Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

HUMAN ANATOMY
- study of the normal structures of the human body and their relationships

with one another.

- the word ANATOMY was derived from Greek word tome meaning “ cut into” implying study of
structures by dissection of dead human bodies.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

- study of the different functions of the normal structures of the human body and the involved processes
of how these body parts work.

DIVISIONS OF HUMAN ANATOMY:

A. Gross / Macroscopic anatomy

- study of normal structures of the human body big enough to be studied by unaided eye.

This includes:

1. Systemic Anatomy– study of structures of specific body systems

e.g. nervous and circulatory systems.

2. Regional Anatomy – study of structures by body regions.

e.g. head region, thoracic region.

3. Surface anatomy – study of the landmarks on the body surface of the different visceral organs.

B. Microscopic Anatomy

- study of structures of the human body through use of microscope.

This includes:

1. Cytology– chemical and microscopic study of cells

2. Histology– study of normal tissues of the body

C. Embryology

- study of development of the human body from fertilization of ovum up to the period of extrauterine
life.

D. Neuroanatomy

- study of normal microscopic, gross features and development of the nervous system

DIVISIONS OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

A. Cell Physiology

- the study of the functions of living cells

-the cornerstone of human physiology

B. Special Physiology

- is the study of the functions of specific organs

e.g. cardiac physiology-is the study of the heart function

C. Systemic Physiology

- includes all aspects of the functions of specific c organ systems.

e.g. cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology and reproductive physiology.

D. Pathologic physiology

- is the study of the effects of diseases on organ or system functions.

HOMEOSTASIS
- refers to the existence of a stable internal environment

- here, body’s internal environment remain within certain physiologic limits.

- to survive, every living human body must maintain homeostasis wherein we have different physiologic
mechanisms set to prevent potentially disruptive changes that can lead to illness or even death of the
living human body. This is called Homeostasis regulation.

HEMEOSTATIS REGULATION
1. Autoregulation – occurs when the activities of a cell, tissue, organ or organ system change
automatically when faced with some environment variation.

1. e.g. when the cells lack oxygen they release chemicals dilating blood vessels in the area.

2. Extrinsic regulation – results from the activities of the nervous system or endocrine system, organ
systems that can control or adjust the activities of many different systems simultaneously.

2. e.g. during exercise, nervous system commands the increase of heart rate so that blood will
circulate faster.

ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESSES:

1. Metabolism – includes all the chemical processes that occur in the body.

2. Responsiveness –the body’s ability to react to changes in environment both internally or externally.

3. Movement – motion occurring inside the human body, either the whole

body or individual cells or even the organelles within these cells.

4. Growth– an increase in body size that results from an increase in the

size or number of cells.

5. Differentiation– development of cells from an unspecialized to a

specialized state.

6. Reproduction– formation of new cells for growth, repair or replacement

or the production of a new individual

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL– includes atoms, the smallest unit of matter and the molecules with two or more
atoms joining together.

Example of atoms : C, H, O, Ca, Example of molecules : carbohydrates, fats, proteins

2. CELLULAR LEVEL –above the chemical level, the cell is the structural unit of the body. It is composed
of group of molecules performing specifi c functions

3. TISSUE LEVEL– group of cells similar in structure and function together with their intercellular
substance

Fundamental types of tissues:

1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscular 4. Nervous

4. ORGAN LEVEL – composed of different types of tissues joined together for some specifi c functions.

Examples :

1. each named bone in the body

2. each named muscle in the body

3. heart

4. brain

5. SYSTEM LEVEL – composed of related organs with some common definite functions.

e.g. Cardiovascular system– the heart and each named blood vessel are organs belonging to the system.

BODY SYSTEMS
1. Integumentary system– the skin and its appendages

e.g. hairs and nails

2. Skeletal system– composed of bones and certain cartilaginous parts like in the chest and nose

3. Articular system– consisting of joints and their associated bones and ligaments

4. Muscular system– comprising all skeletal muscles.

- the primary functions of this system is locomotion.

5. Nervous system –consisting of the brain and spinal cord central nervous system) and the nerves
arising from them (peripheral nervous system).

- parts of the nervous system concerned chiefly with regulation of visceral activity (e.g. of the heart and
stomach) are referred to as the autonomic nervous system

- because of their closed developmental and functional associations, the special sense organs (sight,
hearing, taste and smell) are usually described with the nervous system

- the master system that controls and coordinates the activities of all other systems.

6. Circulatory system or vascular system

- comprising the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) and the lymphatic system
composed of lymph nodes and vessels.

7. Digestive system (alimentary system)

– composed of oral cavity, pharynx, and gut,

- it extends from the mouth to anus.

- associated with it are glands (e.g. the pancreas and liver).

- concerned with the assimilation of food.

8. Respiratory system– comprising the lungs and a system of tubes by which the air reaches them.

- concerned with the exchange of oxygen &carbon dioxide

9. Urinary system –composed of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and excretory passages.

- concerned with the elimination of waste material in the urine.

10. Reproductive system (genital system) – comprising of various organs that are concerned with
reproduction. - Because of their close association, especially in the adult male, the urinary and genital
systems are often referred to as the urogenital system.

11. Endocrine system– consisting of ductless glands (e.g. the hypophysis cerebri or pituitary gland) which
produce secretions called hormones that are carried by the circulatory system to all parts of the body

BODY REGIONS:
1. Head –where brain and face with eyes, nose, mouth and ears are found.

2. Neck – connects head and trunk

3. Trunk

a. Thorax – with heart and lungs

b. Abdomen –with most parts of digestive system and urinary system

c. Pelvic cavity and Perineum – with reproductive organs and distal parts of digestive and urinary
system.

4. Upper Extremities

5. Lower Extremities

ANATOMICAL POSITION
- a person in the anatomical position is standing erect (or lying supine as if erect) with the head and
eyes directed forward, the upper limbs by the sides with the palms facing forward and the lower limbs
together with the toes pointing forward.

ANATOMICAL PLANES
- Anatomical descriptions are also based on four imaginary planes that pass through the body in the
anatomical position

1. Median plane– the imaginary vertical line passing longitudinally through the body from front to back
dividing it into right and left halves.

2. Sagittal plane – imaginary vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane
dividing this into right and left parts.

named after the sagittal suture of the skull with which they are parallel

- the sagittal plane that passes through the median plane of the body is often referred to as the
midsagittal plane
3. Coronal plane or frontal plane– imaginary vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to
the median plane, dividing it into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

- named after the coronal suture of the skull, which is in coronal plane.

4. Horizontal plane or transverse plane or X-section– imaginary planes passing through the body at right
angles to both the median and coronal planes dividing the body to upper and lower parts

SECTIONS OF THE BODY

1. Longitudinal section or vertical section– body part is cut in the direction of the long axis of
the body, or any of its parts.
- may be cut in median, sagittal, or coronal planes
2. Transverse sections or cross section – are parts of the body which are cut at right angles to
the longitudinal axis of the body or its parts.
3. Oblique sections – are sections of the body that are not cut in one of the anatomical planes
of the body (e.g. they slant or deviate from these planes).