Biology Lecture Notes Y.

Nagah

Biology Lecture Notes

(STEMer’s guide)

Botany Part (1)

Mr. Youssef Nagah

1|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Plant Tissues
BI.1.09:- Relate the structure of specialized plant structures to their function within the plant and
within the process of photosynthesis.
1. Examine and draw cross section of dicot leaf.
2. Includes structures of mesophyll cells, stomata, xylem, phloem, and chloroplast.
3. Includes other plant structures listed under concepts section.
Botany “is the study of plants, including plant structure, function,
reproduction, diversity, inheritance, and more.
 The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the materials that make
up your home, all these things depend upon plants.
 Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to
keep your planet from getting too warm for life.
 Plants provide homes for insects and other animals, filter
impurities out of ground water, and help protect shorelines from
erosion.
 Plants, like most animals, have organs composed of different
tissues, which in turn are composed of different cell types.
 A tissue is a group of cells, consisting of one or more cell types that
together perform a specialized function.
 An organ consists of several types of tissues that together carry
out particular functions
 A plant consists of certain parts called Organs, which assume
various forms, according to the functions, which they perform in the
economy of vegetable life. These organs, generally speaking, are
denominated Root, Stem, Leaves, and Flowers.

Nutritive Organs Reproductive Organs

Root, Stem and Leaves Flowers
They are specially concerned in They are connected with the production of fruit and seed,
the nourishment of the plant and the continuance of the species

2|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Plant tissue system

 Each plant organ—root, stem, or leaf—has dermal, vascular, and ground tissues.
 Each of these three categories forms a tissue system, a functional unit connecting all of the
plant’s organs.
 Although each tissue system is continuous throughout the plant, specific characteristics of
the tissues and their spatial relationships to one another vary in different organs.

3|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Dermal tissue system Vascular tissue system Ground Tissue

system
 Is the plant’s outer protective  The vascular tissue system carries  Tissues that
covering. out long-distance transport of are neither
 Like our skin, it forms the first line materials between the root and shoot dermal nor
of defense against physical damage systems. vascular are
and pathogens.  The two types of vascular tissues part of the
 In non-woody plants, it is usually a are xylem and phloem. ground tissue
single tissue called the epidermis, a Xylem conducts water and dissolved system.
layer of tightly packed cells. In minerals upward from roots into the  Ground tissue
leaves and most stems, the cuticle, shoots. that is internal
a waxy coating on the epidermal Phloem transports sugars, the to the vascular
surface, helps prevent water loss. products of photosynthesis, from tissue is known
 In woody plants, protective tissues where they are made (usually the as pith, and
called periderm replace the leaves) to where they are needed— ground tissue
epidermis in older regions of stems usually roots and sites of growth, such that is external
and roots. as developing leaves and fruits. to the vascular
In addition to protecting the plant  The vascular tissue of a root or stem tissue is called
from water loss and disease, the is collectively called the stele (the cortex.
epidermis has specialized Greek word for “pillar”). The  The ground
characteristics in each organ. arrangement of the stele varies, tissue system is
For example: depending on the species and organ. not just filler.
 Root hair is an extension of an In angiosperms, for example, the root It includes
epidermal cell near the tip of a root. stele is a solid central vascular various cells
 Trichomes are hairlike cylinder of xylem and phloem, specialized for
outgrowths of the shoot epidermis. whereas the stele of stems and leaves functions such
In some desert species, they reduce consists of vascular bundles, separate as storage,
water loss and reflect excess light, strands containing xylem and phloem. photosynthesis,
but their most common function is Both xylem and phloem are and support.
to provide defense against insects composed of a variety of cell types,
by forming a barrier or by secreting including cells that are highly
sticky fluids or toxic compounds. specialized for transport or support.

4|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Types of plant cells

Meristems generate cells for primary and secondary growth
How do plant cells and tissues develop into mature organs? A major difference between plants
and most animals is that plant growth is not limited to an
embryonic or juvenile period. Instead, growth occurs
throughout the plant’s life, a process known as
indeterminate growth. At any given time, a typical plant
has embryonic, developing, and mature organs. Except for
dormant periods, most plants grow continuously. In
contrast, most animals and some plant organs—such as
leaves, thorns, and flowers—undergo determinate
growth; that is, they stop growing after reaching a certain
size.
Plants are capable of indeterminate growth because they
have perpetually undifferentiated tissues called meristems
that divide when conditions permit, leading to new cells
that can elongate.

 There are two main types of meristems:

Apical meristems lateral meristems
Located at the tips of roots and shoots Woody plants, however, also grow in
and in axillary buds of shoots, provide circumference in the parts of stems and roots that
additional cells that enable growth in no longer grow in length. This growth in thickness,
length, a process known as primary known as secondary growth, is caused by lateral
growth. meristems called the vascular cambium and cork
Primary growth allows roots to extend cambium. These cylinders of dividing cells extend
throughout the soil and shoots to along the length of roots and stems. The vascular
increase their exposure to light. In cambium adds layers of vascular tissue called
herbaceous (non-woody) plants, secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem.
primary growth produces all, or almost The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with the
all, of the plant body. thicker, tougher periderm.
 The cells within meristems divide relatively frequently, generating additional cells. Some new
cells remain in the meristem and produce more cells, while others differentiate and are
incorporated into tissues and organs of the growing plant. Cells that remain as sources of new
cells have traditionally been called initials but are increasingly being called stem cells to
correspond to animal stem cells that also perpetually divide and remain undifferentiated. The
new cells displaced from the meristem, called derivatives, divide until the cells they produce
become specialized in mature tissues.

5|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

 The relationship between primary and secondary growth is clearly seen in the winter twig of
a deciduous tree. At the shoot tip is the dormant apical bud, enclosed by scales that protect its
apical meristem. In spring, the bud sheds its scales and begins a new spurt of primary growth,
producing a series of nodes and internodes. Along each growth segment, nodes are marked by
scars that were left when leaves fell. Above each leaf scar is an axillary bud or a branch formed
by an axillary bud. Farther down the twig are bud scars from the whorls of scales that enclosed
the apical bud during the previous winter.
 During each growing season, primary growth extends the shoots, and secondary growth
thickens the parts that formed in previous years.
 Although plants grow throughout their lives, they do die, of course. Based on the length of
their life cycle, flowering plants can be categorized as annuals, biennials, or perennials.
 Annuals complete their life cycle—from germination to flowering to seed production to
death—in a single year or less.
 Many wildflowers are annuals, as are most staple food crops, including legumes and cereal
grains such as wheat and rice. Biennials, such as turnips, generally require two growing
seasons to complete their life cycle, flowering and fruiting only in their second year. Perennials
live many years and include trees, shrubs, and some grasses. Some buffalo grass of the North
American plains is thought to have been growing for 10,000 years from seeds that sprouted at
the close of the last ice age.

6|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Permanent plant tissues

A) Simple permanent plant tissues:
1- Parenchyma Cells:
 Mature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and flexible, and
most lack secondary walls.
 When mature, parenchyma cells generally have a large central vacuole.
 Parenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and
storing various organic products.
 For example, photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf.
Some parenchyma cells in stems and roots have colorless plastids that store starch.
 The fleshy tissue of many fruits is composed mainly of parenchyma cells.
 Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other types of
plant cells under particular conditions—during wound repair, for example. It is even possible
to grow an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell.

2- Collenchyma Cells
 Grouped in strands, collenchyma cells (seen here in cross section) help support young parts
of the plant shoot.
 Collenchyma cells are generally elongated cells that have thicker primary walls than
parenchyma cells, though the walls are unevenly thickened.
 Young stems and petioles often have strands of collenchyma cells just below their epidermis
(for example, the “strings” of a celery stalk, which is a petiole).
 Collenchyma cells provide flexible support without restraining growth. At maturity, these
cells are living and flexible, elongating with the stems and leaves they support—unlike
sclerenchyma cells.

7|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

3- Sclerenchyma Cells
 Sclerenchyma cells also function as supporting elements in the plant, but are much more
rigid than collenchyma cells.
 The secondary walls of sclerenchyma cells are thick and contain large amounts of lignin. This
relatively indigestible strengthening polymer accounts for more than a quarter of the dry mass
of wood. Lignin is present in all vascular plants, but not in bryophytes.
 Mature sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate, and they occur in regions of the plant that have
stopped growing in length.
 Sclerenchyma cells are so specialized for support that many are dead at functional maturity,
but they produce secondary walls before the protoplast (the living part of the cell) dies.
 The rigid walls remain as a “skeleton” that supports the plant, in some cases for hundreds of
years. Two types of sclerenchyma cells, known as sclereids and fibers, are specialized entirely
for support and strengthening.
Sclereids Fibers
Which are boxier than fibers and irregular in Which are usually grouped in strands, are
shape, have very thick, lignified secondary long, slender, and tapered.
walls. Some are used commercially, such as hemp
Sclereids impart the hardness to nutshells and fibers for making rope and flax fibers for
seed coats and the gritty texture to pear fruits. weaving into linen.

8|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

B) Complex permanent plant tissues (Conducting tissues)

1- Water-Conducting Cells of the Xylem
 The two types of water-conducting cells, tracheids and vessel elements, are tubular,
elongated cells that are dead at functional maturity.
 Tracheids are in the xylem of nearly all vascular plants.
 In addition to tracheids, most angiosperms, as well as a few gymnosperms and a few
seedless vascular plants, have vessel elements.
 When the living cellular contents of a tracheid or vessel element disintegrate, the cell’s
thickened walls remain behind, forming a nonliving conduit through which water can flow.
 The secondary walls of tracheids and vessel elements are hardened with lignin. This
hardening prevents collapse under the tensions of water transport and provides support.
 The secondary walls of tracheids and vessel elements are often interrupted by pits.
 Pits are thinner regions where only primary walls are present. Water can migrate laterally
between neighboring cells through pits.

9|Page
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Tracheids Vessel elements

 Tracheids are long, thin  Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, thinner walled,
cells with tapered ends. and less tapered than the tracheids.
Water moves from cell to  They are aligned end to end, forming long micro pipes known
cell mainly through the pits, as vessels.
where it does not have to  The end walls of vessel elements have perforation plates that
cross thick secondary walls. enable water to flow freely through the vessels.

2- Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem

 Unlike the water-conducting cells of the xylem, the sugar-conducting cells of the phloem are
alive at functional maturity.
 In seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms, sugars and other organic nutrients are
transported through long, narrow cells called sieve cells.
 In the phloem of angiosperms, these nutrients are transported through sieve tubes, which
consist of chains of cells called sieve-tube elements, or sieve-tube members.
 Though alive, sieve-tube elements lack a nucleus, ribosomes, a distinct vacuole, and
cytoskeletal elements. This reduction in cell contents enables nutrients to pass more easily
through the cell.
 The end walls between sieve-tube elements, called sieve plates, have pores that facilitate
the flow of fluid from cell to cell along the sieve tube.

10 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

 Alongside each sieve-tube element is a no conducting cell called a companion cell, which is
connected to the sieve tube element by numerous channels called plasmodesmata.
 The nucleus and ribosomes of the companion cell serve not only that cell itself but also the
adjacent sieve-tube element.
 In some plants, the companion cells in leaves also help load sugars into the sieve-tube
elements, which then transport the sugars to other parts of the plant.

11 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Plant Organs
The Three Basic Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves
 The basic morphology of vascular plants reflects
their evolutionary history as terrestrial organisms
that inhabit and draw resources from two very
different environments— below the ground and
above the ground. They must absorb water and
minerals from below the ground surface and CO2 and
light from above the ground surface. The ability to
acquire these resources efficiently is traceable to the
evolution of three basic organs—roots, stems, and
leaves.
 These organs form a root system and a shoot
system, the latter consisting of stems and leaves.
With few exceptions, vascular plants rely completely
on both systems for survival. Roots typically are not
photosynthetic; they starve unless photosynthates,
the sugars and other carbohydrates produced during
photosynthesis, are imported from the shoot system.
Conversely, the shoot system depends on the water and minerals that roots absorb from the
soil. Vegetative growth—production of non-reproductive leaves, stems, and roots—is only one
stage in a plant’s life.
 Most plants also undergo growth relating to sexual reproduction. In angiosperms,
reproductive shoots bear flowers, which consist of leaves that are highly modified for sexual
reproduction.
Leaves
 In most vascular plants, the leaf is the main photosynthetic organ, although green stems also
perform photosynthesis.
 Leaves vary extensively in form but generally consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, the
petiole, which joins the leaf to the stem at a node.
 Grasses and many other monocots lack petioles; instead, the base of the leaf forms a
sheath that envelops the stem.
 Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves. Most
monocots have parallel major veins that run the length of the blade.
 Eudicots generally have a branched network of major veins.

12 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

 In identifying angiosperms according to

structure, taxonomists rely mainly on floral
morphology, but they also use variations in leaf
morphology, such as leaf shape, the branching
pattern of veins, and the spatial arrangement of
leaves. (As shown in the Figure).
 Almost all leaves are specialized for
photosynthesis. However, some species have
leaves with adaptations that enable them to
perform additional functions, such as support,
protection, storage, or reproduction.

Tissue Organization of Leaves

The Figure provides an overview of leaf structure.
 The epidermis is interrupted by pores called stomata (singular, stoma), which allow
exchange of CO2 and O2 between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside the
leaf. In addition to regulating CO2 uptake for
photosynthesis, stomata are major avenues for the
evaporative loss of water. The term stoma can refer
to the stomatal pore or to the entire stomatal
complex consisting of a pore flanked by two guard
cells, which regulate the opening and closing of the
pore.
 The ground tissue of a leaf, a region called the
mesophyll (from the Greek mesos, middle, and phyll,
leaf), is sandwiched between the upper and lower
epidermal layers. Mesophyll consists mainly of
13 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. The mesophylls of many eudicots have two
distinct layers: palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll.
 Palisade mesophyll consists of one or more layers of elongated parenchyma cells on the
upper part of the leaf.
 Spongy mesophyll is below the palisade mesophyll. These parenchyma cells are more loosely
arranged, with a labyrinth of air spaces through which CO2 and oxygen circulate around the
cells and up to the palisade region. The air spaces are particularly large in the vicinity of
stomata, where CO2 is taken up from the outside air and O2 is discharged.
 The vascular tissue of each leaf is continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. Veins
subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. This network brings xylem and
phloem into close contact with the photosynthetic tissue, which obtains water and minerals
from the xylem and loads its sugars and other organic products into the phloem for transport
to other parts of the plant.
 The vascular structure also functions as a framework that reinforces the shape of the leaf.
Each vein is enclosed by a protective bundle sheath, consisting of one or more layers of cells,
usually parenchyma cells.
 Bundle sheath cells are particularly prominent in leaves of plant species that undergo C4
photosynthesis.

14 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata

 Leaves generally have large surface areas and high surface-to-volume ratios.
 The large surface area enhances light absorption for photosynthesis.
 The high surface-to-volume ratio aids in CO2 absorption during photosynthesis as well as in
the release of O2, a by-product of photosynthesis.
 Upon diffusing through the stomata, CO2 enters a honeycomb of air spaces formed by the
spongy mesophyll cells.
 Because of the irregular shapes of these cells, the leaf’s internal surface area may be 10 to 30
times greater than the external surface area.
 Although large surface areas and high surface-to-
volume ratios increase the rate of photosynthesis,
they also increase water loss by way of the stomata.
Thus, a plant’s tremendous requirement for water is
largely a consequence of the shoot system’s need for
ample exchange of CO2 and O2 for photosynthesis.
 By opening and closing the stomata, guard cells help
balance the plant’s requirement to conserve water
with its requirement for photosynthesis (As shown in the figure)

Stomata: Major Pathways for Water Loss

 About 95% of the water a plant loses escapes through stomata, although these pores
account for only 1–2% of the external leaf surface.
 The waxy cuticle limits water loss through the remaining surface of the leaf. Each stoma is
flanked by a pair of guard cells.
 Guard cells control the diameter of the stoma by changing shape, thereby widening or
narrowing the gap between the guard cell pair.
 Under the same environmental conditions, the amount of water lost by a leaf depends
largely on the number of stomata and the average size of their pores.
 The stomatal density of a leaf, which may be as high as 20,000 per square centimeter, is
under both genetic and environmental control.
For example, as a result of evolution by natural selection, desert plants are genetically
programmed to have lower stomatal densities than do marsh plants. Stomatal density,
however, is a developmentally plastic feature of many plants.
 High light exposures and low CO2 levels during leaf development lead to increased density in
many species.

15 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

 By measuring the stomatal density of leaf fossils, scientists have gained insight into the levels
of atmospheric CO2 in past climates. A recent British survey found that stomatal density of
many woodland species has decreased since 1927, when a similar survey was made.
This observation is consistent with other findings that atmospheric CO2 levels increased
dramatically during the late 20th century.
Mechanisms of Stomatal Opening and Closing
 When guard cells take in water from neighboring cells by osmosis, they become more turgid.
In most angiosperm species, the cell walls of guard cells are uneven in thickness, and the
cellulose microfibrils are oriented in a direction that causes the guard cells to bow outward
when turgid (As shown in the Figure –a-).
 This bowing outward increases the size of the
pore between the guard cells. When the cells lose
water and become flaccid, they become less
bowed, and the pore closes.
 The changes in turgor pressure in guard cells
result primarily from the reversible absorption and
loss of K+. Stomata open when guard cells actively
accumulate K+ from neighboring epidermal cells (As
shown in the Figure –b-).
 The flow of K+ across the plasma membrane of
the guard cell is coupled to the generation of a
membrane potential by proton pumps.
 Stomatal opening correlates with active
transport of H+ out of the guard cell.
 The resulting voltage (membrane potential)
drives K+ into the cell through specific
membrane channels The absorption of K+
causes the water potential to become more
negative within the guard cells, and the cells
become more turgid as water enters by
osmosis. Because most of the
K+ and water are stored in the vacuole, the
vacuolar membrane also plays a role in regulating guard cell dynamics.
 Stomatal closing results from a loss of K+ from guard cells to neighboring cells, which leads to
an osmotic loss of water.
 Aquaporins also help regulate the osmotic swelling and shrinking of guard cells.

16 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

Stimuli for Stomatal Opening and Closing

In general, stomata are open during the day and mostly closed at night, preventing the plant
from losing water under conditions when photosynthesis cannot occur.
 At least three cues contribute to stomatal opening at dawn: light, CO2 depletion, and an
internal “clock” in guard cells.
 The light stimulates guard cells to accumulate K+ and become turgid. This response is
triggered by illumination of blue-light receptors in the plasma membrane of guard cells.
 Activation of these receptors stimulates the activity of proton pumps in the plasma
membrane of the guard cells, in turn promoting absorption of K+.
 The stomata also open in response to depletion of CO2 within the leaf’s air spaces as a result
of photosynthesis.
 As CO2 concentrations decrease during the day, the stomata progressively open if sufficient
water is supplied to the leaf.
 A third cue, the internal “clock” in the guard cells, ensures that stomata continue their daily
rhythm of opening and closing. This rhythm occurs even if a plant is kept in a dark location. All
eukaryotic organisms have internal clocks that regulate cyclic processes.
 Cycles with intervals of approximately 24 hours are called circadian rhythm.
 Environmental stresses, such as drought, high temperature, and wind, can cause stomata to
close during the daytime.
 When the plant has a water deficiency, guard cells may lose turgor and close stomata.
 In addition, a hormone called abscisic acid (ABA), produced in roots and leaves in response
to water deficiency, signals guard cells to close stomata.
 This response reduces wilting but also restricts CO2 absorption, thereby slowing
photosynthesis. Since turgor is necessary for cell elongation, growth ceases throughout the
plant. These are some reasons why droughts reduce crop yields.
 Guard cells control the photosynthesis-transpiration compromise on a moment-to-moment
basis by integrating a variety of internal and external stimuli. Even the passage of a cloud or a
transient shaft of sunlight through a forest can affect the rate of transpiration.
Adaptations That Reduce Evaporative Water Loss
 Plants adapted to arid environments, such as the stone plants of the Kalahari Desert (see
the Figure), are called xerophytes (from the Greek xero, dry).
 Dry soils are relatively unproductive because plants need a sufficient quantity of liquid
water to carry out photosynthesis. However, the reason why water availability is so tied to
plant
productivity is not related to photosynthesis’s direct need for water as a substrate but rather
because freely available water allows plants to keep stomata open and take up more CO2.
17 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

 Many species of desert plants avoid drying out by completing their short life cycles during
the brief rainy seasons.
 Rain comes infrequently in deserts, but when it arrives, the vegetation is transformed as
dormant seeds of annual species quickly germinate and bloom, completing their life cycle
before dry conditions return.
 Longer-lived species have unusual physiological or morphological adaptations that enable
them to withstand the harsh desert conditions.
 Many xerophytes, such as cacti, have highly reduced leaves that resist excessive water loss;
they carry out photosynthesis mainly in their stems.
 The stems of many xerophytes are fleshy because they store water for use during long dry
periods. Some desert plants, such as mesquite, have roots more than 20 m long, allowing
them to acquire moisture at or near the water table.
 Another adaptation to arid habitats is crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), a specialized
form of photosynthesis found in succulents of the family Crassulaceae and several other
families. Because the leaves of CAM plants take in CO2 at night, the stomata can remain closed
during the day, when evaporative stresses are greater. Stomata are the most important
mediators of the conflicting demands of CO2 acquisition and water retention.

Questions
1- Which type of plant tissue is an active site of cell division?
A. Sclerenchyma
B. Xylem
C. Phloem
D. Meristematic
2- The living tissue that provides support to the growing parts of the plant, is …….
A. Sclerenchyma
B. Collenchyma
C. Parenchyma
D. Chlorenchyma
3- Both phloem sieve tubes and xylem vessels are derived from same kind of precursor cell,
but at maturity they are very different. What feature is unique to phloem sieve tubes?
A. The cell membrane remains intact in a mature functioning cell.
B. The cell wall is rigid because of deposition of lignin.
C. The cell undergoes programmed cell death during development
D. The cell contributes to the mechanical support of the stem.

18 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

4- In plants, the most common ground tissue is…………….

A. Cortex
B. Epidermis
C. Collenchyma
D. Parenchyma
5- Meristematic tissue is responsible for the growth of the plant. Which type of meristematic
tissue is responsible for the increase in girth of the plant?
A. Sclerenchyma
B. Xylem
C. Lateral meristem
D. Apical meristem
6- The living and non-lignified component of vascular bundles are ………….
A. vessel & tracheid.
B. vessel & phloem.
C. wood fibres & phloem.
D. wood parenchyma & phloem.
7- Which combination of characteristics of a vessel element are most important for water
movement in the xylem?
A. Rigid cell wall, cell dead at maturity, end walls absent.
B. Rigid cell wall, reduction in size of plastids & mitochondria, end walls present.
C. Rigid cell wall, living cell membrane, end walls absent.
D. Flexible cell wall, cell dead at maturity, end walls absent.
8- Which type of plant tissues contains chlorophyll?
A. Parenchyma
B. Sclerenchyma
C. Collenchyma
D. Chlorenchyma
9- Which tissue does the husk of a coconut contain?
A. Parenchyma
B. Sclerenchyma
C. Collenchyma
D. Chlorenchyma
10- Which substance is responsible for thickening of sclerenchyma walls?
A. Cellulose
B. Lignin
C. Cutin
D. Suberin
19 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

11- Epidermis in desert plants has a thin waxy coating of a chemical substance called …….
A. Cellulose
B. Lignin
C. Cutin
D. Suberin
12- Mostly, the flesh of the fruit is made of …………….
A. Collenchyma
B. Meristem
C. Collenchyma
D. Parenchyma
13- From mature parenchyma, plant regeneration can occur as…………..
A. there are no cell walls
B. they are nucleate
C. they can dedifferentiate
D. it forms the bulk of the ground tissue
14- Which are the tubular structures present in xylem?
A. Xylem fibers
B. Meristematic cells
C. Tracheids and vessels
D. Sieve tubes and companion cells
15- The dead part of phloem is ……..
A. Sieve tube
B. Companion cell
C. Fibers
D. Parenchyma
16- The plant tissues that are known for photosynthesis, secretion and storage are……...
A. Parenchyma
B. Collenchyma
C. Sclerenchyma
D. Vascular cambium
17- Simple permanent tissue that is food storing is ………...
A. Parenchyma
B. Collenchyma
C. Sclerenchyma
D. Sieve tubes

20 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

18- Which of the following statement is true about the spongy parenchyma?
A. Round or oval loosely arranged cells
B. Adjacent cells
C. Devoid of chloroplasts
D. None the above
19- Which of the following statement is true about the palisade parenchyma?
A. Elongated cells
B. Adaxially placed
C. Vertically and parallelly placed
D. All of these
20- The mesophyll of a dicot leaf contains ……
A. palisade parenchyma
B. Spongy collenchyma
C. Palisade collenchyma
D. Both (a) and (b)
21- Aerenchyma and chlorenchyma are types of ………...
A. Xylem
B. Phloem
C. Vascular bundle
D. Parenchyma
22- The major function of sieve tubes in plants, is ………
A. mechanical support.
B. translocation of organic solutes.
C. translocation of water & minerals.
D. food storage.
23- Cell division typically occurs only in the meristematic regions of plants. In which region
would cell division not occur?
A. shoot apex.
B. wood.
C. expanding leaf.
D. cambium between wood & bark.
By using the following figure, answer the following questions:
24- The main sites of gaseous exchange is number …….
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

21 | P a g e
Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

25- The main sites of photosynthesis process is number …….

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
26- From the ground tissue …….
A. 1 and 2
B. 2 and 5
C. 5 and 6
D. 6 and 7
27- The vascular cambium normally gives rise to:
A. Primary phloem
B. Secondary xylem
C. Palisade tissue
D. Epidermis
28- Cortex is the region found between
A. Epidermis and stele
B. Pericycle and endodermis
C. Endodermis and pith
D. Endodermis and vascular bundle
29- Ground tissue includes ……..
A. All tissues except epidermis and vascular bundle
B. Epidermis and cortex
C. All tissues internal to epidermis
D.All tissues except vascular tissue
30- The guard cells differ from any epidermal cells in having ……
A. Mitochondria
B. Chloroplasts
C. Cytoskeleton
D. Endoplasmic reticulum

22 | P a g e