Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 1

Project Report on

Digital Signatures and

Electronic Signatures

SUBMITTED TO:

Dr. Amita Verma

UILS, Panjab University

SUBMITTED BY:

Shreya Jindal

157/13

B.Com. LL.B.(Hons)

10th Semester

Section C
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 2

Contents
Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................3

Chapter 1

Introduction......................................................................................................................................4

1.1. Why Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures?.........................................................4

1.2. Functions of Digital and Electronic Signatures................................................................4

Chapter 2

Digital Signatures............................................................................................................................5

2.1. Adoption of Digital Signatures.........................................................................................5

2.2. Technology behind Digital Signatures..............................................................................7

2.3. Electronic Record- Section 2(1)(t)....................................................................................7

Parties to e-record....................................................................................................................7

2.4. Main requirements for an electronic record or message on the Internet...........................8

2.5. Legal Provisions relating to Digital Signatures (Section 3)..............................................9

2.6. Authentication of an electronic record by Digital Signature- Section 3(1)......................9

2.7. Authentication by the use of asymmetric crypto system and hash function- Section 3(2)
10

2.7.1. Cryptology...............................................................................................................10

2.7.2. Types of cryptography.............................................................................................11

2.7.3. Hash Function (Explanation Section 3)...................................................................12

2.8. Creating a Digital Signature............................................................................................13

2.9. Verification of the Electronic Record- Section 3(3).......................................................13

2.9.1. Meaning of verification- Section 2(1)(zh)...............................................................14

2.9.2. Verification of Digital Signature.............................................................................14

2.9.3. The Private Key and the Public Key are unique- Section 3(4)................................15
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 3

Chapter 3

Electronic Signatures.....................................................................................................................16

3.1. Legal Provisions Relating to Electronic Signatures (inserted by the Information

Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008).......................................................................................17

3.1.1. Authentication of Electronic Record by ES- Section 3A........................................17

3.1.2. Reliable electronic signature or authentication technique- Section 3A(2)..............17

3.2. Verification of electronic signature- Section 3A(3)........................................................17

3.3. Change in Second Schedule- Section 3A(4)...................................................................18

3.4. Secure electronic record and secure digital signature.....................................................18

3.4.1. Secure electronic record- Section 14.......................................................................18

3.4.2. Secure electronic signature- Section 15...................................................................18

3.4.3. Security Procedure and Practice- Section 16...........................................................18

Chapter 4

Difference between Electronic Signatures and Digital Signatures................................................20

Bibliography..................................................................................................................................22

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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 4

Acknowledgement
This project would not have been possible without the help and support of my parents and
teacher. I would like to thank them for their efforts and guidance, which has thoroughly helped in
shaping up this project. I sincerely acknowledge their words of wisdom and advice, which are
the pearls that have helped string this project together.

It has been very rightly said, “To err is human”. Though I have put in my sincere efforts in
thoroughly researching and editing this project report, I apologize for any mistakes that may
have crept in.

Shreya Jindal

157/13

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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 5

Introduction
1.1. Why Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures?
For achieving the requirements of electronic records or message, there came the concept of
digital and electronic signatures. Electronic Signature is a new concept and was introduced at the
international level by the Model law of Electronic Signature, 2001. Subsequently, the
information technology act was amended by the Information Technology (Amendment) Act
2008 to incorporate electronic signatures.

Identification is a fundamental legal requisite to decide the liability of a person for his action and
transaction. In transactions, identification technology is essential to identify the sender of the
message. In physical world, taking formal evidence of identity is a cumbersome process and
there are comparatively few transactions where identification is required as a standard procedure.
However, in e-transaction, the process is different. The identification technology associated with
Electronic/ Digital Signature may be technically very sophisticated, but practically it is simple in
use. In e-transaction, recipient of e-message is always required to have identification of the
sender, though such identification is not always required in documentary transactions.1

1.2. Functions of Digital and Electronic Signatures

i. To provide authenticity, integrity, secrecy and non repudiation to electronic record or
message.
ii. To use the internet as a safe and secure medium without any violation or compromise
for any e-transaction whether covered under E-commerce or E-governance.2

1
Dr. Jyoti Ratan, Cyber Laws and Information Technology, Bharat Law House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 5 th ed. 2015, at
105.
2
Id. at 107
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 6

Digital Signatures
Digital Signature is defined as a short unit of data that bears a mathematical relationship to the
data (electronic record or message) in the documents content and provides assurance to the
recipient that the data is authentic.3

It can be defined as the process that authenticates both the origin and contents of the message in
a manner that is provable to third party. However, under Section 2(1)(p) of the Information
Technology Act, 2000, “digital signature” means authentication of any electronic record by a
subscriber by means of an electronic method or procedure in accordance with the provisions of
Section 3.4

Basically, digital signature is a security method of binding the identity of the signer or signatory
with electronic record or message. This method uses a public key crypto system commonly
known as asymmetric crypto system to generate digital signature.5

2.1. Adoption of Digital Signatures

It has been realized that internet being a public network would never be secure enough and there
would always be a fear or interception, transmission errors, delays, deletion, authenticity or
verification of an electronic message using Internet as a medium. Hence, the goal was to protect
the message, not the medium.6

The idea was to adopt a technology that makes communications or transactions legally binding.
In order to be called legally binding, all electronic communications or transactions must meet the
fundamental requirements:

1. Authenticity of sender to enable the recipient to determine who really sent the message.
3
Ibid
4
Ibid
5
Ibid
6
Vakul Sharma, Information Technology Law and Practice, Universal Law Publishing Co., 2nd ed. 2008, at 29.
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 7

2. Message’s integrity, the recipient must be able to determine whether or not the message
received has been modified en route or is incomplete, and
3. Non repudiation, the ability to ensure that the sender cannot falsely deny sending the
message, nor falsely deny the contents of the message.7

It led to the acceptance of cryptography, a data encryption technique, which provided just that
kind of message protection. Based on the nature and number of keys cryptography has evolved
into two types:

i. Symmetric Cryptography (private key cryptographic system)

A single secret key is used for both encryption and decryption of a message.
ii. Asymmetric Cryptography (public key cryptographic system)
Encryption and decryption is done involving an asymmetric key pair consisting of a
public and a private key.8

A public key is meant for public consumption and private key is to be kept confidential. The
owner of the key pair must guard his private key closely, as sender authenticity and non
repudiation are based on the signer having sole access to his private key. In an asymmetric
crypto system, a private key is mathematically related to public key and it is computationally
impossible to calculate one key from another. Hence, private key cannot be compromised
through knowledge of its associated public key. Although many people know the public key of a
given signer and use it to verify that signer’s signature, they cannot discover that signer’s private
key and use it to forge digital signatures. This is referred to as the principle of “irreversibility”.9

Digital signatures are based on asymmetric or public key cryptography and are capable of
fulfilling the demand of burgeoning e-commerce not only by providing the message
authentication, integrity and non-repudiation function, but also making it highly scalable.
Another important feature is the involvement of a trusted third party, Certifying Authority, to
issue digital signature certificate.10

7
Ibid
8
Ibid
9
Ibid
10
Id. at 30
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 8

2.2. Technology behind Digital Signatures

A digital signature is not a digitized image of a handwritten signature. It is a block of data at the
end of an electronic message that attests to the authenticity of the said message. Digital
signatures are an actual transformation of an electronic message using public key cryptography.
It requires a key pair (private key for encryption and public key for decryption) and a hash
function (algorithm).11

A hash function is used both in creating and verifying a digital signature. A hash function is an
algorithm which creates a digital representation or “fingerprint” in the form of a “hash value” or
“hash result” of a standard length which is usually much smaller than the message but
nevertheless substantially unique to it. Any change to the message invariably produces a
different hash result when the same hash function is used. Hash functions, therefore, provide
robust evidentiary correlation to the original message content, by giving assurance that there has
been no modification of the message since it was digitally signed.12

A digital signature is a two way process, involving two parties:

 Signer (creator of the digital signature)

 The recipient (verifier of the digital signature)

A digital signature is complete only if the recipient successfully verifies it.

2.3. Electronic Record- Section 2(1)(t)

It means data, record or data generated, image or sound stored, received or sent in an electronic
form or micro film or computer generated micro fiche.

Parties to e-record
i. Originator- Section 2(1)(za)
“Originator” means a person who sends, generates, stores or transmits any electronic
message or causes any electronic message to be sent, generated, stored or transmitted
to any other person but does not include an intermediary.
11
Ibid
12
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 9

ii. Addressee- Section 2(1)(b)

“Addressee” means a person who is intended by the originator to receive the
electronic record but does not include any intermediary.
iii. Intermediary- Section 2(1)(w)
“Intermediary” with respect to any particular electronic records, means any person
who on behalf of another person receives, stores or transmits that record or provides
any service with respect to that record and includes
 Telecom service providers,
 Network service providers,
 Internet service providers,
 Web-hosting service providers,
 Search engines,
 Online payment sites,
 Online-auction sites,
 Online-market places and
 Cyber cafes;

2.4. Main requirements for an electronic record or message on the Internet

As electronic record or message has various problems, therefore when one person sends the
record to another person it must fulfil the following requirements:

i. Confidentiality
It means to make sure that the message is kept confidential or secret so that only the
intended person must receive it.
ii. Digital Integrity
It is defined as a property whereby digital data has not been altered in an
unauthorized manner since the time it was created, transmitted or stored by an
unauthorised source.
iii. Authentication

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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 10

It is a process of finding the identity of the sender electronic record or message.13

2.5. Legal Provisions relating to Digital Signatures (Section 3)

Under the Information Technology Act, 2000, digital and electronic signature could be used by
subscriber having DSC/ESC issued by licensed Certifying Authority.

The Controller of Certifying Authority (CCAS)

Licence

Certifying Authority (CA)

DSC/ESC

Subscriber
Affixes DS/ES to
electronic record

Relying Party

Verification of DS/ES
PKI PROCESS

2.6. Authentication of an electronic record by Digital Signature- Section 3(1)

Any subscriber may authenticate an electronic record by affixing his digital signature. However,
DS is created by using a private key.

13
Supra 1 at 105
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 11

2.7. Authentication by the use of asymmetric crypto system and hash

function- Section 3(2)
The authentication of electronic record shall be effected by the use of asymmetric crypto system
and hash function which envelope and transform the initial electronic record into another
electronic record.14

“Asymmetric Crypto System” according to Section 2(1)(f) means a system of a secure key pair
consisting of a private key for creating a digital signature and a public key to verify the digital
signature.

It is important to note that technology or process which is used in DS for integrity, secrecy and
non repudiation to electronic record or message is cryptology. Therefore, it is pertinent to know
what cryptology is before understanding Digital Signatures.15

2.7.1. Cryptology
It is the art or science of encrypting or encoding the meaningful data into meaningless data and
decoding it again at the receiver’s end to transform it back into meaningful data, making use of a
parameterized function.16

Cryptology is the combination of the following:

 Cryptography
 Cryptoanalysis
 Cryptography

DS is created and verified by using cryptography. It is the science or art of secret writing i.e.
keeping information secret. Historically, cryptography has been used to hide information from
access by unauthorized interception. However in the modern society, it is also used to prevent
unauthorized access to any electronic record in digital medium.17

14
Id at 108
15
Ibid
16
Id at 109
17
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 12

Conceptually, cryptography is a process or branch of applied mathematics that transform

message (plain text which is legible) into unintelligible form (cipher text which is illegible) and
then back into original form (plain text which is legible). This process of conversion of plain text
to cipher text is known as encryption and the process of conversion of cipher text to plain text is
known as decryption. The purpose of encryption is to ensure confidentiality, secrecy and privacy
by keeping the information hidden from anyone. Therefore, cryptography is a technique to
protect message or electronic record and it allows the secure communication of such message or
an electronic record over the insecure method.

Basically cryptography involves the following:

Encryption
It is the process of converting legible form of text commonly known as plain text to illegible
form generally known as cipher text. However for encryption, a secret key is used. When
electronic record is sent by the subscriber he will use his private key to convert the electronic
record into illegible form so that if should not be misused before it is received by the recipient.18

Decryption
It is the process of converting illegible form of text (cipher text) to legible form (plain text).
However, for decryption a key is used commonly known as public key. This process is carried on
by the receiver of the e-record.19

2.7.2. Types of cryptography

Symmetric Cryptography (private key cryptographic system)

In symmetric cryptography, there is a single secret key used for both encryption and decryption
of a message. E.g. Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) at a bank. When a person uses an ATM, he
gains access to his account by entering a Personal Identification Number (PIN). The PIN is a
secret number which is shared between the bank and the client.20

18
Ibid
19
Id at 110
20
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 13

Document to Encoded Encoded Received

be sent Document Document Document

Symmetric Key Symmetric Key

Limitations of Symmetric Cryptography

i. The same key is shared by the originator and the addressee and it becomes vulnerable
to attack when one party transfers it to another.
ii. A person receiving e-records from different persons have to use different keys.21

Asymmetric Cryptography (Public Key Cryptography System)

In asymmetric cryptography, there is a key pair i.e. public key and private key. A private key, as
the name indicates, is known to the public and is used by the other party (receiver of record) to
verify digital signature.

Plain Text Decryption Plain Text

Encryption

Encryption Key (Private Key) Decryption Key (Public Key)

Cipher Text

Digital Signature is the data which is attached at the end of electronic record or message and it
authenticates such message. Here asymmetric cryptology (a key pair) is used for encryption and
decryption.22

2.7.3. Hash Function (Explanation Section 3)

Hash function means an algorithm mapping or translation of one sequence of bits into another,
generally smaller, set known as “hash result” such that an electronic record yields the same hash
21
Id at 111
22
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 14

result every time the algorithm is executed with the same electronic record as its input making it
computationally infeasible:

a) To derive or reconstruct the original electronic record from the hash result produced by
the algorithm
b) That two electronic records can produce the same hash result using the algorithm.23

2.8. Creating a Digital Signature

Step 1: Signer demarcates what is to be signed. This delimited information to be signed is termed
as the “message”.

Step 2: A hash function in the signer’s software computes a hash result (message digest or digital
fingerprint) unique to the message.

Step 3: The signer’s software then transforms (encrypts) the hash result into a digital signature
using the signer’s private key. The resulting digital signature is, thus, unique to both the message
and the private key used to create it.

Step 4: The digital signature (a digitally signed hash result of the message) is attached to its
message and stored or transmitted with its message. Since a digital signature is unique to its
message, it is useful if it maintains a reasonable association with its message. Signer sends both
digital signature and the message to the recipient.24

Message

Message Hash Function Message Digest Signature

Digital Signature
Function

Signer’s Private Key

23
Id at 112
24
Supra 6 at 30
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2.9. Verification of the Electronic Record- Section 3(3)

Any person can verify the electronic record by the use of a public key of the subscriber.

2.9.1. Meaning of verification- Section 2(1)(zh)

“Verify”, in relation to a digital signature, electronic record or public key, with its grammatical
variations and cognate expressions, means to determine whether-

a) The initial electronic record was affixed with the digital signature by the use of private
key corresponding to the public key of the subscriber
b) The initial electronic record is retained intact or has been altered since such electronic
record was so affixed with the digital signature.25

Basically verification is used for two purposes:

1. To verify whether signer’s private key was used to create digital signature; and
2. Whether newly created hash result matches original hash result which was recovered
from digital signature during verification process.26

2.9.2. Verification of Digital Signature

In case of asymmetric crypto system public key of the subscriber is used for verification.
Following steps are followed:

Step I: Recipient receives digital signature and message.

Step II: Recipient applies signer’s public key to the digital signature and recovers hash result
(Hash value or message digest or digital fingerprint) from the digital signature.

Step III: Recipient would apply same hash function to message (sent by the signer) as applied by
the signer to create digital signature and he would recover the hash result (hash value or message
digest or digital fingerprint of the message).

25
Supra 1 at 113
26
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 16

Step IV: Compare the hash results recovered in Step II and Step III. If hash results recovered in
Step II and Step III are identical, then it indicates that the message remains unchanged. However,
where these two results are not identical, it indicates that either signer’s private key was not used
to create digital signature or message was changed after signing. Therefore, in such situation
recipient can reject the message.27

2.9.3. The Private Key and the Public Key are unique- Section 3(4)
The private key and the public key are unique to the subscriber and constitute a functioning key
pair.

Key Pair, according to Section 2(1)(x) in an asymmetric crypto system, means a private key and
its mathematically related public key, which are so related that the public key can verify a digital
signature created by the private key.

Basically a private key is mathematically related to a public key but it is computationally

impossible to calculate one key from another. Therefore, private key cannot be compromised or
violated just by knowing the public key. Though many people know the public key of a given
signer, as they use it to verify the signer’s signature, still they cannot discover the signer’s
private key and use it to forge digital signature. Therefore, it is based on principle of
irreversibility.28

27
Id at 114
28
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 17

Electronic Signatures
Electronic Signature is a wide term and it refers to various methods by which one can sign an
electronic record. ES is a technology neutral term and may take many forms and could be created
by different technologies.29

As defined under Article 2(a) of Model Law on E-Signatures 2001,

“Electronic Signature” means data in electronic form, affixed or logically associated with a data
message which may be used to identify the signatory’s approval of the information contained in
the data message.

The US Code defines an electronic signature for the purpose of US law as “an electronic sound,
symbol or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and
executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.”

In general, an electronic signature is defined as an electronic sound (e.g. audio files of a person’s
voice), symbol (e.g. a graphic representation of a person in JPEG file), or process (e.g. a
procedure that conveys assent), attached to or logically associated with a record, and executed or
adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.30

According to Section 2(1)(ta) of the Information Technology Act, 2000, "electronic signature"
means authentication of any electronic record by a subscriber by means of the electronic
technique specified in the Second Schedule and includes digital signature.

It is significant to note that electronic signature is easy to implement, because even a typed name
can serve as electronic signature. Consequently, e-signatures are very problematic with regards
to maintaining integrity and security, as there is nothing to prevent one individual from typing

29
Id at 115
30
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 18

another individual’s name. Due to this reality, an electronic signature that does not incorporate
additional means of security is considered an insecure way of signing documents.31

3.1. Legal Provisions Relating to Electronic Signatures (inserted by the

Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008)
Section 3A was incorporated after adoption of Model Law on E-Signature 2001 by UNCITRL

3.1.1. Authentication of Electronic Record by ES- Section 3A

A subscriber may authenticate an electronic record by such electronic signature or electronic
authentication technique which:

i. Is considered reliable; and

ii. May be specified in the Second Schedule.

3.1.2. Reliable electronic signature or authentication technique- Section 3A(2)

Any electronic signature or electronic authentication technique shall be considered reliable if

(a) the signature creation data or the authentication data are, within the context in which they are
used, linked to the signatory or , as the case may be, the authenticator and of no other person;

(b) The signature creation data or the authentication data were, at the time of signing, under the
control of the signatory or, as the case may be, the authenticator and of no other person;

(c) Any alteration to the electronic signature made after affixing such signature is detectable

(d) Any alteration to the information made after its authentication by electronic signature is
detectable; and

(e) It fulfils such other conditions which may be prescribed.

3.2. Verification of electronic signature- Section 3A(3)

The central government may prescribe for the purpose of ascertaining whether electronic
signature is that of the person by whom it is purported to have been affixed or authenticated.

31
Id at 116
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An Electronic Signature is technology neutral and no specific technology is involved in

implementing it and it is not based on PKI process, therefore, verifying an electronic signature
requires same name, number, code, sound or fingerprint or any technique used as electronic
signature (propriety verification software) to verify.32

3.3. Change in Second Schedule- Section 3A(4)

The central government may by notification in the Official Gazette, add to or omit any electronic
signature or electronic authentication technique and the procedure for affixing such signature
from the Second Schedule. Further, no electronic signature or authentication technique shall be
specified in the Second Schedule, unless such signature or technique is reliable.

3.4. Secure electronic record and secure digital signature

3.4.1. Secure electronic record- Section 14

Where any security procedure has been applied to an electronic record at a specific point of time
then such record shall be determined to be a secure electronic record from such point of time to
the time of verification.

3.4.2. Secure electronic signature- Section 15

An electronic signature shall be secure if:

i. The signature creation data at the time of affixation was under the exclusive control
of signatory and no other person; and
ii. The signature creation data stored and affixed in such exclusive manner as is
prescribed.
Further, signature creation means the private key of the subscriber.

3.4.3. Security Procedure and Practice- Section 16

Central Government may prescribe the security procedure and practices for secure electronic
record and secure electronic signature. However, for this purpose, the central government shall
32
Id at 117
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 20

take into account the commercial circumstances, nature of transaction and other related factors as
it considers appropriate.33

33
Ibid
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 21

Difference between Electronic

Signatures and Digital Signatures
A digital signature, often referred to as advanced or standard electronic signature, is a subgroup
within electronic signatures, which provide for highest form of signature and content integrity as
well as universal acceptance. The digital signature is based on Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
and is the result of a cryptographic operation that guarantees signer authenticity, data integrity
and non repudiation of signed documents. The digital signature cannot be copied, tampered or
altered. In addition, because they are based on standard PKI technology, digital signatures made
within one application (e.g. Microsoft Word, Adobe PDF) can be validated by others using the
same applications. On the other hand, an electronic signature is a proprietary format (there is no
standard for electronic signatures) that is an electronic data, such as digitized image of a
handwritten signature, a symbol, voice print, etc that identifies the author of an electronic
message. An electronic signature is vulnerable to copying and tampering, making forgery easy.
In many cases, they are not legally binding and will require proprietary software to validate the
e-signature. Further, digital signatures are based on PKI, they may be validated by anyone using
the same application that was used for signing (i.e. Microsoft Word, Adobe PDF, etc) without
the need for proprietary verification software. Verifying an electronic signature, however,
doesn’t require proprietary verification software.34

S.no. Electronic Signature (ES) Digital Signature (DS)

1. It is a wider term which includes digital It is a special type of electronic signature

signatures also. which involves specific technology and
provides greater assurance of a
document’s authenticity and integrity
than any other form of electronic
34
Id at 118
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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 22

signature.
2. It is technology neutral. It is technology specific.

3. Various methods could be adopted to It involves the use of asymmetric

fix digital signature. For example: cryptology (public key) to affix signature
i. A name typed at the end of where private key encrypts the electronic
E-mail by the sender. record to convert it into illegible form
ii. A digitized image of a which provides greater assurance of a
handwritten signature which document’s authenticity and integrity
is attached to electronic than any other form of electronic
document. signature.
iii. A secret code or pin to
identify sender.
iv. A code or handle that sender
of the message uses to
identify himself.
v. A unique biometrics base
identifier such as fingerprint
or retinal scan.
4. Verifying an electronic signature does It can be verified by anyone by using the
require same name, number, code, public key of the subscriber (signer)
sound or finger print or any technique without the need for proprietary
used as electronic signature (proprietary verification software.
verification software) by the sender.

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 Digital Signatures and Electronic Signatures 23

Bibliography

BOOKS:

 Dr. Jyoti Ratan, Cyber Laws and Information Technology, Bharat Law House Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 5th ed. 2015.
 Vakul Sharma, Information Technology Law and Practice, Universal Law Publishing
Co., 2nd ed. 2008.
 Dr. Farooq Ahmad, Cyber Law in India, New Era Law Publications, Delhi, 3rd ed. 2009.

WEBSITES:

 http://www.signix.com/blog/bid/92791/The-Difference-Between-Digital-Signatures-and-
Electronic-Signatures
 http://www.arx.com/learn/about-digital-signature/digital-signature-faq/
 https://www.esignlive.com/blog/infographic-defining-difference-electronic-signatures-
digital-signatures/

Information Technology Laws