Electronic Circuit Design

LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

FAST-NU, LAHORE
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Created by: Mr. Omer Saleem Bhatti

Date: 16th January, 2014

Last Updated by: Mr. Omer Saleem Bhatti

Date: 28th December, 2016

Approved by the HoD:

Date:

Page | 2
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Table of Contents
Sr. No. Description Page No.

1 List of Equipment 4

2 Experiment 1: Operational Amplifier Basics 5

3 Experiment 2: Summing Amplifier 10

4 Experiment 3: Difference Amplifier 13

5 Experiment 4: Instrumentation Amplifier 18

6 Experiment 5: DC imperfections 22

7 Experiment 6: Integrators and Differentiators 27

8 Experiment 7: Wein Bridge (Sine-Wave) Osciallator 30

9 Experiment 8: Function Generator 34

10 Experiment 9: Astable Multivibrator using op-amp 38

11 Experiment 10: Monostable and Bistable Multivibrators 41

12 Experiment 11: Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer 47

13 Experiment 12: Precision Rectifier 53

14 Experiment 13: Detectors and Clampers 55

15 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 57

16 Appendix B: Safety Around Electricity 58

17 Appendix C: Guidelines for Preparing Lab Reports 60

Page | 3
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

List of Equipment

Description Specifications Quantity

S.#
1000 V DC
1 Digital Multi-Meter 750 V AC 13
10 A
2 Function Generator 10 MHz 13
3 Oscilloscope 100 MHz 13
4 Laboratory DC Power Supply 30 V, 5 Amp 13
5 Prototyping Bread-Boards -- 13
6 Connecting Cables Supply 40

Page | 4
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 01

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS

Objectives
• To design the basic closed loop amplifiers.
• To understand the concept of negative feedback in op-amps.
• To implement the inverting and non-inverting voltage amplifiers using AC and DC source.
• To investigate the performance of a voltage follower (unity gain buffer).
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard

Theory
The primary use of the operational amplifier is as signal amplifier. By using feedback, operational
amplifiers can be designed to have a wide range of gains. The op amp draws very little current into
its input. This means that the input impedance looking into the inverting and the non-inverting input
is very large. The open-loop gain is also very large. Assuming the open-loop gain is infinity, we can
show that the voltages at the inverting and the non-inverting terminals should be approximately the
same (potential) at all the times. Because of this, we say that the two terminals “track” each other.

Inverting Amplifier
One of the most common operational amplifier designs is the inverting amplifier. This amplifier can
be analyzed by using the above procedure. Remember, no current flows into the op-amp terminals.

Page | 5
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 1: Inverting Amplifier

The gain of this amplifier is:
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = =−
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1
This means that the gain is completely determined by the external resistors as expected. The negative
gain implies that this is an inverting amplifier. This amplifier has an input resistance of
approximately R1.

Non-inverting Amplifier
Another common op-amp configuration is the non-inverting amplifier. This amplifier has very high
input impedance and does not invert the signal like previous design.

Figure 2: Non-inverting Amplifier

The gain of this amplifier is:

𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = =1+
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1

Page | 6
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Unity Gain Source Follower

A special case of the non-inverting amplifier is the source follower. In this case, we let the ratio of
R2/R1 go to zero. This is done in practice by replacing R2 with a short circuit and replacing R1 with
an open circuit.

Figure 3: Source Follower

The gain of the amplifier is:

𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = = 1+ =1
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1
This configuration has the properties of having very high input impedance, very low output
resistance, and the unity gain. It is used as a “buffer” to isolate a source from its load. It is a very
useful amplifier for the instrumentation circuits.

Procedure
1) Inverting Amp
a) Construct an inverting amplifier with R 1 = 2 kΩ, R 2 = 10 kΩ.
Calculate the numerical value of inverting amplifier gain = _________________
b) Power the op-amp with +15V and -15V using the DC power supply and apply a 40mV p-p ,
1 kHz sinusoidal input signal to the amplifier using the signal generator. (Note: Use 20dB
attenuation button and min amplitude on the signal generator to achieve a signal this
small)
c) Display V in and V out at the same time on the scope. Measure the input voltages V in and
V out (peak to peak values). From this, calculate the gain of the inverting amplifier. Is this
value close to what you have calculated in step (a)?
d) Capture the input, output waveforms for your lab report.
e) Gradually vary the input resistance (R 1 ) in steps of 1Ω,
k to change the gain of the
amplifier.

Page | 7
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

f) For the last reading apply a DC+AC signal and observe the overall amplification. You
can apply a 1V DC signal using the signal generator by turning the DC offset ON or a 5V
DC using the 5V fixed power supply.
Compare the theoretical and practical values and find percentage error.
2) Non-Inverting Amp
Repeat the above procedure.

3) Unity Gain Buffer

Repeat the above procedure.

Table 1: Inverting amplifier observations

%𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 =
Av Vo Vo
R1 �𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕) −𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑) �
(V/V) (theoretical) (practical) 𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑)
×
S.# (Ω)
(theoretical) (p-p) (p-p)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%

1 1k

2 2k

3 3k

4 4k

5 5k

Page | 8
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Table 2: Non-inverting amplifier observations

%𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 =
Av Vo Vo
R1 �𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕) −𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑) �
S.# (V/V) (theoretical) (practical) 𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑)
×
(Ω)
(theoretical) (p-p) (p-p)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
1 1k

2 2k

3 3k

4 4k

5 5k

Table 3: Voltage source follower observations

%𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 =
Vo Vo
�𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕) −𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑) �
S.# (theoretical) (practical) 𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎(𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑)
×
(p-p) (p-p)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
1 40mV

2 80mV

3 120mV

4 1V

5 2V

Post Lab
1. Using only one op-amp, design a circuit that yields:
𝑽𝑽𝒐𝒐 = 𝟐𝟐𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 + 𝟓𝟓𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 Hint: Use principle of superposition.
2. The input resistance of non-inverting and buffer amplifier is infinity for ideal op-amp and for
real op-amps this value is very high. State why this is true.

Page | 9
Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Page | 10
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 02

SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Objectives
• To design and implement a weighted summer voltage amplifier.
• To implement different applications of summing amplifiers.
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
The simple summing amplifier shown in the figure below is capable of summing as many signals as
desired with a proportionality determined by the ratio of feedback resistance to input resistance. The
inputs can be any combination of AC and DC signals; however, as with op-amp circuits previously
investigated, such limitations as frequency response, slew rate, offset voltage and output voltage
range must be considered when predicting the output signal.

Figure 1: Summing Amplifier

Page | 11
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Procedure:

1. Making the usual op-amp assumptions concerning input impedance, output impedance, and
open-loop voltage gain, derive an expression for V o in terms of R f , R 1 , R 2 , ... R n , and V 1 ,
V 2 , …V n .
2. Using only two inputs, one to apply a 200 mV peak-to-peak sinusoidal signal and the other to
apply +5 V DC, determine suitable values for R f , R 1 and R 2 , that will result in a sinusoidal
output voltage that swings from a minimum of -9 V to a maximum of -1 V. Show and
implement the schematic diagram for this circuit.
3. Design a 3 bit D/A converter using an op-amp summing amplifier. Input voltages of 0 V and
5 V will be used to provide logic low and high inputs, respectively. V 1 will be the least
significant bit, V 2 the next most significant bit, etc. Select the values of R 1 through R 6 to
provide an output that will vary as the digital input varies from 000 to 111. Design and
implement the schematic diagram for this circuit.

(𝑉𝑉1 + 2𝑉𝑉2 + 4𝑉𝑉3 )

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = +
12

Figure 2: D/A Converter

R 1 = ______________________ R 2 = ______________________

R 3 = ______________________ R 4 = _________ _____

R 5 = ______________________ R 5 = ______________________

Page | 12
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Table 1: D/A converter observations

Vo Vo
S.# Digital Input %age Error
(theoretical) (practical)
1 001
2 010
3 100
4 101
5 110

4. Assume that the diode in the circuit of Figure below is a silicon diode with a voltage that
varies inversely with temperature at the rate of 2.5 mV/ ºC, and has a knee voltage of 0.7 V
@ 25 ºC. Use R f = 10 kΩ, R 1 = 1.5 kΩ, R 2 = 3.9 kΩ and V ref = 2.5V. This will cause the
output voltage to vary as the temperature varies. Circuits such as this are used in temperature
sensing applications. You may use any diode of the series 1N4001 – 1N4007. Implement the
circuit and observe the behavior.
Rff

R1

Figure 3: Temperature Sensor

Post-Lab

1) Explain the working and functionality of D/A convertor and temperature sensor, qualitatively
and quantitatively.
2) Design and implement the schematic diagram for this circuit using summing amplifier
configuration having following mathematical function.

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 8𝑉𝑉1 + 6𝑉𝑉2 − 3𝑉𝑉3 − 4𝑉𝑉4

Page | 13
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 03
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Objectives
• To design and implement a voltage amplifier that amplifies the difference between the two
voltage inputs, using a single op-amp.
• To study the effect of resistances on gain and CMRR.
• To compare the performance of differential amplification using a single op-amp and a two
op-amp configuration.

Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard

Theory
In an earlier experiment you studied the inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier circuits. It
is natural to ask if the two circuit types could be combined to perform subtraction or to find the
difference between two voltages. The differential amplifier is designed to amplify the difference
between the two input signals. A simple differential amplifier is shown below.

Figure 1: Differential Amplifier

Page | 14
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

If the four resistors satisfy the relationship, R 2 /R 1 = R 4 /R 3 , then the gain of this amplifier is given
by:

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷 = =
(𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼2 − 𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼1 ) 𝑅𝑅1

Because the amplifier only amplifies the difference between the two input signals, it rejects common
mode signals (signals which are common to the two inputs). Therefore, if common noise appears at
both inputs, it will be rejected. For this reason, the differential amplifier is used in very noisy
environments to reject noise. If the same input signal is applied to both inputs, the voltage gain of
that signal (which should be very small) is denoted as A CM . One can define what is known as
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) as:

𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 20 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

For a good difference amplifier, this number will be very large (80-100 dB).

Procedure:

1. Using LM741, build the difference amplifier. Take R 2 = R 4 = 10 kΩ and R 1 = R 3 = 2 kΩ.

Then, bias the amplifier with +15V and 0V. Fix V I1 = 5V and vary the voltages at the input
V I2 (V I2 > V I1 ) and record the result in the table 1 below.

Table 1: Differential amplifier observations

V I1 V I2 Vo (V) Vo (V)
%age error
S.no. (V) (V) (theoretical) (practical)

1 5

2 5

3 5

4 5

5 5

Page | 15
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

2. Take R 2 = R 4 = 10 kΩ and R 1 = R 3 = 2 kΩ. Then, bias the amplifier with +15V and -15V. By
applying a 1Vp-p, (frequency mentioned in the table below) sinusoid signal between two
inputs, measure the differential gain (A D ) of this circuit. Record the values in table 2 under
AD.

Figure 2

3. Apply a common mode signal to the amplifier (this is done by connecting the function
generator simultaneously to both non-inverting and inverting inputs of the op-amp). Measure
the common mode gain (A CM ) of this amplifier. Record the values in the table under A CM .

Figure 3

4. From steps above calculate the CMRR for 1 kHz. Show your working.
5. Plot a graph of the CMRR vs. signal frequency of the circuit on a semi log graph paper. Take
frequency values on the log scale and CMRR on the linear scale.
6. What Conclusion do you draw from the signal frequency vs. CMRR of the circuit graph plot?
Explain your justification.

Page | 16
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Table 2: Differential amplifier CMRR observations

Frequency AD A CM CMRR
S.no.
(kHz) (V/V) (mV/V) (dB)

1 0.1

2 1.0

3 10.0

4 20.0

5 30.0

6 40.0

7 50.0

8 60.0

9 70.0

10 80.0

11 90.0

12 100.0

Page | 17
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Post Lab

Figure 4

The circuit shown above is also a difference amplifier.

1. Derive the Differential Gain formula. Provide the assumptions taken, if any.
2. Explain the functioning and the benefit of using this circuit over the one implemented in the
lab.

Page | 18
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 04
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
Objectives
• To implement an instrumentation voltage amplifier, using three op-amps.
• To study the effect of resistances on gain and CMRR.

Equipment
1. LM324 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard

Theory
Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of difference amplifier with additional input buffer stages. The
addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to match (impedance matching) the amplifier with the
preceding stage. Instrumentation amplifier is commonly used in industrial test and measurement
application, due to its low offset voltage, high CMRR (Common mode rejection ratio), high input
resistance, high gain etc. The circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier using op-amp is
shown below.

Figure 1: Instrumentation Amplifier

Page | 19
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

In the circuit diagram, op-amps having the input V 1 and V 2 are the input buffers. The gain of these
buffer stages are not unity because of the presence of R1 and Rg. The op-amp at the output stage is
wired as a standard difference amplifier. R3 connected from the output to its non inverting input is
the feedback resistor. R2 is the input resistor. The voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier can
be expressed by using the equation below.

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅4

= �1 + �� �
𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

If need a setup for varying the gain, replace Rg with a suitable potentiometer. Instrumentation
amplifiers are generally used in situations where high sensitivity, accuracy and stability are required.
For Figure 2, R1 = R5 and R3 = R4 = R6 = R7 are to be same.

Procedure

Task 1
1. Refer to pin configuration of LM324 given in Figure 3.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the Fig 2. Give + 12V DC and GND using the power supply.
3. R 2 must also be a fixed 100 KΩ resistor.
4. Provide difference signal V 1 & V 2 at the input (V 2 > V 1 ), using a separate power supply.
5. Calculate V out theoretically using the formula.
6. Switch on the power supply and measure V out .
7. Record your observations in Table 1.
8. Compute the percentage error between the calculated and measured V out .
9. Make sure that all the ground connections are common with each other. That is, the GND
connection of V cc to LM324, V1 and V2, the 100kΩ resistor, and V out are to be common.

Page | 20
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 2: Instrumentation Amplifier using LM324

Table 1: Instrumentation amplifier observations

V1 V2 Vout (V) Vout (V)

%age error
S. No. (V) (V) (theoretical) (practical)

Page | 21
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Task 2
1. Bias the amplifier with +15V and -15V. By applying a 1Vp-p, 100 Hz sinusoid signal at V I2
and GND at V I1 , measure the differential gain of this circuit.
2. Apply a common mode signal to the amplifier (this is done by connecting the function
generator simultaneously to both non-inverting and inverting inputs of the op-amp). Measure
the common mode gain of this amplifier.
3. From steps above calculate the Common Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR

Figure 3: LM324 Pin Configuration

Post-Lab
The figure below shows an instrumentation amplifier driven by a bridge. Find the gain V o / V i of the
amplifier.

Figure 4. Bridge driven instrumentation amplifier

Page | 22
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 05
DC IMPERFECTIONS
Objectives
• To study the effects of input bias current and the input offset voltage on the performance of
op-amp voltage amplifiers with large feedback resistance.
• To explore ways in which to compensate for these non-idealities in applications.

Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard

Theory
V OS , I OS , and IB are examples of DC imperfections in real op amps. Using the general circuit shown
in Figure 1, we will determine a procedure to extract the three parameters V OS , IOS , and I B . The goal
is to derive V C in terms of the input, V OS , IB1 , and IB2 using superposition. Since 3 unknowns need 3
equations, we need to find V C for three input/resistor combinations that accentuate the effects of non
idealities.
To examine the effect of the offset voltage we will ground the non-inverting pin (eliminate R 3 ). The
offset voltage will be seen at the inverting terminal using ideal op amp assumptions. The circuit
would be similar to a non-inverting amplifier:

𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶1 = �1 + � × 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝑅𝑅1

Secondly, we can determine the output voltage caused by the bias current flowing toward the
inverting terminal by grounding the non-inverting pin, this time neglecting the offset voltage on the
non inverting pin. Since, the inverting pin is at theoretical ground and the other end of R 1 is at

Page | 23
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

ground, no current will flow through R 1 as there is no voltage drop. Therefore the offset voltage
based on I B1 :
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶2 = 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 × 𝑅𝑅2
Finally, the offset voltage as a result of I B2 can be found. Now, R 3 plays a role. There is a voltage
drop across R 3 (V R3 = I B2 × R 3 ). This voltage will be seen at the input to the inverting terminal
(similar in form to that in equation 1). The output voltage becomes:
𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶3 = − �1 + � × 𝑅𝑅3 × 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2
𝑅𝑅1
Procedure:
1. Offset Voltage (V OS ):
Offset voltage can be measured by using a simple non inverting configuration as shown in Figure 1.
This value can be compared to the datasheet value and a percent error can easily be calculated.
Measure the output voltage and carry out the proper calculation to determine the offset voltage given
the configuration of the op amp. In this case, the effect of the bias currents on the offset voltage is
effectively canceled by determining the value of R 3 as the parallel combination of R 2 and R 1 i.e.
R3 = R1|| R2 = 100kΩ||1kΩ ≅ 1kΩ. Hence V C1 becomes:
𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶1 = �1 + � × 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝑅𝑅1
This equation can be used to calculate practical value of V OS .
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶1
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
𝑅𝑅
�1 + 2 �
𝑅𝑅1
Vos (datasheet) = Vos (practical) = Error (%) =

Figure 1: Offset Voltage

*NOTE: Vos is not an actual source; it models the offset voltage present.

Page | 24
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

2. Bias Current I B1 :
To determine IB1 , we will measure the output voltage with the circuit configured as shown in figure
2 below. Based on the output voltage, we can calculate I B1 using:
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶2 = 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 × 𝑅𝑅1
Use the experimental off set voltage measured in the previous section for your calculation and
calculate I B1 .

Figure 2: Bias Current, I B1

I B1 (practical) =
3. Bias Current I B2 :
To determine IB2 , we will measure the output voltage with the circuit configured as shown in figure
3 below. Based on the output voltage, we can calculate I B2 using formula:
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶3 = 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2 × 𝑅𝑅3
Use the experimental offset voltage measured in the previous section for your calculation.

Figure 3: Bias Current, I B2

I B2 (practical) =

Page | 25
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Using the experimental values of I B1 and I B2 found in steps 2 and 3 calculate the overall bias current
and Offset current using the formulas:

𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 + 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
2

𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = |𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2 |

I B (datasheet) = I B (practical) = Error (%) =

I OS (datasheet) = I OS (practical) = Error (%) =

Post-Lab

One way to prevent against the imperfections such as the offset voltage (V OS ) and the bias current
(I B1 & IB2 ) is to use the following circuit. What is the function of this circuit? Design the circuit for
the value of C and R 3 . Justify these values. Implement the circuit and include the results in your lab-
report.

Figure 4

Page | 26
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 06
INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERNTIATORS
Objectives
• To design and implement an inverting integrator.
• To design and implement an inverting differentiator.
Equipment
1. LM741 Op Amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Signal Generator
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory
Op-amp circuits are often designed and implemented for signal differentiation and integration. Until
recently (before computer-based control), control algorithms (such as PID) containing differentials
and integrals were implemented in discrete circuit components. Differentiation is also useful for
obtaining velocity measurements from a signal representing a position or determining a signal's
frequency. In this lab, practically realizable differentiators and integrators will be built.

Figure 1: Integrators & Differentiators

Page | 27
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

1. The Integrator
Op-amps allow you to make nearly perfect integrators such as the practical integrator shown in
figure below. The circuit incorporates a large resistor in parallel with the feedback capacitor. This is
necessary because real op-amps have a small current flowing at their input terminals called the "bias
current". This current is typically a few nano-amps, and is neglected in many circuits where the
currents of interest are in the micro-amp to milliamp range. However, if you apply a nano-amp
current to a 0.1mF capacitor, it won't take long until it charges and becomes effectively an open
circuit not allowing any current to flow! The feedback resistor gives a path for the bias current to
flow. The effect of the resistor on the response is negligible at all but the lowest frequencies.

Figure 2: Op-Amp Integrator

Task 1:

• Wire up the practical op-amp integrator shown in figure 2 above.

• Drive the input (via v in (t)) with a 500Hz square wave of 2 V p-p amplitude. Sketch the
input and output waveforms.
• Has the input been integrated?
• Repeat using a sine wave and a triangle wave.
• Calculate the expected output waveform for sine wave via integration formula using the
circuit component values and compare to the experimental waveform.
• Does the amplitude of the output waveform agree with what it should be from the circuit
values?

Page | 28
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

2. The Differentiator

The ideal differentiator is inherently unstable in practice due to the presence of some high frequency
noise in every electronic system. An ideal differentiator would amplify this small noise. For
instance, if v noise = Asin(wt) is differentiated, the output would be v out = Awcos(wt). Even if A =
1mV, when w = 2π(10MHz) v out would have an amplitude of 63V! To circumvent this problem, it is
traditional to include a series resistor at the input and a parallel capacitor across the feedback
resistor, converting the differentiator to an integrator at high frequencies for filtering.

Figure 4: Op-Amp Differentiator

Task 3:
• Wire up the practical op-amp differentiator shown in figure 4 using your op-amp.
• Drive it (via v in (t)) with a 1 V P-P , 0.5 kHz sine wave, a 0.5 kHz square wave, and a 0.5
kHz triangle wave. For each input signal, sketch the input and output waveforms.
• Are the output waveforms and their amplitudes what you would expect, i.e., does the
circuit differentiate the input signal?
• Calculate the expected output waveform for sine wave via differentiation formula using
the circuit component values and compare to the experimental waveform.
• Does the amplitude of the output waveform agree with what it should be from the circuit
values?

Page | 29
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Post-Lab
1. Analog-to-Digital Convertors are known to have an integrator as one of the essential
components in their construction. They are commonly known as ‘Integrating ADC’.
a. Describe the functionality of an integrating ADC
b. Design the circuit of a 2-bit integrating ADC.
2. Integrators find their application in Instrumentation circuits such as Digital Voltmeter.
Describe its working in detail and draw its bock diagram.
3. List two applications of differentiator circuit and describe them in detail.

Page | 30
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 07
SINE-WAVE GENERATOR
Objectives
• To understand the function of Wein-Bridge Oscillator.
• To design and implement a sine wave generator of desired frequency.
• To compare the output frequency with the theoretical value.
• To stabilize the amplitude using a limiter circuit.
Equipment
1. 1N4148 Schottky Diodes
2. LM741op-amp
3. Assorted Resistors
4. Oscilloscope
5. Digital Multimeter
6. DC Supply
7. Breadboard
Theory

Generation of sine wave can be accomplished by employing a positive-feedback loop. It consists of

an amplifier and RC or LC frequency selective network. All oscillators are non-linear circuits. A
positive-feedback loop that could generate sine wave is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator

Here, a positive feedback loop is formed by an amplifier with gain A and a frequency-selective
network with gain β. In this figure an input signal of x s is shown but in actual oscillator no signal

Page | 31
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

input is present. The amplifier, however, needs a DC supply for proper operation. The loop gain of
this circuit in Fig. 1 is given by –A(s)β(s).

For a sustained stable oscillation, the loop gain should be one; i.e. 1=A(s)β(s) = A(jω 0 )β(jω 0 ). At the
frequency ω 0 the phase of the loop gain should be zero and the magnitude of the loop gain should be
unity. This is known as Barkhausen criterion. The frequency ω 0 should be unique otherwise we
wouldn’t have a pure sine wave.

One such example of a sine-wave oscillator that works according to the above principle is Wien-
Bridge oscillator. This uses an Op-Amp and several R, C elements. The basic schematic is shown in
Fig. 2.

Figure 2: A Wien –Bridge oscillator without amplitude stabilization

The loop gain is given by

𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅2 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 1 + 𝑅𝑅2 ⁄𝑅𝑅1 1 + 𝑅𝑅2
1
𝐿𝐿(𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗) = �1 + � � �= =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝 + 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑌𝑝𝑝 1
3 + 𝑗𝑗 �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 �

𝑅𝑅
The first term in L(jω) is the non-inverting amplifier gain A = �1 + 𝑅𝑅2 �. The second term involving Z
1

is the feedback gain β.

When the phase of L is zero, the loop gain (L) is a real number. This condition is satisfied at
ω 0 =1/CR. The frequency of oscillation of the Wien bridge oscillator is given by

1
f=
2πRC

Page | 32
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

To obtain a sustained oscillation at this frequency, one should set the magnitude of the loop-gain to
unity. This can be achieved by selecting:
R2
≈ 2.1
R1

Figure 3: A Wien bridge oscillator with Amplitude Control

Procedure

1. Connect the circuit is as shown in the Fig-3.

2. Set R 1 = 10 kΩ, R 2 = 21 kΩ
3. Use different values of R and C to generate sinusoids of different frequencies.
Page | 33
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

4. Apply +15V and -15V. Switch on the power.

5. Find the theoretical frequency using, f = 1/2πRC.
6. Observe the output on the oscilloscope.
7. Adjust the voltage sensitivity band switch and time-base band switch such that at least two or
more complete sine waves are observed on the screen of Oscilloscope.
8. Measure the practical frequency of the output sinusoid.
9. Compare the two frequencies.
10. Draw the waveform of the sinusoids for reading (3) in the table below.
11. What is concluded from this experiment? What can be done to stabilize the output?

Table 1: Wein Bridge oscillator observation

Theoretical Frequency Measured Frequency Percentage

S.no. R (kΩ) C (nF)
(Hz) (Hz) Error (%)

1 10 16

2 0.22 33

3 0.56 33

4 1.0 10

5 470 20

Post Lab

1. Consider the circuit in Figure 3, it is the same as the circuit discussed in Figure 2, however it
has an additional feature of amplitude control. The limiter circuit serves to stabilize the
output voltage. Submit a detailed lab-report that explains this phenomenon in detail.
2. Using the values in Figure 3, calculate the values of Va and Vb for different readings.
3. Design an Oscillator with a Frequency of 10 kHz?
Page | 34
Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Page | 35
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 08

FUNCTION GENERATOR
Objectives
• To understand the function of Waveform Generator
• To design and implement a square/triangular wave of desired frequency.
• To compare the output frequency with the theoretical value.
Equipment
1. LM741op-amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Oscilloscope
4. Digital Multimeter
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard
Theory

This circuit uses two operational amplifiers. The first op-amp from the left-hand side (A 1 ) functions
as a comparator (Schmitt trigger with positive feedback). The second op-amp (A 2 ) acts as an
integrator. The comparator compares the voltage at point P continuously with respect to the voltage
at the inverting input, which is grounded potential. When the voltage at P goes slightly below zero,
the output of A 1 will switch to negative saturation.

Figure 1: Wave-Form Generator

When the output of A 1 is at positive saturation +V SAT , this voltage is the input of the integrator, the
output of A 2 will be a negative going ramp. Thus one end of the voltage divider R1-R2 is at +V SAT
and other at the negative going ramp. At time t = t 1 ; when the negative going ramp attains value of

Page | 36
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

–V Ramp , the effective voltage at point P becomes slightly less than 0 V. This produces output of A1
from positive saturation to negative saturation level -V SAT .

Figure 2: Output Waveforms

During the time when the output of A 1 is at -V SAT , the output of A 2 increases in positive direction.
At the time t = t 2 the voltage at point P becomes just above 0 V, there by switching the output of A 1
from -V SAT to +V SAT . The cycle repeats and generates a triangular waveform. The frequency of
triangular wave is

𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏
𝒇𝒇 =
𝟒𝟒𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑 𝑪𝑪

Procedure

1. Connect the circuit is as shown in the Fig-3.

2. Apply +4.5V at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp in the 2nd stage.
3. Apply +9V and GND. Switch on the power.
4. Find the theoretical frequency using, f = R 1 /4R 2 R 3 C.
5. Observe the square/triangular wave output on the oscilloscope.
6. Measure the practical frequency of the output sinusoid. Compare the two frequencies.

Page | 37
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 3: Function Generator

Table 1: Function generator observations

Theoretical Measured
Percentage
R 1 (Ω) R 3 (Ω) Frequency Frequency
S. no. Error (%)
(Hz) (Hz)

1 100k 100k

2 100k 47k

3 470k 100k

4 1M 100k

5 2M 100k

7. Draw the Triangular Waveform Output.

8. Draw the Square Waveform Output.
9. What happens to the waveforms if, the +4.5V signal is varied?

Page | 38
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

10. What happens if the 100 Ωk resistor (between pin 3 and pin 6 of input op -amp) is un-
plugged? Comment on the reason for the specific shape of the waveform under such
circumstances.
11. What is concluded from this experiment?

Post Lab
1. Design a Function generator that outputs a square wave and triangular wave generator having
a frequency of 50Hz and amplitude of 8 V p-p . Consult Figure 1 and use GND as Vref.
Calculate all resistance values and draw the complete circuit diagram.
2. Derive the relation of frequency of the triangular wave.

Page | 39
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 09

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR using Op-amp

Objectives
• To design and implement an Astable Multivibrator using op-amp.
• To generate a square wave signal of a specific duty cycle and frequency.

Equipment
1. 741 op-amp
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Oscilloscope
4. Digital Multimeter
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard

Theory
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such
as oscillators, timers and flip flops (e.g a clock signal). An astable multivibrator has two states,
neither one stable. The circuit therefore behaves as an oscillator with the time spent in each state
controlled by the charging or discharging of a capacitor through a resistor. The astable multivibrator
may be created directly with transistors or with the use of integrated circuits such as operational
amplifiers (op amps) or the 555 timer. Most operational amplifiers are powered by a positive and
negative rail voltage—the output is never able to exceed these rail voltages. An example circuit is
shown in Figure 1.

Page | 40
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 1. Op-amp based Astable Multivibrator

Depending upon the inital conditions, the op amp’s output will be driven to either the positive or
negative rail. Upon this occurance, the capacitor will either charge or discharge through resistor R2
(its voltage slowly rising or falling). As soon as the voltage at the op amp’s inverting terminal is
equal to the voltage at the non-inverting terminal (the op amp’s output voltage divided between R1
and R2), the output will be driven to the opposing rail. This process then repeats with the capacitor
discharging if it had previously charged and vice versa. Once the inverting terminal reaches the
voltage of the non-inverting terminal, the output again is driven to the opposing rail voltage and the
cycle begins again. Thus, the astable multivibrator creates a square wave with no inputs. The period
of the astable multivibrator displayed in Figure 1 is:
𝟏𝟏 + 𝜷𝜷
𝑻𝑻 = 𝟐𝟐𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 � �
𝟏𝟏 − 𝜷𝜷
Fill in Table 1 and find the value for R 3 in Table 2 with the appropriate values for the circuit in
Figure 1 to produce a 250 Hz square wave. Before you begin lab, obtain your instructor’s signature
for these values.

Page | 41
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Now design an astabble multivibrator to generate square wave of 500 Hz and 1000 Hz.

Post Lab
1. What difference is noticed in the transient analysis when the initial condition of the capacitor is
modified slightly to a negative voltage? Why does this change occur?
2. What could have affected the initial condition of your experimental circuit, assuming that the
capacitor had no initial charge across it?
3. Using the knowledge from the second Op Amp lab, what could be added to Figure 1 to generate
a triangular waveform? Draw an appropriate schematic for the circuit to achieve this (you do not
need to give components specific values).

Page | 42
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 10

MONOSTABLE AND BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS

Objectives
• To understand the function of 555 Timer IC.
• To design and implement a Mono-Stable Multivibrator.
• To design and implement a Bi-Stable Multivibrator.

Equipment
1. 555 Timer IC
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Oscilloscope
4. Digital Multimeter
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard

Theory

Now we consider a special integrated circuit designed specifically for timing and oscillator
applications: the 555 timer IC, originally invented in 1971 by engineers at Signetics (since absorbed
into NXP Semiconductors). The 555 timer is an example of a mixed signal or interface IC,
incorporating both analog and digital circuitry; we’ll consider such circuits in more detail in a later
experiment. Figure 4-8 shows the functional block diagram and the device pinout for the timer,
which at first glance seems very complicated.

An RS flip-flop inside the 555 timer controls the device’s two outputs: Output and Discharge. A flip-
flop is the generic term for a two-state digital circuit which changes its operating state only when
some particular sequence of its input signals is encountered; otherwise it remains in its current state
— in other words, a flip-flop is an elementary, 1-bit memory. In this case, the flip-flop has two
primary inputs: Reset (R) and Set (S). The inactive state for an input is Low (ground), whereas a
High input (near the V+ power supply voltage) commands the flip-flop to its corresponding

Page | 43
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

operating state: Set (Q = High; ^Q = Low) or Reset (Q = Low; ^Q = High). If both the R and S inputs
are High concurrently, then the 555 gives priority to the S input, driving the flip-flop to its Set state.
The separate 555 Reset terminal input overrides any other command to its internal flip-flop and
clears the flip-flop: drives it to the Reset state (the little circle on the wire from Clear input at the top
of the flip-flop means that it is active when Low).

The operating state of the RS flip-flop determines the condition of the 555 terminals Output and
Discharge. The Output terminal reflects the flip-flop’s Q output: nearly equal to V+ Power when the
flip-flop is Set, nearly equal to ground when the flip-flop is Reset. The Discharge terminal is
connected via an analog switch to the ground terminal: When the flip-flop is Set, the switch is open,
so the Discharge terminal is disconnected from ground; when the flip-flop is Reset, the switch
closes, and the Discharge terminal is shorted to ground.

Figure 1: 555 Timer Schematic

The flip-flop R and S inputs are supplied by two comparators monitoring analog voltages on the
555’s Trigger and Threshold inputs; the comparator reference voltages for these inputs are 1/3 and
2/3 of the power supply voltage applied to the V+ Power terminal. The following table itemizes the
possible input combinations and how they affect the 555 output terminals.

Page | 44
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

1. Monostable Multivibrator
A Monostable Circuit produces one pulse of a set length in response to a trigger input such as a push
button. The output of the circuit stays in the low state until there is a trigger input, hence the name
"monostable" meaning "one stable state". This type of circuit is ideal for use in a "push to operate"
system for a model displayed at exhibitions. A visitor can push a button to start a model's
mechanism moving, and the mechanism will automatically switch off after a set time.

10kΩ

Figure 2: Monostable Multivibrator using 555 Timer

When a negative ( 0V ) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable configured 555
timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator 1) detects this input and "sets" the state of the
flip-flop, changing the output from a "LOW" state to a "HIGH" state. This action in turn turns "OFF"
the discharge transistor connected to pin 7, thereby removing the short circuit across the external
timing capacitor, C 1 . This action allows the timing capacitor to start to charge up through
resistor, R 1 until the voltage across the capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set
up by the internal voltage divider network. At this point the comparators output goes "HIGH" and
"resets" the flip-flop back to its original state which in turn turns "ON" the transistor and discharges
the capacitor to ground through pin 7. This causes the output to change its state back to the original
stable "LOW" value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing process over again. Then as
before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only "ONE" stable state. The monostable circuit triggers
on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and this trigger pulse must be much shorter than the
output pulse width allowing time for the timing capacitor to charge and then discharge fully. Once

Page | 45
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

triggered, the 555 Monostable will remain in this "HIGH" unstable output state until the time period
set up by the R 1 x C 1 network has elapsed. The amount of time that the output voltage remains
"HIGH" or at a logic "1" level is given by the following time constant equation.
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 × 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏
We can manually calculate the values of R and C for the individual components required as we did
in the example above.

Procedure:
Task 1:
1. Design the monostable multivibrator circuit, given in figure 2, using 555 timer IC for the
given pulse duration (t).
2. Fix a value of capacitance (C).
3. Calculate the value of resistance (R) for achieving the pulse duration (t), and vice versa.
4. Implement the circuit on breadboard.
5. Check the output on the oscilloscope (0.5sec/div) and measure the duration of pulse.

Table 1: Monostable multivibrator observations

Capacitance Designed ‘t’ Practical ‘t’ %age

S.# Resistance (kΩ)
(µF) (sec) (sec) error

1 100 20

2 100 1.1

3 100 15

4 100 3

5 10 100

6 10 0.55

7 10 330

Page | 46
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

2. Bistable Multivibrator

A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states, high and low. Taking the Trigger input low makes the
output of the circuit go into the high state. Taking the Reset input low makes the output of the circuit
go into the low state.

Trigger

Figure 3: Bistable Multivibrator using 555 Timer

The switching of the output waveform is achieved by controlling the trigger and reset inputs of the
555 timer which are held "HIGH" by the two pull-up resistors, R1 and R2. By taking the trigger
input (pin 2) "LOW", switch in set position, changes the output state into the "HIGH" state and by
taking the reset input (pin 4) "LOW", switch in reset position, changes the output into the "LOW"
state. This 555 timer circuit will remain in either state indefinitely and is therefore bistable. Then
the Bistable 555 timer is stable in both states, "HIGH" and "LOW". The threshold input (pin 6) is
connected to ground to ensure that it cannot reset the bistable circuit as it would in a normal timing
application. This ability of the 555 timer to both "Sink" (absorb) and "Source" (supply) current
means that the output device can be connected between the output terminal of the 555 timer and the
supply to sink the load current or between the output terminal and ground to source the load current.

Page | 47
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 4: Sink and Source current for LED’s

Task 2:
1. Design the bistable multivibrator circuit, given in figure 3, using 555 timer IC.
2. Fix the value of resistance (R1 & R2) to 10 kΩ.
3. Attach two LED’s with a resistor R (as shown in figure 4), at the output of the bistable
multivibrator, to sink and source the current.
4. Fix the value of resistance (R) to 220 Ω.
5. Implement the circuit on breadboard.
6. Check the output on the oscilloscope

Post Lab
Design a mono-stable multivibrator that can provide four different values of time-period (4 sec,
10 sec, 16 sec and 25 sec). The capacitor should be kept fixed as shown in the figure below. The
resistor must be switched with the aid of a jumper-wire.

Figure 5

Page | 48
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 11

Astable Multivibrators using 555 Timer

Objectives
• To design and implement an Astable Multivibrator.
• To generate a square wave signal of a specific duty cycle and frequency.
Equipment
1. 555 Timer IC
2. Assorted Resistors
3. Oscilloscope
4. Digital Multimeter
5. DC Supply
6. Breadboard
Theory

We can also connect the 555 timer IC in an Astable mode to produce a very stable 555
Oscillator circuit for generating highly accurate free running waveforms whose output frequency can
be adjusted by means of an externally connected RC tank circuit consisting of just two resistors and
a capacitor. The 555 Oscillator is another type of relaxation oscillator for generating stabilized
square wave output waveforms of either a fixed frequency of up to 500 kHz or of varying duty
cycles from 50 to 100%. In order to get the 555 Oscillator to operate as an astable multivibrator, it is
necessary to continuously re-trigger the 555 IC after each and every timing cycle.

This re-triggering is basically achieved by connecting the trigger input (pin 2) and
the threshold input (pin 6) together, thereby allowing the device to act as an astable oscillator. Then
the 555 Oscillator has no stable states as it continuously switches from one state to the other. Also
the single timing resistor of the previous monostable multivibrator circuit has been split into two
separate resistors, R1 and R2 with their junction connected to the discharge input (pin 7) as shown
below.

Page | 49
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 1: Astable Multivibrator using 555 Timer

In the 555 Oscillator above, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the circuit to re-trigger
itself on each and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running oscillator. During each cycle
capacitor, C, charges up through both timing resistors, R 1 and R 2 but discharges itself only through
resistor, R 2 as the other side of R 2 is connected to the discharge terminal, pin 7. Then the capacitor
charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator limit) which is determined by the
0.693×(R 1 +R 2 )×C combination and discharges itself down to 1/3Vcc (the lower comparator limit)
determined by the 0.693(R 2 ×C) combination. This results in an output waveform whose voltage
level is approximately equal to Vcc - 1.5V and whose output "ON" and "OFF" time periods are
determined by the capacitor and resistors combinations.

Page | 50
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

The individual times required to complete one charge and discharge cycle of the output is therefore
given as:

𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

Where, R is in Ω's and C in Farads.

When connected as an astable multivibrator, the output from the 555 Oscillator will continue
indefinitely charging and discharging between 2/3Vcc and 1/3Vcc until the power supply is
removed. As with the monostable multivibrator these charge and discharge times and therefore the
frequency are independent on the supply voltage. The duration of one full cycle is therefore equal to
the sum of the two individual times that the capacitor charges and discharges added together and is
given as:

𝑻𝑻 = 𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

The output frequency of oscillations can be found by inverting the equation above for the total cycle
time giving a final equation for the output frequency of an Astable 555 Oscillator as:

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝒇𝒇 = =
𝑻𝑻 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

By altering the time constant of just one of the RC combinations, the Duty Cycle better known as the
"Mark-to-Space" ratio of the output waveform can be accurately set and is given as the ratio of
resistor R 2 to resistor R 1 . The Duty Cycle for the 555 Oscillator, which is the ratio of the "ON" time
divided by the "OFF" time, is given by

𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐

𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = = %
𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 + 𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 )

The duty cycle has no units as it is a ratio but can be expressed as a percentage ( % ). If both timing
resistors, R 1 and R 2 are equal the output duty cycle will be given as 2:1 or 33%.

Page | 51
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

As the timing capacitor, C charges through resistors R 1 and R 2 but only discharges through
resistor R 2 the output duty cycle can be varied between 50 and 100% by changing the value of
resistor R 2 . By decreasing the value of R 2 the duty cycle increases towards 100% and by
increasing R 2 the duty cycle reduces towards 50%. If resistor, R 2 is very large relative to
resistor R 1 the output frequency of the 555 astable circuit will determined by R 2 x C only. The
problem with this basic astable 555 oscillator configuration is that the duty cycle, the "mark-to-
space" ratio will never go below 50% as the presence of resistor R 2 prevents this. In other words we
cannot make the outputs "ON" time shorter than the "OFF" time, as (R 1 + R 2 )×C will always be
greater than the value of R 1 x C. One way to overcome this problem is to connect a signal bypassing
diode in parallel with resistor R 2 as shown below.

Figure 2: Astable Multivibrator for duty cycles lesser than and equal to 50%

By connecting this diode, D 1 between the trigger input and the discharge input, the timing capacitor
will now charge up directly through resistor R 1 only, as resistor R 2 is effectively shorted out by the
diode. The capacitor discharges as normal through resistor, R 2 . Now the previous charging time
of t 1 = 0.693×(R 1 + R 2 )×C is modified to take account of this new charging circuit and is given
as: t 1 = 0.693×(R 1 × C).

Page | 52
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

The individual times required for completing one charge and discharge cycle of the output is
therefore given as:
𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏(𝑫𝑫<50%) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 ) 𝑪𝑪

𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐(𝑫𝑫<50%) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

Hence the time period and frequency for D < 50% becomes:

𝑻𝑻𝑫𝑫<50% = 𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 + 𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝒇𝒇𝑫𝑫<50% = =
𝑻𝑻𝑫𝑫<50% (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑪𝑪

The duty cycle is therefore given as:

𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏
𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑫𝑫<50% = = %
𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 + 𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 (𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 )

Then to generate a duty cycle of less than 50%, resistor R 1 needs to be less than resistor R 2 .

Procedure:

1. Design the astable multivibrator circuit using 555 timer IC for the given duty cycle and
frequency.
2. Calculate a value of capacitance (C), resistance (R 1 & R 2 ) required to achieve the given duty
cycle and frequency.
3. Implement the circuit on breadboard.
4. Check the output on the oscilloscope and record the results on the table

Page | 53
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Table 1: Astable Multivibrator observations

Resistance, R 1 Resistance, R 2
S.# Duty cycle (%) Frequency (Hz) Capacitance (F)
(Ω) (Ω)

1 90 500 30n

2 70 2000 30n

3 60 500 47n

4 50 1000 47n

5 30 1000 47n

6 10 5000 30n

Post Lab

1. Design a square wave generator (50% duty cycle) at a frequency of 4 MHz

2. It is required that the duty cycle of the wave in part 1 must stay the same. However the
frequency should vary between 100 kHz – 4 MHz. Which component would have to be
replaced and why? Hence the design the range of values of the replaced component.

Page | 54
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 12

PRECISION RECTIFIER
Objectives
• To understand the function of Super-Diode.
• To design and implement an op-amp based half-wave precision rectifier.
Equipment
1. LM741 op-amp
2. 1N4148 Schottky Diodes
3. Assorted Resistors
4. Oscilloscope
5. Function Generator
6. Digital Multimeter
7. DC Supply
8. Breadboard
Theory

The precision rectifier, also known as a super diode, is a configuration obtained with an operational
amplifier in order to have a circuit behave like an ideal diode and rectifier. It is useful for high-
precision signal processing. When a diode is used in the feedback loop of an op-amp then it behaves
as nearly an ideal diode.

Procedure

Task 1

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure below. Apply ±12V as power to the op-amp.
2. Note the input and output waveform.
3. Increase the input frequency and see the distortion in the output.
4. Reverse the polarity of diode and see the output waveform.
5. Remove the operational amplifier and note the output waveform of the passive version of
half wave rectifier.

Page | 55
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

6. Try the passive version for different amplitude levels.

Figure 1: Super-Diode

Task 2
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure below.
2. Apply a 1 kHz 1 V amplitude sine wave.
3. Measure both the input and output of the rectifier with an oscilloscope.
4. Sketch (accurately) the result of the oscilloscope.
5. Write down the gain equation (V 0 /V i ) of the circuit and calculate the peak value of output
waveform. Compare the theoretical and practical waveforms.
6. Explain the change in the output waveform if the diodes are reversed.

Figure 2: Precision Rectifier

Post Lab
Design a Full-Wave Precision Rectifier for a 50 Hz Sine Wave. Explain the changes to be made in
the circuit for a full wave rectification and derive the full wave rectifier formula. Submit a detailed
report, showing experimental results.

Page | 56
Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Page | 57
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

EXPERIMENT 13

PEAK DETECTORS AND CLAMPERS

Objectives
• To implement a peak detector circuit for AC applications.
• To analyze the working of a Clamper (DC restorer)
Equipment
1. LM741 op-amp
2. 1N4148 Schottky Diodes
3. Assorted Resistors
4. Oscilloscope
5. Function Generator
6. Digital Multimeter
7. DC Supply
8. Breadboard

Active Peak Detector

When the diode is reverse biased then the voltage across the capacitor is retained. Capacitor
discharges through the resistor when the diode is reverse biased. Operational amplifier acts as a
voltage follower when the diode is forward biased and charges the capacitor to the peak value.

Task 1
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Apply ±12V as power to the op-amp.
2. Note the input and output waveform.
3. Change the amplitude of the input sine and notice the change in output.
4. Reverse the polarity of diode and see the output waveform.
5. Observe the waveform by removing 10 kΩ load .Then connect it back and connect a 10micro
Farad capacitor.
6. Remove the operational amplifier and note the output waveform of the passive version of
peak detector for low input voltage level.

Page | 58
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Figure 1: Peak Detector

Active Clamper

The figure below is an active clamper. The first negative half cycle produces a positive op amp
output that turns on the diode. This allows the capacitor to charge to the peak value of input voltage.
Just beyond the negative peak, the diode turns off, the loop opens, and the virtual ground is lost.
Since V P adds to a sinusoidal input voltage, the final output waveform is shifted positively through
V P volts.

Task 2

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure below. Apply ±12V as power to the op-amp.
2. Note the input and output waveform.
3. Reverse the polarity of diode and see the output waveform.
4. Remove the operational amplifier and note the output waveform of the passive version of
clamper for low input voltage level.

Figure 3: Active Clamper

Post Lab
Design a circuit for an active Zero-Crossing detector. The input sine wave signal has a frequency of
500Hz and amplitude of 4.5 V. Submit a detailed report.

Page | 59
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs with projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 15%
3. Final evaluation 35-%
a. Project Implementation 60%
b. Project report and quiz 40%

Labs without projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 20%
3. Final Evaluation 30%
i. Experiment. 60%
ii. Lab report, pre and post
experiment quiz 40%

Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of copying
may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to DC. This may
result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.

Page | 60
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Appendix B: Safety around Electricity

In all the Electrical Engineering (EE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents during
conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall be adopted:

• Remember that the voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in EE labs
has enough power to cause death/injury by electrocution. It is around 50V/10 mA that the
“cannot let go” level is reached. “The key to survival is to decrease our exposure to energized
circuits.”
• If a person touches an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded, electricity
will instantly pass through the body to the ground, causing a harmful, potentially fatal, shock.
• Each circuit must be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker that will blow or “trip” when its
safe carrying capacity is surpassed. If a fuse blows or circuit breaker trips repeatedly while in
normal use (not overloaded), check for shorts and other faults in the line or devices. Do not
resume use until the trouble is fixed.
• It is hazardous to overload electrical circuits by using extension cords and multi-plug outlets.
Use extension cords only when necessary and make sure they are heavy enough for the job.
Avoid creating an “octopus” by inserting several plugs into a multi-plug outlet connected to a
single wall outlet. Extension cords should ONLY be used on a temporary basis in situations
where fixed wiring is not feasible.
• Dimmed lights, reduced output from heaters and poor monitor pictures are all symptoms of
an overloaded circuit. Keep the total load at any one time safely below maximum capacity.
• If wires are exposed, they may cause a shock to a person who comes into contact with them.
Cords should not be hung on nails, run over or wrapped around objects, knotted or twisted.
This may break the wire or insulation. Short circuits are usually caused by bare wires
touching due to breakdown of insulation. Electrical tape or any other kind of tape is not
adequate for insulation!
• Electrical cords should be examined visually before use for external defects such as: Fraying
(worn out) and exposed wiring, loose parts, deformed or missing parts, damage to outer
jacket or insulation, evidence of internal damage such as pinched or crushed outer jacket. If
any defects are found the electric cords should be removed from service immediately.
• Pull the plug not the cord. Pulling the cord could break a wire, causing a short circuit.
• Plug your heavy current consuming or any other large appliances into an outlet that is not
shared with other appliances. Do not tamper with fuses as this is a potential fire hazard. Do
not overload circuits as this may cause the wires to heat and ignite insulation or other
combustibles.
• Keep lab equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
• Ensure lamps are free from contact with flammable material. Always use lights bulbs with
the recommended wattage for your lamp and equipment.
• Be aware of the odor of burning plastic or wire.
• ALWAYS follow the manufacturer recommendations when using or installing new lab
equipment. Wiring installations should always be made by a licensed electrician or other
qualified person. All electrical lab equipment should have the label of a testing laboratory.
Page | 61
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

• Be aware of missing ground prong and outlet cover, pinched wires, damaged casings on
electrical outlets.
• Inform Lab engineer / Lab assistant of any failure of safety preventive measures and safe
practices as soon you notice it. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the
laboratory.
• Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the EE Labs.
• Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a direction or
part of a procedure, ASK YOUR LAB ENGINEER / LAB ASSISTANT BEFORE
PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.
• Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in EE Labs without the presence
of the Lab engineer / Lab assistant.
• Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all
instructions, both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
• Be prepared for your work in the EE Labs. Read all procedures thoroughly before entering
the laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks
are dangerous and prohibited.
• Always work in a well-ventilated area.
• Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times.
• Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. Do not wander around the room,
distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the laboratory experiments of
others.
• Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy
clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back, and dangling jewelry
and baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover the foot.
• Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including fire
extinguisher. Know what to do if there is a fire during a lab period; “Turn off equipment, if
possible and exit EE lab immediately.”

Page | 62
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports

Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He will write a report for each experiment he
performs in his notebook. A format has been developed for writing these lab reports.

Hardware Lab Report Format

For hardware based labs, the format of the report will include:

1. Introduction: Introduce area explored in the experiment.

2. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?
3. Measurements: In your own words write how the experiment is performed (Do not copy/paste the
procedure).
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the experiment and how
they were resolved?
b. Graphs, if any
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real world application where this experiment may apply.
6. Answers to post lab questions (if any).

Sample Lab Report: Hardware Experiments

Introduction

An RC circuit is a first order circuit that utilizes a capacitor as an energy storage element whereas a resistor as
an energy wastage element. RC circuits are building blocks of electronic devices and their thorough
understanding is important in comprehending advance engineering systems such as transistors and
transmission lines.

An RC circuit can be operated with both DC and AC sources. In this lab we study transient response of RC
circuits with a square wave as a DC source. During the DC operation of an RC circuit the voltage across the
capacitor or the resistor show energy storing (capacitor charging) and dissipating (capacitor discharging via
resistor) mechanisms of the circuit. The capacitor charging or discharging curves then lead to determine time
constant of the circuit where the time constant signifies time required by the RC circuit to store or waste
energy.

Objective:

To study transient response of a series RC circuit.

Measurements:

The circuit used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 1. Both input (a square wave) and output (voltage across
capacitor) waveforms are monitored on an oscilloscope. The capacitor charging is observed during "on" part
of the square waveform whereas the capacitor discharging is observed during "off" part of the square
waveform (Fig. 2). We measure the time constant from the capacitor charging or discharging curve. While
keeping the capacitor value constant, we also measure time constants with various resistor values (Table 1).

Page | 63
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

Fig.1. The circuit used in the experiment

Issues:

Mention any issue(s) you encountered during the experiment and how they were resolved.

Conclusions:

From the measurements following conclusions can be drawn:

a) The capacitor charging and discharging curves are exponential.

b) The time constant is directly proportional to the resistor value.

Both of the above conclusions are also easily verifiable by solving differential equation for the RC circuit.

Applications:

An RC circuit can be employed for a camera flash. The capacitor discharges through the flash light during a
picture taking event.

INPUT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR

Fig. 2. Input and Output waveforms

Page | 64
 Lab Manual of Electronic Circuit Design

TABLE I. Time constant as a function of the resistor values

Resistance
270 Ω 330 Ω 470 Ω 1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
(Nominal)

Resistance

(Measured)

Time constant

(Calculated)

Time constant

(Measured)

Capacitance

(Measured)

Page | 65