UNIT

3.1
Approaches to
Vocabulary

International students may be understandably concerned by the quantity and

complexity of vocabulary required for reading academic texts in their subject area.
But developing vocabulary involves more than learning lists of words. Part 3
provides a variety of approaches to improving students’ understanding in this area.

1 Introduction

䊏 This paragraph illustrates some of the vocabulary difficulties facing students when
reading and writing academic texts. Read it carefully, paying particular attention to
words in bold.

Going to Extremes?
Muller (2012) maintains that the increased frequency of extreme weather events is
linked to global warming, in particular to rising sea temperatures. However,
McKenzie (2013) insists Muller has a bee in his bonnet on this topic, caused by
using a dysfunctional model, and that there is no real evidence that phenomena
such as flooding and hurricanes are becoming more common. He considers that
the key issue is the growing population in areas vulnerable to events such as
floods. Muller’s principal concern is a rise in the temperature of the north Pacific
Ocean of 0.5º C since 1968, which McKenzie regards as being within the normal
range of historical fluctuation. But Javez (2009) and Simmonds (2011), inter alia,
have argued for an international research programme under the auspices of
UNESCO to monitor these events, given the threefold rise in the cost of insurance
claims since 2000.
156 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

䊏 Study the table below, which shows where this type of vocabulary is dealt with more
fully.

Line Item Vocabulary issue Unit

1 maintains
referring verbs for summarising ideas 3.4
3 insists
in particular
2 conjunctions 3.5
however
3 a bee in his bonnet idiom 3.1
4 dysfunctional can be understood by the prefix 3.7
4 phenomena approximate synonym for events 3.10
5 key metaphor 3.1
7 principal often confused with ‘principle’ 3.1
7 0.5º C
numerical information 3.6
11 threefold
9 inter alia phrase from another language 3.1
10 UNESCO abbreviation 3.2

2 Discussing language

The following words (all nouns) are used to describe common features of language.

䊏 Discuss the words in the list with a partner. Try to think of an example of each.

Ambiguity Where more than one meaning is possible; lack of clarity

Anecdote A story told to illustrate a situation or idea
Cliché An overused idea or phrase; lacking in freshness
Euphemism Word or phrase used to avoid the embarrassment of naming
something directly
Exaggeration Making something better or worse than reality
Idiom Common phrase used in colloquial speech; meaning of which
is not obvious
Metaphor A word used to describe something different from the original
meaning
Paradox An idea that seems wrong but yet may be true
Proverb A traditional statement or rhyme containing advice or a moral
 3.1: Approaches to Vocabulary 157

Saying An often-repeated comment that seems to contain some truth

Simile A comparison of two things, using ‘like’ or ‘as’
Slogan A frequently repeated phrase used in advertising or politics
Statement A rather formal comment on a situation
Synopsis A summary of something
Understatement Saying less than you feel; the opposite of exaggeration

3 Practice

䊏 Study the following sentences and decide which of the features listed above is
illustrated by each one.

(a) He argued that allowing students to smoke on campus would destroy the
exaggeration
college’s reputation. ( __________________ )
(b) The President said she regretted the loss of life in the typhoon and
sympathised with the survivors. ( __________________ )
(c) At the beginning of the lecture Professor Chang told them about an accident
she had seen that morning. ( __________________ )
(d) There’s no such thing as a free lunch, he warned them. ( __________________ )
(e) The author of the report passed away on November 21st. ( __________________ )
(f) He told the class that their law course was a voyage over an uncharted ocean.
( __________________ )
(g) After his laptop was stolen, with the only copy of his dissertation on it, he said
he felt rather annoyed. ( __________________ )
(h) She said that the older she got, the less she seemed to know.
( __________________ )
(i) After the price rise, sales fell like a stone. ( __________________ )
(j) It is said that the early bird catches the worm. ( __________________ )
(k) Their teacher explained that the novel consisted of two parts; the first historical,
the second contemporary. ( __________________ )
idiom
(l) He was over the moon when he won the scholarship. ( __________________ )
(m) ’Finger lickin’ good’ has sold millions of chicken meals. ( __________________ )
(n) His feelings towards his old school were a mixture of love and hate.
( __________________ )
(o) Paris is the capital of romance; the city for lovers. ( __________________ )
158 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

4 Confusing pairs

Certain common words cause confusion because they have similar but distinct spellings and
meanings:
The drought affected the wheat harvest in Australia
An immediate effect of the price rise was a fall in demand
‘Affect’ and ‘effect’ are two different words. ‘Affect’ is a verb, while ‘effect’ is commonly used
as a noun.

䊏 Study the differences between other similar confusing pairs (most common use in
brackets).

accept (verb)/except (prep)

It is difficult to accept their findings
The report is finished except for the conclusion
compliment (noun/verb)/complement (verb)
Her colleagues complimented her on her presentation
His latest book complements his previous research on African politics
economic (adj)/economical (adj)
Inflation was one economic result of the war
Sharing a car to go to work was an economical move
its (pronoun)/it’s (pronoun + verb)
The car’s advanced design was its most distinct feature
It’s widely agreed that carbon emissions are rising
lose (verb)/loose (adj)
No general ever plans to lose a battle
He stressed the loose connection between religion and psychology
principal (adj/noun)/principle (noun)
Zurich is the principal city of Switzerland
All economists recognise the principle of supply and demand
rise (verb – past tense rose)/raise (verb – past tense raised)
The population of Sydney rose by 35 per cent in the century
The university raised its fees by 10 per cent last year
 3.1: Approaches to Vocabulary 159

site (noun)/sight (noun)

The site of the battle is now covered by an airport
His sight began to weaken when he was in his eighties
tend to (verb)/trend (noun)
Young children tend to enjoy making a noise
In many countries there is a trend towards smaller families

䊏 Choose the correct word in each sentence.

(a) The company was founded on the principals/principles of quality and value.
(b) Millions of people are attempting to lose/loose weight.
(c) Sunspots have been known to affect/effect radio communication.
(d) Professor Poledna received their compliments/complements politely.
(e) The ancient symbol depicted a snake eating it’s/its tail.
(f) Both social and economical/economic criteria need to be examined.
(g) It took many years for some of Einstein’s theories to be accepted/excepted.

5 Words and phrases from other languages

When reading academic texts, you may meet words and phrases from other languages, usually
Latin, German or French. They are generally used because there is no exact English equivalent,
and they are often printed in italics:
While the basic tripartite division of the theory into jus ad bellum, jus in bello and jus post-
bellum, and the criteria related to each . . .
(meaning: reasons for going to war, laws of warfare and rules for post-war)
You are not expected to use these phrases in your own writing, but it is useful to understand
them when you read. They can be found in a dictionary, but some of the more common are
listed below:
Latin
ad hoc unplanned
de facto as it really is
de jure according to law
inter alia among others
in vitro studies conducted on isolated organs (in Biology)
pro rata proportional
160 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

French
á propos on the subject of
ancien regime old ruling system
coup d’état military take-over
fait accompli accomplished fact
raison d’être reason for living
German
Bildungsroman a story of growing-up
Mitteleuropa central Europe
Realpolitik political reality
Zeitgeist spirit of the times
 UNIT

3.3
Academic
Vocabulary
Nouns and Adjectives

To read and write academic papers effectively, students need to be familiar with the
rather formal vocabulary widely used in this area. This unit focuses on nouns and
adjectives, while Unit 3.4 looks at verbs and adverbs.

1 Introduction

The quantity and complexity of vocabulary needed to read academic texts often concerns
international students. But it is worth remembering that much of that vocabulary is specific
to your subject area, for example in the sentence:
The effectiveness of this malaria vaccine has been a subject of controversy.
‘Malaria vaccine’ will be understood by medical students, while ‘effectiveness’ and ‘controversy’
are general academic vocabulary that all students need to understand. The focus of this course
is on the general vocabulary common to most disciplines.

2 Nouns

䊏 Study the following list of common nouns with examples of use. With a partner,
discuss the meaning of each noun.

accuracy Repeating the experiment will improve the accuracy of the

results.
166 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

analysis His analysis of the alloy showed a high percentage of copper.

approach Professor Han has brought a new approach to the study of
genetics.
assessment She failed the first module assessment but passed the final one.
assumption He made the assumption that all the students spoke French.
authority Dr James is our leading authority on maritime law.
category Her work established two categories of local governance.
claim Their claim that the island was first inhabited in 550 BCE is false.
controversy Climate change is an issue that has caused much controversy.
correlation They found a correlation between height and health.
deterrent The harsh climate of the desert acted as a deterrent to
exploration.
emphasis Their teacher put the emphasis on practical research.
evidence The X-ray provided evidence of his lung infection.
exception The Tesla is an exception to the idea of slow, small electric cars.
extract He read a short extract from his paper on Hegel to the class.
ideology Military power was at the heart of Roman ideology.
implication The implication of the report is that we need to do more
research.
innovation Steam power was a significant innovation in the eighteenth
century.
intuition Intuition has been described as ‘a gut feeling’.
motivation Money is often claimed to be the motivation for most workers.
perspective Sigmund Freud’s work opened a new perspective on human
behaviour.
phenomenon Earthquakes are an unusual phenomenon in Britain.
policy The university has a zero-tolerance policy on plagiarism.
preference Her preference was criminal law, but other fields were more
profitable.
process The drug trials involved a three-stage process that took two
years.
proposal The Professor’s proposal for more seminars was rejected.
provision The library has increased its provision of computer terminals by
100 per cent.
 3.3: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 167

sequence Writing is a sequence of reading, note-taking, planning and

drafting.
strategy Swimming every day was part of his strategy for getting fit.
substitute To what extent can natural gas be a substitute for oil?
technique She developed a new technique for collecting the beetles.
validity Events confirmed the validity of his prediction.

䊏 Complete each sentence with a suitable noun.

(a) The excavation found no _______________ of human settlement before 1250 BCE.
(b) The tutor asked the class for their _______________ for next semester’s topics.
(c) Many great discoveries were based on _______________ rather than logic.
(d) Due to the rising birth rate _______________ was made for more school places.
(e) Few believed Galileo’s _______________ that the earth went round the sun.

3 Using nouns and adjectives

It is easy to confuse the noun and adjective form of words such as ‘possible’ and ‘possibility’.

䊏 Compare these sentences:

The efficiency of the machine depends on the precision of its construction.

Precise construction results in an efficient machine.
The first sentence uses the nouns ‘efficiency’ and ‘precision’. The second uses adjectives: ‘precise’
and ‘efficient’. Although the meaning is similar, the first sentence is more formal. Effective
academic writing requires accurate use of both nouns and adjectives.

䊏 Complete the gaps in the table below.

Noun Adjective Noun Adjective

approximation approximate particular
superiority reason
strategic synthetic
politics economics/economy*
industrial cultural
exterior average
168 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

Noun Adjective Noun Adjective

high reliable
heat strength
confident true
width probability
necessary long
danger relevance

* Compare the three nouns:

Economics is a demanding undergraduate degree course (academic subject)

The Greek economy is heavily in debt (national economy, countable)
Economy is needed to reduce the deficit (saving money, uncountable)

4 Practice A

䊏 Insert a suitable noun or adjective from the table in each sentence.

(a) The students were _______________ their project would be successful.

(b) One of Tokyo’s _______________ is its excellent transport system.
(c) There is a strong _______________ that fees will rise next year.
(d) The students complained that the lecture was not _______________ to their
course.
(e) The results are so surprising it will be _______________ to repeat the experiment.
(f) The _______________ household size in Turkey is 4.1.
(g) Regularly backing up computer files reduces the _______________ of losing vital
work.
(h) Revising for exams is a tedious _______________.
(i) These data appear to be _______________ and should not be trusted.
(j) The _______________ date of the founding of Rome is 750 BCE.
(k) The _______________ consequences of the war were inflation and
unemployment.
(l) They attempted to make a _______________ of all the different proposals.
 3.3: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 169

5 Academic adjectives

The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as opposites:

absolute relative
abstract concrete
accurate inaccurate
ambiguous unambiguous
analytic synthetic
effective ineffective
exclusive inclusive
logical illogical
metaphorical literal
precise vague or approximate or rough
rational irrational
reliable unreliable
relevant irrelevant
specific non-specific
subjective objective
theoretical practical or empirical or pragmatic

Examples:
Inflation is an abstract concept.
The metaphorical use of the word ‘key’ is probably more common than its literal one.
The study of engineering is very relevant to architecture.
Her study of women in education was criticised for being too subjective.
In Europe, empirical research began in the sixteenth century.
170 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

6 Practice B

䊏 Complete each sentence with a suitable adjective from the list in (5) on p. 169.

(a) The teacher complained that the quotes were _______________ to the title.
(b) His _______________ approach led him to ignore some inconvenient facts.
(c) _______________ examples are needed to make the argument clear.
(d) It is sufficient to give _______________ figures for national populations.
(e) Poverty is usually regarded as a _______________ concept.
(f) They approached the task in a _______________ way by first analysing the title.
(g) The students preferred examining case studies to _______________ discussion.
(h) The results were _______________: the victims had definitely been poisoned.

7 Practice C

䊏 Underline the adjective in each sentence and write the related noun in brackets.

Example:
likelihood )
Several steel producers are likely to shut down next year. ( ______________

(a) The HR team have just completed a strategic review of pay. ( ______________ )
(b) Dr Lee adopted an analytical approach to the inquiry. ( ______________ )
(c) Nylon was one of the earliest synthetic fibres. ( ______________ )
(d) Her major contribution to the research was her study of ante-natal care.
( ______________ )
(e) All advertising must respect cultural differences. ( ______________ )
(f) Some progress was made in the theoretical area. ( ______________ )
(g) A frequent complaint is that too much reading is expected. ( ______________ )
(h) We took a more critical approach to marketing theory. ( ______________ )
(i) The Department of Social Policy is offering three courses this year.
( ______________ )
(j) Finally, the practical implications of my findings will be examined.
( ______________ )
 3.3: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 171

Students wishing to develop their academic vocabulary should study the

Academic Word List (AWL). This is a list of 570 items commonly found in academic
texts across various disciplines, created by Averil Coxhead.

See Sandra Haywood’s website for information about the AWL, with further
practice exercises: www.nottingham.ac.uk/~alzsh3/acvocab/
 UNIT

3.4
Academic
Vocabulary
Verbs and Adverbs

When reading a text, it is useful to identify and understand the main verb: this is
often the key to understanding the whole sentence. This unit looks at the more
formal verbs used in academic writing, the verbs of reference used to introduce
summaries, and outlines the use of adverbs.

1 Understanding main verbs

䊏 Study the following sentence and underline the main verbs:

The author concludes that no reasonable alternative is currently available to replace

constitutional democracy, even though he does not completely reject the possibility
of creating a better political system in the future.

To follow the writer’s meaning, the reader needs to be clear that ‘conclude’ and ‘reject’ are
the main verbs in the two parts of the sentence.
Academic writing tends to use rather formal verbs to express the writer’s meaning accurately:
In the last decade the pace of change accelerated.
Could Darwin have envisaged the controversy his work has caused?
In spoken English, we are more likely to use ‘speed up’ and ‘imagined’.
 3.4: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 173

䊏 Study the list below and find a synonym in each case.

(Some of these verbs (e.g. ‘hold’) are used in academic writing with a special
meaning.)

Verb Example of use Synonym

the health system has been adapted from modify
to adapt
France
a similar situation arises when we look at
to arise
younger children
to conduct the largest study was conducted in Finland
to characterise developing countries are characterised by . . .
the project was designed to clarify these
to clarify
contradictions
to concentrate on that study concentrated on older children
to be concerned the programme is concerned primarily
with with . . .
further research has demonstrated that few
to demonstrate
factors . . .
the water content was experimentally
to determine
determined
a failure to discriminate between the two
to discriminate
species
to establish the northern boundary was established first
half of the patients exhibited signs of
to exhibit
improvement
to focus on her work focused on female managers
a question that has generated a range of
to generate
responses
Newton’s second Law, F = ma, holds
to hold
everywhere
to identify three main areas have been identified
to imply his absence implies a lack of interest
to interact understand how the two systems interact
the result can be interpreted as a limited
to interpret
success
to manifest as manifested in antisocial behaviour
174 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

Verb Example of use Synonym

both difficulties were overcome in the first
to overcome
week
they propose that social class is the main
to propose
factor
to prove the use of solar power is proving successful
to recognise he is now recognised as a leading expert
the pattern was related to both social and
to relate to
physical factors
the diet was supplemented with calcium and
to supplement
iodine
the system underwent major changes in the
to undergo
1980s
to yield both surveys yielded mixed results

2 Using verbs of reference

Referring verbs are used to summarise another writer’s ideas:

Previn argued that global warming was mainly caused by the solar cycle.
Bakewell (1992) found that most managers tended to use traditional terms . . .
They may also be used to introduce a quotation:
. . . as Scott observed: ‘Comment is free but facts are sacred.’
Most of these verbs are followed by a noun clause beginning with ‘that’.

(a) The following mean that the writer is presenting a case:

argue claim consider hypothesise suggest believe think state
Melville (2007) suggested that eating raw eggs could be harmful.
(b) A second group describe a reaction to a previously stated position:
accept admit agree with deny doubt
Handlesmith doubts Melville’s suggestion that eating raw eggs . . .
(c) Others include:
assume conclude discover explain imply indicate maintain presume
reveal show
Patel (2003) assumes that inflation will remain low.
 3.4: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 175

3 Practice A

䊏 Write a sentence referring to what the following writers said (more than one verb
may be suitable). Use the past tense.

Example:
Z: ‘My research shows that biofuels are environmentally neutral.’
Z claimed/argued that biofuels were environmentally neutral.

(a) A: ‘I may have made a mistake in my calculations on energy loss.’

(b) B: ‘I did not say that women make better doctors than men.’
(c) C: ‘Small firms are more dynamic than large ones.’
(d) D: ‘I support C’s views on small firms.’
(e) E: ‘I’m not sure, but most people probably work to earn money.’
(f) F: ‘After much research, I’ve found that allergies are becoming more
common.’
(g) G: ‘I think it unlikely that electric cars will replace conventional ones.’
(h) H: ‘There may be a link between crime and sunspot activity.’

4 Further referring verbs

A small group of verbs is followed by the pattern (somebody/thing + for + noun/gerund):

blame censure commend condemn criticise
Lee (1998) blamed the media for creating uncertainty.
NB: All except ‘commend’ have a negative meaning.

Another group is followed by (somebody/thing + as + noun/gerund):

assess characterise classify define describe evaluate identify
interpret portray present
Terry interprets rising oil prices as a result of the Asian recovery.
176 Part 3: Vocabulary for Writing

5 Practice B

䊏 Rewrite the following statements using verbs from the lists in (4) on p. 175.

Example:
K: ‘Guttman’s work is responsible for many of the current social problems’.
K blamed Guttman’s work for many of the current social problems.

(a) L: ‘She was very careless about her research methods.’

(b) M: ‘There are four main types of children in care.’
(c) N: ‘That company has an excellent record for workplace safety.’
(d) O: ‘The noises whales make must be expressions of happiness.’
(e) P: ‘Wind power and biomass will be the leading green energy sources.’
(f) Q: ‘Darwin was the most influential naturalist of the nineteenth century.’

6 Using adverbs

In the sentence given here, adverbs are used to give information about time (currently) and
degree (completely):
The author concludes that no reasonable alternative is currently available to replace
constitutional democracy, even though he does not completely reject the possibility of creating
a better political system in the future.

(1) Adverbs are used in academic writing in a variety of ways. Among the most important
are:
(a) to provide more detail, with verbs and adjectives:
Reasonably good data are available for only . . .
. . . decomposition eventually ceases in modern landfills . . .
(b) individually, often at the beginning of sentences, to introduce new points or link
sentences together:
Currently, the Earth’s atmosphere appears to be warming up.
Alternatively, the use of non-conventional renewable energies . . .
NB: Adverbs used individually need to be employed with care. It is dangerous to
overuse them, since they are often like the author’s ‘voice’, commenting on the topic.
As the academic writer aims to be objective, adverbs such as ‘fortunately’ or
‘remarkably’ may be unsuitable.
 3.4: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 177

(2) Adverbs linked to verbs and adjectives usually fall into three groups:
(a) time (when?)
previously published
retrospectively examined
(b) degree (how much?)
declined considerably
contribute substantially
(c) manner (in what way?)
medically complicated
remotely located
Further common examples include:
Time Degree Manner
recently clearly (un)surprisingly
increasingly particularly factually
originally broadly politically
presently highly locally
currently wholly alternatively
traditionally crucially similarly
continuously emphatically psychologically

7 Practice C

䊏 Insert a suitable adverb from the lists above into the gaps in the sentences.

(a) Most houses do not have electricity. _______________, then, there is little chance
of improving living standards.
(b) _______________, the Internet was mainly used for academic purposes.
(c) Some courses are assessed purely by exams. _______________, coursework may
be employed.
(d) _______________, there has been growing concern about financing the health
service.
(e) Many birds use bright colours to attract a mate. _______________, flowers
advertise their position to fertilising insects.
(f) _______________, the development should be acceptable environmentally.

(Adapted from: Bailey, S. (2015). Academic writing: A handbook for international

students (4th ed.). Routledge.)