[ENGINEERING MATERIAL SCIENCE]

BDU 10603

ASSIGNMENT II

NAME: KAIRUL IKWAN BIN KAMARULLAILI

ID NO: AD100118

IC NO: 910106-05-5089

QUESTION SET : 3

LECTURER’S NAME: DR. SUFIZA

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ASSIGNMENT 2

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the stress strain behavior for brittle materials.

The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a
certain cross-sectional area of an object. From the perspective of loading, stress is the
applied force or system of forces that tends to deform a body. From the perspective of
what is happening within a material, stress is the internal distribution of forces within a
body that balance and react to the loads applied to it. The stress distribution may or may
not be uniform, depending on the nature of the loading condition
While, strain is the response of a system to an applied stress. When a material is
loaded with a force, it produces a stress, which then causes a material to deform.
Engineering strain is defined as the amount of deformation in the direction of the applied
force divided by the initial length of the material. This results in a unit less number,
although it is often left in the unsimplified form, such as inches per inch or meters per
meter
Brittle materials such as concrete and carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and
do not strain-harden. Therefore the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the
same.Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic deformation but fail
while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the
two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original
component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials.

A typical stress strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. Testing of several
identical specimen, cast iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible compared to the
compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass
fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is
because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size
of the sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In general, the tensile strength
of a rope is always less than sum of the tensile strength of its individual fibers.

Stress-strain curves exist for a variety of materials and alloys, allowing engineers to
select the right material for their particular application
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 The area between Points 1 and 2 is called the elastic region.  If stress is removed, the
material will return to its original length.

 Point  2  is  the  proportional  limit  (PL)  or  elastic  limit,  and

 Point  3  is  the  yield strength (YS) or yield point.

 The  area  between  Points  2  and  5  is  known  as  the  plastic  region  because  the
material will not return to its original length.

 Point 4 is the point of ultimate strength and

 Point 5 is the fracture point at which failure of the material occurs.

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2. Describe the process of fracture of metals and differentiate between ductile and
brittle fracture

Fracture is separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at

temperatures below the melting point.

Steps in fracture:
 crack formation
 crack propagation

Fracture
Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic
deformation before the fracture two fracture modes can be
defined - ductile or brittle

• Ductile fracture - most metals (not too cold):

 Extensive plastic deformation ahead of crack
 Crack is “stable”: resists further extension unless
applied stress is increased

• Brittle fracture - ceramics, ice, cold metals:

 Relatively little plastic deformation
 Crack is “unstable”: propagates rapidly without
increase in applied stress
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Brittle fracture and ductile fracture are fairly general terms describing the two opposite
extremes of the fracture spectrum. There are several factors that make a material lean
toward one type of fracture as opposed to the other type of fracture.

The first factor is temperature. Basically, the yield strength is lowered and the fracture
is more ductile in nature at higher temperatures. On the opposite end, the yield strength is
greater and the fracture is more brittle in nature at lower temperatures.

This relationship with temperature has to do with atom vibrations. As the temperature
increases, the atoms in the material vibrate with greater frequency and amplitude. This
increased vibration allows the atoms under stress to slip to new places in the material ( i.e.
break bonds and form new ones with other atoms in the material). This slippage of atoms is
seen on the outside of the material as plastic deformation, a common feature of ductile
fracture.

When temperature decreases however, the exact opposite is true. Atom vibration
decreases, and the atoms do not want to slip to new locations in the material. So when the
stress on the material becomes high enough, the atoms just break their bonds and do not
form new ones. This decrease in slippage causes little plastic deformation before fracture.
Thus, we have a brittle type fracture.

At moderate temperatures (with respect to the material) the material exhibits

characteristics of both types of fracture. In conclusion, temperature determines the amount
of brittle or ductile fracture that can occur in a material.

Another factor that determines the amount of brittle or ductile fracture that occurs
in a material is dislocation density. The higher the dislocation density, the more brittle the
fracture will be in the material. The idea behind this theory is that plastic deformation
comes from the movement of dislocations. As dislocations increase in a material due to
stresses above the materials yield point, it becomes increasingly difficult for the dislocations
to move because they pile into each other. So a material that already has a high dislocation
density can only deform but so much before it fractures in a brittle manner.

The last factor is grain size. As grains get smaller in a material, the fracture
becomes more brittle. This phenomena is do to the fact that in smaller grains, dislocations
have less space to move before they hit a grain boundary. When dislocations can not move
very far before fracture, then plastic deformation decreases. Thus, the material's fracture is
more brittle.
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DUCTILE vs BRITTLE FRACTURE

• Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and

energy absorption (“toughness”) before fracture
• Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low
energy absorption before fracture

A B C

A.Very ductile, soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at room

temperature, other metals, polymers, glasses at high
temperature.
B. Moderately ductile fracture, typical for ductile metals
C. Brittle fracture, cold metals, ceramics.
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DUCTILE FRACTURE

45O -maximum
Shear stress

(a) Necking,
(b) Cavity Formation,
(c) Cavity coalescence to form a crack,
(d) Crack propagation

(e) Fracture

Spherical “dimples” correspond to micro-cavities that initiate crack formation.

BRITTLE FRACTURE
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 No appreciable plastic deformation

 Crack propagation is very fast
 Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the
o direction of the applied stress
 Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking
o of atomic bonds along specific
 crystallographic planes (cleavage planes).

A. Transgranular fracture: Fracture cracks pass through

grains. Fracture surface have faceted texture because
of different orientation of cleavage planes in grains.

B. Intergranular fracture: Fracture crack propagation is

along grain boundaries (grain boundaries are weakened
or embrittled by impurities segregation etc.)
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3. Describe creep, creep test, and the use of the lasern-miller parameter in the design
for determination of time to stress rupture.

creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under
the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress
that are below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are
subjected to heat for long periods, and near melting point. Creep always increases with
temperature.

A creep test is a method for determining creep or stress relaxation behavior. To

determine creep properties, material is subjected to prolonged constant tension or
compression loading at constant temperature. Deformation is recorded at specified time
intervals and a creep vs. time diagram is plotted. Slope of curve at any point is creep rate. If
failure occurs, it terminates test and time for rupture is recorded. If specimen does not
fracture within test period, creep recovery may be measured. To determine stress relaxation
of material, specimen is deformed a given amount and decrease in stress over prolonged
period of exposure at constant temperature is recorded

Creep occurs in three stages: Primary, or Stage I; Secondary, or Stage II: and tertiary or
Stage III. Stage I, or Primary creep occurs at the beginning of the tests, and creep is mostly
transiently, not at a steady rate. Resistance to creep increases until Stage II is reached. In
Stage II, or Secondary creep, The rate of creep becomes roughly steady. This stage is often
referred to as steady state creep. In Stage III, or tertiary creep, the creep rate begins to
accelerate as the cross sectional area of the specimen decreases due to necking or internal
voiding decreases the effective area of the specimen. If stage III is allowed to proceed,
fracture will occur.
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The creep test is usually employed to determine the minimum creep rate in Stage II.
Engineers need to account for this expected deformation when designing systems.

Like the Creep Test, Stress Rupture Testing involves a tensile specimen under a
constant load at a constant temperature. The difference being, Stress Rupture Testing uses
higher stresses and is always continued until failure of the material occurs. The Stress
Rupture test is used to determine the time to failure and elongation.

The Larson-Miller parameter is a means of predicting the lifetime of material vs. time
and temperature using a correlative approach based on the Arrhenius rate equation. The
value of the parameter is usually expressed as LMP=T(C + log t) where C is a material
specific constant often approximated as 20, t is the time in hours and T is the temperature
in kelvins.

Creep-stress rupture data for high-temperature creep-resistant alloys are often plotted
as log stress to rupture versusa combination of log time to rupture and temperature. One of
the most common time–temperature parameters used to present this kind of data is the
Larsen-Miller (L.M.) parameter, which in generalized form is

P(L.M.) = T[\log t_r + C]

T = temperature, K or °R

t_r = stress-rupture time, h

C = constant usually of order 20

According to the L.M. parameter, at a given stress level the log time to stress rupture
plus a constant of the order of 20 multiplied by the temperature in kelvins or degrees
Rankine remains constant for a given material.