
2&5 Sanghamitra Sarma, Research Scholar, Gauhai University
6 Dr. Bishwajyoti Dev Mahanta, Pragjyotish College
7 Dr. Navaneeta Phukan, Pandu College, Mridutpal Goswami, Dudhnoi College

Editorial Team

Content (English Version) : Dr. Maushumi Dutta Pathak,HOD, History, Arya Vidyapeeth
College, Guwahati.
Language (English Version) : Professor Robin Goswami, Former HOD, English, Cotton
College, Guwahati
Structure, Format & Graphics: Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, Assistant Prof. KKHSOU.

June, 2017, Reprint May 2018

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 BACHELOR OF ARTS

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE

13TH CENTURY C.E

BLOCK- I
DETAILED SYLLABUS
PAGES
UNIT 1 : Sources of Ancient Indian History 5-18
Literary Sources, Archaeological sources, Inscriptions,
Numismatics

UNIT 2 : Pre-Historic Ecology 19-33

Developments in the Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age,
Beginning of food production, Early Village Settlements,
Chalcolithic Communities

UNIT 3 : The Harappan Civilization 34-46

Origin and Early Settlement, Urban Patterns, Religious
practices, Ruling Elite, Decline of Urban Life

UNIT 4 : Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilization 47-58

Identity of the Indo-Aryans and their origin, Date of the Rig
Veda, Political Institutions, Society and Religion

UNIT 5 : Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century 59-75

Agricultural expansion, Mode of Production, Polity- Rise of
Ganas or Sanghas, The Mahajanapadas, Economy, Religion,
Society

UNIT 6 : Alexander’s Invasion of India and Its Impact 76-87

Alexander, Impact of Alexander’s Invasion- social and political

UNIT 7 : The Mauryan Empire 88-104

The rise of the Maurya, Mauryan Administration, The Kalinga
War, Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
COURSE INTRODUCTION:

This is the first Course of B. A. in History entitled History of India from Pre-History till the Beginning
of the 13th century C.E under the revised Semester system of the B.A. Programme. The course aims
to enlighten the learners with the ancient Indian history from pre-historic period to the 13th century C.E.
The course consists of fifteen units divided into three blocks having five units each.

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

This is the First Block of the first Course in History entitled History of India from Pre-History till
the Beginning of the 13th century C.E under the Semester system of the B.A. Programme. This block
consists of five units.
The first unit is titled, Sources of Ancient Indian History. This unit explains the significance of
various sources for the study of ancient Indian history.
The second unit is titled, Pre-Historic Ecology. This unit introduces developments in the Paleolithic
Age and Mesolithic Age, beginning of food production, Early Village Settlements and Chalcolithic
Communities in detail.
The third unit entitled, The Harappan Civilization. This unit discusses the origin and early
settlement, Urban Patterns, Religious practices, Ruling Elite and Decline of Urban Life of the Harappan
Civilization.
The fourth unit entitled, The Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilization. The unit discusses the
developments Vedic and the Post-Vedic Civilization in detail.
The fifth unit Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century explains agricultural expansion,
Mode of Production, Rise of Ganas or Sanghas and development of the Mahajanapadas in the 6th
century A.D.
The sixth unit is titled, Alexander’s Invasion of India and Its Impact. This unit discusses the
significance of Alexander’s invasion of India.
The seventh unit entitled, The Mauryan Empire. This unit introduces the rise of Mauryan, Mauryan
Administration, the Kalinga War and disintegration of the Mauryan Empire.
While going through this course, you will notice that some boxes are put in the left hand or right
hand side of the text. These boxes are meant to serve the purpose of in-text glossary for you. Again, you
may find some boxes marked with: "LET US KNOW". These boxes will provide you with some additional
interesting and relevant information. The boxes marked with "ACTIVITY" will help you in making your
learning more active and efficient. And, at the end of each section, you will get "CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS" questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be
better if you solve the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the
units and then match your answer with "ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS" given at the end
of each unit.
UNIT 1: SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
UNIT STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Sources of Ancient Indian History
1.4 Literary Sources
1.4.1 Indigenous Literature
1.4.2 Foreign Literature
1.5 Archaeological Sources
1.5.1 Inscriptions
1.5.2 Numismatics
1.5.3 Material Remains
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Reading
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 identify the various source materials for the study of history of ancient
India
 discuss different literary sources for the study of ancient Indian history
 discuss the importance of various archaeological sources for the
study of ancient Indian history.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

This is the first unit of this course. In this unit, we are going to discuss
the sources available for studying the ancient Indian history. Sources are
the very backbone of history. Unfortunately, there was no systematic tradition
of history writing in ancient India. But, over the years the long untiring efforts
of historians have brought to light numerous sources for the study of the

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 5
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

past. These sources are in the form of indigenous literature, foreign literature,
inscriptions, coins and material remains. Broadly the indigenous literature
and foreign literature can be termed as Literary Sources, while the
inscriptions, coins and material remains are called the Archaeological
Sources.

1.3 SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

The history of ancient India can be fairly reconstructed only with the
help of the sources. The sources are broadly divided into literary sources
and archaeological sources. Literary sources are further divided into
indigenous literature and foreign literature. Archaeological sources are
divided into inscriptions, coins and material remains. We are now going to
discuss all these different forms of sources separately in sub- headings.

1.4 LITERARY SOURCES

Every one of you know the meaning of the term ‘literary’ that is
something in written form. Though there was absence of proper history
writing in ancient India, yet there was a huge body of literary materials
which speak about our past. However there is no single literary record that
can be used as a common source for the whole period of ancient Indian
history. The Vedas, Epics, Upanishads, Puranas and other religious
scriptures throw much light on the history of ancient India. Besides these
the accounts of foreign travellers also help us in reconstructing our past.
Let us discuss them in detail in the following sub-sections.

1.4.1 Indigenous Literature

Do you know what indigenous literature is? Indigenous

literature means the native or local literature. In the context of our
study it means Indian literature. Scholars consider ancient Indian
literature as a great help to know the ancient history of India. Ancient
literature of India is mostly of religious nature. But there are also
host of secular literature which may well be of great help to

6 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Sources of Ancient Indian History Unit 1

reconstruct the history of ancient India.

Old Hindu texts like the Vedas, the Upanishadas, the
Puranas, the Epics and other Dharmashastras depict a clear
picture of India of that period. The Vedic literature proves to be an
important source for ancient Indian history. The Rig Veda is the
oldest Indian literature and it gives us a good deal of information
regarding the socio-religious and political condition of the early Indo-
Aryans. Equally informative are the other three Vedas namely -
Sama, Yajur and Atharva Veda. The Upanishadas tell us about the
philosophical thoughts of our ancestors. You surely know that the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two greatest Epics of India.
These two Epics describe the social and political life of the later
Vedic Aryans. The Puranas also serve as important sources. Do
you know how many Puranas are there? There are altogether
eighteen Puranas. But only five of them namely, Matsya, Vayu,
Bhabisya, Vishnu and Bhagavata are historically important. These
Puranas give dynastic lists of different ancient Indian dynasties like
Haryanka, Sishunaga, Nanda, Maurya, etc.
Buddhist and Jain literatures are also very important
sources. The stories of Jataka provide numerous information
regarding the different aspects of the contemporary society.
Famous Buddhist literature like Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha
enlighten us about the history of Buddhism. Milindapanho is another
important Buddhist text. Among the old Jain literature mention may
be made of Bhagawati Sutra, Kalpa Sutra, Parishistha Parvana,
etc. In the Bhagawati Sutra, we find the names of the sixteen great
states (solasa mahajanapada) of the 6th century B.C. The
Kalpasutra, composed by Bhadrabahu, describes the life stories
of the Jain religious heads called Tirthangkaras including Lord
Mahavira. The Parishistha Parvana of Hema Chandra gives us
different information regarding the Mauryan age.
In addition to these religious texts, a number of secular
literatures had been written in ancient India. In this regard mention
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 7
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

may be made of Panini’s Astadhyayi, Patanjali’s Mahabhashya,

Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Bhasa’s Sapnabasavadattam, Sudraka’s
Mricchakatikam, Kalidas’s Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsam,
Kumarasamvawam and Malabikagnimitram, Vishakhadatta’s Mudra
Rakshasha and Devichandraguptam, etc. All these literary works
give us useful data regarding the social, political, economic and
religious life style of contemporary India.
We are highly fortunate that we have a few scientific literary
works in ancient India that give us a glimpse into the scientific
activities of those days. These sources inform us that India, in olden
times, was far advanced in the field of astronomy, mathematics and
medical science. The Pancha Siddhant of Varahamihir is regarded
as the Bible of Indian astronomy. Aryabhatta wrote outstanding
astronomical books like Dasagitika Sutra, Aryastasata, Aryabhattiya,
etc. Charak Sanghita by Charak is an important book on medical
science. All these books, though dealing with different branches of
science, contribute a lot towards our historical knowledge.

LET US KNOW
Aryabhatta was the most renowned astronomer of
ancient India. By linking astronomy with mathematics,
Aryabhatta opened up a new era in the study of Indian
astronomy. He was the first Indian astronomer to declare that the
earth rotates around the sun. He also gave scientific explanations
for lunar eclipse. Again, it was Aryabhatta who calculated that the
solar year consists of 365 days. For his remarkable contributions to
the field of astronomy, Aryabhatta has been regarded as the Indian
Newton.
Biographical writings are also an important form of sources. The
biographical literatures are mostly about kings written by their court poets.
Being written by the court poets these biographies are naturally full of
exaggerations. However, we may find immense historical information by
thoroughly scrutinizing these works. Some important examples of
8 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Sources of Ancient Indian History Unit 1

biographies are Harshacharita of Banabhatta, Vikramankadevacharita of

Bilhana, Gaudavaho of Vakpatiraja, Ramacharita of Sandhyakara Nandi,
etc.
Equally important are the local histories written on different regions
of our country. Among these local histories the most authentic work is
undoubtedly the history of Kashmir known as Rajtarangini by Kalhana. It
was probably the first historical book of India. While composing this great
book, Kalhana followed a scientific approach by examining all available
data. The Rajtarangini deeply impressed the future historians of Kashmir
and a number of chronicles were composed in the model of this work.
Another important source for the history of ancient India is the
Sangam Literature of South India. The Sangam Literature is the creation
of the Tamil poets. In Tamil language Sangam means the confluence of
poets. Sangam Literature furnishes us with vast information regarding the
social, economic, religious and political condition of South India.
Manimekhaloi, Kurala, Silappadikaram, etc. are the few important examples
of this rich literary period.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: What is the nature of the ancient literature
of India?
................................................................................
Q 2: Name the oldest Indian literature?

.....................................................................................................
Q 3: What do you know about Milindapanho?

.....................................................................................................
Q 4: Who wrote Pancha Siddhant ?

.....................................................................................................

1.4.2 Foreign Literature

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 9
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

India is fortunate to have a variety of foreign literature. Foreign

literature generally includes the writings of the foreigners some of
whom came to India with different purposes and left accounts of
their travel of this country. But there were also some other historians
like Herodotus and Taranath who never visited India, but gathered
information from different sources and mentioned it in their writings.
Herodotus is a Greek historian. For being the forerunner in the field
of history writing, Herodotus is considered the ‘Father of History’.
Taranath is a Tibetan historian. His books named Dulva and Tangyur
are important sources for the history of Buddhism.
Among the foreign writers the Greeks were the first to visit
India. Alexander’s invasion of India inaugurated a new era of Indo-
Greek relationship. The mighty Greek conqueror was accompanied
by many historians like Nearchus, Onesicritus, etc. These historians
recorded remarkable information about North-Western India and of
course about Alexander’s campaign. However, the most remarkable
Greek historian to have visited India was none other than
Megasthenes. Megasthenes was the ambassador of the Greek
general Seleukos to the court of the Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta
Maurya. His book on India called Indika is of immense historical
value. Among other important writings the most outstanding are
Ptolemy’s Geography, Pliny’s Natural History, etc. The Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea by some anonymous Greek sailor is another
essential book to know about the ports, harbours and commercial
life of India in the 1st century A.D.
The Chinese pilgrims came to India to study Buddhism in
the land of its birth. During the reign of the Gupta monarch
Chandragupta II, Fa-Hien visited India and stayed here for a period
of about fifteen years. He left a very vivid descriptive account of his
visit to this country. I-Tsing was another notable Chinese traveller.
He composed a number of books on Buddhism in India. However,
the most renowned Buddhist scholar to visit India was undoubtedly
Hiuen-Tsang. Hiuen-Tsang came to India during the reign of
10 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Sources of Ancient Indian History Unit 1

Harshavardhana. He made a wide travel throughout India and his

travel diary called Si-Yu-Ki forms an important source for the socio-
religious history of that period. Although Buddhism was his main
focus, Hiuen-Tsang left some important information regarding the
contemporary political situation in India.
The writings of the Mohammedan scholars, who visited India
since the 8th century A.D., are also very significant sources. Al-
beruni came to India with Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. In his book
called Tahaqiq-i-Hind, he gives a beautiful account of the Hindu
manners, science and literature. Another important work is the
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri of Minhajuddin Siraj. Among the other Mohammedan
writers mention may be made of Al-Masudi, Nizamuddin, Hasan
Nizami, etc.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer the following questions:
Q 5: Who wrote Indika?
.....................................................................................................
Q 6: Name the books written by Taranath.

.....................................................................................................
Q 7: With whom Nearchus and Onesicritus came to India?
.................................................................................................
Q 8: Who was the author of Gaudavaho?
.................................................................................................
Q 9: Who was Al-Masudi?
.................................................................................................

1.5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Archaeology is considered the backbone of the art of

historiography. It provides the concrete picture of our past. It has three
branches- epigraphy or inscription, coins or numismatic, and material
remains or monuments.
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 11
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

1.5.1 Inscriptions

Do you know what the term ‘inscription’ means? An inscription

is writing engraved on stones, pillars or caves by the ruling kings or
in some instances by his officers. The kings issued inscriptions for
different purposes such as to commemorate victory, to proclaim
administrative decrees or to announce grant of land or wealth to
some institutions, etc. Sometimes inscriptions were used for religious
purposes too. Inscriptions were known as Sasanavali.
Figure 1.1: Pillar Inscription

(Source: Google Images)

As historical sources, inscriptions are of great value.
Inscriptions give us a lot of significant information regarding political,
administrative, commercial, and socio-religious condition of that
particular period. Sometimes inscriptions contain dates of the rulers
which greatly helps the historians of later years to fix the date of a
ruler accurately. Inscriptions also give information about the policies
and achievement of the concerned rulers and throw light on the
prevailing languages. They were written in all languages such as
Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telegu, etc.
Now, what we find from the foregoing discussion is that
inscriptions play a vital role in supplying a vast range of information.
That is why historians consider inscriptions an invaluable source.
Even the information supplied by other forms of sources is
considered acceptable when they are supported by some epigraphic

12 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Sources of Ancient Indian History Unit 1

evidence.
Among the Indian inscriptions, the inscriptions of Asoka are
many in number and of immense historical value. In order to
propagate the teachings of Lord Buddha, Asoka issued a good
number of edicts (inscriptions). These were engraved on rocks or
pillars and cave walls. They inform us about the religious zeal of the
great Mauryan monarch. They are still the most important source
for the history of the Mauryan age.
The Asokan tradition of issuing inscriptions was keenly
followed by the rulers of the post-Mauryan age too. During that period
we find hundreds of inscriptions that provide us useful information.
In this respect, the most prominent inscription is the Allahabad Pillar
Inscription of Gupta Emperor Samudragupta. This inscription throws
a flood of light on the conquests of Samudragupta. The Hathi
Gumpha Inscription of king Kharavela informs us about the history
of Kalinga. The Aihole Pillar Inscription of Chalukya King Pulakesin
II is another important record. Similarly important are the Junagarh
Rock Inscription of Rudradaman, Bhitari Pillar Inscription of
Skandagupta, etc.
In addition to these inscriptions, there are some other public
records in the form of land grants. Now, what is a land grant? The
kings of ancient India donated lands to Brahmanas and other
religious institutions. As a part of such land grants, the kings issued
some inscriptions engraved usually on copper plates. These copper
plate inscriptions contain information about the reigning king, the
lineage, names of officials, donated land and about the recipient
person or institutions. These are really storehouses of relevant
information.

1.5.2 Coins

Coins have proved to be a vital source of authentic

information of Indian history. They are significant archaeological
sources for the study of contemporary socio-cultural, political and
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 13
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

economic condition of ancient India. Thousands of coins belonging

to different rulers have been found in various parts of India.
The coins provide us the names, titles, royal portraits, images
of the deities worshiped and actual dates of the kings to whom they
belonged. Such information as provided by coins helps us to form a
correct idea of the history of these rulers. For example, the images
of the deities worshiped found on a coin point to the religious leanings
of the ruler concerned. From the coins we may come to know about
the economic development of the respective states. The abundance
of gold and silver coins of best quality in a particular area easily
point to the economic prosperity of that state. Hence historian
Ramesh Chandra Mazumdar has rightly remarked: “The importance
of numismatics for the study of the economic condition of a country
is too obvious to need a detailed consideration.” Similarly, the artistic
design, shape, and type of the coins signify the religious and the
cultural development of a particular period. Some Roman coins
belonging to the 1st century A.D. have been found in various parts
of South India. These coins undoubtedly prove India’s trade relation
with the old Roman Empire.
Figure 1.2: Gupta Coins

(Source: Google Images)

1.5.3 Material Remains

India is rich in archaeological remains which includes

monuments and sculptures. Monument means notable sites or
structures of historical importance. It includes the remains of old

14 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Sources of Ancient Indian History Unit 1

buildings, temples, viharas, stupas, images of different Gods and

Goddesses and so on.
The oldest monumental source for the history of ancient India
is undeniably the archaeological remains of the Harappan or Indus
Valley Civilization. The remains of the Indus Valley inform us about
the existence of a flourishing civilization prior to that of the Aryans.
Thus, the ancient architecture and sculptures help us a lot to
understand the evolution of artistic and cultural development of our
ancestors. At the same time the study of these monuments may
inform us about different schools of art, its development and amount
of foreign influence upon it.
Figure 1.3: A Monument

Source: Google Images

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the followings:
Q 10: To whom does the Hathi Gumpha
Inscription belong to?
.................................................................................................
Q 11: To whom does the Junagarh Rock Inscription belongs to?
.................................................................................................
Q 12: Mention different categories of archaeological sources.
.................................................................................................
Q 13: Write how inscriptions help us in studying ancient Indian
history in about 60 words.
.................................................................................................

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 15
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

1.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit you have learnt that,

 Sources are very important for studying history.
 Sources are broadly divided into two groups; literary and
archaeological.
 Literary sources are further divided into indigenous and foreign
literature. The Vedas, Epics, Puranas, Upanishadas and other
Dharmasashtras reflect immense light on the history of ancient India.
Besides them the, accounts of foreign travellers also help us in
reconstructing our past.
 Archaeological sources are sub-divided into inscriptions, coins and
material remains. They provide concrete knowledge of our past. These
different types of sources help us in reconstructing the early history of
our country.

1.7 FURTHER READING

1) Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced

History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.
2) Maiti, P.(2001): Studies in Ancient India, Kolkata, Shreedhar
Prakashani
3) Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India. Calcutta,
University of Kolkata
4) Sharma, L.P. (1981). Ancient History of India (pre-historic Age to 1200
A.D.). New Delhi, Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.
5) Tripathi, Ramashankar (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

16 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Sources of Ancient Indian History Unit 1

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Religious.
Ans to Q No 2: Rig Veda.
Ans to Q No 3: An important Buddhist text.
Ans to Q No 4: Varahamihir.
Ans to Q No 5: Dulva and Tangyur.
Ans to Q No 6: Megasthenes.
Ans to Q No 7: Alexander
Ans to Q No 8: Vakpatiraja
Ans to Q No 9: Mohammedan
Ans to Q No10: King Kharavella
Ans to Q No11: Rudradaman
Ans to Q No 12: Inscription, coin and monuments
Ans to Q No 13: Inscriptions are writings engraved in different languages
on stones, pillars or caves by the ruling kings or sometimes by the
officials. They were also called Sasanavalis and were used to
commemorate victory, announce land grant, etc. Inscriptions provide
us lots of significant informations regarding political, administrative,
commercial and socio-religious conditions of the period to which it
belonged and thereby helps in the study of the ancient Indian history.

1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Name the four Vedas.
Q 2: Mention the popular term used for Inscription.
Q 3: Who authored Indika?

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 17
Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History

Q 4: Name the travel diary of Hiuen Tsang.

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)
Q 1: Why are the indigenous literary sources important for reconstructing
the ancient Indian history?
Q 2: Write a short note on the accounts of Chinese travellers on India.
Q 3: Write a short note on the importance of coins of ancient India.
C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the importance of literary sources in the reconstruction of
ancient Indian history.
Q 2: How do the archaeological sources help in studying the history of
ancient India?

*** ***** ***

18 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
UNIT 2: PRE-HISTORIC ECOLOGY
UNIT STRUCTURE

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 What is Ecology?
2.4 The Prehistoric period
2.5 Developments in the Paleolithic Age
2.6 Developments in the Mesolithic Age
2.7 Beginning of food Production
2.8 Early village settlements
2.9 Chalcolithic Communities
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.11 Further Reading
2.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.13 Model Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 learn how ecology influenced the pre-historic people in their
livelihood and settlements
 discuss the lives, food habits and stone tools of the people of the
Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods
 discuss the early village settlements in prehistoric period
 discuss the lives, food habits and different kinds of tools used by
the people of different chalcolithic Communities.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we are going to have a discussion on how ecology

influenced the prehistoric inhabitants in their livelihood and settlements.
The Prehistoric period precedes written history. The prehistoric period
of ancient Indian history has been divided by historians into different phases

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 19
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

.In this unit we will discuss the phases of the prehistoric period. Our
discussion in this unit will also focus on the ecology, life, food habits and
tools of the people of the Prehistoric period.

2.3 WHAT IS ECOLOGY?

Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between living

organisms and the physical environments. The living organisms include
both human being and animals. Ecology is a subject which tries to investigate
the connections between living organism like human being, animals and
plants with their environment.
In the Prehistoric period human beings were dependent on their
environment for their livelihood and settlements and the livelihood and
settlements of these times centered round the change of climate in that
period.

2.4 THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD

The Prehistoric period started with the beginning of the evolution of

human civilization. Historians have agreed that the earth is nearly 4.5 billion
years old, while humans appeared on earth nearly 2, 00,000 years ago.

LET US KNOW
Earliest species resembling humans lived in Africa
almost 6 million years ago. Homo sapiens, our
species of humans or “modern men”, evolved nearly
2, 00,000 years ago.

The time in which humans appeared on earth fell within the

“Pleistocene” period or the “Ice” age(25.88, 000 to 11,700). Most of the
surface of the earth was covered by ice in that age.
Starting about 2, 00,000 BC, the Prehistoric period ended about
2,000 B.C. As the period was very long, historians have divided the period
into three phases on the basis of changes in the environments and tools
used by the people of the period. The phases were : the Palaeolithic Age
20 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

(2, 00,000BC-9,000 BC), the Mesolithic Age (9,000 BC -4,000 BC) and the
Neolithic Age (4,000 BC- 2,000 BC).
The Greek “Paleo” or “palaio” means “old” , “mesos” means “middle”, The term “Pleistocene”
“neo” means “new”, and “lithos” means “stone”. Therefore , the Palaeolithic was first coined by the
Age ,the Mesolithic Age and the Neolithic Age are also known as the old (or nineteenth century
British geologist Sir
Early) stone age , the Middle stone age, and the New (or later ) stone age.
Charles Lyell. The
Thus, the Prehistoric period as a whole may be referred to as the
origin Greek words are
“stone Age” as stone was widely used to make various kinds of tools “pleistos” and
throughout that period. Since the Prehistoric period was quite long, its phases “kain o s”.”P le isto s”
need to be studied separately. Therefore, we shall now move on to discuss mean “most and
“kainos” mean “new” or
the phases one by one.
“recent”. Thus, the term
mans “the recent
2.5 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PALEOLITHIC AGE period”.

The Palaeolithic cultures belong to the Pleistocene geological era.

The environment of that period was very different from ours. The
environments of the Pleistocene period were cold and dry and the surface
of the earth was covered mostly by ice. In India, the Palaeolithic age
continued from the appearance of human beings in the region till about
9,000 BC. Though many Palaeolithic sites have been discovered in India
yet no such sites have been found in the alluvial plains of the Indus, the
Ganga and the Yamuna rivers.
The Palaeolithic people were nomadic. They did not know how to
build houses. They lived in their natural habitat, such as in caves. The people
of Palaeolithic period had no knowledge of agriculture. They lived on hunted
animals and on naturally grown foods such as fruits and roots of plants.
The Palaeolithic people wore animal skin, barks or leaves to protect their
bodies from difficult weathers. Thus, the Palaeolithic people were mainly
dependent on natural resources for their livelihood and settlements.
For the purpose of hunting also the Palaeolithic people depended
on their surroundings. They used tools made of crude stones and animals’
bones. Besides hunting these tools also served the purpose of cutting and
boring.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 21
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

LET US KNOW
The crude stones used to make Palaeolithic tools
were cut from a hard rock called “Quartzite”.
Therefore, the people of the Palaeolithic period in
India are known as “Quartzite men”

Civilization was not developed in the Palaeolithic period. Interestingly,

however, the Palaeolithic people had the knowledge of painting .Hunting
scene was most common in Palaeolithic painting. Palaeolithic paintings
have been discovered in Bhimbetka.
Palaeolithic tools have been found in the Kurnool district (in Andhra
Pradesh) and in the Belan valley (in Uttar Pradesh). In the Belan valley,
bone implements and animal remains have also been found along with
stone tools. Since the Palaeolithic period in India was very long, historians
have divided the period into three parts - the early or lower Palaeolithic
(2, 00,000 to 1, 00,000 years ago), the middle Paleolithic (about 1, 00,000
and 40,000 years ago), and the late or upper Palaeolithic (from 40,000
years ago to 9,000 BC). Stone tools are an important key to understand the
subsistence pattern of the Paleolithic periods. The style of stone tools varied
from each other in these three stages of Palaeolithic periods. The nature of
change in the tools was due as to the change of the climate.
Palaeolithic Age: The Early Palaeolithic Age: Sites of the Early
Palaeolithic period have been found in the Sohan valley (in West Punjub,
which is presently in Pakistan), the Narmada valley (in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Gujarat), Didwana (in Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (near Bhopal
in Madhya Pradesh), Kashmir and Thar Desert. In all these sites tools
made of crude stone are found. Early Palaeolithic people used stone tools
like hand axes, cleavers and choppers. A hand axe is generally a core tool.
It is roughly triangular in shape, broad at one end and pointed at the other.
A cleaver is a tool made on a broad rectangular or triangular flake. One end
of Cleaver is broad with a straight cutting edge. A Chopper is a large tool
and it was used by one side only. The Geological Age of Early Palaeolithic
period is the lower Pleistocene Period.

22 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

Middle Palaeolithic Age: Middle Palaeolithic sites have been found

in the Sohan valley , The Narmada valley , Didwana , Bhimbetka,Begor and
the Karmali valley(both in Rajasthan), and nevesa (in Maharashtra).Within
the Palaeolithic Periods , there were gradual changes in the types of stone
tools. Hand axes, Choppers and Cleavers were still continued but small
and light flake tools were mostly used. The Palaeolithic people had crude
pebble industry. The most important tools used by these people included
were blades, points, borers, scrappers, cores and burins. The Middle
Palaeolithic tools have been generally found in many parts in the river
gravels. This indicates the condition of the climate of that period. The
Geological Age of Middle Palaeolithic period is the middle Pleistocene period.
Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found in reddish brown soil in Thar
region. This indicates more abundant vegetation, more surface water and
less humid climate compared to the lower Palaeolithic contexts.
Late Paleolithic Period: This period coincided with the last phase
of the ice age (which ended in about 11,700 BC) and lasted slightly more
than the ice age, i.e., till about 9,000 BC. The chief sites of the late
Palaeolithic period have been found in the Belan valley, Bhimbetka, Begor,
Renugunta(in Andhra Pradesh), and Singhbhum(in Jharkhand),
Buddhapuskar (in Rajasthan). The Geological Age of the Late or Upper
Palaeolithic period was the Upper Pleistocene Period. The people of the
late Palaeolithic period had flint industry and used tools like blades, burins
and scrappers. The weather in the late Palaeolithic period was warmer and
less humid than that of the early and the middle Palaeolithic periods. As a
result, the ice over most parts of the earth used to melt in the late Palaeolithic
period.

2.6 DEVELOPMENTS IN MESOLITHIC AGE

The Mesolithic age or the Middle Stone Age was the transitional
period between the Palaeolithic age and Neolithic age. The Geological period
of the Mesolithic age is Holocene Period. Many environmental changes
took place during this transitional age. The climate of the early and middle
Holocene was wet and warm. The period experienced with heavy rainfall in
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 23
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

summer season and moderate level of rainfall in winter season

.Consequently ,the “Pleistocene” period or the “ice” age ended in about
11,7000 BC. With the end of the late Palaeolithic age in about 9,000 BC,
the climate became warmer. The Mesolithic period continued till about 4,000
BC and followed was by the Neolithic period.
The people of Mesolithic Age lived on hunting, food gathering and
fishing. At first, they did not know how to tame and rear animals. Towards
the later stage of the Mesolithic age, however, people started to tame and
rear animals like cow, horse and poultry.
The Mesolithic sites showed some level of sedentariness. Both
permanent and non-permanent settlements were continued though they
were in small in number. Pottery was absent in most of the Mesolithic sites.
But Langhnaj in Gujarat and the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh)
have some remains of pottery .
One of the most important developments of Mesolithic Age was the
spread of settlements. As a result of the increase of population, people
started to spread their settlements. The favorable environmental condition
and technological improvements helped people to spread their settlements.
Towards the later stage of the Mesolithic period, some primitive kinds of
cultivation were started. Some discoveries of cultivation of plants in the Salt
Lake, Sambhar and Lunkaransar (all in Rajasthan) of the Mesolithic period
suggest that cultivation began in India during 7,000-6,000 BC.
Changes also happened in the stone tools. The Mesolithic age is
famous for the use of “microliths”, which were blade-like tools made of
small, pointed and sharpened flakes of stones.
The important Mesolithic sites in India have been discovered in
Western and Central India. A few of the sites are in Bagor, Salt Lake,
Sambhar, Lunkaransar , Bhimbetka , Langnaj(in Gujarat), Adamgarh(in
Madhya Pradesh), and Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh).
Like the Palaeolithic people, the Mesolithic people also practiced
painting. Bhimbetka gives evidence of rock paintings. Adamgarh and
Mirzapur also provide proofs of Mesolithic paintings. The Mesolithic paintings
depict some major events of the Mesolithic people. Besides hunting, food
24 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

gathering, fishing, child birth and burial of the dead were depicted by the
Mesolithic people. The use of different colures is one of the striking facts of
the Mesolithic paintings. White and light red were used very often. The
colures were made from minerals mixed with water, animal fat and egg
white. Both monochrome and polychrome paintings were made.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Write a short note on Pre-historic Ecology
…………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:
Q 1: People of which age did use hand axe,
Cleavers, and Choppers?
................................................................................................
Q 2: Adamgarh and Mirjapur have some remains of paintings of
the …………………….Age. (Fill in the blank)
Q 3: The geological period of the middle palaeolithic Age belonged
to ……………….Age. (Fill in the blank)
Q 4: Where did we find Palaeolithic tools?
................................................................................................
Q 5: To which period the Palaeolithic people belonged?
................................................................................................

2.7 BEGINNING OF FOOD PRODUCTION

The third phase of the Prehistoric period is the “food producing age”.
It is also known as the Neolithic age or New Stone Age. The Geological era
of the Neolithic Age is the Holocene period. In the Indian context, Neolithic
age began about 4,000 BC.
Important sites of the Neolithic age are : Mehrgarh(in Baluchistan),
Killighul(in Beluchistan province of Pakistan),Chirand (in Bihar),

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 25
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

Chopanimandu (in Uttar Pradesh), Brahmagiri(in Karnataka), and the

northern spur of the Vindhya range. The Neolithic sites excavated in South
India are Maski, Hallur, Kodekal (in Karnataka), Utnur( in Andhra Pradesh).

LET US KNOW
The Holocene is the geological era that began after
the Pleistocene era. It is termed like this from the two
Greek words, “holos” and “kainos”. Holos means
“whole” or “entire” and Kainos means “new”. Therefore, the term
mean as “entirely recent”.

In the Neolithic age, human civilization developed immensely. Several

changes occurred in this age. The Neolithic people became less dependent
on hunting and food gathering. The beginning of food production was the
most important aspect of the Neolithic phase. They practiced agriculture
for their food. Barley and wheat were the major crops cultivated by the
Neolithic people. Not much is known about the method of the cultivation
.Farmers may have used rain water .Stone sickles made by small microliths
with a wooden handle must has used for harvesting the crops.
The people of Neolithic age lived sedentary lives. They lived in
houses and formed villeges. The people of Mehrgarh lived in houses made
of handmade mud-bricks. The people of Neolithic age domesticated animals.
The bones of animals like goat, sheep and cattle have been discovered in
different sites. Cattle were the most commonly domesticated animal of the
Neolithic age. Domestication of animals was a part of in food producing
aspect of their livelihood.
Besides these developments, the discovery of fire, use of pottery
and use of wheel also transformed the Neolithic age. Wheel-made pottery
with painted decorations was an important aspect of pottery making of the
Neolithic age.
Stone tools were still used extensively throughout the Neolithic age.
The stones used in these tools were no more crude but polished. Stone
tools used in this age included arrow heads, blades and sickles. Towards

26 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

the end of the Neolithic age, another significant development took place.
This was the use of metal. The first metal used by the Neolithic people was
copper. Mehrgarh is one of the most important Neolithic sites where evidence
of the use of copper has been found. The development of tools, food
production, pottery making lead to a more permanent settlement and several
small villages grew in the different parts of the Indian subcontinent.

2.8 EARLY VILLAGE SETTLEMENTS

The North-West portion of Indian subcontinent showed a large

number of village settlements. The definite time period of village settlement
is not possible to identify. But in 7000-3000 BC food producing villages had
emerged in Baluchistan and the Vindhyan ranges. The most important
among those sites was Mehrgarh, in Bolan valley (in Baluchistan).The
Mehrgarh site is considered Neolithic though a small amount of copper has
been discovered. The people of Mehrgarh lived permanently in hand-maid
mud-brick house. They cultivated crops like wheat and barley. Wheel-made
decorative pottery was another important aspect of the Mehrgarh site.
Ornaments made from steatite beads indicate that bead and making was
an important craft activity of that site.
Kilegulmohammad was another village settlement. The people of
this site also lived in mud houses. Wheel-made pottery with geometric
designs were used by them .Other village settlements in the North-Western
portion of Indian subcontinent were Mundigak(in Afghanistan), Zhob-
Loralai(in Baluchistan) and RanaGhundai(in Baluchistan).
The Vindhyan range of southern Uttar Pradesh was also a center of
early village settlements. Koldihwa and Mahagara (in Allahabad District)
were two important settlements. The people of these sites also practiced
agriculture. Some important aspects of permanent village settlement was
pottery making, animal domestication and riverside settlement .All these
were present in Koldihwa and Mahagara.
Sanganakallu(in Karnataka) was an early village settlement from the
Neolithic period. It was one of the biggest and first village settlements in
South India. The people of Sanganakallu practiced agriculture. They
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 27
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

cultivated small millets and pulses .They domesticated animals like sheep
and cattle.The people of this period also used stone tools like hand axes,
blades, sickles. The development in the climate helped people to introduce
advance stone tools and helped them in establishing a settled life.

2.9 CHALCOLITHIC COMMUNITIES

The Neolithic Age is followed by Chalcolithic(copper –stone) age.

The most striking aspect of this age was the use of metals like Copper and
Bronze .But the use of stone tools was not given up. As it is characterized
by the use of metals, the Chalcolithic Age is considered a part of the “Bronze
Age”. However, some microlithic stone tools were still continued. The
Chalcolithic communities have been found in many parts of the Indian
subcontinent. The Harappan civilization, which used bronze, an alloy of
copper, is considered a part of the Chalcolithic civilization The Indus Valley
Civilization was basically an urban civilization. It was an advanced civilization
compared to other Chalcolithic cultures. The Chalcolithic cultures of central
India, eastern India and southern India were different from the Indus valley
civilization. These cultures were mainly those of agricultural communities.
They existed approximately from 2000-700 B.C.
The Chalcolithic communities have been found in sites like Kayatha
(Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh), Ahar or Banas (Rajasthan), Malwa (Nagda,
Navdatoli, Maheswar, Eran, Mandsor in Madhya Pradesh, Nevasa,
Daimabad, Inamgaon, (all are in Maharashtra), Jorwe (Nasik). Chalcolithic
sites have also been found in Chirand, Pandu Rajar Dhibi (in Allahabad)
and Mahishadal (in Bengal).Besides copper, the Chalcolithic people used
small tools of stone like stone-blades and bladelets. In Ahar and Gilund (in
Rajasthan) a good number of copper objects have been found.
The wheel made pottery was the specialty of the Chalcolithic
communities. But handmade pottery was also continued. The Chalcolithic
people made fine slip of red and orange colour .They also made black and
red ware pottery. Potteries were decorated with black colour. Floral, bird
and animal motifs were used in the decorations. The Chalcolithic people

28 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

domesticated animals and practiced agriculture. They reared cattle, sheep,

goat etc. The main crops were barley, wheat and rice. Rice has been found
from Inamgaon. Neither plough nor hoe has been found in any sites of
Chalcolithic Age. Generally people lived in houses made of mud-brick. But
In Ahar people lived in stone houses.
The Chalcolithic people made tools of copper .They also made
copper bangles. They also made beads of semi-precious stones such as
carnelian, Steatite etc. Spindle whorls have been discovered from Malwa.
The discovery of Cotton threads indicate that they knew how to make cloths.
The Chalcolithic sites also had some regional variations in case of pottery
making and pattern of cultivation. Terracotta female figures have been
discovered at sites like Inamgaon and Nevasa. Bull worship was prevalent
in Kayatha Culture, this indicates that worship of mother goddess was
continued. The practice of burial of the dead body was also continued. The
settlement pattern and the burial practices indicate some sort of social
stratification in Chalcolithic period.
Some sites of Chalcolithic Period were Pre-Harappan, others are
contemporaries of Harappan culture and others are post Harappan. The
Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic sites have been discovered in Kalibangan (in
Rajasthan), Banawali(in Hariyana),and KotDiji (in Sindh). The Kayatha
Culture (in Madhya Pradesh (2000-1800 BC) has some elements of pre-
Harappan period. But it also has some Harappan Influences.
The Malwa Culture (1700-1200) BC in Navdatoli, The Jorwe culture
(1400-700 BC) in Maharashtra are regarded as non-Harappan Chalcolithic
Cultures. At several sites in Southern India Chalcolithic culture was
transformed into megalithic culture by using iron.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 29
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:
Q 6: Mention two Chalcolithic sites.
................................................................................................
Q 7: In which period was Pottery made?
................................................................................................
Q 8: Write True or False
A. Wheat and barley were the major crops of the food producing
stage.
B .Handmaid mud bricks were used by the people of Mehrgarh.
C. The people of Ahar culture lived in mud house.
D. Plough and hoe have been discovered in Chalcolithic
communities.
Q 9: Fill in the blanks
A. Neolithic people used ………………….in harvesting crops.
B. The people of early village settlements used ornaments made
of……………..
C. The Chalcolithic people made ………………………pottery.
D. Bull worship was prevalent in ……………………...culture.

2.10 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit you have learnt that,

 The Prehistoric period (from 2, 00,000 years ago to 2,000 BC)
precedes the written history. Its phases were the Paleolithic Age (2,
00,000 BC-9,000BC), the Mesolithic Age (9,000BC-4,000 BC) and
the Neolithic Age (4,000 BC-2,000BC).
 The environment of the Paleolithic Age was very cold as it was covered
by ice. The people of the Palaeolithic age were nomadic and had no
knowledge of agriculture. They used crude stone tools for hunting.

30 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

However, they had knowledge of paintings.

 The people of Mesolithic Age were nomadic. But the people of the
later part of the Mesolithic age started to domesticate animals. The
weather of the Mesolithic Age was warmer than that of the Paleolithic
Age. They also had started some kind of primitive cultivation. They
used blade-like tools made of small flakes of stone. The Mesolithic
people depicted major events of their life in their paintings.
 Food production started with the coming of the Neolithic Age. The
people of the Neolithic age lived in houses. They practiced agriculture
and domesticated animals. They used wheels, pottery and fire. On
the later part of the Neolithic age they used metals. Their stone tools
were polished. The changes in the environment helped the people of
the Neolithic Age to practice agriculture.
 Food production helped people to settle down. People started to form
villages. The decorative pottery making, domestication of animals and
cultivation were the important aspect of the early village settlements
of Indian subcontinent.
 The Neolithic Age was followed by the Chalcolithic Age. The people
of Chalcolithic age used copper tools .Black- and red ware pottery
were made by them. The people of Chalcolithic age also used cotton
cloth.

2.11 FURTHER READING

1) Kosambi, D.D. (2001): The cultural and Civilization of Ancient India in

Historical Outline, Vikas Publishing House.
2) Thapar, Romila(2003): The Penguin History of Early India, from the
origins to AD 1300 , Penguin Books India.
3) Singh, Upinder (2009): A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India,
from the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 31
Unit 2 Pre-Historic Ecology

2.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Palaeolithic Periods

Ans to Q No 2: Mesolithic

Ans to Q No 3: Holocene Period

Ans to Q No 4: Paleolithic

Ans to Q No 5: Kurnool district

Ans to Q No 6: Mesolithic

Ans to Q No 7: Chalcolithic age

Ans to Q No 8: A. True B. True

C. False D. False

Ans to Q No 9: A. Sickle B. Steatite bead

C. Red and orange D. Kayatha

2.13 MODEL QUESTIONS

A. Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Give a definition of Ecology.

Q 2: What were the methods of livelihood of the people of the Palaeolithic

age?
Q 3: What is Microliths?
Q 4: What types of tools were used by the Chalcolithic people?
B. Short Questions (Answer each question in and about 150 words)
Q 1: Briefly discuss the environmental changes in the pre historic periods.

32 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Pre-Historic Ecology Unit 2

Q 2: Compare and contrast the three phases of the Palaeolithic Age.

Q 3: Write a note on the early village settlement.

Q 4: Briefly describe the agricultural life of the people of the Chalcolithic

Age.

C. Long Questions (Answer each question in and about 500 words)

Q 1: Discuss the life and the tools of the Mesolithic people and mention
the Mesolithic sites.

Q 2: How the food producing age is different from the earlier phases of the
Pre-historic period?

Q 3: Give a brief note on the early village settlement.

Q 4: Differentiate between the Chalcolithic age and the early phases of

the prehistoric period?

*** ***** ***

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 33
 UNIT 3: THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
UNIT STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Origin and Early Settlement
3.3.1 City and Its People
3.3.2 Economic Life
3.4 Religious Practices
3.5 Decline of Urban Life
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Further Reading
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.9 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 discuss the origin of the Harappan Civilization
 understand the city life of the people of the Harappan Civilization
 analyse the religious practice of the Harappan people
 discuss the different factors responsible for the decline of this
civilization.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

In 1922-23, three archaeologists, namely Rakhaldas Banerjee, Daya

Ram Sahni and Sir John Marshall, discovered through excavation the ruins
of an ancient civilization in the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Harappa
is situated in the Motegomery district of Punjab and Mohenjodaro in the
Larkana district of Sindh - both now in Pakistan. This discovery in the above
mentioned sites along with many other sites proves it beyond doubt that
some thousands of years ago a highly developed civilization grew up here
which was surely older than the Vedic Civilization. Most of the excavated

34 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
The Harappan Civilization Unit 3

cities are located on the bank of the river Indus. That is why this civilization
is also known as the Indus Valley Civilization. Further, as this civilization
was first discovered in Harappa, some scholars named it as Harappan
Civilization. In this unit we will discuss this civilization in detail.

3.3 ORIGIN AND EARLY SETTLEMENT

Unfortunately, we have no written sources about the Indus Valley

Civilization. The scholars have failed to decipher the pictorial language written
on the Indus seals found in different sites. As a result, our knowledge on
the Harappan people and their lifestyle is largely based on premise. Our
knowledge regarding this civilization is primarily based on the careful
examination of the different items found during the excavation in Harappa,
Mohenjodaro and many other sites. However, these lifeless objects tell us
a lot about the people who founded such a highly developed civilization.
It is a difficult task to fix the chronology of this far-flung civilization.
Various factors complicated the problem of fixing the Harappan chronology
such as the discovery of Harappan seals from various contemporary sites
outside India, variations in the C-14 determinations from various sites, time
lag between the origin and growth of the civilization in nuclear area and the
peripheral areas to the east and south and the conventional data for the
Aryan incursion into India, etc. Therefore, various scholars suggested
different dates of its origin on the basis of their own findings. According to
Sir John Marshall, the date of this civilization fell approximately between
3250 and 2750 B.C. Again, Sir M. Wheeler opines it to be from 2500 to
1500 B.C.
Discovery of Radio-Carbon dating was a gift to archaeological
discovery. Many samples from various Harappan sites were dated by this
method. After analysing 14 C samples from various sites Dr. D.P. Aggarwal
proposed a maximum date bracket of 2300-1750 B.C. for the total growth
of Indus civilization. The end of the civilization is even more unclear, but it
appears like that the mature Harappan culture came to a close around
1750 B.C., to be succeeded at Harappa, Chandudaro and other sites by
late or post-Harappan phases. Thus the mature Harappan civilization had
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 35
Unit 3 The Harappan Civilization

a time span of not more than five centuries.

Figure 3.1: Indus seals

Source: Google Images

LET US KNOW
In addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro, the traces
of the Indus Valley Civilization have also been
discovered in a number of other sites in later years.
Among these sites mention may be made of Lothal (in Gujarat),
Chanhudaro (in Sindh), Kalibangan (in Rajasthan), Rupar (in
Haryana), etc. The archaeological remains of these sites greatly
help us in the study of the historical character of the Indus Valley
Civilization.

3.3.1 The City and Its’ People

The interesting remains of the cities of Indus Valley indicate

that it was an urban civilization. In other words, this civilization
flourished around cities. The ruins show remarkable town planning
and excellent drainage system. Let us now explore a few amazing
features of these outstanding cities.
The dwelling houses were many in number and varied in
size. These were made of well burnt bricks. Almost every house
had a well, a kitchen, bathroom and drain. The private drains were
connected with the drains of the street. The streets of the cities
were straight and the breadth of the streets varied from 9 to 34 feet.
These were connected by lanes and by-lanes. Provision for street
lights was also an important feature of the Indus city life. All such
amenities of the Harappan cities definitely remind us of any present
36 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
The Harappan Civilization Unit 3

day town with modern town planning.

The biggest architectural structure found among the ruins
was the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro. It was actually a public bath
with 180 feet length and 108 feet in breadth. The main bathing pool
was 39 feet by 23 feet with 8 feet depth. Galleries and rooms
surrounded the bathing pool in all sides. You will be amazed to hear
that like a modern swimming pool there was provision to fill and
empty the water of the bathing pool. Provision for hot water bath
was also there.
Figure 3.2 Great Bath

Source: Google Images

In addition to the Great Bath, a series of long public buildings have
also been discovered. These buildings were probably used as public
granaries. The biggest among them was the Great Granary found
at Harappa. It was approximately 169 feet by 135 feet in length and
breadth and had small compartments inside.
Figure 3.3 Great Granary

Source: Google Images

After the discussion on flourishing Indus cities, let us now
have some idea on the people who lived in these remarkably well
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 37
Unit 3 The Harappan Civilization

planned cities. The excavations of Indus Valley show that there were
probably four classes of people in the society: the learned class,
the warriors, the traders and artisans, and the working class. The
learned class included the priests, the astrologers, the physicians,
etc. The ruins of ancient forts and palaces indicate the existence of
a ruling or warrior class whose primary duty was to protect the land
and people. The merchants and various artisans such as goldsmith,
weaver, carpenter, mason, etc. formed the third section of society.
The lowest class was constituted by the manual labourers, daily
wage earners, domestic servants, etc.
The people of Indus Valley took both vegetarian and non-
vegetarian food. Their diet list included wheat, barley, rice, milk,
mutton, pork, beef, etc. besides a good number of fruits. Cotton as
well as woollen clothes were used by the people. The discovery of
spindles points out to the existence of weavers. Both men and women
wore ornaments. These ornaments were made of different materials
like gold, silver, bronze, ivory, etc.
People knew the art of toiletry and cosmetics. Toilet boxes
made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone have been found among the
ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Harappan Gallery of the
National Museum, New Delhi, has a large collection of ornaments
and various cosmetic items of the period.
In addition to the clothes and ornaments, a number of other
household articles like furniture, utensils, toys, etc. have been found
in different sites of the Indus Valley. Most of the kitchen utensils
were made of earth and stones. Other domestic items like knife,
needle, axe, etc. were made of metals like bronze and copper. All
objects were beautifully polished and decorated.
Play and amusement was probably a significant part of the
life of the Harappan people. Dicing was a favourite pastime. No less
popular was hunting. Children played with clay toys. People were
also fond of keeping birds perhaps for enjoying their fights.

38 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
The Harappan Civilization Unit 3

Figure 3.4: Indus Toy

Source: Google Images

LET US KNOW
The discovery of a large number of toy clay carts from
Chanhudaro indicates the existence of a factory in
that age.

3.3.2 Economic Life

The marvelous cities and their large population testify to the

sound economic condition of the people of the Indus Valley. Various
factors such as agriculture, trade and commerce, communication,
etc., largely contributed to such economic growth.
Agriculture was one of the most important occupations of
the Harappan people. The river Indus and its tributaries made the
valley fertile for agriculture and thereby contributed greatly for the
large productions. The Great Granary found at Harappa along with
many others amply points towards large productivity of this region.
The chief agricultural products were wheat, barley, rice, cotton,
various kinds of vegetables and fruits.
Another important means of livelihood was the domestication
of animals. The Harappan people tamed animals to fulfill two
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 39
Unit 3 The Harappan Civilization

purposes - for obtaining milk and flesh, and for the purpose of
carriage. For the first purpose, they used cows, sheep, pigs, etc.
while, for the second one they domesticated camel, bullock, buffalo,
ass, elephants, etc. It was doubtful whether horses were tamed or
not as no evidence of familiarity with horses has been discovered
so far.
Trade and commerce was a vital part of the economic life of
the Harappan Civilization. There are evidences to prove that the
Indus people traded not only with the other parts of India but also
with many parts of Western and Northern Asia, Egypt, Babylon, etc.
Some objects of Harappan origin have been found in Sumeria. This
certainly confirms the trade relation of Indus Valley with that
civilization. Clothes were the main items of export of Indus Valley
and in return gold, silver, copper and precious stones were imported
from contemporary outer world.
A developed and safe communication system was the first
condition for a sound commerce. The Harappan people performed
their foreign trades through the river and sea routes. The figures of
boats and ship on Harappan seals confirm this view. Lothal and
Mohenjodaro were probably two important sea ports of Indus Valley.
Intercity trade was conducted through local rivers.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q. 1: Match the following:
a) Larkana 1. Harappa
b) Great Bath 2. A district of Sindh
c) Great Granary 3. A sea port
d) Lothal 4. Mohenjodaro
Q. 2: Choose the correct alternative:
a) Two / Three / Four archaeologist in 1922-23 at first
discovered Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
b) Dicing / Horse Riding / Animal Fighting was a favourite
pass time of the people of Harappa Civilization.

40 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
The Harappan Civilization Unit 3

c) Agriculture / Sericulture / Horticulture was one of the most

important occupations of the Harappan people.
d) Indus people traded with many parts of Eastern / Western
Southern Asia.

3.4 RELIGIOUS CONDITION

The archaeological remains of Harappa and Mohenjodaro indicate

a lot about the religious life of these people. Interestingly, no temples have
been discovered in the excavated sites. Still the discovery of a large number
of seals and terracotta figurines points to the fact that the Indus people
were idol worshippers. People probably believed in a female energy as the
source of creation. This female energy was worshipped as Mother Goddess,
Nature Goddess or Divine mother.
Lots of figures of this Goddess found throughout the Indus valley
indicate that the worship of the Mother Goddess was a significant part of
Indus religion. Besides Mother Goddess, a male God was also worshipped.
In a Mohenjodaro seal we find this God sitting in a yogic posture with three
faces, horned head dress and surrounded by animals. For all these features
this God has been identified by the scholars as the prototype of Siva Pasupati
or lord of the beasts. The identification of this male deity with Siva is further
strengthened by the discovery of a number of stone objects which exactly
look like a Siva Linga. Further, the worship of trees, water and fire was also
prevalent among the Harappan people. The discovery of a few seals bearing
swastika symbol indicates the worship of the Sun God. Swastika is the
Animism: The belief
symbol of the sun. Animism probably was a significant aspect of Harappan
that the physical work
religious beliefs.
is permeated by a
spirit or vital principle
called the ANIMA
MUNDA.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 41
Unit 3 The Harappan Civilization

Figure 3.5: Mother Goddess Mohenjodaro

Source: Google Images

3.5 DECAY OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

It is difficult to fix a proper date for Harappan Civilization. On the

basis of the careful examination of available materials scholars are of the
opinion that the Indus Valley Civilization ranged between 3200 B.C. and
1700 B.C.
The Harappan Civilization extended over a huge geographical area.
It spread from Sutkanjodaro in Baluchistan in the West to Alamgirpur in
Uttar Pradesh in the East and from Manda in Jammu in the North to
Daimabad in the Godavari Valley in the South. As a whole, it covered an
area of 22.50,000 sq. kilometers. It is the largest cultural zone in the
contemporary history of world civilization.
Rise and fall of a civilization is a natural phenomenon. The amazing
civilization once started by the Harappans was also no exception to it. There
are many theories referred to by the scholars regarding the causes of the
decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. The most valid and valued theories
in this regard are as follows - rapid change of environment, natural calamities
like flood and earthquake, conservative mentality and decrease in civic sense
of the citizens, foreign attack, etc. However, most of the scholars believe
42 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
The Harappan Civilization Unit 3

drought and flooding of the river Indus and its tributaries to be the most
fatal factor for the destruction of the Harappan Civilization. Earthquake is
also supposed to be another potential factor that caused changes in the
course of the Indus which led to the inundation of the hinterland of
Mohenjodaro.
ACTIVITY- 3.1
Make a list of the Harappan sites mentioned in this
unit and then try to locate these places in a map.
.............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3: Write True / False:
a) People probably believed in a female
energy as the source of creation.
b) Swastika is the symbol of the moon.
c) The Harappan Civilization extended over a huge
geographical area.
d) Rise and fall of a civilization is not a natural phenomenon.
Q 4: Fill in the blanks:
a) Female energy was worshipped as ........................ mother.
b) Sutkanjodaro is in ....................................
c) Flooding of the river ....................... was one of the most
fatal factors for the destruction of the Harappan Civilization.
Q 5: What do you know about the religious life of the Harappan
people? (Answer in about 50 words)
.................................................................................................
.................................................................................................
.................................................................................................
.................................................................................................
.................................................................................................

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 43
Unit 3 The Harappan Civilization

3.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt that-

 The Harappan Civilization is one of the two earliest civilizations of

India. Harappan Civilization also known as the Indus Valley Civilization
for being discovered on the bank of the river Indus.

 The Harappan Civilization which extended over a huge geographical

area in between 3200 B.C. and 1700 B.C. was an urban civilization
with well developed town planning and drainage system.

 The society was divided into four classes. The economic condition of
the people of the Indus Valley was good. Along with agriculture, trade
and commerce prevailed which was facilitated by developed
communication system.

 In the field of religion, the people worshipped idols, both of male and
female Gods. Female energy was believed as the source of creation
and was worshipped as Mother Goddess, Nature Goddess or Divine
Mother. Animism also prevailed as a religious belief. However, in due
course of time the Harappan Civilization decayed out.

3.7 FURTHER READING

1) Jha, D.N. (1977), Ancient India-An Introductory Outline, Peoples’

Publishing House, New Delhi-110055
2) Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced
History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.
3) Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India. Calcutta,
University of Calcutta.
4) Tripathi, Ramashankar (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

44 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
The Harappan Civilization Unit 3

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: (a) 2, (b) 4, (c) 1, (d) 3

Ans to Q No 2: (a) Three, (b) Dicing, (c) Agriculture, (d) Western

Ans to Q No 3: (a) True, (b) False, (c) True, (d) False

Ans to Q No 4: (a) divine, (b) Baluchistan, (c) Indus

Ans to Q No 5: Religious life of the Harappan people can be known from

the archaeological remains of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The people
were idol worshippers. They worshipped Lord Siva. Female energy
was worshipped as Mother Goddess, Nature Goddess or Divine
Mother. It was believed that female energy was the source of creation.
Besides, Harappan people also worshipped trees, water and fire.

3.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in and about 50 words)

Q 1: Who discovered the Harappan Civilization?

Q 2: On the bank of which river did the Harappan Civilization develop?

Q 3: Which male God did the Harappan people worship?

Q 4: What was the main occupation of the Harappan people?

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in and about 150 words)

Q 1: What do you know about the socio-economic condition of the Harappan

Civilization?

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 45
Unit 3 The Harappan Civilization

Q 2: Write the chief features of the town planning in the Harappan

Civilization.

Q 3: Write a short note on the religious life of the Harappan people.

C) Long Questions (Answer each question in and about 300-500 words)

Q 1: Why do we call the Harappan Civilization the Indus Valley Civilization?

Discuss the features of the Harappa Civilization.

Q 2: Discuss causes of the decline of Harappan Civilization.

*** ***** ***

46 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
UNIT 4: VEDIC AND POST-VEDIC CIVILIZATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE

4.1 Learning Objectives

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Vedic Civilization
4.3.1 Indo-Aryans and their Origin
4.3.2 Political Institutions
4.3.3 Society
4.3.4 Economy
4.3.5 Religion
4.4 Later Vedic Civilization
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Further Reading
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.8 Model Questions

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this unit, you will be able to

 discuss the origin of the Indo-Aryans
 know the date of the Rig Veda
 understand the political institutions of the Vedic Civilization
 analyse the society and religion of the Vedic Civilization
 discuss the later Vedic Civilization.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit (unit 3) we have discussed the Harappan

Civilization, the earliest civilization of India. In the present unit we will deal
with another civilization which is completely different from the former in
many aspects. This civilization emerged in India after the Indus Valley
Civilization. It is the Vedic Civilization. It is followed by the post-Vedic
civilization. These two go together to make a sequence and present unit is

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 47
Unit 4 Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations

going to introduce them to the learners.

4.3 VEDIC CIVILIZATION

The Harappan Civilization was followed by Vedic or Rig-Vedic

Civilization which was completely opposed to it. The Vedic Civilization was
founded by the Aryans. They were immigrants and in the following sections
we will discuss the original home of the Aryans. Vedic Civilization is divided
into two board divisions- Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Civilization and Later
Vedic Civilization.

4.3.1 Indo-Aryans and their origin

The people who evolved this new civilization were known as

the Indo-Aryans. They came to India from some parts of Central
Asia through the North-West frontier. One should not think that their
migration to India was completed in a single batch. Rather, it was a
continuous process for hundreds of years. You surely have heard
about the Vedas. The Vedas were the main scriptures of the Indo-
Aryans. There are four Vedas, namely Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama
Veda and Atharva Veda. The Rig Veda is the oldest one. It is also
the earliest literature of India. The Indo-Aryans shaped their
civilization as guided by the holy Vedas. That is why this civilization
of the Aryans is also known as the Vedic Civilization.

LET US KNOW
The Aryans are a linguistic group spread over not only
Northern India and Central India but also over Europe.
The group that composed the Vedic literature is known
as Indo- Aryans and they used the Sanskrit language.

The whole Vedic age may be studied under two different

time zones - the Rig Vedic age and the Later Vedic age. The Rig
Vedic age ranged from 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. and the Later Vedic
age ranged from 1000 B.C. to 700 B.C.
48 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations Unit 4

4.3.2 Political Institutions

The family was the lowest political unit of the Vedic age.
Many families combined together to form a Grama or village. The
union of several Gramas formed the higher unit called Vis. The Vis
was probably a larger administrative unit of the whole tribe. The
Jana or the state was the highest political and administrative unit.
The leader of the Grama was called the Gramani and that of a Vis
was called the Vispati and the master of the Jana was called Gopa.

LET US KNOW
The Rig Vedic state was a tribal state. The first Veda
informs us about a number of Aryan tribes like Yadu,
Anu, Puru, Bharata, etc. These tribes were often at
war with one another for the possession of land or cattle.

Kingship was the usual form of government of the period.

The early Vedic states were generally small in size, sometimes with
only a single tribe. The Vedic king enjoyed special power and dignity.
He was denoted the title Rajan. Proficiency in warfare was the most
essential qualification for the kings to possess the royal throne. He
had the responsibility of protecting the life and property of his
subjects. In return, he collected tribute called Bali, generally in kinds,
from his subjects. The king was helped in his administration by the
purohita (priest), the senani (general), the gramani (village head
man), and the spasa (spies). Further, there were two popular bodies
called the sabha and the samiti to help the king. The king had to
periodically consult these two bodies in serious political matters.
Thus, the sabha and the samiti restricted the arbitrary power of the
king. However, we don’t have the exact detail of the composition of
the sabha and the samiti. The sabha probably was the selected
body of the chiefs of different tribes and the samiti was possibly the
assembly of the whole people.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 49
Unit 4 Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations

4.3.3 Society

The foundation of the Vedic society was the family. At that

time families were patriarchal. Do you know what a patriarchal family
is? A patriarchal family is where the father is considered the head
of the family. During the Rig Vedic age such heads of the families
were called grihapati or kulapati.
Women enjoyed a respectable position in early Vedic society.
Although the society was patriarchal, the girl child was also not
neglected. The door of education was open for the daughters as
well as the sons. Thus, we have come to know about some female
scholars like Ghosa, Apala, Viswavara, etc who through their wisdom
rose to the rank of the rishis. Neither the custom of sati nor purdah
was prevalent in the Rig Vedic society. Girls were usually married at
a mature age, though child marriage was not unknown altogether.
Remarriage of widows was permissible in the society. Thus, we may
observe that the Rig Vedic women held a high position in the society
as well as in the household.
Cotton, wool and deer skin were used for the purpose of
making clothes. Occasionally clothes were embroidered with gold.
The Rig Vedic ladies were fond of gold ornaments of different types.
Both men and women wore turban.
Barley, rice, wheat and vegetables of different seasons were
the chief food of the people. Moreover, milk and its various products
were also taken by them. The list of non-vegetarian items includes
fish, bird, goat, bull, etc. However, the cow was not killed possibly
because of its multiple utility. The Vedic Aryans took two kinds of
intoxicating drinks called soma and sura.
The people of the Vedic age were fond of merrymaking and
amusements. Chariot racing, war dancing and hunting were the most
fascinating outdoor games. Joyous moments were celebrated with
music and dancing. Gambling was probably the most exciting indoor
game of the period.

50 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations Unit 4

The Vedic society was divided into four classes namely

Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. However, in the early
Vedic period (i.e. in the Rig Vedic period), there was no watertight Chandala : chandala is
divisions of society. Although there was in vogue the existence of a class who looked after
four classes, no strict caste system existed at that time. During this the cremation ground of
the Hindus. Their social
period, inter caste marriage and inter caste dinning was a common
status was at the bottom
feature and there was no bar in this respect. The orthodox divisions
of the Hindu society.
of society, the conception of untouchability, etc., were the
development of later period. However, we do find references to the
terms like Chandala in the Rig Veda.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: Who evolved the Vedic Civilization?
..................................................................
Q 2: Write the name of the four Vedas.
.................................................................................................
Q 3: Who was the head of the family in the Rig Vedic period?
...............................................................................................
Q 4: Name two kinds of intoxicating drinks used by the Vedic Aryans.
...............................................................................................
Q 5: Who was the master of the Jana in the Rig Vedic period?
...............................................................................................
Q 6: Name two bodies that restricted the arbitrary power of the king
in the Rig Vedic period.
...............................................................................................
Q 7: Fill in the blanks:
a) ....................... were the main scriptures of the Indo-Aryans.
b) Women enjoyed a respectable position in early
.................................... society.
c) .............................. was probably the most exciting indoor
game of the Vedic period.
d) The ............................ was the lowest political unit of the
Vedic age.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 51
Unit 4 Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations

4.3.4 Economy

In the early Vedic period, the Aryans were dependent mainly

on a pastoral economy. They also practiced agriculture, trade and
industry to a limited extent. The importance of pastoralism in the
early Vedic economy is evident from the direct reference to cattle.
The importance of cattle is also evident from references to the chief
as Gopati or the protector of the cattle. The animals they
domesticated were cattle (for meat, dairy products and agricultural
purpose), horse (for drawing chariots), sheep and goats (for meat),
dog (for hunting, guarding, etc.) etc.
The evidence of agriculture is much more limited in the early
Vedic period. Agriculture depended mainly on rainfall rather than on
irrigation. The Rig Vedic people introduced the use of ploughshare
drawn by oxen. We do find references to various crafts in the Rig
Veda. In the Rig Veda terms like takshan (carpenters), hiranyakara
(goldsmith), kulala (potters), etc. are mentioned.
The Rig Vedic people perhaps carried on inland trade.
Sometimes they traded with the members of the same tribe and at
times with the members of different tribes. Merchants used both
land and water routes for distant places. The rathas or the chariots
and carts drawn by horses and oxen were the chief means of land
transportation. Trade was carried by barter. There is controversy
Barter : Exchange of
regarding whether the Aryans had overseas trade or not. As a whole,
goods or services for
other goods or services. we are not in a position to confirm that the Rig Vedic Aryans traded
with foreign countries.

4.3.5 Religion

The Rig Vedic religion was plain and simple. The early Aryans
worshiped every aspects of nature or it may be said that they imposed
heavenly qualities on every object under the sun. Thus, there were
a number of gods and goddesses in the religion worshipped by the
Aryans. The Aryans divided their deities into three classes namely,
52 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations Unit 4

Earthly Gods like Prithvi, Soma, Agni, etc; Atmospheric Gods like
Indra, Rudra, Vayu, etc. and Heavenly Gods like Dyau, Surya,
Varuna, etc. Although there were host of deities, interestingly, no
temple or image of that period has so far been discovered. This
indicates the absence of image worship among the Rig Vedic Aryans.
Another striking feature of the Vedic religion was the supremacy of
the male Gods in comparison to their female counterparts. Sacrifices
or yajnas occupied a prominent place in the Vedic rituals. The Aryans
believed that the sacrifices and other offerings pleased the Gods
and in return, they blessed the performer with the desired object.
Everyone, without the distinction of rich and poor, could perform
sacrifices according to his capacity.

4.4 LATER VEDIC CIVILIZATION

There were clear distinctions between the Rig Vedic and Later Vedic
Civilization. The Aryans of Later Vedic Age led a more settled life and as a
result of such organized lifestyle, there came obvious changes in different
aspects of the civilization.
In the Later Vedic age we see the rise of the big states. It was the
result of the Aryan expansion from the North-West India towards the East.
Small tribal states of Rig Vedic period were gradually replaced by large
kingdoms. With the enlargement of kingdoms, the power of the king also
increased significantly. The later Vedic kings styled themselves as the samrat
or ekarat meaning sole suzerain. There was also increase in the number of
officials for managing the state affairs. The Later Vedic literatures refer to
these officials as ratnas (gems). The Taittiriya Samhita gives us the list of
ten such ratnas such as purohita (the priest), suta (the charioteer), mahishi
(queen), paribrikti (queen), babata (queen), sangrahitri (the treasurer),
akshabapa (the officer in charge of dice), senani (the general), gramani
(the village head man) and bhagadugha (the revenue collector).
Society as a whole witnessed far reaching changes in the Later
Vedic period. Probably the caste system started to be rigid probably from
this age. There was a significant growth in the power and prestige of the
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 53
Unit 4 Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations

Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas in the society. They enjoyed special privileges
which were denied to the other castes. Caste became a hereditary right.
The concept of untouchability was developing in the society. Striking changes
may be seen in the status of women in the later Vedic society. The women
lost their respectable social position enjoyed in the Rig Vedic period. Their
freedom and equality also gradually vanished. The birth of a girl child was
detested. Dowry system became popular. As a whole, women were looked
upon as an inferior class.
With the development of civilization, there was an obvious growth
in the field of trade and commerce. Both domestic and foreign trades were
carried out by the later Vedic Aryans. By this time they attained the art of
navigation. In the absence of a regular coinage, a gold piece called nishka
was used as the unit of value. Agriculture continued to be an important
occupation. Reference to many other occupations like merchants, money
lenders, etc. could be found in the later Vedas.
Significant changes took place in the spiritual life of the Aryans of
the later Vedic age. The Rig Vedic Gods like Indra, Varuna, Surya, etc now
lost their previous glory and were replaced by new Gods like Rudra, Vishnu,
Prajapati, etc. In the later Vedic religion, yajnas or sacrifices played an
important role. The Rig Vedic yajnas were simple. But in the later age yajnas
became more complicated, ceremonial and expensive. Further, the
Brahmanas rapidly came forward as the mediator between the heavenly
Gods and the earthly mortals. Thus, religion gradually went beyond the
reach of the common men and this dissatisfied many in the society.
As a reaction to the elaborate rituals and the highhandedness of
the priestly class, there developed a philosophical trend in the later Vedic
religion. The inquisitive mind of the philosophers enquired into the various
aspects of the creation, life and death. The Upanishads preached the concept
of atma (the inner soul) and the Brahma (the supreme creator). Death only
destroys the body of a man not his atma or soul. Therefore, the atma or
soul is to take birth again and again. An atma can avoid rebirth and attain
moksha (liberation) only when it unites with the Brahma. But it solely depends
on the karma or action of the atma in different births. Thus, there emerged
54 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations Unit 4

the philosophical doctrines like transmigration of soul, karma and moksha,

etc.

ACTIVITY- 4.1
Try to find out the difference between the Harappan
Civilization and the Vedic Civilization.

CHECK YOUR PROGESS

Q. 8: Write True / False:
a) Gopati means the protector of the cattle.
b) Hiranyakara was the coppersmith.
c) The Aryans divided their deities into two classes.
d) Sacrifices or yajnas occupied a prominent place in the Vedic
rituals.
e) The samrat or ekarat meant sole suzerain.
f) During the Later Vedic age the birth of a female child was
welcomed in the family.
Q 9: Match the following:
a) Takshan 1. Atmospheric God
b) Rudra 2. Queen
c) Babata 3. Carpenters
d) Karma 4. Philosophical Doctrine
Q 10: What do you know about the Rig Vedic economy? (Answer
in about 60 words)
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
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HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 55
Unit 4 Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations

4.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt that-

 After the decline of the Harappan Civilization, there emerged the Vedic
Civilization which was evolved by the Indo-Aryans. The period of the
early Vedic Civilization which ranged from 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C was
known as the Rig Vedic age and hence the civilization also is known
as Rig Vedic Civilization.
 The society was based on the patriarchal family system where the
women enjoyed a respectable position. It was divided into four classes.
But this division was not a rigid one.
 Kingship was the form of government with the king styled as Rajan
looking after the prosperity and protection of his subjects.
 The economy was mainly pastoral one. Agriculture, trade and industry
were practiced to a limited extent.
 The people worshipped every aspects of nature for which there were
number of Gods and Goddess in the religion of the Aryans. The Aryans
divided their deities as Earthly Gods, Atmospheric Gods and Heavenly
Gods. Male Gods were considered superior to the female Gods.
 There existed a good deal of difference between the Vedic or Rig
Vedic Civilization and later Vedic Civilization. The life in the later Vedic
period was more settled. There was the emergence of the big states
with corresponding increase in the power of the king. In the society
the caste system was started to be rigidly imposed.
 In the later vedic period, women lost the social position which they
enjoyed in the Rig Vedic period. There was development in the field
of trade and commerce.
 In religious matters the Rig Vedic Gods were replaced by new Gods
like Rudra, Vishnu, etc. in the later vedic period. The philosophical
doctrines like transmigration of soul, karma and moksha, etc emerged.

56 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations Unit 4

4.6 FURTHER READING

1) Jha, D.N. (1977), Ancient India-An Introductory Outline, Peoples’

Publishing House, New Delhi-110055
2) Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced
History of India. New Delhi, Macmillan India Ltd.
3) Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India. Calcutta,
University of Calcutta.
4) Tripathi, Ramashankar (1999). History of Ancient India. Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Indo-Aryans.
Ans to Q No 2: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
Ans to Q No 3: Grihapati or Kulapati.
Ans to Q No 4: Soma and Sura.
Ans to Q No 5: Gopa.
Ans to Q No 6: Sabha and Samiti.
Ans to Q No 7: (a) Vedas, (b) Vedic, (c) Gambling, (d) Family
Ans to Q No 8: (a) True, (b) False, (c) False, (d) True, (e) True, (f) False
Ans to Q No 9: (a) 3, (b) 1, (c) 2, (d) 4
Ans to Q No 10: The Rig Vedic economy was a pastoral economy. The
Aryans of the Rig Vedic period used to domesticate cattle, horse,
sheep, goat, etc for different purposes. Agriculture, trade and industry
too prevailed in the Rig Vedic period. Agriculture was limited, but use
of ploughshare was introduced by the Aryans. Inland trade was carried
by barter. Craftsmen like takshan, hiranyakara, etc were there.
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 57
Unit 4 Vedic and Post-Vedic Civilizations

4.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1: Who was known as Rajana?
Q 2: Name the political institutions of the Vedic civilization.
Q 3: Name two female scholars of the Rig Vedic Period.
Q 4: Who was samrat ?
B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)
Q 1: State the main features of the Rig Vedic society.
Q 2: What was the nature of Rig Vedic Polity?
Q 3: Compare the early Vedic period to that of the later Vedic period.
C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the political institutions of the Vedic civilization.
Q 2: Give a comprehensive account of the Vedic Civilization.
Q 3: Discuss the socio-economic condition of the later Vedic period.

*** ***** ***

58 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Unit 5: CULTURAL AND POLITICAL TRANSITIONS IN
THE 6TH CENTURY
UNIT STRUCTURE

5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Agricultural Expansion
5.4 Mode of production
5.5 Polity-Rise of Ganas or Sanghas
5.6 The Mahajanapadas
5.7 Economic condition
5.8 Religious condition
5.8.1 Rise of Buddhism
5.8.2 Rise of Jainism
5.9 Social Condition
5.10 Let Us Sum Up
5.11 Further Reading
5.12 Answers to check your Progress
5.13 Model Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit you will be able to:

 discuss the role of Iron in the growth of agricultural production in the
6th century B.C.
 learn about the mode of production and the surplus economy in the
6th century B.C.
 discuss the rise of Ganas and Sanghas with their functions in the 6th
century B.C.
 discuss the factors for the rise of Mahajanapadas in the 6th century
B.C.
 discuss the economic, religious and social condition in the 6th century
B.C.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 59
Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

5.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we are going to have a discussion on the political and

cultural changes that took place in the 6th century B.C. The 6th century B.C
has been regarded as a starting point of a definite political history of ancient
India. The idea of territorial emergence was strengthened in the 6th century
B.C. The century showed the rise of large states. Before that in the Vedic
period we had seen tribal political organization.
Besides the political developments, the 6th century B.C also showed
some cultural changes. Our discussion in this unit will also focus on the
economic, religious and social condition of the 6th century B.C.

5.3 AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION

The Buddhist and the Jain texts have mentioned agricultural

expansion in the Ganga valley in 6th century B.C. Several agricultural similes
have been found in the Buddhist text which reflect the importance and
expansion of agriculture during that period. Besides agriculture, people also
practiced animal rearing though land was considered the most important
wealth. Plough and sickle were used in agriculture. Other agricultural
implements mentioned in the Buddhist texts were Kudala (spade) and digging
tools like Khaniti and Nikkhadana.
Rice cultivation was the most important aspect of the agricultural
production of the Ganga valley. Other agricultural crops were cereals, pulses,
wheat, barley, beans, and sesame. Sugarcane was also cultivated.
According to the Jaina texts, there were two types of agricultural
lands (khetta). One was ‘Setu’ (meaning dam) and the other was ‘Ketu’.
The ‘Setu’ land needed irrigation to cultivate and the ‘Ketu’ land depended
mainly on natural rainfall. The harvested crops were stored in
Kotthagaras(granaries) made of bamboo, straw grasses etc.
The Buddhist texts also referred to the sale of land which indicates that the
concept of private property was continued at that time.
The discovery of iron has a great role in the agricultural expansion
of the Ganga valley. Before the discovery of iron wooden ploughshare was
60 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

used in the cultivation. But after the discovery of iron the farmers started to
use iron ploughshare. The use of iron ploughshare resulted in deep digging,
thereby increasing production. The surplus production helped in the growth
of trading activities. The discovery of iron also helped to clear the jungles
for using those as cultivable lands by using iron tools. Iron tools were harder
in comparison to the copper tools used by the Vedic people. Subsequently
the surplus from agriculture led to the establishment of the urban centers.

5.4 MODE OF PRODUCTION

The crucial change brought about in 6th century B.C was due to the
diffusion of iron. Iron diffusion and its extensive use in agriculture had a
significant impact on labour productivity. Iron technology brought new forms
of tools and also multiplied their numbers. It brought progress in agriculture
and craft production. The change from copper to iron as the main material
for making tools for the agricultural activities took place in the upper Ganga
valley around or before 700 B.C. But the iron technology was not the only
factor for the change. The important question was not just the introduction
of iron technology but the manner in which it was used by those who wanted
to establish their authority. Because, the date of the use of iron technology
differed from region to region. All these regions did not show equal change
in social and economic structure .In South India Iron was used prior to the
Northern India.
The mode of production in ancient India was given due attention by
Marxist historians like D.D. Kosambi who studied the ancient history from a
Marxist perspective. The Asiatic mode of production which Marx had
introduced on the base of 19th century European ideas of Oriental Despotism
could not directly be applied to Indian history. Because the whole social
and economic structure of India was different at that time. The concept of
private ownership of land and commercial developments were not
established fully. But according to D.D. Koshambi if caste was class at a
primitive level of production then there must have been some sort of class
conflict or contradictions.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 61
Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

For D.D. Kosambi ‘production’ was not confined to just the economy and
technology of a particular period. It also involved the multiple aspects of
society. Who Controls the technology and who works on it were the two
important aspects of the mode of production. Kosambi referred that ancient
Indian history has a nature of feudal economy. He emphasized on Marx’s
theory of the feudal mode of production. However, there is a difference
between European and Indian concept of feudalism.

5.5 POLITY: RISE OF GANAS OR SANGHAS

There were two forms of governments in ancient India in the 6th

century B.C. One was Ganas or Sanghas and other was Kingdoms. The
Ganas or Sanghas were located in the Himalayan foothills, Central and
Western India, Punjab and Sindh. The Ganas or Sanghas were older than
the Kingdoms of the plains area. The kingdoms were established in the
Gangetic plains. But the Ganas or Sanghas emerged in different places.
The Buddhist texts mentioned about the Ganas or Sanghas. The political
structure and function of the Ganas and Rajyas were different. The politically
important Ganas were situated in or near the foothills of the Himalayas in
eastern India. Buddhist texts have mentioned the names of some Ganas
like- the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Kolias of Devadaha, Moriayas of
pipphalivana etc.
The Gana or Sanghas were also called Ganarajyas. The term Gana
means people of equal status. They rejected the Vedic philosophy because
of its rigid caste system. The new Buddhist and Jain philosophy were popular
among the Ganas or Sanghas. In a Gana, the head of the family belonged
to a clan .The Gana has some tribal organizations compared to the
monarchies .There were two kinds of Ganas- some consisted of the people
of one clan, for example the Sakyas and the Koliyas and some consisted of
the confederation of several clans, for example, the Vajjis, the Yadavas.
The ancient Ganas were not democratic. Power was in the hands of
an aristocracy headed by leading Kshatriya family. The head was known as
‘Ganapati’, ‘Ganajyestha’, ‘Ganaraja’ or ‘Sanghamukhya’.

62 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

The Ganas were associated with the Kshatriyas. Therefore, the Ganas were
named after the ruling Kshatriya clan. Governance through discussion was
an important aspect of the Ganas. These republican states had a Gana-
Parishad or an Assembly of people. The administrative advice was given
by this Assembly. The Ganas or Sanghas did not observe ‘varna’ society.
The head of the Ganas was called ‘Raja’ and he enjoyed both political and
social powers. In a Gana, land was owned by a clan. The hired labourers
and slaves worked on it. Compared to the Kingdoms the Ganas or Saghas
ruled over a small geographical area.

5.6 THE MAHAJANAPADAS

The widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western

Bihar created favorable conditions for the formation of territorial states.
These states were large geographically. The warrior class used tools made
of iron in a large scale. Therefore, they played an important role in the
formation of these large states. They also engaged themselves in ruling
these states. The new and advanced iron tools helped the peasants to
produce more food grains. The surplus production was sold at some central
places which helped in the development of market places and towns. Due
to the use of iron technology the material condition of the people developed.
Naturally, it enabled the people to settle permanently in a particular area of
land .The rise of the large states with towns strengthened the idea of
territories .From that time onwards people showed their allegiance to the
Janapada or the territory to which they belonged. In the Vedic period people
showed their allegiance to the jana or the tribe to which they belonged.

LET US KNOW
Kingdom means a territory ruled by a king or queen.
In 6th century B.C., along with the rise of Ganas or
Sanghas kingdoms also emerged in the Ganga valley.
Three kingdoms of Kasi, Kosala, Magadha and the Vrijjis fought for
supremacy. Magadha became successful by defeating all of them.
The first definite political history of ancient India started with the rise
of the Magadhas.
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 63
Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

In the 6th century B.C the entire northern territory situated north of
the Vindhyas and extending from the North-West frontier to Bihar was divided
into sixteen states or Mahajanapadas. These were called Sodas
Mahajanapadas.Buddhist literatures like Anguttara, Mahavastu etc. have
given the list of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas. The Jain literature like
Bhagavati Sutra has also mentioned the sixteen Mahajanapadas. But there
are some differences between these two sources about the names of the
Mahajanapadas. The great scholar and grammarian Panini has accepted
the Buddhist sources. According to Panini, there were two types of
Mahajanapadas- some were Monarchy and others were Republic. Among
those, Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa and Avanti were powerful. According to
the traditional literatures the sixteen Mahajanapadas that existed in Northern
India in the 6th century B.C. were-
Anga: It was situated in the eastern boundary of Magadha (modern
Bihar). The capital of Anga was Champa. Later on, Anga was subdued and
annexed with Magadha.
Kasi: It was a prosperous state in Present Uttar Pradesh. Varanasi
was its capital. Later it was annexed by Kasala.
Vrijji: It was a Republic. It was a confederacy of eight or nine clans.
Vaisali, the capital of Lichchavis was its capital.
Malla: It was also a Republic and consisted of a confederacy of
nine clans. Though it was very powerful, it was captured and annexed by
Magadha after the death of Buddha.
Chedi: The Chedis were located in two different places. One section
settled in Nepal and other section at Bundelkhand. Suktimati was their
capital.
Kuru: It was spread over modern Delhi, Meerut and Thaneswar. Its
capital was Indraprastha.
Panchala: It was situated in the north and east of Delhi. The river
Ganga has divided it into two parts- one was northern Panchala and other
was Southern Panchala . The capital of North Panchala was Ahichchatra
and South Panchala was Kampil .
Matsya: It included the territories of modern Jaipur ,Alwar and
Bharatpur and its capital was Biratnagar.
64 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

Surasena: It was situated in Mathura (present Uttar Pradesh). The

capital of Surasena was Mathura.
Assaka or Asmaka: It was situated on the bank of river Godavari.
Potana or Potali was its Capital.
Gandhara: It included the places like Peshawar and Rawalpindi of
present Pakistan with its capital Takshashila.
Komboja: It included the south-east part of present Kashmir and a
part of North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. Its capital was Rajpur.
Avanti: It was situated in Western India. It included the territories of
modern Malwa and adjoining parts of Madhya Pradesh. Ujjaini was the capital.
Its ruler Pradyota was a contemporary of Buddha. Magadha occupied it.
Vatsa: It was situated on the south of the Ganga river. Ruler
Udayana, of Vatsa was contemporary of Buddha. Its capital was Kausambi.
Kosala: Kosala consisted of Kapilavastu and Keshpur regions. Its
rulers were from Iksvaku dynasty. The capital of Kosala was Sravasti.
Magadha: In the beginning it comprised the Patna and Gaya regions
of Bihar. It was surrounded by the Son and Ganga rivers. Girivraja was its
early capital. Later on, it included several Mahajanapadas by defeating them
and became the most powerful among the sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Bimbisara was its ruler during the time of Buddha.
The political histories of India from the 6th century B.C. were actually
the struggle for supremacy among these sixteen Mahajanapadas. The
Magadha ultimately, successful and emerged as the most powerful
Mahajanapada and established the first historical empire.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Write true or false
Q 1: Iron discovery had revolutionized the
economic structure of 6th century B.C.
Q 2: The head of the Gana was called ‘Raja’.
Q 3: Vrijji was a monarchy.
Q 4: Bhagavati Sutra was a Buddhist text.
Q 5: Bimbisara was the contemporary of Buddha.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 65
Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

5.7 ECONOMIC CONDITION

The economic condition of 6th century B.C. in Northern India was

much more developed than in the Vedic Age. The use of iron revolutionized
the whole economic structure in the 6th century B.C. The discovery of iron
developed the agricultural system. People started to clear jungles for making
agricultural land by using iron tools. Moreover, they had also used iron
ploughshare instead of wooden ploughshare. It resulted in deep digging
which ultimately increased the agricultural production. After using the
necessary crops the surplus productions were sold at the centers. This
created the market system and ultimately had developed the trading
activities.
In the 6th century B.C. urban settlements had emerged in Northern
India. The urban settlements had different functions. They were the centers
of political control, trading activity and craft production. The emergence of
these states had developed the second urbanization in the Gangetic Valley.
The Buddhist texts mentioned different kinds of urban centers. The name
of a town or a city was ‘Pura’. The term ‘Nagara’ meant a fortress or town.
Nigama was a market town. Nigama was associated with trading activities.
The capital city was called the ‘Rajdhani’. A small town was called ‘nagaraka’
and a big town was called ‘Mahanagara’.
Besides agriculture, the people were also engaged in different craft
activities. The early Buddhist texts mentioned several occupations. The
Buddhist texts mentioned both rural and urban occupations. Apart from
farmers, cattle rearers, traders, they also mentioned washer men, barbers,
tailors, painters and cooks. The king also appointed people as
soldiers(yodhajivas), ministers (mahamachchas), governors (ratthikas),
estate managers(pettanikas), royal chamberlain(thapati), elephant
trainers(hattirohas), policemen(raja-bhatas), jailors(bandhanagarikas)
,slaves(dasa and dasis) and wage-workers(kammakaras). Urban
occupations included physician (vejja), surgeon (salakatta) , and scribe
(lakha). References of accomplished courtesan (ganika) and the ordinary
prostitute (vesi) are also there in the Buddhist texts. The Buddhist texts

66 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

also mentioned about the existence of Guilds. Terms like Shreni, Nigama,
Puga,Vrata and Sangha are used. These terms were used to denote various
kinds of corporate organizations including guilds.
The use of coin was an important aspect of urbanization. During
that period coins like kahapana, nikkha, kamsa,pada,masaka and kakanika
were continued. The punch marked coins were mainly made of mainly silver
.The continuation of money economy did not mean the end of the traditional
barter system. It meant a change in the economic transactions and also
helped in the development of long –term trade and commerce. The
continuation of the money economy also helped in the money lending
activities. Money lending became a profession for some people.
In the 6th century B.C. trade played an important role in the economic
life of the people. The two major trade-routs of that time were known as
Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha. The Uttarapatha was the trade-route of
Northern India. It continued from the North – west , across the Indo-Gangetic
plains, up to the port of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal. The item of trade
was the precious and semi-precious stones. Lapis Lazuli was collected
from Afghanistan and central Asia .Silver was collected from Afghanistan
and Central Asia. But Silver was available in Rajasthan too. Shell was
imported from the eastern coast to the sites of lower and middle Ganga
valley .The Uttarapatha was both a land and river route. The Dakshinapatha
was the Southern trade route. Arthashastra has mentioned about this route.
It was continued from Pataliputra in Maghadha to Pratishthana on the
Godavari river .It was also connected with the ports of the Western coast.
The physician Jivaka moved along the Dakshinapatha to Avanti. Overland
trade also existed. Taxila was connected with Afghanistan. From Iran silver,
gold, jade and lapis lazuli were imported. There was a long distance trade
of fine wood between India and Mesopotamia. Thus the growth and
expansion of trade and commerce had made the traders an important urban
group.

HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 67
Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

ACTIVITY 5.1
Write a short note on the Punch marked coins.
.................................................................................

................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................

5.8 RELIGIOUS CONDITION

Different religious sects emerged in the Gangetic valley in the 6th

century B.C. Almost 62 religious sects came into prominence at that time.
But among them only Buddhism and Jainism were able to survive and
continue as major religions of that time. Both these religions were actually
a resistance movement against the ritualistic dominance of Brahmanical
religion. There were social and economic factors which led to the
development of these heterogeneous sects in the 6th century B.C. These
factors are analysed below.
The Varna based social condition was one of the most important
factors for the development of these religious sects. In the post-Vedic period,
the society was divided into four Varnas; the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the
Vaishyas and the Sudras. In the early Vedic period, the concept of Varna
was on the basis of occupation of the people. But in later Vedic time the
concept of Varna was based on the birth of the people. The Brahmanas
and the Kshatriyas were considered higher Varna and as such they enjoyed
a privileged position in society. The Brahmanas who performed the priestly
duties claimed highest status in society and demanded to be given gifts as
well as exemption from taxation and punishments. The Kshatriyas were
second in the varna hierarchy. They held the position of power and ruled as
kings. They collected taxes from the peasants. The Vaishyas were in the
third category in the Varna system and were engaged in agriculture, cattle
rearing and trade. The sudras were considered in the last position of the
varna system and their duty was to serve the above three varnas. The
68 HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E
Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

varna-divided society created lots of tensions. The Kshatriyas, as they were

the rulers, definitely had more grievances than the Vaishyas. They reacted
more strongly against the ritualistic domination of the Brahmanas.The
reaction of the Kshatriyas against the domination of the priestly class called
Brahmanas was one of the factors which led to the rise of these new religions.
The spread of new agricultural economy in north-eastern India was
another factor for the rise of these religions. The north –eastern areas were
thickly forested. Before the discovery of iron the people inhabited in these
areas had cleared the jungles with the help of bone, stone and copper
implements. The use of iron tools made the clearance of the forest easier.
Again, the agricultural economy based on iron ploughshare needed the
use of bullocks. But the Vedic people used the cattle wealth in their Vedic
sacrifices. Therefore the scarcity of animals had threatened the new
agricultural economy. Animal husbandry became important for the stability
of the new agricultural economy. Therefore, the killing of cows in Vedic
sacrifices had to be stopped.
The use of money economy had also contributed to the development
of the trade and commercial activities. As a result, the traders became the
wealthy people in society. But in spite of their vast resources they did not
enjoy equal social status with the two higher varnas (Brahmanas and
Kshatriyas). To improve their social status they were in search of a new
religion. Let us now discuss the rise of the two religions-Jainism and
Buddhism.

5.8.1 Rise of Jainism

Mahavira was the religious teacher of the Jains. The Jainas

believed that Mahavira was the last and 24th tirhankara of the Jainas.
Before him they had 23 tirthankaras. It is difficult to fix the actual
date of the birth and the death of Mahavira. According to one tradition,
Mahavira was born in 540 B.C. in a village near vaishali .His father
Siddhartha was the head of a Kshatriya clan .The name of Mahavira’s
mother was Trishala. Mahavira abandoned his family life for the
search of truth and attained ‘Kaivalya’(omniscience) after 12 years
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Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

at the age of 42 . He propagated his religion for 30 years and died at

the age of 72 in Pavapuri near Rajgir .Jainism introduced five
doctrines. These were, (i) do not commit violence, (ii) do not speak
a lie, (iii)do not steal, (iv) do not acquire property and (v)observe
continence (Brahmacharya). It is said that the fifth doctrine was the
contribution of Mahavira and the other four were originally contributed
by his predecessors. Jainism gave emphasis on ahimsa or non-
injury to any leaving being. In later period, Jainism was divided into
two sects: (a) Shvetambaras, those who wore white dress and the
(b) digambaras, those who did not wore clothes. Jainism believed
in the existence of gods but placed them in a lower position than the
‘jina’ (mahavira or the great hero). Jainism did not condemn the
Varna system. The main aim of Jainism is to attain freedom from
this mundane world and its bonds. But Jainism did not have any
ritual to attain this concept of liberation. The liberation can be
achieved by following right knowledge, right faith and right action.
These three are considered as the jewels or triratna of Jainism
.Gradually Jainism had spread into South and West India. Jainism
spread to Kalinga in the fourth century B.C. Jainism was the first
attempt to give a resistance to the ritualistic Vedic religion. The early
Jainas discarded the Sanskrit language as it was the language
patronized by the Brahmanas .They used the prakrit language to
preach their doctrines. They used the Prakrit language because it
was the language of the common people. Their religious literature
was written in Ardhamagadhi. Initially the Jainas did not worship
images. But later on they started to worship Mahavira and the 23
tirthankaras.

5.8.2 Rise of Buddhism

Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism

was a contemporary of Mahavira. He was born in 563 B.C. in a
Sakya Kshatriya family in Lumbini (Nepal) near Kapilabastu.

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Suddhodhan was his father and his mother’s name was Mayadevi.
At the age of 29 Gautama left home in search of truth. He wandered
about for seven years and untimately attained Nirvana (enlightment)
at the age of 35 under a “Pipaltree” at BodhiGaya. After the attainment
of the Nirvana he was called Buddha. Gautama Buddha delivered
his first sermon (religious teaching) in a deer park at
Sarnath(Banaras). He died at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. in Kusinagara
(Uttar Pradesh). Buddha said that the world is full of sorrows and it
is all due to the people’s desires. Desires can be conquered by
following eight fold paths (ashtangikamarg). People can attain
Nirvana only after conquerors the desires. The eight fold path
included- (i) right observation, (ii) right determination, (iii) right
speech, (iv) right action, (v) right livelihood, (vi) right exercise, (vii)
right memory and (vii) right meditation. Gautama Buddha had laid
down a code of conduct for the followers of this new religion. The
code consisted of the followings: – do not commit violence, do not
covet other’s property, do not get intoxicated, do not speak a lie and
do not indulge in corrupt practices. Buddhism did not have faith on
the existence of God and soul (atman). Gradually Buddhism became
popular among the lower section of the society as it attacked the
varna division. People from any caste and class could enter in the
Buddhist Sangha. Women were also admitted to the Buddhist
Sangha. The use of Pali, the language of the common people, helped
in the propagation of Buddhism among the common people.There
were three main elements in Buddhism – (a)Buddha, (b) Sangha
and (c) Dhamma. The monarchies of Magadha, Kosala and
Koshambi adopted Buddhism as state religion. Moreover, several
republican states also adopted this religion. Ashoka, the great
Mauryan king adopted Buddhism. He introduced several measures
like foreign tour (Dhammayatra) for the propagation of Buddhism.
Therefore, under the patronization of king Ashoka Buddhism had
spread to Cental Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka and thus became a
world religion.
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Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

5.9 SOCIAL CONDITION

The society in that time was divided into four classes- Brahmanas,
Kshatryas, Vaishyas and Shudras .The Dharmautras laid down the duties
of these four Varnas. Therefore the civil and criminal law was based on the
Varna division. The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas were the higher varnas.
The Vaisyas were the third category in varna system. Shudras were
considered as the last in the hierarchy of varna system .The Shudras were
deprived of religious and legal rights .The Brahmanas played the role of the
priest and teachers. The Kshatriyas were the rulers. The Vaishyas were
engaged in agriculture and trade and commerce. The Shudras were
regarded as the slaves and they were asked to serve the other three higher
varnas.Though the rise of Buddhism and Jainism did not bring any radical
change to the social status of the Shudras, yet they could now enter into
the new religious system.
Kingship ties were still important and gradually incorporated into
the framework of caste. Generally, marriages were held within the same
varna. But the Dharmasastra accepted inter-varna marriages. The marriage
between a man of higher varna and a woman of lower varna was called
Anuloma marriage. On the other hand, the marriage between a woman of
a higher varna and a man of a lower varna was known as pratiloma
marriage. The Dharmasastras did not approve the pratiloma form of
marriage .There were eight types of marriages.
The concept of untouchebility was prevalent in the 6th century B.C.
In the early dharmasastras, the Chandalas were sometimes considered as
the Shudras. But gradually distinctions between the two were established
.The concept of both male and female slaves prevailed. They did not have
the right to join the Buddhist Sanghas until they were freed by their masters.
The concept of private property was started. The son had the right
to inherit his father’s property .There was, however, a category of property
where the women had the right. This category was the ‘Stri-dhana’. It was
movable property and given to the women during different occasions in her
life.

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Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions
Q 6: Punch marked coins were mainly made of
which metal?
........................................................................................................
Q 7: Write down the name of the important port of the Bay of Bengal.
..........................................................................................................
Q 8: Before Mahavira,how many Tirthankars were in Jainism?
..........................................................................................................
Q 9: Which language was mainly used by Buddha to propagate
Buddhism?
............................................................................................................
Q 10: What type of tour was adopted by Ashoka to propagate
Buddhism in foreign countries?
..........................................................................................................

5.10 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt—

 The Discovery of iron brought tremendous change in the agricultural
technique in the 6th century B.C. The use of iron tools revolutionized
the agricultural structure. It further developed trade and commerce.
 The political structure of Northern India in the 6th century B.C was
controlled by the Ganas or Sanghas. However the development of
the monarchical kingdoms could also be noticed.
 The rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas was an important event of 6th
century B.C. We have found both monarchical and republican states
among those sixteen Mahajanapadas.
 The economy of 6 th century B.C. was mainly dominated by the
agricultural activities and trade and commerce. This period also
showed the use of money economy.
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 73
Unit 5 Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century

 Buddhism and Jainism developed in the sixth century B.C.

 The society was based on varna system in that period. Moreover, we
also found the prevalence of untouchebility and slavery in the 6th
century B.C.

5.11 FURTHER READING

1) Kosambi, D.D. (2001): The cultural Civilization of Ancient India in

Historical outline, Vikas Publishing House.
2) Thapar Romila (2003): The Penguin History of Early India, from the
origins to AD 1300, Penguin Books India.
3) Singh Upindar (2009): A history of Ancient and Early Medieval India,
from the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson.

5.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: True
Ans to Q No 2: True
Ans to Q No 3: False
Ans to Q No 4: False
Ans to Q No 5: True
Ans to Q No 6: Silver
Ans to Q No 7: Tamralipti
Ans to Q No 8: 23
Ans to Q No 9: Pali
Ans to Q No 10: Dharmayatras

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Cultural and Political Transitions in the 6th Century Unit 5

5.13 MODEL QUESTIONS

A. Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: What types of agricultural lands did exist in 6th century B.C?
Q 2: What was the political structure of the Ganas?
Q 3: Define the term ‘surplus production’.
Q 4: What types of coins were used in 6th century B.C.?
B. Short Questions (Answer each question in and about 150 words)
Q 1: Discuss the agricultural life of the 6th century B.C.
Q 2: Define ‘mode of production’.
Q 3: Discuss the rise and political structure of the Ganas or Sanghas.
Q 4: Give a description of the social condition of the 6th century B.C.
C. Long Questions (Answer each question in and about 500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the role of iron technology in transforming the economic
condition of the 6th century B.C.
Q 2: Make a note on the rise of Mahajanapadas.
Q 3: Discuss in detail the economic condition of the 6th century B.C.
Q 4: Discuss in detail the rise and development of Buddhism.

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HISTORY OF INDIA FROM PRE-HISTORY TILL THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY C.E 75