Chapter One

Pile foundations
1.1 Introduction
Piles are structural members of timber, concrete, and/or steel, used to transmit surface loads to
lower levels in the soil mass. This may be by vertical distribution of the load along the pile shaft
or a direct application of load to a lower stratum through the pile point. A vertical distribution of
the load is made using a friction pile and a direct load application is made by a point, or “end-
bearing,” pile. This distinction of piles is purely one of conveniences since all piles function as a
combination of side resistance and point bearing except when the pile penetrates an extremely
soft soil to a solid base.

Pile foundations cost more than shallow foundations. Despite the cost, the use of piles often is
necessary to ensure structural safety. The following list identifies some of the conditions that
require pile foundations.

1. When the upper soil layer(s) is (are) highly compressible and too weak to support the
load transmitted by the superstructure, piles are used to transmit the load to underlying
bedrock or a stronger soil layer. When the bedrock is not encountered at a reasonable
depth below the ground surface, piles are used to transmit the structural load to the soil
gradually.
2. When subjected to horizontal forces, pile foundations resist by bending while still
supporting the vertical load transmitted by the superstructure. This type of situation is
generally encountered in the design and construction of earth-retaining structures and
foundations of tall structures that are subjected to high wind and/or earthquake forces.
3. If expansive and collapsible soils exist till a great depth below the ground surface, pile
foundations are good solutions. Because expansive soils swell and shrink as the moisture
content increases and decreases, and the swelling pressure of such soils can be
considerable. If shallow foundations are used in such circumstances, the structure may
suffer considerable damage.
4. Foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers, offshore platforms and
basement mats below water table, are subjected to uplifting forces. Piles are sometimes
used for these foundations to resist the uplifting force.
5. Bridge abutments and piers are usually constructed over pile foundations to avoid the
possible loss of bearing capacity that a shallow foundation might suffer because of soil
erosion at the ground surface.
Although numerous investigations, both theoretical and experimental, have been conducted in
the past to predict the behaviour and the load-bearing capacity of piles in granular and cohesive
soils, the mechanisms are not yet entirely understood. The design of pile foundations is basically
dependent on empirical relationships established in the past.

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1.2 Classification of Piles
Piles may be classified according to their mode of transfer of loads, function or use, method of
installation and material composition.

A. Classification According to Mode of Transfer of Loads

The classification of piles according to their function is based on the way in which the pile
derives much of its resistance. If a very large percentage of the total load is resisted by the side
or skin friction, the pile is known as a friction pile. On the other hand, if the pile rests on a very
firm stratum, such that almost the entire load is transmitted directly to the stratum via tip
resistance, the pile is known as end-bearing pile. Commonly piles transfer loads by a
combination of end bearing at bottom of pile and friction along the surface of pile shaft. Such
piles are known as combined end bearing and friction piles.

B. Classification According to Function or Use

These can be;
i. Load bearing piles: These piles are used to transfer the load of the structure to a suitable
stratum by end bearing, by friction or by both.
ii. Compaction piles: These piles are driven into loose granular soils to increase the relative
density. These piles are driven in granular soils to achieve proper compaction of soil close
to the ground surface. The bearing capacity of the soil is increased due to densification
caused by vibrations.
iii. Tension piles: These piles are in tension. They are used to anchor down structures
subjected hydraulic uplift forces or overturning forces. Tension is developed due to
developed negative skin friction.
iv.Sheet piles: Sheet piles form a continuous wall or bulkhead which is used for retaining
earth or water.
v. Anchor piles: These piles are used to provide anchorage for anchored sheet piles. These
piles provide resistance against horizontal pull for a sheet pile wall.

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Fig. 1.1 Examples of different types of pile foundations.

C. Classification of piles according to the method of installation

According to the method of construction, there are three types of piles. They are;
i. Driven piles
ii. Cast-in-situ piles and
iii. Driven and cast-in-situ piles

i. Driven Piles

Piles may be of timber, steel or concrete. When the piles are of concrete, they are to be precast.
They may be driven either vertically or at an angle to the vertical. Piles are driven using a pile
hammer. When a pile is driven into granular soil, the soil so displaced, equal to the volume of
the driven pile, compacts the soil around the sides since the displaced soil particles enter the soil
spaces of the adjacent mass which leads to densification of the mass. Due to this, driven piles
are considered to be displacement piles. The compaction of the soil mass around a pile increases
its bearing capacity. If a pile is driven into saturated silty or cohesive soil, the soil around the
Page 3 of 57
pile cannot be densified because of its poor drainage qualities. The displaced soil particles
cannot enter the void space unless the water in the pores is pushed out. The stresses developed in
the soil mass adjacent to the pile due to the driving of the pile have to be borne by the pore water
only. This results in the development of pore water pressure and a consequent decrease in the
bearing capacity of the soil. The soil adjacent to the piles is remolded and loses to a certain
extent its structural strength. The immediate effect of driving a pile in a soil with poor drainage
qualities is, therefore, to decrease its bearing strength. However, with the passage of time, the
remolded soil regains part of its lost strength due to the reorientation of the disturbed particles
(which is termed thixotrophy} and due to consolidation of the mass.

The advantages and disadvantages of driven piles are:

Advantages:
 Piles can be precast to the required specifications.
 Piles of any size, length and shape can be made in advance and used at the site. As a result,
the progress of the work will be rapid.
 A pile driven into granular soil compacts the adjacent soil mass and as a result the bearing
capacity of the pile is increased.
 The work is neat and clean. The supervision of work at the site can be reduced to a
minimum. The storage space required is very much less.
 Driven piles may conveniently be used in places where it is advisable not to drill holes for
fear of meeting ground water under pressure.
 Driven piles are the most favored for works over water such as piles in wharf structures or
jetties.

Disadvantages:
 Precast or pre-stressed concrete piles must be properly reinforced to withstand handling
stresses during transportation and driving.
 Advance planning is required for handling and driving.
 Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
 Since the exact length required at the site cannot be determined in advance, the method
involves cutting off extra lengths or adding more lengths. This increases the cost of the
project.
 Driven piles are not suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities. If the driving of piles is not
properly phased and arranged, there is every possibility of heaving of the soil or the lifting
of the driven piles during the driving of a new pile.
 Where the foundations of adjacent structures are likely to be affected due to the vibrations
generated by the driving of piles, driven piles should not be used.

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 ii. Cast-in-situ Piles (Bored piles)
Cast-in-situ piles are concrete piles. These piles are distinguished from drilled piers as small
diameter piles. They are constructed by making holes in the ground to the required depth and
then filling the hole with concrete. Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally considered to
be non-displacement piles. Straight bored piles or piles with one or more bulbs at intervals may
be cast at the site. The latter types are called under-reamed piles. Reinforcement may be used as
per the requirements
Cast -in-situ piles have advantages as well as disadvantages.
Advantages:
 Piles of any size and length may be constructed at the site.
 Damage due to driving and handling that is common in precast piles is eliminated in this
case.
 These piles are ideally suited in places where vibrations of any type are required to be
avoided to preserve the safety of the adjoining structure.
 They are suitable in soils of poor drainage qualities since cast-in-situ piles do not
significantly disturb the surrounding soil.

Disadvantages:
 Installation of cast-in-situ piles requires careful supervision and quality control of all the
materials used in the construction.
 The method is quite cumbersome. It needs sufficient storage space for all the materials used
in the construction.
 The advantage of increased bearing capacity due to compaction in granular soil that could
be obtained by a driven pile is not produced by a cast-in-situ pile.
 Construction of piles in holes where there is heavy current of ground water flow or artesian
pressure is very difficult.

iii. Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles

This type has the advantages and disadvantages of both the driven and the cast-in-situ piles. The
procedure of installing a driven and cast-in-situ pile is as follows:
A steel shell is driven into the ground with the aid of a mandrel inserted into the shell. The
mandrel is withdrawn and concrete is placed in the shell. The shell is made of corrugated and
reinforced thin sheet steel (mono-tube piles) or pipes (Armco welded pipes or common seamless
pipes). The piles of this type are called a shell type. The shell-less type is formed by
withdrawing the shell while the concrete is being placed. In both the types of piles the bottom of
the shell is closed with a conical tip which can be separated from the shell. By driving the
concrete out of the shell an enlarged bulb may be formed in both the types of piles. Franki piles
are of this type.

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B. Classification According to Composition
i. Timber Piles

A timber pile is a trunk of a tree which is free from structural defects and properly trimmed.
Since timber is vulnerable to moisture change, it should be treated with a special preservative
(mostly creosote oil) to prevent decay. Untreated pile embedded below ground water table
permanently has a long life. However, if it is exposed above the water table it is subjected to
decay.

ii. Concrete Piles

Concrete piles may either be pre-cast or cast-in-place.

 Pre-Cast Piles
These piles are cast in a casting yard and transported to the construction site. They are
often made of uniform sections with pointed tips and often have a square or octagonal
cross-section. The cross-sectional area and reinforcement of these piles depend on the
handling stress. The handling stresses in turn depend upon the method of lifting and the
location of the points of support. Depending upon the length of the pile the number of
supporting points varies.

 Cast-in-place

These piles are made by pouring concrete in a prepared bore hole. Generally such piles are
divided into three categories.

A. Shell Type (Cased Type)

This type is produced by first driving a steel shell – which may be made up of a corrugated steel
or pipe – into the ground to a desired depth. The concrete is then poured in the shell. Along its
length the steel shell may be either tapered or straight

B. Shell-Less Type (Uncased Type)

In this type or pile, the shell is withdrawn while the concrete is being poured

C. Pedestal Type

This type of pile has as enlarged bulb or pedestal. The pile may be cased or uncased.

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Fig 1.2 Common types of Cast in place concrete piles

iii. Composite Piles

Composite piles consist of two different materials that are connected together. Normally the joint
between the two materials is the weak link and as a result should be properly designed. The common
types of composite piles are timber and concrete or steel and concrete.
 Timber and Concrete
In this combination the timber part is placed below the ground water level and the concrete is then
poured at the top.
 Steel and Concrete
This type of pile is used for depths where cast-in-place piles may not easily be constructed. Steel pipes
or H-piles are driven to the required depth and then concrete is cast at the top end of the piles.
iv. Steel Piles
The common types of steel piles are H-piles and Pipe-Piles.
 H-Piles
As opposed to structural steel, here the flanges and the web are rolled with equal thickness in order to
withstand large impact force. The flange width should be about 85% of the depth of the web to provide
rigidity.
 Pipe Piles
The pipes may be fabricated (seamless) or welded (rolled). Pipe piles are normally filled with concrete.
The ends may be open or closed depending upon the type of the soil under consideration. The general
characteristics and use of the above piles is presented in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1: General characteristics and use of piles adapted from Teng[35]

Type of Pile Usual maximum Advantages Disadvantages Common Use

design load
(kN) per pile

Timber 250 Low cost per Small bearing Foundation for

metre of pile. capacity. structures with
moderate load.
Timber is a Untreated piles
Protection of
resilient material above ground
water front
suitable for water may last
structures from
impact more than 25 years
damage by
absorption. but are not
floating objects
permanent. Prone
and crafts.
to damage by hard
Timber trestles
driving, should not
and bents.
be driven through
Foundation for
hard stratum or
temporary
boulders.
structures.

Pre-cast 800 Relatively large Must be reinforced Trestles and

bearing capacity. to withstand bridge bents.
Concrete Large pre-
Permanent. Can handling stresses. Water-front
stressed piles
be treated for Requires space for installations
may have higher
sea-water casting and (docks, piers,
value.
installation. storage. Takes bulkheads, etc.).
time to set and Foundations for
cure before bridges. Pre-
installation. stressed piles of
Requires heavy large bearing
equipment for capacity are
handling and advantageous in
driving. bridge
foundations.

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Table 1.1 (Cont‟d)

Type of Pile Usual maximum Advantages Disadvantages Common Use

design load (kN)
per pile

Incurs large cost in

cutting off extra
lengths or adding
more lengths (this
is often the case
since exact pile
lengths can be
determined in
advance only in
exceptional cases.)

Cast-in-Place 750 Relatively large Foundation for

bearing capacity. buildings,
Compacted
Permanent. Can bridges, etc., of
pedestal piles
be treated for sea- moderate to
may have higher
water installation. heavy loads.
value.
Easy to alter pile
lengths. Damage
due to handling
or driving can be
eliminated. May
be installed by
pre-excavation
thus eliminating
vibration due to
driving.

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Table 1.1 (Cont‟d)

Type of Pile Usual Advantages Disadvantages Common Use

maximum
design load
(kN) per pile

Composite Governed by Relatively low Small bearing Foundations for

the weaker of cost. capacity. building,
the two parts. bridges, etc., of
Permanent. Joint between
moderate loads
two parts
where upper
constitutes a
part of piles is
weak point.
above ground
Prone to damage
water level.
due to driving.

Steel 1000 Large bearing Possibility of Foundations for

capacity. damage from large structures
corrosion and of heavy loads.
Can penetrate
electrolysis. Trestles and
through stiff
bridge bents.
layer or Relatively
boulders. expensive unless
the bearing
Small volume
stratum can
displacement of
develop large pile
soil
capacity. Less
Can stand rough effective as
handling. friction pile or
compaction pile.

1.3 Pile Capacity

The bearing capacity of isolated piles may be determined in one of the following methods:
I. From computational (analytical) methods.
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 II. From loading tests
III. From sounding tests
IV. From dynamic pile-driving formulas [Not much reliable]
The determination of the ultimate point bearing capacity, QP, of a deep foundation on the basis
of theory is a very complex one since there are many factors which cannot be accounted for in
the theory. The theory assumes that the soil is homogeneous and isotropic which is normally not
the case. All the theoretical equations are obtained based on plane strain conditions. Only shape
factors are applied to take care of the three-dimensional nature of the problem.
Compressibility characteristics of the soil complicate the problem further. Experience and
judgment are therefore very essential in applying any theory to a specific problem. The skin
load, Qf, depends on the nature of the surface of the pile, the method of installation of the pile
and the type of soil. An exact evaluation of, Qf, is a difficult job even if the soil is homogeneous
over the whole length of the pile. The problem becomes all the more complicated if the pile
passes through soils of variable characteristics.
1.3.1 Analytical Determination of Bearing Capacity
The static methods give the ultimate capacity of an individual pile, depending upon the
characteristics of the soil. The ultimate load capacity is given by:
Qu=QP+Qs
Where Qu=Ultimate failure load
QP=Point (base or tip) resistance of pile, Qp=qp*Ap
Qs=Shaft resistance developed by friction (adhesion) between the soil
and the pile shaft, Qs= fs*As
qp=Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil at the pile tip
Ap=The area of the pile tip
fs=The average unit skin friction between the soil and the pile surface
As=Effective surface area of the pile in contact with the soil

Fig. 1.3 Loads on pile

The above equation implies that both the point resistance qp and the skin resistance fs increase
linearly with the depth of embedment, L, of the pile. However, extensive research work carried
out by Vesic (1967) has revealed that the base and frictional resistances remain almost constant
beyond a certain depth of Embedment. This phenomenon was attributed to arching by Vesic. Let
Lc be the depth, which may be called the critical depth, beyond which both qb and fs remain
constant. Experiments of Vesic have indicated that Lc is a function of Ф. The Lc/d ratio,(where d

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 = diameter or width of pile), as a function of Ф may be expressed as follows (Poulos and Davis,
1980)
For 28° <Ф< 36.5°; Lc/d = 5 + 0.24 (Ф ° - 28°)
For 36.5° <Ф < 42°; Lc/d =7 + 2.35(Ф° - 36.5°)
The above expressions have been developed based on the curve given by Poulos and Davis,
(1980) giving the relationship between Lc/d and Ф °.
The Ф values to be used for obtaining Lc/d are as follows (Poulos and Davis, 1980);
For driven piles, Ф = 0.75 Ф j + 10°
For bored piles, Ф = Фj- 3°
Where, Ф j = angle of internal friction prior to the installation of the pile.
A. Methods for determining Point resistance (Qb)
i. Meyerhof's method
Meyerhof (1976) takes into account the critical depth ratio (LC/d) for estimating the value of
Qb, Fig. 1.4 shows the variation of Lc/ d for both the bearing capacity factors Nc and Nq as a
function of Ф.

Fig.1.4 Bearing capacity factors and critical depth ratios Lc/d for driven piles (after Meyerhof, 1976)

According to Meyerhof, the bearing capacity factors increase with Lb/d and reach a maximum
value at Lb/d equal to about 0.5 (LC/d), where Lb is the actual thickness of the bearing stratum
and „d‟ is diameter of a pile. In a homogeneous soil Lb is equal to L, the actual embedded length

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of pile. Meyerhof prescribes a limiting value for qb, based on his findings on static cone
penetration resistance. The expression for the limiting value, qbl, is;

Where; Ф is the angle of shearing resistance of the bearing stratum. The limiting qbl values given
above remain practically independent of the effective overburden pressure and groundwater
conditions beyond the critical depth.
The equation for base resistance in sand may now be expressed as:

Where qo‟=effective overburden pressure at tip of pile and Nq=bearing capacity factor.
The above equation is applicable only for driven piles in sand. For bored cast-in-situ piles the
value of qbis to be reduced by one third to one-half.
The base resistance Qbfor piles in saturated clay soil may be expressed as;

ii. Vesic's method

The unit base resistance of a pile in a (c - φ) soil may be expressed as (Vesic, 1977);

As per Vesic, the base resistance is not governed by the vertical ground pressure qo' but by the
mean effective normal ground stress σmexpressed as;

Therefore,
An equation for N*σ can be obtained as following:

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Vesic has developed an expression for N*σ based on ultimate pressure needed to expand
spherical cavity in an infinite soil mass as:

Table 1.2

Plots Nσ* versus Ф, and Nc* versus Ф for various values of Irrgiven as following;

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Fig. 1.5Plots of Nσ* versus Ф, and Nc* versus Ф for various values of Irr(Vesic, 1977)

Page 15 of 57
iii. Janbu's method
The bearing capacity equation of Janbu (1976) is:

Where Ψ angle of failure surface as following:

Fig.1.6: Shapes of failure surface as assumed by Meyerhof, Vesic and Jambu

This angle varies from 60° in soft compressible soil to 105° in dense sand. The values for N*c
used by Janbu are the same as those given by Vesic. The following table gives the bearing
capacity factors of Janbu.
Table 1.3Bearing capacity factors N*C and N*q byJanbu

B. Methods to determine SKIN RESISTANCE (Qs)

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I. The ultimate skin resistance of a single pile in cohesion-less soil
The frictional or skin resistance of a pile may be written as:
Qs  pLf
Where p = perimeter of the pile section
f = unit friction resistance at any depth
∆L = incremental pile length over which p and f are taken constant

The unit frictional resistance at any depth for a pile is

f  K 'v tan 
Where K = earth pressure coefficient
 'v = effective vertical stress at the depth under consideration
δ= soil-pile friction angle

The magnitude of K varies with depth. It is approximately equal to the Rankine passive earth
pressure coefficient, Kp, at the top of the pile and may be less than the at-rest earth pressure
coefficient, Ko, at the pile tip. It also depends on the nature of pile installation.

Fig. 1.7Variation of unit frictional resistance of piles in sand

The effective vertical stress increases with the pile depth to a maximum limit at a depth of 15-20
pile diameters, d, and remains constant thereafter. This critical depth, L‟, depends on several
factors, such as soil friction angle and compressibility and relative density.

The values of  from various investigations appear to be in the range of 0.5 to 0.8.
Judgement must be used to choose the value of .

II. The ultimate skin resistance of a single pile in cohesive soil

a) Skin Resistance by λ-Method
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Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972) have suggested a different approach for computing skin load
Qfforsteel-pipe piles on the basis of examination of load test results on such piles. The equation
is of theform:

Cu= Mean undrained cohesion (ϕ=0)

λ is plotted against pile penetration as following:

Fig.1.8Frictional capacity coefficient, λ vs pile penetration (Vijayvergia and Focht, 1972)

b) Skin Resistance by -Method

According to the  method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be represented by the equation

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 f  cu
Where  = empirical adhesion factor obtained from graphs.

Fig. 1.9 Variation of α with undrained cohesion of clay (with penetration lengths less than 50 m
in clay)(Data from Dennis and Olson 1983 a, b; Stas and Kulhawy, 1984)

c) Skin Resistance by β-Method

In this method, the unit skin friction fs is defined as:

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 d) Meyerhof’s Method (1976)

 Allowable Pile Load

The allowable pile load is obtained by dividing the appropriate limiting pile load by a factor of
safety. The magnitude of the factor of safety, which ranges from 1.5 to 3.0, is dependent on the
load type and number of load tests performed. A factor of safety of 2.0 is generally accepted.
For details one is referred to EBCS-7.

1.3.2 Loading Tests

The loading test gives reliable results. Essentially, it consists of loading one pile and recording
the load and the corresponding settlement data. One then plots the load settlement curve, from
which one determines the allowable load on the foundation.
The set up generally consists of two anchor piles provided with an anchor girder or a reaction
girder at their top. The test pile is installed between the anchor piles in the manner in the
foundation piles are to be installed. The test pile should be at least three times width or 2.5m
clear from the anchor piles.

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Fig 1.10 Pile load test
The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction girder. The measurements of
pile movement are taken with respect to a fixed reference mark. The test is conducted after
period of 3 days after the installation in sandy soils and a period of one month in silts and soft
clays. The load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of allowable load. Settlements
should be recorded with three dial gauges. Each stage of the loading is maintained till the rate of
movement of the pile top is not more than 0.1mm per hour in sandy soils and 0.02mm per hour
in case of clayey soils or a maximum of two hours (IS: 2911-1979). Under each load increment,
settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 60, minutes. The load increment should be
continued upto twice the safe load or the load at which the total settlement reaches a specified
value. The load is removed in the same decrements at 1 hour interval and the final rebound is
recorded 24 hours after the entire load has been removed.

Fig. 1.11 Load settlement curve

Fig. 1.10 shows a typical load settlement curve for loading as well as unloading obtained from a
pile load test. For any given load, the net pile settlement (Sn) is given by
Sn=St - Se
Where, St=Total settlement (gross settlement), Se=Elastic settlement (rebound).

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Plastic (net) settlement curve can be drawn from total settlement using above equation and looks
like the following:

Fig.1.12. Determination of plastic settlement from total settlement curve

In a very few cases, the load settlement curve may show a marked limiting value. But in most
cases the load settlement curves do not distinctly show the limiting load. As a result there are
numerous suggestions for determining the limiting load.
The limiting load is read from load-total settlement or from load-plastic settlement curves.
A. From Load Total Settlement Curves (Fig. 1.12)
The limiting pile load may be determined from one of the following methods:
(i) The point at which the end tangents of the load-settlement curve meet
(Mansur/Kaufmann 1956[27])
(ii) The point at which the curve begins to show a steeper slope (DIN 1054[8])
(iii) The point at which the curve manifests the steepest slope i.e., ds/dQ= max (Vesic
1963[39]).
(iv) a) For a total settlement of 0.1d (Terzaghi/Peck 1961[37]).Where „d‟ is pile diameter.
b) For a total settlement of 50mm(Terzaghi/Peck 1948[36])
c) For a total settlement of 25mm(New York City Building Law [31]
d) For a total settlement of 20mm(Muhs 1959, 1963[27])

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Fig.1.13Cases to determine limiting load from pile loading test

B. From Load Plastic Settlement Curve (Fig. 1.13)

In this case one needs first to plot the respective load plastic settlement curve from the load total
settlement curve as indicated in Fig. 1.7. It is by using this curve that the following suggestions
are proposed to determine the limiting pile load:
(i) For a plastic settlement of 0.025d(DIN 4026[11]
(ii) For a plastic settlement of 0.020d (U.S.A.[quoted in 31]
(iii) For a plastic settlement of 8mm(Magnel 1948[21])
(iv) For a plastic settlement of 35mm (American Association of State Highway Officials [1]).

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 Fig. 1.14 Determination of limiting load from plastic settlement curve

1.3.3 Sounding tests

The pile capacity can be determined from the results of in situ standard penetration test.
Empirical formulas are used to determine the point resistance and the shaft resistance from the
standard penetration number (N). Alternatively, the static formulas can be used after
determining the N-value, as this value is related to the angle of shearing resistance (Ф). Cone
penetration tests are also used to estimate the pile capacity.

There are numerous methods for estimating pile capacity from sounding tests such as de Beer,
USSR Code, and that of Meyerhof. Here the method of Meyerhof will be discussed.

a) Standard Penetration test

The load carrying capacity of a pile can be estimated from the standard penetration value (N).
i) For Driven piles in sand,The unit tip resistance (qp) is related to the uncorrected blow count
(N) near the pile point (Meyerhof 1976).
qp=40N(L/B)<400N
Where qp=point resistance, L=length of pile, B=width (diameter) of pile.
The average unit frictional resistance (fs) is related to the average value of the blow count (N*).
For high displacement piles, fs=2.0N* KN/m2
For low displacement piles, fs=1.0N* KN/m2
Where N* is average of uncorrected N-Values along the length of the pile.

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 ii) For bored piles in sand, qp=14N (Lb/B) KN/m2
Where Lb=actual penetration into the granular soil.
For bored piles in sand, unit frictional resistance (fs) is given by;
fs=0.67N* KN/m2
b) Dutch cone test
Meyerhof (1965) relates the unit point resistance (qp) and the unit skin traction (fs) of driven
piles to the cone point resistance (qc).
Point resistance, qp=[qc/10]*[Lb/B]
Unit skin friction, a) fs(dense sand)=qc/200
b) fs(loose sand)=qc/400
c)fs(silt)=qc/150

1.3.4 Dynamic pile-driving formulas

The resistance offered by a soil to penetration of a pile during driving gives an indication of its
bearing capacity. Qualitatively speaking, a pile which meets greater resistance during driving is
capable of carrying a greater load. A number of dynamic formulae have been developed which
equate pile capacity in terms of driving energy.

The basis of all these formulae is the simple energy relationship which may be stated following
equation.

I. Hiley Formula
The above equationholds only if the system is 100 percent efficient. Since the driving of a pile
involves many losses, the energy of the system may be written as;

Energy input = Energy used + Energy losses or

Page 25 of 57
Energy used = Energy input - Energy losses.

Fig. 1.15 Basic energy relationship

The expressions for the various energy terms used are:
i. Energy used = Q u s,
ii. Energy input =hhWh, wherehhis the efficiency of the hammer.
iii. The energy losses are due to the following:
1. The energy loss E1 due to the elastic compressions of the pile cap, pile material and the soil
surrounding the pile. The expression for E1 may be written as;

2. The energy loss E2 due to the interaction of the pile hammers system (impact of two
bodies). The expression for E2 may be written as;

Page 26 of 57
Substituting the various expressions in the energy equation and simplifying, we have;

The above equation is called the Hiley formula.If the pile tip rests on rock or relatively
impenetrable material this equation is not valid. Chellis(1961) suggests for this condition that
the use of Wp/2 instead of Wp may be more correct. The various coefficients used in the
equation are as given below:
Table 1.4 Coefficients for Hiley formula

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II. Engineering News Record (ENR) Formula
The general form of the Engineering News Record Formula for the allowable load Qa may be
obtained from Hiley equation by puttinghh = 1 and Cr = 1 and a factor of safety equal to 6. The
formula proposed by A.M. Wellington, editor of the Engineering News, in 1886, is;

For double-acting hammer,

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 Comments on the Use of Dynamic Formulae
1. Detailed investigations carried out by Vesic (1967) on deep foundations in granular
soilsindicate that the Engineering News Record Formula applicable to drop
hammers,gives pile loads as low as 44 % of the actual loads. In order to obtain
betteragreement between the one computed and observed loads, Vesic suggests the
following values for the coefficient C.
For steel pipe piles, C = 1 cm.
For precast concrete piles C = 1.5 cm.
2. The tests carried out by Vesic in granular soils indicate that Hiley's formula does not give
consistent results. The values computed are sometimes higher and sometimes lower than
the observed values.
3. Dynamic formulae in general have limited value in pile foundation work mainly because
thedynamic resistance of soil does not represent the static resistance, and because often
the results obtained from the use of dynamic equations are of questionable dependability.
However,engineers prefer to use the Engineering News Record Formula because of its
simplicity.
4. Dynamic formulae could be used with more confidence in freely draining materials such
ascoarse sand. If the pile is driven to saturated loose fine sand and silt, there is
everypossibility of development of liquefaction which reduces the bearing capacity of the
pile.
5. Dynamic formulae are not recommended for computing allowable loads of piles
driveninto cohesive soils. In cohesive soils, the resistance to driving increases through the
suddenincrease in stress in pore water and decreases because of the decreased value of
the internalfriction between soil and pile because of pore water. These two oppositely
directed forcesdo not lend themselves to analytical treatment and as such the dynamic
penetrationresistance to pile driving has no relationship to static bearing capacity.

There is another effect of pile driving in cohesive soils. During driving the soil
becomesremolded and the shear strength of the soil is reduced considerably. Though there will
be aregaining of shear strength after a lapse of some days after the driving operation, this will
not bereflected in the resistance value obtained from the dynamic formulae.

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1.4 . Elastic Settlement of piles
The settlement of a pile under a vertical working load, Qw, is caused by three factors:
S= s1+s2+s3
Where: S = total pile settlement
s1 = settlement of pile shaft
s2 = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted at the pile point
s3 = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted along pile shaft

1.4.1. Determination of s1

If the pile material is assumed to be elastic, the deformation of the pile shaft can be evaluated
using the fundamental principles of mechanics of materials:

(Qwp  Qws ) L
s1 
Ap E p
Where: Qwp = load carried at the pile point under the working load conditions
Qws = load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under working load condition
Ap = area of pile cross-section
L = length of pile
Ep = modulus of elasticity of pile material
The magnitude of ‘‟will depend on the nature of unit friction (skin) resistance
distribution along the pile shaft. If the distribution of ‘fs’ is uniform or parabolic,  = 0.6.
However, for triangular distribution of f, the magnitude of  is about 0.67.

1.4.2. Determination of s2
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried at the point may be expressed in a
form similar to that given for shallow foundations.
Where; D = width or diameter of pile
q wp D
s2  (1   ) I wp
2
s qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap.
Es
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
s = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
Iwp = influence factor

For all practical purposes, Iwp equals r given in the graph below.

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Fig. 1.16 Values of r for different values of L/B
In the absence of any experimental results, representative values of Poisson’s ratio may
be obtained from tables.

Table: 1.4. Poisson’s ratio of different types of soils

Soil type Driven pile Bored pile
Sand ( dense to loose ) 0.02 – 0.04 0.09 – 0.18
Clay ( stiff to soft ) 0.02 – 0.03 0.03 – 0.06
Silt ( dense to loose ) 0.03 – 0.05 0.09 – 0.12

1.4.3. Determination of S3
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried by the pile shaft is given by:
Q  D
s3   ws  (1   s2 ) I ws
 pL  E s
P = perimeter of the pile
L = embedded length of pile
Iws = influence factor
Note that the term Qws/pL is the average value of f along the pile shaft. The influence
factor, Iws, has a simple empirical relation:
L
I ws  2  0.35
D
Example: The allowable working load on a pre-stressed concrete pile 21m long that has
been driven into sand is 502kN. The pile is octagonal in shape with D = 356mm. Skin
resistance carries 350kN of allowable load, and point bearing carries the rest. Use Ep =
21x106kN/m2, Es = 25x103kN/m2,s = 0.35,  = 0.62,Iwp = 0.8. Determine the elastic
settlement of the pile.
Page 31 of 57
1.5 Pile Spacing and Group Action
1.5.1 Pile Spacing
Piles are normally installed in groups. Because of anticipated alignment problems, some
building codes do not permit the use of less than three piles under major columns and less than
two under foundation walls. Typical arrangement of pile groups are given in Figure below.

Fig. 1.17 Typical arrangement of pile groups

The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors such as overlapping of stresses of
adjacent piles, cost of foundation and efficiency of the pile group.
The pressure isobars of a single pile with load „Q‟ acting on the top are shown in Fig. 1.18 (a)
below. When piles are placed in a group, there is a possibility of the pressure isobars of adjacent
piles will overlap each other as shown in Fig. 1.18(b). The soil is highly stressed in the zones of
overlapping of pressures. With sufficient overlap, either the soil will fail or the pile group will
settle excessively since the combined pressure bulb extends to a considerable depth below the
base of the piles. It is possible to avoid overlap by installing the piles further apart as shown in
Fig. 1.18(c).
Page 32 of 57
Large spacing‟s are not recommended sometimes, since this would result in a larger pile cap
which would increase the cost of the foundation.
The spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the piles and the type of soil. The
piles can be driven piles or cast-in-situ piles. When the piles are driven there will be greater
overlapping of stresses due to the displacement of soil. If the displacement of soil compacts the
soil in between the piles as in the case of loose sandy soils, the piles may be placed at closer
intervals.
Generally, the spacing for point bearing piles, such as piles founded on rock, can be much less
than for friction piles since the high-point-bearing stresses and the superposition effect ofoverlap
of the point stresses will most likely not overstress the underlying material nor cause excessive
settlements.

Fig 1.18 Pressure isobars of (a) single pile, (b) group of piles, closely spaced, and (c) group of
piles with piles far apart.
Page 33 of 57
The minimum allowable spacing of piles is usually stipulated in building codes.EBCS 7 gives
minimum spacing for piles in order to minimize the cost of pile cap.
Table 1.5: Minimum Pile Spacing According to EBCS-7
No. Pile Type Center to CenterSpacing, S
1 End-bearing piles passing throughrelatively compressible
strata 2.5d
2 End-bearing piles passing through compressible strata and
restingon stiff clay 3.5d
3 Compaction piles 2d
4 Friction piles 3d
5 Driven piles 2.5d
6 Bored Piles 3d but not less than 1.10m
8 Under-reamed piles 2du
d = average pile diameter
du = diameter of under-reamed pile base

1.5.2 Pile group efficiency(capacity)

The behaviour of a group of piles is different from that of individual piles in a number of ways
such as:
 In general, the bearing capacity of a group of piles is less than the sum of the individual
piles.
 The settlement of a pile group is larger than that of the individual piles for corresponding
levels of load.
 The efficiency of the pile group is less than that of a single pile.

The efficiency of a pile group Eg is the ratio of the actual capacity to the sum of the individual
capacities.

Qg
Eg  x100%
nQi

Where Eg = efficiency of pile group

Qg = efficiency of pile group
Qi = capacity of individual pile
n = number of piles in group.

Pile group efficiency depends on pile spacing. The efficiency formula, considering pile spacing that is
widely used is that of Converse-Lebarrewhich is given below:
Page 34 of 57
   (n  1)m  (m  1)n 
Eg  1 
90 0  mn 

Where,
Eg =efficiency of the pile group
 =arctan d/s
d =diameter of pile
s =spacing of pile
m =number of pile columns
n =number of pile rows.

The above formula should at best be used as an approximation, since its derivation, as in all efficiency
formulas, does not rest on a sound basis.

1.5.2.1 Pile group capacity in sand and gravel

For piles driven in loose and medium dense cohesionless soils, the group efficiency is high. The soil
around and between the piles is compacted due to vibration caused during the driving operation. For
better results, it is essential to start driving the piles at the center and then work outward.
The piles and the soil between them move together as a unit when subjected to loads. The group acts as
a pier foundation having a base equal to the gross plan area contained between the piles.

For driven piles bearing on dense, compact sand with spacing equal to or greater than 3D, („D‟ is
diameter of piles) the group capacity is generally taken equal to the sum of individual capacity. Thus;
Qgu=nQu
For spacing less than 3D group efficiency is used to calculate load carrying capacity of group piles as.
nQu
Qgu  E g
100
For bored piles in sand at conventional spacing of 3D, the group capacity is taken as;
Qgu= (2/3 to 3/4) (nQu)
As there is limited densification of the sand surrounding the pile group, the efficiency is lower.

Page 35 of 57
1.5.2.2 Pile group capacity in clay
Ultimate capacity for pile group in clay is estimated by;
a. Considering group acts as single block, it is determined by adding the base resistance and the shaft
resistance as;
Qgu  q p ( Ag )  cu ( pg L)
Where, qp=unit point resistance
Ag=base area of the block
Pg=perimeter of the block
L=depth of block
α=adhesion factor (=1 for soft clays)
Cu=undrained cohesion

a. Considering group capacity as sum of capacity of individual piles;

Qgu  nQu
The lower of above two values is taken as group capacity.

1.5.3 Stress Distribution

If a single point-bearing pile or a group of piles is acted upon by an axial load „P‟ individually, the
respective vertical stress distribution at the level of the pile tips may be determined using the theory of
elasticity. For the group of piles, there will be an overlap of stresses, and the total stress is equal to the
sum of the stresses due to each pile (Fig. 1.16a). The application of the elastic theory for determining the
stress at the level of the pile tips becomes very laborious and simple approximate methods are used. The
well-known method is 2:1 (2 vertical: 1 horizontal) approximate rule.
For point-bearing piles, the pile group is replaced by a perfectly rigid footing. The total load is then
assumed to spread out at a slope of 2:1 from the fictitious footing (Fig. 1.19b).
For friction piles, the method of Peckmay be used. Here the load is assumed to spread out from a depth
of h/3 measured from the pile tip [„h‟ is pile length embedded in soil] (Fig. 1.19b).

Page 36 of 57
Fig. 1.19 Vertical stress distribution under piles

1.5.4 Settlement of Pile Groups

As there is variation in pressure distribution at pile tips due to stress overlap, the settlement of a single
pile and that of a group of piles will be different. The settlement of a pile group is not the sum of
settlements of individual piles. It is assumed that the pile group acts as a single large deep foundation
such as pier or mat. The total load is assumed to act at a depth equal to two thirds the pile length in the
case of frictional piles and at tip in case of end-bearing piles. In case of combined action, frictional
component is assumed to act attwo thirds the pile length and bearing component at the tip.

Page 37 of 57
a. Elastic Settlement of pile group
In general, the settlement of a group pile under a similar working load per pile increases with width of
group (Bg) and center to center spacing of piles, (d). Several investigations relating to settlement of
group piles have been reported in the literature, with widely varying results. The simplest relation for the
settlement of group piles was given by Vesic (1969) is given as following.

( ) √

Where, Sg(e)=elastic settlement of group piles

Bg=width of group pile section
B=width or diameter of each pilein the group
Se=elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load

For group of piles in sand and gravel, for elastic settlement, Meyerhof (1976) suggested the empirical
relation as following;
√
( )( )

Where, q= load intensity (Qg/Ag), is KN/m2

Bg=width of pile group in m
N60=Average standard penetration number within seat of settlement (for depths greater than Bg
deep below pile tip)
I=influence factor
( )
( )
L=length of pile and Bg are in m, and;
Similarly, the group pile settlement is related to the cone penetration resistance by the formula,

( )

Where, qc is average cone penetration resistance within the seat of settlement.

b. Consolidation Settlement of pile group

The consolidation settlement of a group pile in clay can be approximately estimated by using the 2:1
stress distribution method. A line having a slope of 2V:1H will be drawn from the base of equivalent
footing. When the piles are end-bearing, the base of the equivalent footing is at the pile tip. When the
piles are essentially friction type, the base of the equivalent footing is assumed to act at a depth of
approximately two-thirds of the pile length.

Page 38 of 57
Fig.1.20 Load distribution (2:1) for consolidation settlement of group pile in clay of friction piles

The procedure of calculation involves the following steps:

1. Let the depth of embedment of the piles be L. The group is subjected to a total load of Q g. If the
pile cap is below the original ground surface, Qg equals the total load of the superstructure on the
piles minus the effective weight of soil above the pile group removed by excavation.
2. Assume that the load Qg is transmitted to the soil beginning at a depth of 2L/3 from the top of the
pile as shown in fig. 1.12. (z=0). The load Qg spreads out along 2 vertical: 1 horizontal lines from
this depth. Lines aa‟ and bb‟ are the two 2:1 lines.
3. Calculate the stress increase caused at the middle of each soil layer by the load Qg:
Qg
 
( B g  z i )( Lg  z i )
Where: ∆σ = stress increase at the middle of layer i
Lg, Bg = length and width of the plan of pile group, respectively
zi = distance from z = 0 to the middle of the clay layer, i.

Page 39 of 57
 For example, in above figure, for layer 2, zi = L1/2, for layer 3, zi= L1 +L2/2, and for layer 4, zi =
L1 +L2 + L3/2. Note, however, that there will be no stress increase in clay layer 1 because it is
above the horizontal plane (z = 0) from which the stress distribution to the soil starts.

4. Calculate the settlement of each layer caused by the increased stress:

e(i )
si  Hi
(1  eo (i ) )
Where; ∆si= consolidation settlement of layer i
eo(i)= initial void ratio of layer i (before construction)
Hi= thickness of layer I
(Note: in above figure, for layer 2 Hi = L1, for layer 3, Hi = L2, and for layer 4, Hi = L3)
∆e(i) = change of void ratio caused by the stress increase in layer „i‟

() ( )

() ( )

() ( )

Cc=Consolidation index
Cr=Recompression index

5. Total consolidation settlement of the pile group is then

s g (c )   si

1.6 Negative Skin Friction

1.6.1 Definition
Negative skin friction is the force developed between the surface of a pile or pile groups – driven into a
hard stratum – and the adjoining soil, because of the relative movement between the two bodies in a
direction to increase the loading on the pile or pile groups. It is a downward drag force exerted on the
pile by the soil surrounding it. This phenomenon develops when a compressible soil layer like loose fill,
clay, silt, peat, mud, etc., settles, on account of consolidation which may be initiated by lowering the
ground water level or by increasing the overburden pressure.

Due to the consolidation process of the compressible layer, the soil strata above this layer move
downward. Since the piles are driven into the hard stratum, they are prevented from downward
movement. Hence a relative movement between the piles and the surrounding soil takes place,

Page 40 of 57
producing a drag or negative skin friction. Negative skin friction has a considerable effect on the overall
bearing capacity of piles.

Negative friction must be allowed when considering the factor of safety on the ultimate carrying
capacity of a pile. The factor of safety, Fs, where negative friction is likely to occur may be written as;

The magnitude of negative friction, Fu, for a single pile[Fig. 1.21a] in a fill may be taken as;
(a) For cohesive soils
Fu   lp
(b) For cohesionless soils
1 2
Fu  Pl K tan 
2
Where,
=average shearing resistance along pile surface
1
= q u for cohesive soils
2
qu = unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil
K=earth pressure at rest
l = length of pile embedment in compressible layer
P = perimeter of the pile
 = unit weight of the soil
δ = angle of wall friction which may vary from 1/2Ф to Ф

When a group of piles passes through a compressible layer, the negative friction, Fug, on the group may
be found by any of the following methods [Fig. 1.21b and c].
Fug   lP   lA g 

or  whichever is bigger
Fug  nFu 

Where,
Ag=area enclosing all the piles in the group

Page 41 of 57
 Fig. 1.21 Negative skin friction on piles

1.7 Pile Caps

1.7.1 General
A pile cap is a structure usually of reinforced concrete, which serves to spread the vertical and horizontal
loads and any overturning moment from the superstructure to all the piles in the group.
In the design of pile caps, the following assumptions are usually made:
(i) The pile cap is perfectly rigid.
(ii) The pile heads are hinged to the pile cap. As a result no bending moment is transmitted from the
pile cap to the piles.
(iii) The deformations and stress distributions are considered planar.

1.7.2 Determination of Pile Reaction

Pile caps should be arranged in such a manner that the centroid of pile group coincides with the line of
action of load, to ensure that all piles carry an equal load and avoid tilting of group in compressible
bearing stratum.For determining the pile reactions one follows the usual practice as outlined below:
a) Concentric Axial Load
For concentric axial load P acting on the pile cap, the load in the pile group is assumed to be distributed
equally. Hence the force on each pile would be given by

P
pn 
Where; n
Pn = load on the nth pile
n = total number of piles
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b) Eccentric Load
For eccentric loading conditions, i.e. pile cap loaded with force P and moment M, one uses the flexural
formula in which planar stress distribution is assumed:

P Myx Mxy
pn   
n x 2
 y2
Where;
p n = load on the nth pile
Mx, M y = moment about x and y axes respectively
x,y = distance from y and x axes to any pile. x and y axes have their origin at the centroid of
the pile group.
x 2 , y 2 = moment of inertia of the pile group, I as computed from I  I 0  Ax 2
(I0 = moment of inertia of each pile
A = cross-sectional area of ach pile.
The I0 term is negligible for piles.
The A term cancels since it appears in both the numerator and denominator of above
equation.

Fig. 1.22 Load on pile cap

Page 43 of 57
 1.7.3 Structural Design and Constructional Requirements of pile caps
The forces that have to be considered in the analysis and design of a pile cap are;
a. Reaction from the piles (considered as series of concentrated loads)
b. Column loads and moments
c. Weight of the cap
d. Weight of overlaying soil, if the cap is below the ground surface.

The structural design of pile caps is similar to the design of reinforced concrete footings.The critical
sections for moment, punching shear and bond stress (development length of reinforcement) are taken to
be at the same locations as defined for isolated footings.For the computation of shear on any section
through the pile cap, the following is recommended by EBCS-2:
a. Entire reaction from any pile whose centre is located at half the pile diameter or more outside the
section shall be considered as producing shear on that section.
b. Reaction from any pile whose centre is located at half the pile diameter or more inside the section
shall be considered as producing no shear on that section.
c. For intermediate positions of pile centre, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as
producing shear on the section shall be based on straight line interpolation between full value at half
the pile diameter outside the section and zero value at half the pile diameter inside the section.

Page 44 of 57
Fig. 1.23 Structural design and constructional requirements
The other requirements suggested by EBCS-2 are given in Fig. 1.23b.The EBCS-2 indicates that the
bottom reinforcement may consist of bars placed in strips (bands) between piles or uniformly distributed
over the total width (Fig. 1.23b).At this point it is advantageous to examine the design methods used by
experienced designers.

Since the depth of pile caps is generally thick and in some cases even bigger than the net distance
between piles, one observes a deep beam action in the cap, in which a compression zone between
column and piles and a tension zone between piles are developed(Fig. 1.24a). The tension should be
taken by appropriate reinforcements. The part of the reinforcement which is located above the pile
heads is pressed by force C as indicated in Fig. 1.24a. It is therefore not necessary to bend the bars for
anchorage. However, if there is a lot of steel concentration, it is advisable to use closed stirrups at the
anchor zone. The bottom reinforcement is concentrated in an area with a band width equal to the
diameter of the piles (Fig. 1.24a).

Page 45 of 57
If the column load is supported by three or more piles, and the piles distributed in many directions, the
compression force due to deep beam action will develop over those piles which have the shortest
distance between them. The tension zone would thus be located between these piles. The bottom
reinforcements should accordingly be placed to cover the developed tension. Because of the deep beam
action it is necessary to place the reinforcements in a band as indicated in Fig. 1.24b.
Laboratory tests have indicated that if reinforcements are placed in areas where no immediate support
from piles exists, then a portion of the compression force will be effective in the area and pushes the
tension reinforcement downwards. Since in this area there is no immediate support from the pile, shear
stresses would develop and cause cracks. In order to avoid the cracks, the provision of U-stirrups is
necessary.
The effect of uniform distribution of reinforcements without the provision of U-stirrups is shown in Fig.
1.24c.
For pile caps in which the pile spacing is less than 3 times the diameter of the piles, it is advisable to
place the reinforcements as indicated in Fig. 1.24b.
If the pile spacing is bigger than 3 times the diameter of the piles, the area between the pile cannot be
left without reinforcements. One should also provide U-stirrups as indicated in Fig. 1.20d. The stirrups
should be designed for an approximate force which is equal to P/1.5n (for n ≥ 3 = number of piles).
For bigger dimensions and loadings, like caps for piles supporting bridge piers, it is advantageous to use
prestressed concrete rather than ordinary reinforced concrete, since in the latter, one requires to provide
thick reinforcing bars with closed stirrups in order to avoid splitting danger.

Page 46 of 57
 \
Fig. 1.24 Reinforcement detail according to Leonhardt

Page 47 of 57
1.7.4 General design procedure of pile foundation
Structural design of reinforced concrete pile foundation will follow the following design procedures;
2. Sketch soil profiles, showing soil stratification and establishing permanent water level (and its
fluctuation)
3. Establish pile type, diameter and spacing.
4. Calculate load on group and single piles and establish factor of safety
5. Determine pile capacity and pile length
6. Check stresses in lower strata
7. Analyze settlement
8. Design pile cap
9. Design individual piles

Reinforcement in a pile is determined treating it as column hinged at top and fixed at bottom.
The minimum main reinforcement (longitudinal) in a pile is given as;
i. 1.25% of cross section of pile for length of pile, L<30D. „D‟ is diameter of pile.
ii. 1.5% of cross section of pile for pile length 30D<L<40D
iii. 2.0% of cross section of pile for pile length L>40D
Minimum lateral reinforcement in form of stirrup is given as;
i. 0.6% of cross section of pile for length of pile equivalent to 3D measured from bottom and
top of pile. „D‟ is diameter of pile.
ii. 0.2% of cross section of pile at middle of pile length for length of pile equivalent to L-12D.
„L‟ is total length of pile.
iii. Other part of pile is provided with reinforcement as transitional zone decreasing from 0.6%
at 3D from pile top and bottom to 0.2% at 6D from top and bottom of pile.

Page 48 of 57
1.8 Batter Piles
1.8.1 General
When large lateral loads are to be resisted by a pile group, it has been a common practice to use piles
driven at a slope with the vertical, i.e., batter piles. It has also been common to assume that the batter
piles carry all the lateral loads. All piles have some lateral load-carrying ability dependent on the pile
width, the flexural rigidity (EI) of the pile, and the stiffness of the soil in which they are embedded.
The resistance to failure of vertical piles subjected to horizontal loads is provided by the passive
resistance of a wedge of soil in front of the piles. In case of batter piles, additional resistance is provided
by the skin friction and the end bearing. Therefore, batter piles are more effective than vertical piles in
resisting horizontal loads.
Common pile batters slopes range from 1:12 (1 horizontal to 12 vertical) to 5:12 (5 horizontal to 12
vertical). When the slope of batter exceeds 1:4 (1 horizontal to 4 vertical)the driving may require special
equipment, with resulting increased costs.

Fig.1.25 (a) Batter piles

Early methods of pile-group analysis with both vertical and lateral loads were primarily graphical. These
early methods also assumed that the piles were axially loaded, which precluded bending moments being
developed. From combining graphical solutions and the assumptions of axial loading, it naturally
followed that the lateral loads had to be carried by batter piles.
Modern methods of pile-group analysis use the computer, and additionally lateral pile- load tests have
verified what the computer solutions illustrate, namely, that all the piles in a group carry lateral load.
The graphical solutions are no longer used, since they are obviouslyincorrect.

1.8.2 Culmann’s graphical method of group piles comprising batter piles

When piles are oriented in two or three directions, Culmann‟s method, as described in steps below, is
used.
1. Group the piles according to their slopes. In Fig.1.26a, the piles are grouped in 3 directions.
2. Draw the geometry of the pile group to some scale, and mark the directions of the inclined load
Qgand the center line of each pile in group as R1,R2 andR3.
3. Determine the location of point A which is at the intersection of R1 and Qg.
4. Join „A‟ to the point „B‟ which is at the intersection of „R2‟and „R3‟.
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5. Draw the force triangle (Fig.1.26b).Select the line „ab‟ parallel to „AB‟. From „b‟ draw line
„bc’parallel to „Qg‟ to some scale. Draw a vertical at „c‟ to determine „ca’ which is equal to „R1‟.
From „b‟ draw line parallel to „R3‟ and from a line parallel to R2 to complete triangle abd.
6. Determine forces in piles as follows;
The magnitudes of „R2‟ and „R3‟ are respectively given by „ad‟ and „bd‟. However, „R2‟ is
compressive and „R3‟ is tensile.
The magnitude of „R1‟ is given by „ca‟ which is compressive.

Fig. 1.27 Graphical analysis by Culmann‟s method for batter piles

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1.9 Laterally loaded vertical piles
Piles may be loaded horizontally due to lateral forces or moments. A vertical pile resists a lateral load by
mobilizing passive pressure in the soil surrounding it. The degree of distribution of the soil‟s reaction
depends on the stiffness of pile, the stiffness of soil and the fixity of the ends of the pile.
In general, laterally loaded piles can be divided into two major categories as short or rigid piles and long
or elastic piles. A general method for determining moments and displacements of a vertical pile
subjected to lateral load and moment at the ground surface was given by Matlock and Reese (1960).
Consider a pile of length „L‟ subjected to a lateral force „Qg‟ and a moment „Mg‟ at the ground surface
(z= 0), as shown in the figures below. The general deflected shape of the pile and the soil resistance
caused by the applied load and the moment are also shown in the figure.

Fig. 1.28 Nature of variation of pile deflection, moment and shear force for (a) a rigid pile (b) elastic pile

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 Fig.1.29 (a) Laterally loaded pile (b) soil resistance on pile caused by lateral load (c) sign conventions
for displacement, slope, moment, shear force and pressure.

According to a simpler Winkler‟s model, an elastic medium (soil in this case) can be replaced by a series
of infinitely close independent elastic springs. Based on this assumption,
p'
k
x
Where k = modulus of subgrade reaction
p‟ = pressure on soil
x = deflection

The subgrade modulus of granular soils linearly with depth z according to the formula:
k z  nh z
Where nh = constant of modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction.
The values of nh for sand are given as a function of pile diameter„d‟ in the following table:

Table 1.6The values of nh of sands

Relative density < 0.33 0.33 – 0.67 >0.67
nh / d ( for dry sand) 800 2500 6500
nh / d ( for sand in water) 450 1600 4000

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For normally consolidated clay, the values of nh are given as:

- NC clay: nh /d= 275 to 550kN/m3

- NC organic clay: nh /d= 100 to 275kN/m3
- NC clay: nh /d= 25 to 100kN/m3

For stiff, overconsolidated (OC) clays, the coefficient of subgrade reaction is independent of the depth
and is given by the formula.

k h  80 to 320 cu / d
For cohesive soils, the subgrade reaction can be determined using the following formula:

Es Es d 
4 12
k  0.65  
E I 
1   s2
 p p 
Where Es = modulus of elasticity of the soil
d = pile width (or diameter)
μs = Poisson‟s ratio of the soil

The modulus of elasticity of clay, Es, can be obtained from laboratory consolidation of the soil as:

3(1   s )
Es 
mv
Where mv = volume of coefficient of compressibility

e
mv 
p(1  eav )
Using the theory of beams on an elastic foundation, we can write:

d 4x
E p I p 4  p'
dz
Where Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
Ip = moment of inertia of the pile section

Substituting the expression for pressure on the soil from above equations and re-arranging will result in:

d 4x
EpI p  kx
dz 4
The sign in above equation is negative because the soil reaction is in the direction opposite to the pile
deflection. The solution of above equation results in the following expressions.

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 Granular soils
Pile deflection at any depth [ xz(z) ]

Qg T 3 M gT 2
x z ( z )  Ax  Bx
EpI p EpI p

z(z) ]

Qg T 2 M gT
 z ( z )  A  Bx
EpI p EpI p

Moment of pile at any depth [ Mz(z) ]

M z ( z)  Am Qg T  Bm M g

Shear force on pile at any depth [ Vz(z) ]

Mg
Vz ( z )  Av Qg T  Bv
T

Soil reaction at any depth [ p‟z(z) ]

Qg Mg
p' z ( z )  Ap ' T  B p'
T T2

Where Ax, Bx, Aq, Bq, Av, Bv, Ap‟, and Bp‟ are coefficients
When L ≥ 5T, the pile is considered to be a long pile. For L ≤ 2T, the pile is considered to be a rigid
pile. The table below gives the values of the coefficients for long piles (L/T ≥ 5) in above equations. In
the first column of the table is the nondimensional depth Z which is given by:

z
Z
T

When L/T is greater than about 5, the coefficients do not change, which is true of long piles only.

„T‟ is the characteristic length of the soil-pile system given by:

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 1/ 5
 EpI p 
T   
 nh 
Table 1.9. Coefficients for long piles

Table 1.10

 Cohesive soils
For cohesive soils, the deflection and moment at any depth are given by:

Qg R 3 M g R2
x z ( z )  A' x  B' x
EpI p EpI p
And, M z ( z)  A' m Qg R  B' m M g

Where A‟x, B‟x, A‟m and B‟m are coefficients

1/ 4
 EpI p 
R   
 k 

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 z L
The values of A and B coefficients are given in the figures below. Note that, Z  and Z max 
R R

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Example: consider a square concrete pile of 0.5m width and 25m long embedded in a granular soil. Assume that
nh = 12000kN/m3. The allowable displacement at the top of the pile is 8mm. Determine the allowable lateral
load, Qg. Assume that Mg = 0 and the flexural strength of the pile material is 125000kN/m2.

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