ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL CHEMICAL AND MATERIALS

ENGINEERING

Department of Mechanical Design and Manufacturing

Engineering
Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering
Individual Assignment-2

Prepared by: - Abreham Dereje

ID No: - PGR/19275/12

Program: -Post Graduate Regular Program

Submitted to Dr. Moera Gutu

Submission date 15/06/2020 .

 Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

1. In conventional(traditional) machining processes what factors affects:

a. Chip formation mechanism
The type of chips that form depends on many factors, of both tool and material. In general,
main factors are the angle formed by the edge faces of the tool The formation of saw-tooth
chips is one of the primary characteristics in the machining of hardened steels with
geometrically defined cutting tools. Catastrophic failure within the primary shear zone during
saw-tooth chip formation is usually attributed to either cyclic crack initiation and propagation
or to the occurrence of a thermo-plastic instability. The first step in a consideration of the
mechanics of chip formation is to identify correctly the type of chip involved (steady state,
BUE, discontinuous, wavy, or saw tooth). If, at the outset of a metal cutting analysis, an
incorrect chip type is assumed, the results obtained may be misleading. It is extremely difficult
to predict the type of chip that will form and the best way of determining. A very few cuts
under the conditions of interest will clearly indicate the type of chip involved and hence the
type of analysis to be applied. The friction between the chip and the tool plays a significant role
in the cutting process.

b. Productivity

Productivity is commonly defining as ratio between output volume and the volume of input.

Important factors that affect productivity in traditional machining.

 Technical factors: productivity largely depends on technology. Technical factors are

the most important ones. These include proper location, layout and size of the machine,
correct design of machines, equipment, automation and computerization. If the
organization uses the latest technology, then its productiveness will be high
 Production factor: productivity related to the production factor. The production of all
departments should be properly planned, coordinated and controlled. The right quality
of raw material should be used for production. The production should be simplified and
standardized.
 Personnel factor: productivity of organization is directly related to personal factor. the
right individual should be selected for suitable posts. After selection, they should be
given proper training and development. They should be given better working conditions
and work environment.

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c. Surface finish

The factor affects surface finish during conventional or traditional machining surface finish is
a work piece produced by the finish turning process is affected by numerous factor that can be
broadly divided into six main categories

i. Factor due to machining parameter, such as feed rate, cutting speed, and depth of cut
ii. Factor due to cutting tool parameter such as tool wear geometry such as tool wear
geometry, tool material, and tool coating
iii. Factor due to machining and machine tool condition, such as dry or wet turning, type
of cutting fluid, method of fluid application, machine tool rigidity, and chatter vibration
iv. Factor due to work piece material properties, such as hardness, microstructure, grain
size, and inclusions.
v. geometric factors such as type of operation, feed, and tool shape (nose radius in
particular).
vi. work material factors such as built up edge effects, and tearing of the work surface
when machining ductile material
d. Tool life

Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used. Operating the tool
until final catastrophic failure is one way of defining tool life.

Cutting tool technology has two principal aspects: tool material and tool geometry. The first is
concerned with developing materials that can withstand the forces, temperatures, and wearing
action in the machining process. The second deals with optimizing the geometry of the cutting
tool for the tool material and for a given operation. These are the issues to address in the present
idea. It is appropriate to begin by considering tool life, because this is a prerequisite for tool
life.

There are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail in machining:

1. Fracture failure. This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point
becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
2. Temperature failure. This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for the
tool material, causing the material at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic
deformation and loss of the sharp edge.

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3. Gradual wear. Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in
cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn, and finally
tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.

Fracture and temperature failures result in premature loss of the cutting tool. These two modes
of failure are therefore undesirable. Of the three possible tool failures, gradual wear is preferred
because it leads to the longest possible use of the tool, with the associated economic advantage
of that longer use. Product quality must also be considered when attempting to control the mode
of tool failure. When the tool point fails suddenly during a cut, it often causes damage to the
work surface. This damage requires either rework of the surface or possible scrapping of the
part. The damage can be avoided by selecting cutting conditions that favor gradual wearing of
the tool rather than fracture or temperature failure, and by changing the tool before the final
catastrophic loss of the cutting edge occurs.

e. Operator and environmental safety

Cutting fluids become contaminated over time with a variety of foreign substances, such as
tramp oil (machine oil, hydraulic fluid, etc.), garbage (cigarette butts, food, etc.), small chips,
molds, fungi, and bacteria. In addition to causing odors and health hazards, contaminated
cutting fluids do not perform their lubricating function as well.

Alternative ways of dealing with this problem are to:

replace the cutting fluid at regular and frequent intervals (perhaps twice per month); use a
filtration system to continuously or periodically clean the fluid; or dry machining; that is,
machine without cutting fluids. Because of growing concern about environmental pollution
and associated legislation, disposing old fluids has become both costly and contrary to the
general public welfare. Filtration systems are being installed in numerous machine shops today
to solve the contamination problem. Advantages of these systems include: prolonged cutting
fluid life between changes—instead of replacing the fluid once or twice per month, coolant
lives of 1 year have been reported; reduced fluid disposal cost, since disposal is much less
frequent when a filter is used; cleaner cutting fluid for better working environment and reduced
health hazards; lower machine tool maintenance; and longer tool life.

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2. By selecting any three parameters for both dependent and independent machining
parameters, discusses how each affects machining efficiency in terms of surface finish
and tool life
2.1.Independent parameter
2.1.1. Tool material and coatings

From all dependent parameters tool materials and coating are mostly have an effect on tool life.
The tool is simply wear if it is uncoated and of less hard material. Coating of the tool increase
tool life by resisting wear of the tool. Therefore, to reduce tool wear and failure in machining
the tool must be coated hard tool.

Surface finish and integrity is affected by tool material and coating. Coated hard tool produce
good surface finish and integrity. Because, wear of the tool is less if it is hard enough and
coated.

2.1.2. Cutting fluids

The other main function of cutting speed is that it used as a lubricant. Lubricant minimizes the
wear of cutting tools. Therefore, application of effective cutting fluid increase tool life by
minimizing tool wear and failure.

During machining processes heat is generated. The use of a cutting fluid provides lubrication
and cooling effects which improve the final quality of the work-piece. Therefore, application
of cutting fluid during machining produce good surface finish and integrity.

2.1.3. Characteristics of the machine tool

Tool life and failure is minimum if the machine tools have high mechanical and thermal shock
resistance. Tool wear is also minimized if the machine tools are of wear hot hard and ability to
maintain its properties temperature occurring during cutting.

To obtain good surface finish and integrity in machining the vibration of machine tool should
be eliminated or reduced. Therefore, for good surface finish and integrity machine tool to be
used are of high mechanical wear resistance, to minimize vibration during machining. Rigidity
of machine tool maintains surface-finish quality.

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2.2.Dependent variables in cutting

2.2.1. Type of chip produced

Chip produced from work that firmly and consistently clamped, supported, and located are
different form that lightly clamped, supported and located work. Continuous chip is produced
by firmly clamping, supporting and supporting the work-piece. But due to vibration of work-
piece during machining discontinuous or serrated chip is produced for when work-piece is
lightly clamped, supported and located.

Discontinuous chip is formed by using low stiffness machine tool (machine tool that has
vibration & chatter). While continuous chip is produced for machine tool with high mechanical
and thermal shock resistance and high toughness.

2.2.2. Force and energy dissipated during cutting

The amount of force and energy required to machine the given material is not same for different
tool materials, and also it is not equal for coated and uncoated tool. Tough and hard tool need
less force and energy in machining (i.e. dissipate less force and energy). Also uncoated tool
dissipates more power since it become wear quickly. More force and energy will be dissipated
when work is not firmly and consistently held and fixed on the machine during any machining
process. Therefore, wise clamping, supporting and locating of work-piece on machine reduces
the amount of force and energy dissipated during machining.

2.2.3. Temperature rise in the work piece, the tool and the chip

Machine tools with low friction characteristics cause low rise than the machine tools that has
high friction in temperature in work-piece, tool and chip during machining. Because friction
cause rise in temperature.

One of the basic and main function of the cutting fluid is that it helps as a coolant. Therefore,
the use of cutting fluid during machining highly reduce the rise in temperature in work-piece,
tool and chip.

Since the dissipated energy during machining is converted to heat, more energy dissipation
during machining implies that more heat is generated which cause more rise in temperature in
work-piece, tool and chip. Therefore, high cutting speed, feed and depth of cut cause higher
rise in temperature.

For stronger material those require higher power during machining more energy is dissipated.
This dissipated energy is converted to heat energy which result in rise in temperature.

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 Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

Therefore, machining work-piece materials higher strength dissipate higher energy which
result in higher rise in temperatures.

Different tool geometry result in various rise in temperature in machining. For instance, as rake
angle decrease, friction at rake face become increases. Due to this shear angle become decrease
and chip become thicker. Thicker chip implies more energy lost because of shear strain is
higher. Because work done during cutting is converted to heat temperature rise is higher.
Therefore, tool geometry and sharpness is highly affects rise in temperature in work-piece, tool
and chip.

3. Explain how chip breaker is useful to reduce the problem of BUE chips affect surface
quality and tool wear. Explain different types of chip breakers using sketch.

Chip Breakers; -

 Long, continuous chips are undesirable since: become entangled and greatly interfere
with machining and potential safety hazard
 chip-breaker: breaks chips intermittently with cutting tools
 Traditionally are clamped to rake face: bend and break the chip
 Modern tools: built-in chip breakers

Machining like turning of ductile metals, unlike brittle metals like grey cast iron, produce
continuous chips, which leads to their handling and disposal problems. The problems become
acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are machined at high cutting velocity for high
MRR by flat rake face type carbide or ceramic inserts. The sharp edged hot continuous chip
that comes out at very high speed becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people
working in the vicinity may impair the finished surface by entangling with the rotating job
creates difficulties in chip disposal. Therefore, it is essentially needed to break such continuous
chips into small regular pieces for safety of the working people, prevention of damage of the
product, easy collection and disposal of chips. Chip breaking is done in proper way also for the
additional purpose of improving machinability by reducing the chip-tool contact area, cutting
forces and crater wear of the cutting tool.

The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows:

 Self-breaking This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as an

attachment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.
 Forced chip breaking by additional tool geometrical features or devices.

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 Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

1. Self-breaking of chips Ductile chips usually become curled or tend to curl (like clock
spring) even in machining by tools with flat rake surface due to unequal speed of flow of
the chip at its free and generated (rubbed) surfaces and unequal temperature and cooling
rate at those two surfaces. With the increase in cutting velocity and rake angle (positive)
the radius of curvature increases, which is more dangerous. In case of oblique cutting due
to presence of inclination angle, restricted cutting effect etc. the curled chips deviate
laterally resulting helical coiling of the chips. The curled chips may self-break: By natural
fracturing of the strain hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling and spring back as
indicated in Fig. (a). This kind of chip breaking is generally observed under the condition
close to that which favours formation of jointed or segmented chips by striking against the
cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig.(b), mostly under pure orthogonal cutting by
striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig.(c)

The possibility and pattern of self-chip-breaking depend upon the work material, tool material
and tool geometry (γ, λ, φ and r), levels of the process parameters (VC and so) and the
machining environment (cutting fluid application) which are generally selected keeping in view
the overall machinability

2. Forced chip-breaking The hot continuous chip becomes hard and brittle at a distance from
its origin due to work hardening and cooling. If the running chip does not become enough
curled and work hardened, it may not break. In that case the running chip is forced to bend
or closely curl so that it breaks into pieces at regular intervals. Such broken chips are of
regular size and shape depending upon the configuration of the chip break

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This types of Chip breakers are basically of two types:

2.1.In-built type •
2.2.Clamped or attachment type
2.1. In-built breakers are in the form of step or groove at the rake surface near the cutting
edges of the tools. Such chip breakers are provided after their manufacture – in case of HSS
tools like drills, milling cutters, broaches etc and brazed type carbide inserts during their
manufacture by powder metallurgical process – e.g., throw away type inserts of carbides,
ceramics and cermet. The basic principle of forced chip breaking is schematically shown
in Fig. below when the strain hardened and brittle running chip strikes the heel, the
cantilever chip gets forcibly bent and then break

Schematically shows some commonly used step type chip breakers:

 Parallel step
 Angular step; positive and negative type
 Parallel step with nose radius – for heavy cuts

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Groove type in-built chip breaker may be of

 Circular groove
 Tilted Vee groove as schematically shown in Fig.

The unique characteristics of in-built chip breakers are: The outer end of the step or groove
acts as the heel that forcibly bend and fracture the running chip. Simple in configuration,
easy manufacture and inexpensive. The geometry of the chip-breaking features are fixed
once made (i.e., cannot be controlled). Effective only for fixed range of speed and feed for
any given tool-work combination.
2.2. Clamped type chip-breaker Clamped type chip breakers work basically in the principle
of stepped type chip breaker but have the provision of varying the width of the step and /
or the angle of the heel. Fig. below schematically shows three such chip breakers of
common use: With fixed distance and angle of the additional strip – effective only for a
limited domain of parametric combination. With variable width (W) only – little versatile.
With variable width (W), height (H) and angle (β) – quite versatile but less rugged and
more expensive.

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4. Discusses the effect of temperature raise during machining on cutting tool and machined
surface. What are sources of temperature raise and how to reduce? (use diagram to show
heat generation zones) Sketch
During the cutting of metal, the temperature of the interaction area of the cutting tool and
workpiece becomes high. Temperature has a largely effect on the tool of life a cutting tool
for several reasons. First, all materials become weaker and less hard as they become hotter;
therefore, higher temperature will weaken and soften an otherwise ideal material.
The total amount of heat generated increases at larger depths of cut because the main force
increases. Additionally, the increase of depth of cut involves a corresponding increase in
the length of active portion of the cutting tool. Such a situation enhances the heat
dissipation through the tool shank, the total amount of heat is increased, and accordingly,
the temperature is slightly higher in a similar way to the effect of tool feed rate
The actual tool temperature is strongly affected by the workpiece material, cutting speed,
feed rate, depth of cut, tool geometry, and the coolant used. The high cutting speed results
in a greater amount of heat being present in the chips because there is less time to conduct
that heat to the tool or the workpiece. Thick chips have lower average temperatures than
thin chips but a greater percentage of total heat. Because a thick chip has a greater mass
and a lower temperature, the rate of heat conduction away from a thick chip is lower than
it would be for a thin chip
In every machine operation, heat is mostly concentrated on the cutting zone. At this zone,
it was reported that the chip-tool, workpiece-tool and the Shear-Plane interfaces evolved,
these formations are detrimental to the tool, workpiece and the machines. expatiated why
the cutting temperature plays a pivotal role in workpiece surface finish and the precision
of the machine tools. opined that work surface integrity is directly affected by cutting
temperature. The surface finish is however essential since it helps in ascertaining the rate
at which materials fail extensively. The generation of heat during machining may result in
the degradation of the quality of the machined workpiece surface together with the
machined part and such may cost manufacturing industries a fortune. The distributions of
temperature during machining rely on the specific heat capacities and thermal
conductivities of the workpiece and the tool with the highest temperature occurs at
interface between the chip and the tool. In the primary deformation zone, a larger shear
angle leads to smaller heat generation and vice versa. The total heat generated at the tool-
workpiece interface is distributed as follows; 80% goes to the chip, 10% to the tool, and
the rest to the workpiece. Many researchers have studied heat generation during machining

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Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

with the aim of developing means of reducing the adverse effect on workpiece and cutting
tool. Various approaches ranging from types of cutting fluids, cutting fluid application
techniques and studies involving machining parameters.

Fig.Temperature distributions in workpiece and chip during orthogonal cutting.

Fig. Heat generated zone

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Sources of temperature in machining:

a. Work done in shearing (primary shear zone)

b. Energy lost due to friction (tool-chip interface)
c. Heat generated due to tool rubbing on machined surface (especially dull or worn
tools)
a. Temperature Vs cutting force

b. Temperature Vs cutting speed

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c. Temperature Vs tool life

5. Write an equation to predict mean temperature in orthogonal cutting and explain how
each parameters affects raise in temperature which is a negative impact on machined
surface quality and tool wear
Expression: mean temperature in orthogonal cutting

Where,
 T: (aka Tmean) mean temperature in [K]
 Yf: flow stress in [MPa]
 ρc: volumetric specific heat in [kJ/m3·K]
 K: thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric specific heat)
in [m2/s]
 Equation shows that T:
 increases with material strength, cutting speed (V), depth of cut (t0);
 decreases with ρc and K

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 Mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given by

Where,
 V: cutting speed
 f: feed of the tool
 Approximate values of the exponents a,b:
A moving heat source traversing a semi-infinite body subject to the following assumptions:
 Dispersion of thermal energy over contact area is uniform (q = thermal flux density
= thermal units per unit area per unit time).
 Slider is a perfect insulator—all thermal energy goes to extensive member which
has thermal conductivity (k) and volume specific heat (ρ C).
 Slider is extensive perpendicular to paper. (Two-dimensional heat flow).
 Temperature varies linearly from leading edge (ϴ) to trailing edge (θ m) of slider.
 Depth of penetration of thermal energy varies linearly from leading edge (ϴ) to
trailing edge (h).
6. Explain the limitations of machining the following materials
a. Magnesium alloys

Rates of tool wear are very low because magnesium does not alloy with steel, the metal and its
alloys have a low melting point (650°C). Temperatures at the tool-work interface are low even
at very high cutting speed and feed rate.

 High rate of strain hardening requires that most forming operations must be done
hot
 Low impact strength
 Low yield point and small modulus of elasticity also reduce the use value of
magnesium alloy as a structural material.
 It is sensitive to stress concentration.
b. Titanium alloys

Titanium and their compounds are expected to have corresponding low solubility’s.
Thermochemical analysis of compounds of the rare earth elements and other selected
compounds has identified candidate materials that may be chemically stable with respect to
titanium. Several of these, including scandium carbide, scandium nitride and a number of rare
earth and transition metal borides, have sufficient hardness.

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Its general Titanium alloys limitations are: -

 High density
 Low medium
 Microstructure instability
 Poor corrosion resistance
 Small processing window
 Poor low and high temperature property
c. Tungsten

Tungsten which is the most refractory of the group is used for rocket nozzles. Additions of
10% silver infiltrated into a powder compact of tungsten greatly improves its machine ability
and at the same time cools the surface of the nozzle in use by ablation of the silver. Tungsten
has been successfully machined at low temperature (−40 °F, −40 °C) which tends to offset its
tendency to give high tool-face temperatures due to its high strength and poor thermal
properties. Specific recommendations concerning feeds and speeds for use in machining high-
strength materials are to be found in many publications, and hence no attempt will be made
here to give more than a general impression concerning the relative machinability of the various
materials. The results obtained in any particular case depend not only on the chemistry of the
workpiece but also on its structure (hardness), the tool materials and geometry used, and the
rigidity and condition of the machine tool.

 High elastic stiffness

 Required greater cutting force
 Rigid tooling and adequate spindle toque are essential for effective machining.
7. Make a short note on the following points
a. What is modelling in machining

Important parameters of machining such as cutting forces, temperatures, chip morphology,

strains and stresses can be calculated before actually any cutting is performed on a machine
tool. Because trial-and-error approach is far more laborious, costly and time-consuming.

The advantage of modelling in machining are-

 Resources are spared/saved

 Optimization of cutting parameters can be achieved and

 Cost of production can be reduced

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 Modelling reduces experimental work

 Furthermore, modelling and experiments add to the understanding of fundamental

issues of machining theory

 Models is required for simplifications in order to adequately embody theory but the
danger of oversimplification is lurking/remaining hidden.

 The result would be either inaccurate and thus erroneous results/wrong results or
models applicable for only very specific and confined cases.

This does not mean that experimental work is obsolete, since in most cases a validation of the
model is needed and the only way to provide it is to actually test model results in real conditions
and make comparisons.

Why is it difficult to model machining?

 Because of many variables that need to be taken into account:

 Many machining operations and even though similarities do exist, many factors that are
case sensitive make the proposal of a universal model not realistic.
 Even the orthogonal cutting system and shear plane models that are widely used are
under criticism
 Machining is still one of the least understood manufacturing operations
 Machining typically involves very large stresses and strains in a small volume and at a
high speed.
 The mechanisms of chip formation are quite complex, leading to equally complex
theories and models that represent these theories
b. types of modelling in general
There are five generic categories of modelling techniques available:
i. Empirical
ii. Analytical
iii. Mechanistic
iv. Numerical
v. Artificial intelligence modelling
i. An empirical model is based on experimental data.

A model developed from observations of the type of system under investigation- based on
some measure of the quality of its output (replication, utility).

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Why use Empirical instead of Theoretical modelling?

 Many problems have no theory or limited theory (are poorly understood)

 Theoretically derived models can be computationally expensive

 Where an empirically derived model can provide rapid solutions

ii. Analytical models, only briefly described, are considered the predecessors of
numerical models. This is by no way meant to say that numerical models substituted
analytical modelling, since a lot of researchers still are working on this subject and the
value of these models is paramount. It is meant to say that they have the same origins
and form the basis on which FEM models and simulations are made.

Analytical models are quite controversial and up to date there is no model universally accepted
or employed

Analytical models may predict output data, i.e. cutting forces, through

equations requiring constants of workpiece material taken from databases, verified by

experimental work

 The major drawback is that for out of ordinary cases/complex thing/ no reliable results
can be acquired.

 FEM on the other hand can perform coupled thermo-mechanical analysis but requires
a considerable amount of computational power to produce accurate results.

Finite Elements, more accurate representations of machining processes since 3D models using
more powerful computers that can perform complicated calculation at an acceptable time

Commercial software of FEM is the first choice for modelling machining operations.

iii. A mechanistic model assumes that a complex system can be understood by examining
the workings of its individual parts and the manner in which they are coupled.
Mechanistic models are based on an understanding of the behaviour of a system's
components.
iv. Artificial Intelligence techniques are usually simpler and faster models but provide
results focused on a parameter or a specific area of the workpiece. It is model-based
reasoning refers to an interference method used in expert systems based on a model of
the physical world.

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c. Sometimes modelling may fail to predict the actual phenomena during machining.
Explain the reasons in short.

A model fails due to many reasons such as:

 If it cannot predict accurately the reality of the work

 If very complicated or not simple and fast enough for practical use.
 Lack of accurate input data, inadequate inclusion of all important parameters and
 Failure to select the right modelling technique
8. Discus the general properties of machining brittle materials and chip formation
mechanisms

Machining of brittle materials such as glasses Quartz, Sapphire, CaF2, Silicon, Germanium
and ceramics are amongst the most difficult to machine. For conventional machining of brittle
materials, fracture processes result in localised surface damage that may compromise material
properties and performance.

At the beginning of the chip formation process, the cutting section penetrates the material,
causing it to deform elastically and plastically. After the maximum permissible material-
dependent shear stress is exceeded, the material begins to flow as shown in Fig. below
Contingent on a given cutting section geometry, the deformed material forms a chip, which
runs off the rake face of the cutting section. The property of plastic deformability is not solely
related to the material; it can also be brought about in a targeted way by altering the stress. The
amount of stresses is influenced by the feed velocity vf, the cutting speed vc and the depth of
cut d. The form of the chips is an important index of machining because it directly or indirectly
indicates: Nature and behaviour of the work material under machining condition. Specific
energy requirement (amount of energy required to remove unit volume of work material) in
machining work. Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool interfaces.

The form of machined chips depends mainly upon: -

 Work piece material

 Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
 Levels of cutting velocity and feed and depth of cut. •

Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature and friction at the chip-tool
and work-tool interfaces.

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The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are: -

Yielding – generally for ductile materials

Brittle fracture – generally for brittle materials

Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle materials During machining, first a small
crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. below due to wedging action of the cutting edge.
At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration takes place. In case of ductile materials, immediately
yielding takes place at the crack-tip, reduces the effect of stress concentration, and prevents its
propagation as crack. But in case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly propagates,
under stressing action, and total separation takes place from the parent work piece through the
minimum resistance path as indicated in Fig. below Machining of brittle material produces
discontinuous chips and mostly of irregular size and shape. The process of forming such chips
is schematically shown in

Fig. Development and propagation of crack in brittle materials causing chip separation

Fig process of forming discontinuous chips in brittle materials

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9. Discus how hard machining alters the component quality in terms of the following
points:
a. Macro geometry

Hard turning on especially designed precision lathes permits dimensional accuracies in the ISO
quality ranges IT5-IT6. Circularities of 0.2 µm and cylindricities below 1.0 µm are achievable.
The average depth of roughness Rz of the hard turned surfaces is approximately 0.5 µm.

 Impacts on the macro geometrical deviations meaning deviations of form, dimension

and position.

 Component alterations which are generally undesired, can be ascribed to all the partial
systems involved in the process.

 The following sources for alterations can be assigned to the partial systems workpiece,
tool, machine and environment

 Workpiece
 deviations of dimension, form or position of the raw part,
 variations in material strength,
 activation or introduction of residual stresses,
 locally and temporally variable temperature fields
 Tool
 compliance of the tool/tool holder,
 tool wear,
 deviations of position during tool change
 Machine
 geometrical deviations,
 kinematic deviations (feed, control),
 compliance of the machine in force flux,
 thermically-caused deformations,
 load alterations during the ma
 Environment
 external heat sources (radiation),
 alterations of the environmental temperature (convection),
 alteration of the cutting fluid

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 Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

For example, the increase in cutting force resulting from deviations in the material strength has
an increased impact the higher the compliance of the machine. The forces active in the process
as well as the connected heating of tool and workpiece influence the accuracy of form and
dimension.

Tool wear alters the position of the cutting edge and can thus directly result in deviations of
dimension and form

b. Micro geometry

The surface roughness after hard turning is fundamentally influenced by the choice of the
cutting angle radius, the cutting speed and the feed.

It is initially surprising that roughness increases with a lower speed, since the dynamic effects
decrease due to imbalance incitement.

The explanation is that lower speeds increasingly lead to irregular segmented chip formation
and thus higher roughness values.

Fig. Surface performance as a function of cutting speed and feed

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 Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

Fig. Influences on the roughness with hard turning

c. Physical properties of the subsurface zones.

Along with the geometrical shape of technical surfaces, the physical properties of the
subsurface zones are relevant for the functional behaviour of the components.

Metallographic and X-ray examinations on hard-turned work pieces prove that hard turning
can procreate considerable influences of subsurface zones. These manifest in altered residual
stress conditions, in the development of re-hardened zones as well as in areas of tempered
structure. The reason for this behaviour are the high stresses and temperatures during cutting
as well as the high stress and temperature gradients, due to the outer subsurface zone being
exposed to considerable plastic deformations, structure alterations and other thermic
influences.

The tool wear on the flank face decisively influences the properties of the subsurface zones.
The thermo-mechanic loads of the subsurface zones rise with an increased tool wear. A
cohesive re-hardened layer, which appears white in the polished section and a tempered zone
located below, which appears dark in the grinding pattern

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Advanced Machining Technology and Engineering (MAE6106) Assignment-2

Fig. Residual stress development below the workpiece surface

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