Resources for power systems designers

Basics of power system design

Table of contents
System design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 System Protection Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Basic Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Overcurrent Protection and Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Trends in Systems Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Grounding/Ground Fault Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Goals of System Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Designing a Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Typical Components of a Power System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Development of a System One-Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Typical Power System Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Importance of the System One-Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Standardized Drawing Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Generators and Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Additional Drawings, Schedules and Specifications . . . . . 20
Generator Short-Circuit Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Power System Voltages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Generator Set Sizing and Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Voltage Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Generator Set Installation and Site Considerations . . . . . . 96
Incoming Service Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Capacitors and Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Incoming Service Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Motor Power Factor Correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Utilization Voltage Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Typical Application by Facility Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Types of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Healthcare Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Types of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Quick Connect Generator and Load Bank Capabilities. . . . 106
Power System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Power Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Systems Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Power Quality Terms Technical Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Short-Circuit Currents—General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fault Current Waveform Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Other Application Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Fault Current Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Seismic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment—
Exact Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Reference Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Application Quick Check Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Medium-Voltage Fuses—Fault Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Suggested IEEE Designations for Suffix Letters . . . . . . . 136
Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breakers— Ampacities for Conductors Rated 0–2000 V
Fault Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 (Excerpted from NFPA 70-2014, 310.15). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Molded Case Breakers and Insulated Case
Circuit Breakers—Fault Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Low-Voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting
Derating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Short-Circuit Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Determining X and R Values from
Transformer Loss Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Voltage Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
System design
Basic Principles Trends in Systems Design The growing impact of adverse weather
conditions such as hurricanes and
The best distribution system is one that There are many new factors to consider in flooding is now driving incoming service
will, cost-effectively and safely, supply the design of power distribution systems. and distribution equipment rooms to
adequate electric service to both present be located out of basements and other
and future probable loads—this section Federal and state legislation has been low lying areas. Regions prone to these
is intended to aid in selecting, designing introduced to reduce the output of carbon storms often experience downed utility
and installing such a system. emissions into the environment; the power lines and/or flooded manholes,
intent being the reduction of their impact resulting in a loss of power to thousands
The function of the electric power on climate change. In order to address the of customers. In order to quickly return
distribution system in a building or an subsequent need for clean power, there power to these facilities, additional
installation site is to receive power at has been an accelerating trend toward on-site backup generation is being
one or more supply points and to deliver the incorporation of solar and other included in both new designs and as
it to the lighting loads, motors and all sustainable energy sources into existing upgrades to existing sites.
other electrically operated devices. The and new building designs. Energy storage
importance of the distribution system systems (ESS) are now making renewable This trend for resiliency is increasing
to the function of a building makes it energy a more viable option by helping among grocery stores, large chain stores
imperative that the best system be to stabilize power output during transient and other distribution facilities requiring
designed and installed. dips or interruptions to power production. refrigeration to keep products from
spoiling as well as large multifamily
In order to design the best distribution Utility deregulation has also provided dwelling complexes in low lying flood
system, the system design engineer financial incentives for building owners plain areas.
must have information concerning the and facility managers to participate in
loads and a knowledge of the types of peak demand load shaving programs. Building costs continue to rise and
distribution systems that are applicable. These programs are intended to reduce rentable or usable space is now at a
The various categories of buildings have load on the utility grid in response to a premium. To solve both problems, many
many specific design challenges, but 1 hour or 1 day ahead signal from the design and construction firms are looking
certain basic principles are common to utility. The users shedding or cycling of at off-site prefabrication of key elements.
all. Such principles, if followed, will non­essential loads is generally initiated Forest City Ratner’s 32-story residential
provide a soundly executed design. by a building management system (BMS) complex adjacent to Barclay’s Arena in
in conjunction with power monitoring Brooklyn, NY, advanced the modular
The basic principles or factors requiring and lighting control equipment. To concept with individual building sections
consideration during design of the power ensure uninterrupted operation of key constructed at a factory off-site and
distribution system include: customer loads, incorporation of other erected by crane into place. Resiliency
■ Functions of structure, present types of distributed generation such as from storms and floods involving the
and future fuel cells and diesel or natural gas fired relocation of electrical equipment out
reciprocating generator sets may be of flood prone areas is costly, time
■ Life and flexibility of structure
desired or required. consuming and takes up precious floor
■ Locations of service entrance and space in a building. Electro Centers or
distribution equipment, locations and Hospital complexes and college campuses Integrated Power Assemblies (IPA) can
characteristics of loads, locations of are increasingly adopting the design of be fitted out with a variety of electrical
unit substations central utilities plants (CUPs). In lieu of a distribution equipment and shipped to
separate boiler plant, cogeneration is used the site in preassembled modules for
■ Demand and diversity factors of loads
to produce electricity and the wasted heat mounting on elevated foundation piles,
■ Sources of power; including normal, from the combustion process is recaptured building setbacks or rooftops.
standby and emergency to provide hot water for the campus.
■ Continuity and quality of power Large cogeneration plants (3 MW and Finally, the need to have qualified
available and required above) often include large turbines or building electrical operators,
reciprocating engines as their prime maintenance departments and facility
■ Energy efficiency and management
movers for the generators.To enhance engineers has collided with growing
■ Distribution and utilization voltages service continuity, these generators use a expectations for improved productivity
■ Busway and/or cable feeders continuous source of natural gas as their and reduced overall operating costs. The
fuel supply. Cogen plants generally have increasing proliferation of smart devices
■ Distribution equipment and
higher power conver­sion efficiencies and and enhanced connectivity with power
motor control
produce lower carbon emissions. distribution equipment has expanded
■ Power and lighting panelboards facility owner’s options. These capabilities
and motor control centers allow for automated communication of
■ Types of lighting systems vital power system information including
■ Installation methods energy data, equipment wellness and
predictive diagnostics, and electrical
■ Power monitoring systems equipment control.
■ Electric utility requirements

2 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

System design
The future “Internet of Things” promises Additionally, Article 240.87 offers a OSHA has qualified a number of
to add millions of more sensors and number of prescriptive alternative Nationally Recognized Testing
other devices to collect operational methods for arc flash energy Laboratories (NRTL) to demon­strate
data and send it through the Internet reduction; one of which must be and certify “product conformance to
to “cloud-based” comput­ing services. provided, for speeding up the clearing the applicable product safety test
There, information from multiple time of a circuit breaker that can be set standards.” Among the oldest and
devices can be analyzed and actions to trip at 1200 A or above. Eaton’s most respected of these electrical
can be taken to optimize performance Arcflash Reduction Maintenance product testing organizations is
and reduce downtime. SystemE is avail­able in various Underwriters Laboratories (UL),
electronic trip units for molded case which was founded in 1894.
Various sections of this guide cover and power circuit breakers to improve
the application and selection of such clear­ing time and reduce the incident It is the responsibility of the design
systems and components that may be energy level. engineer to be familiar with the NFPA
incorporated into the power equipment and NEC code requirements as well
being designed. The National Electrical CodeT (NECT), as the customer’s facility, process
NFPAT 70 and NFPA 70E, as well and operating procedures in order
as local electrical codes, provide to design a system that protects
Goals of System Design minimum standards and requirements personnel from live electri­cal
When considering the design of an in the area of wiring design and conductors and uses adequate circuit
electrical distribution system for a given protection, wiring methods and protective devices that will selectively
customer and facility, the electrical materials, as well as equipment for isolate overloaded or faulted circuits
engineer must consider alternate design general use with the overall goal of or equipment as quickly as possible.
approaches that best fit the following providing safe electrical distribution
systems and equipment. In addition to NFPA and NEC
overall goals.
guidelines, the design professional
1. Safety: The No. 1 goal is to design The NEC also covers minimum must also consider International
a power system that will not present requirements for special occupan­cies Building Code (IBC) and local
any electrical hazard to the people who including hazardous locations and municipality, state and federal
use the facility, and/or the utilization special use type facilities such as requirements. The United States
equipment fed from the electrical healthcare facilities, places of Department of Energy, for example,
system. It is also important to design assembly, theaters and the like, as mandates minimum efficiencies for
a system that is inherently safe for well as the equipment and systems transformers and other equipment.
the people who are responsible for located in these facilities. Special
equipment and special conditions Many of these regulatory codes
electrical equipment maintenance
such as emergency systems, standby reference ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard
and upkeep.
systems and communication systems 90.1-2013 “Energy Standard for
The Occupational Safety and Health are also covered in the code. Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Administration (OSHA) is a federal Buildings”. Section 8.1 covers power
agency whose “mission is to assure 2. Regulatory Requirements: Over the and includes receptacle load control.
safe and healthful workplaces by course of the past century, electrical Subsection 8.4.3 is titled Electrical
setting and enforcing standards, and product safety and performance Energy Monitoring and covers
by providing training, outreach, standards have been developed in metering and monitoring systems that
education and assistance.” OSHA’s cooperation between various notify building tenants and engineers
electrical requirements are covered agencies such as: American National of the increased use of electric power.
under several categories, the broadest Standards Institute (ANSI) as well as Section 9.1 covers lighting and lighting
being 1910 Subpart 10 Electrical industry groups such as the Institute control system requirements.
including references to the National of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) and the National Electrical Other building standards organiza­
Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 70
Manufacturers Associa­tion (NEMA). tions that offer certifications, such
and 70E.
These are often referenced together as the U.S. Green Building Council’s
To address the concerns for personnel with specific test standards developed LEED Accreditation, require measure­
safety from arc flash hazards, the 2014 in conjunction with Underwriters ment and verification that actual
Edition of the NEC as well as the 2015 Laboratories (UL). As an example, energy and water use meet initial
Edition of NFPA 70E have enhanced the low-voltage switchgear falls under building design criteria. The U.S.
requirements for personnel protection ANSI C37.20.1 and is tested in Green Building Council has teamed
when working on or near live equip­ compliance with UL 1558. with ANSI and ASHRAE to produce
ment.The 2014 NEC introduces new ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard
arc flash labeling requirements. The 2014 National Electrical Code 189.1-2014 titled, “Standard for the
(NEC) Article 110.2 states that: “The Design of High-Performance Green
conductors and equipment required Build­ings Except Low Rise Buildings”.
or permitted by this Code shall be
acceptable only if approved.” The
informational note references the
definitions in Article 100 for Approved,
Identified, Labeled and Listed.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 3

System design
Finally, utility incoming service Typically, service continuity and Power monitoring communication
standards for customer intercon­nects reliability can be increased by: systems connected to electronic
are key elements in the selection of metering can provide the trending
both the incoming service voltage and a. Supplying multiple utility power and historical data necessary to
the protection required for this sources or services. ensure future capacity for growth.
equipment. Knowledge of these b. Supplying multiple connection
standards is particularly important paths to the loads served. 6. Maximum Electrical Efficiency
when incorporating renewable energy (Minimum Operating Costs): Electrical
c. Using short-time rated power efficiency can generally be maximized
or distributed generation resources circuit breakers.
into a design. a by designing systems that minimize
d. Providing alternate customer- the losses in conductors, transformers
a Contact Eaton’s local application engineer for owned power sources such as and utilization equipment. Proper
assistance with design compliance. generators or batteries supplying voltage level selection plays a key
3. Minimum Initial Investment: Energy Storage Systems or factor in this area and will be
The owner’s overall budget for first uninterruptable power supplies. discussed later.
cost purchase and installation of the e. Selecting the highest quality Selecting equipment, such as
electrical distribution system and elec­trical equipment and transformers, with lower operating
electrical utilization equipment will conductors. losses, generally means higher
be a key factor in determining which f. Using the best installation first cost and increased floor space
of various alternate system designs methods, including proper requirements. Thus there is a balance
are to be selected. When trying to system grounding design. to be considered between the owner’s
minimize initial investment for long-term utility cost for the losses in
electrical equipment, consideration g. Designing appropriate system
alarms, monitoring and the transformer or other equipment
should be given to the total cost of versus the initial budget and cost
the installation. This includes reducing diagnostics.
of money.
on-site assembly time and cost by h. Selecting preventative mainte­
prefabricating various electrical nance systems or equipment to 7. Minimum Maintenance Cost:
components into a single deliverable alarm before an outage occurs. Usually the simpler the electrical
system and reducing floor space and 5. Maximum Flexibility and system design and the simpler the
possible extra cooling requirements. Expandability: In many industrial electrical equipment, the lower
manufacturing plants, electrical the associated maintenance costs
4. Maximum Service Continuity: and operator errors. As electrical
The degree of service continuity and utilization loads are periodically
relocated or changed requiring systems and equipment become
reliability needed will vary depending more complicated to provide greater
on the type and use of the facility as changes in the electrical distribu­tion
system. Consideration of the layout service continuity or flexibility, the
well as the loads or processes being maintenance costs and chance for
supplied by the electrical distribution and design of the electrical distribution
system to accommodate these operator error increases.
system. For example, for a smaller
commercial office building, a power changes must be considered. For When designing complex systems, the
outage of considerable time, say example, pro­viding many smaller engineer should consider add­ing an
several hours, may be acceptable, transformers or loadcenters associated alternate power circuit to take electrical
whereas in a larger commercial with a given area or specific groups equipment (requiring periodic
building or industrial plant only a few of machinery may lend more flexibility maintenance) out of service without
minutes may be acceptable. In other for future changes than one large dropping essential loads. Use of
facilities such as hospitals, many transformer; the use of plug-in drawout type protec­tive devices such
critical loads permit a maximum of busways to feed selected equip­ment in as breakers and combination starters
10 seconds outage and certain loads lieu of conduit and wire may facilitate can also minimize maintenance cost
cannot tolerate a loss of power for future revised equipment layouts. and out-of-service time. Utilizing
even a few cycles. In addition, consideration must be sealed equipment in lieu of ventilated
given to future building expansion, equipment may minimize mainte­nance
and/or increased load require­ments costs and out-of-service time as well.
due to added utilization equipment
when designing the electrical
distribution system. In many cases
considering trans­formers with
increased capacity or fan cooling to
serve unexpected loads as well as
including spare additional protective
devices and/or provision for future
addition of these devices may be
desirable. Also to be considered
is increasing appropriate circuit
capacities to assure future capacity
for growth.

4 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

System design
8. Maximum Power Quality: The power Summary This revision of this Design Guide
input requirements of all utilization It is to be expected that the engineer will includes updates based on changes to the
equipment has to be considered, never have complete load infor­mation 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC), 2015
including the acceptable operating available when the system is designed. NFPA 99 and other pertinent ANSI/IEEE
range of the equipment. Consequently, The engineer will have to expand the Standards. It also includes a significant
the electrical distribution system has information made avail­able to him or revision in the flow of the material
to be designed to meet these needs. her on the basis of experience with presented. Additional new information
For example, what is the required similar projects. has been added to the document in
input voltage, current, power factor recognition that users will be at differing
requirement? Consideration to Of course, it is desirable that the engi­neer levels of experience. For those engineers
whether the loads are affected by has as much definite information as either beginning their careers or early
harmonics (multiples of the basic 60 Hz possible concerning the function, into them, guidance is provided for the
sine wave) or generate harmonics requirements, and characteristics of design and development of Power
must be taken into account as well as the utilization devices. Systems One-Line Diagrams.
transient voltage phenomena.
The engineer should know whether An expanded section on voltage
The above goals are interrelated and in cer­tain loads function separately or selection, including both service and
some ways contradictory. As more together as a unit, the magnitude of the utilization voltages, has been added. This
redundancy is added to the electrical demand of the loads viewed separately narrative discusses consider­ations for
system design along with the best quality and as units, the rated voltage and utility metering at medium and low
equipment to maximize service continuity, frequency of the devices, their physical voltages. However, the description of
flexibility and expandability, and power location with respect to each other types of systems and the diagrams used
quality, the more initial investment and and with respect to the source and to explain the types of systems on the
maintenance are increased.Thus, the the probability and possibility of the following pages omit the location of
designer must weigh each factor based on relocation of load devices and addition utility revenue metering equipment for
the type of facility, the loads to be served, of loads in the future. clarity. Further pages address short-circuit
the owner’s past experience and criteria. calculations, coordination, overcurrent
Coupled with this information, a protection, voltage drop, ground fault
knowledge of the major types of electric protection, motor protection and
power distribution systems equips the application considerations for typical
engineers to arrive at the best system equipment utilized in a power system.
design for the particular building.
It is beyond the scope of this guide to
present a detailed discussion of loads that
might be found in each of several types of
buildings. Assuming that the design
engineer has assembled the necessary
load data, the following pages discuss
some of the various types of electrical
distribution systems that can be used.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 5

Designing a Distribution System
Development of a A System One-Line may start out in the
Design Development Phase of a project
Moving into the Construction Document
Phase of a project, alterations are made
System One-Line as a basic concept. Other information can to the Design Development Electrical
Power system designers communicate be added throughout the design cycle. It Drawing set. At some level of completion
their design requirements through a can then be copied and modified to create (typically 90%), these drawings are sent
combination of drawings, schedules a number of alternate drawings showing out to finalize budgetary estimates and
and specifications. different system approaches. This permits narrow the field of contractors to be
the power system designer to analyze included in the selection process. During
One of the key tools in developing and the impact of each arrangement on cost, the push from 90% to 100% completion
documenting an electrical power system is redundancy and projected physical of the construction documents, the
the System One-Line (also called a Single space requirements. construction manager or the general
Line Diagram).This drawing starts with the contractor is asked to provide a
incoming power source from the utility The System One-Line takes on Guaranteed Maximum Price (GMP).
service and/or on-site generation and their increasingly more importance as the
associated distribution equipment. It then project evolves through the Design During the Bid or Negotiation Phase of a
follows the power flow down through the Development Phase. Input from the project, Bid Document Drawing Sets are
various conductors as well as any voltage other architectural, mechanical, sent out to a list of potential contractors.
transformations to feed distribution plumbing, electrical and fire protection Estimators at these contractors review
equipment buses for the key loads served. professionals on the design team helps the Bid Package and tabulate the value
to better define the various equipment of the electrical equipment, conduit and
Initially, the System One-Line provides loads and develop the power system cable costs plus manpower necessary to
a framework for the incorporation of one-line to accommodate them. build out the project.
different types of required information
such as: At some point in this stage, a construction
manager may be brought in to assist
1. Incoming service voltage and the owner and architect in assessing
utilization voltages required. the design’s constructability. Various
improve­ments that could increase energy
2. Electrical distribution equipment efficiency and/or reduce construction
ampacity and short-circuit ratings. costs are often suggested.
3. Overcurrent/short-circuit protection. Moving toward the end of the Design
4. Conductor types (i.e., cable or busway) Development Phase, the One-Line and
and sizes. (Cable lengths may also be associated drawings such as equipment
estimated to determine voltage drop room elevations and floorplans are
and any upsizing necessary.) provided to the client for their review and
approval. At this point, both the client’s
5. Transformer kVA sizes, ampacity, comments and the construction manager’s
impedance and voltages. additional inputs are integrated into the
design.This final set of approved design
6. Generator kW sizes and voltages. development drawings, which include the
7. Motor loads and voltages. Power System One-Line, are used as the
basis for the development of the
8. Other power quality equipment such construction drawings.
as surge protection devices, power
factor correction capacitors or
uninterruptible power supplies.

6 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
Importance of the Other requirements such as: Zone
Selective Interlocking of breakers, 100%
The System One-Line is the common map
that all the other project documents must
System One-Line rated breakers, drawout or electrically reference and be checked against. To
It is important for the power system operated breakers and key interlock ensure consistency and avoid conflicts
designer to ensure the System One-Line schemes can be overlooked if they are after a project is awarded to a contractor,
and other design documents contain as not documented on a One-Line and distribution panelboard schedules and
much information as possible, to assure coordinated in the specifications. specifica­tions also need to include the
that bidding contractors include all the correct information about details such
Finally, electrical equipment is subject to as the enclosure type required.
correct requirements in their pricing. environmental issues such as wet areas
Errors and/or omissions on the and may require specific enclosure types For these reasons, it is critical that
construction contract documents can to be provided. Nomenclature on the the engineer be vigilant and take a
lead to expensive contractor change One-Line, such as 3R or 4X, adjacent to proactive role in identifying changes
orders and project cost overruns after these items can clarify what enclosure and updating the System One-Line
the contract is awarded. type is to be provided. and associated design documents
During the various stages of a project appropriately and consistently.
The proper use of notes on the One-Line
design, changes are made often to reflect can further define the requirements. As an The One-Line diagram on the following
the client’s preferences and budget. example, a note can be added clarifying pages is an example developed for
As the design process continues, that all NEMA 4X rated enclosures are to illustrative purposes only and was
coordination between the MEP be of 316 stainless steel versus the less developed to show a wide range of
(Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing) expensive 304 Grade. The difference product applications. This diagram will
design disciplines become more critical. between these two grades is critical as be referenced throughout the remainder
If the design professionals are not 316 Stainless is far more resistant to of this section.
synchronized on these changes, a saltwater, sulfuric acid and chlorides,
and is preferred in several applications The references to external drawings is
previously unanticipated piece of for illustration only and not referencing
equipment may be chosen or added including pharma­ceutical manufacturing
and wastewater treatment plants. actual documents within this section
to the project. As an example, where an or elsewhere.
engineer had previously allocated a 250 A
circuit breaker to feed the anticipated DSB-DF2A
load, as a result of an equipment change, 480 V, 600 A,
a 400 A breaker must now be provided. 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC
The impact of this change can result in a
contractor bid that does not include both 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF
the correct breaker AND the correct cable 15AT 90AT 15AT 90AT
sizes to feed the larger load.
Oftentimes, requirements such as
electronic trip units or their protective
2 4X
functions such as Long, Short,
Instantaneous and Ground (LSIG) or FUEL HVAC HEAT COMFORT
PUMP AHU-1,2,3,4 REJ. COOLING
Ground Alarm (LSIA) are not indicated on FOP-1 UNITS CH-1
the One-Line. This can lead to equipment HRU-1,2,3,4
being supplied with standard thermal-
magnetic trip units that may lack the Figure 1. Example of Notes on One-Line
setting capabilities to achieve the proper
selective coordination required.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 7

Designing a Distribution System

UTILITY FEEDER #1 UTILITY FROM PSG-2A (SEE DWG E102) BUSWAY RISER
13.8 kV, 3Ø, + GND 60Hz METERING 4.16 kV, 3Ø, 60Hz (SEE DWG E106)
M
SPLICE IN PROPERTY LINE MANHOLE M1 4 6
M1-00 RBP-F3A T5-RBP-F3A PXM6000
N.O. (3)
(3) SINGLE PHASE POTHEADS (1/Ø) P=208A S=1804A METER
USG-1A "POINT A" 11.65KA SCA
M. H A PT'S
13.8kV, 1200A, AVAILABLE FROM UTILITY 8 AL 480V:120V
(4) GROUND STUDS (3-Ø, 1-GND) 250KA
50 kA SYM S.C. LO 300E /Ø.SPD
(2) UTILITY PT's MAIN CB
(15kV - 95KV BIL RATED)
(6) LIVE LINE INDICATORS (2/Ø) 14,400:120V 10A "RBS-F3A"
N.C.
E.O.
M. H P 2000 AF
7 1500kVA 1800 AT
LO F3D 4.16kV-480/277V LSG
TRIP M1 5.75% Z (3) 2000:5
TRIP S1 UTILITY
(3) PT'S CT's (2)
500:5 RHBP-F3A T4-RHBP-F3A
14,400:120V N.O. P=104A S=2082A
120:1 M. H A
(3) (3) 6 AL
27 59
TS RESIDENCE
M1 M1 VFI-3A
(3) (3) HALL B
SB 600A
(3) 800:5 (SEE DWG E105)
N.C.
STD (C100) M. H P
750kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
5
SELECTOR SWITCH 55/65C 5.75% Z
EDR-5000-M1 1 TRIP M1 W/SURGE+LIGHTNING 4.16kV-60KV BIL
G R A TRIP S1 ARRESTERS 208/120V-20KV BIL
52-M1
M1A LO
1200A N.C. 52
(1) (3) (1) C/S
M1-L DFP-F3A T3-DFP-F3A
(1) N.O. P=139A S=1203A
50/51N 50/51 86 TRIP M1
86 M. H A
M1 M1 M1 TRIP S1 4 AL
T1
LO 200E DINING
TS SB
(3) 800:5 TS FACILITY
STD (C100) (SEE DWG E104)
(1) (3) N.C.
M. H P
51G 87 1000kVA
PXM6000 3
(3) 600:5 MR T1 T1 LO F3B 4.16kV-480/277V
METER
Set at 350:5 ETR-5000-T1 5.75% Z
(4) GROUND STUDS
TS TS TS
(3-Ø, 1-GND)
RHAP-F3A T2-RHAP-F3A
N.O. P=104A S=2082A
TRANSFORMER "T1" M. H A
2 AL
PRIMARY UNIT SUBSTATION STYLE M1-00
(1) "POINT C" F3A - RESIDENCE
13.8KV DELTA PRIMARY - 95KV BIL H2 63 VFI-2A
P/FA=479A 11.32KA SCA HALL A
4.16/2.4KV GROUNDED WYE - 60KV BIL T1 600A
WITHOUT MOTOR (SEE DWG E103)
EATON "PEAK" 55C/65C/75C H1 H3 71 49 P
N.C.
CU SCA & CABLE Z TO M. H 750kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
7500/8400/9156 KVA KNAN X3 T1 T1 1 "POINT D" - 40,400 SCA
X0 T1 & T2-RHAP SELECTOR SWITCH 55/65C 5.75% Z
9375/10500/11445 KVA KNAF X1 W/SURGE+LIGHTNING 4.16kV-60KV BIL WITH UNLIMITED PRIMARY SCA
FR-3 FLUID FILLED, 6.5% MINIMUM Z
S/FA=1589A (1) (1)
X2 ARRESTERS 208/120V-20KV BIL & 50% MOTOR CONTRIBUTION
WITH SURGE + LIGHTNING ARRESTERS (1) 600:5 SEE XFMR TABLE 1.6-7 FOR
2000A BUSWAY M1-03
HI (C200) T2 ESTIMATING PURPOSES.

PSG-1A (4) GROUND STUDS "POINT B" T1 - 11.32KA (4) GROUND STUDS
CHILLER #1
(3-Ø, 1-GND) SCA WITHOUT MOTOR SCA, (3-Ø, 1-GND)
"BUS A" 4.16KV, CUP
2000A, 60KV BIL, SB CABLE % Z TO T1 & SB
(3) 2000:5 (3) 2000:5 (SEE DWG E107)
40KA SC RATED BUSWAY % Z
STD (C200) STD (C200)
M
EDR 1 (3) 600:5 MR
3000-S1 G R A PXM6000 Set at 600:5 M1-04
52-S1 EDR
(3) (1) LO METER
2000A N.C.
S1A 3000-F3
TRIP S1 52
51 86 C/S (1)
TRIP F1 TRIP S1 S1-L VFD-F2A
TRIP F2 S1 S1 50/51N
F3 G R A
TRIP F3 52-F3
TS SB F3A LO N.C.
(3) 2000:5 1200 52
TS 50/51 86 C/S DRAW-OUT
STD (C200) TRIP F3 F3-L
(1) F3 F3 DC TO AC
EBR
86 87 (3) (1) INVERTER
3000 (3) 2000:5 (3) 600:5
B1 B1 -B1 STD (C200) STD (C100)
(3) SB TS SB

TS AC TO DC
CONVERTER
TS SB TS SB
(3) 600:5 (3) 600:5 INTEGRAL
STD (C100) STD (C100) 24 PULSE
(3) (3)
XFMR
50/51 50/51
F1 G R A F2 G R A
(1) 52-F1 (1) 52-F2
LO LO
1200A N.C. 1200 N.C.
F1A F2A
52 (3) PT'S 52 CONTACTOR
50/51N 86 C/S 50/51N 86 C/S
TRIP F1 F1-L 4200V: TRIP F2 F2-L
F1 F1 F2 F2
120V
(1) 35:1 (1)
EDR EDR
3000-F1 (3) 600:5 MR 3000-F2 (3) 600:5 MR
(3) 400A
Set at 400:5 Set at 300:5
PXM6000 PXM6000
METER METER ISOLATION
(3) 2000:5 (3) 2000:5 E SWITCH
SB STD (C200) STD (C200)
SB
(4) GROUND STUDS (4) GROUND STUDS SC9000EP
(3-Ø, 1-GND) (3-Ø, 1-GND) MV-VFD
M1-02

M1-02

Figure 2. Power System One-Line (Continued on Next Page)

8 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System

FROM PSG-2A (SEE DWG E102) DRAWING NOTES

4.16 kV, 3Ø, 60Hz
1 Provide M1 Electrical Interlock With S1 Breaker. M1 Cannot Close if S1 is

ENGINE
DIESEL
Open. S1 Cannot Close Until M1 is Closed. Include Key Interlocks as Shown.
N.O. CUP-F1A Provide MB-F1A Key Interlock With Generator Breaker "GB" and Tie Breaker
2
M. H A "LTA". Only the Single "MGTA" Key Can be Used to Close Any of these Breakers.
10
LO Provide Priority Load Shed Controls for Feeder Breakers in SUS-F1A Switchgear.
3
G Provide Interface With Generator Breaker "GB" to Enable Operation When Non-
N.C. Priority Loads have Been Shed.
M. H P FDR (SEE DWG E108)
9 "G" Provide All Magnum Breakers in SUS-F1A & RBS-F3A Switchgear With DT1150+
LO F1A 4 4000A BUSWAY TO
CLE 2000AF Trip Units Including Zone Selective Interlocking (ZSI) and Arc Flash Reduction
2000AT TIE CB "LTB" IN
600A Maintenance System (ARMS) in Compliance with Article 240.87 of the 2014 NEC.
PORTABLE "SUS-F1B"
LOAD BANK Provide Remote Touchscreen Panel With "Switchgear Dashboard Interface" to
P FA=461A 5 Monitor Operational Variables and Enable Arc Flash Reduction Maintenance Mode.
XFMR "ST-F1A"
CU 2500/3333kVA Wire All DT1150+ Trip Units Communications Ports to an Ethernet Gateway With
TOUCH 6
115C AA/FA 5 BACnet IP Connectivity. BMS Vendor Will Provide Field Wiring and Integrate Into
SCREEN
4.16KV-480/277V BMS System on a Separate Contract.
S FA=4000A Z=5.75%

2 3 2
MAIN CB TIE CB
MGTA (3) PT'S "GB" SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATION "SUS-F1A"
"MB-F1A" 480V: EG BACNET IP "LTA"
LO E.O. 4000 AF 120V TO BMS LO E.O. 2000AF LO E.O. 4000 AF
4000 AT 2000AT 4000 AT
N.C. PXM6000 TO DT1150 N.O. LSG N.O.
LSG LSG
METER ETHERNET TRIP UNITS "DF5A"
01B (3) 4000:5 GATEWAY MAIN SWGR. BUS "A" 85KA, 480/277V, 4000A, 3-PH, 4W

01D 02A 02B 02C 02D 03A 03B 03C 03D 04A 04B 04C 04D
"DF1A" "DF2A" "DF3A" "DF4A" "DF6A" "DF7A" "DF8A" "DF9A" "DF1OA" "DF11A" "DF12A"

250KA/Ø E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF
SPD 600 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 1600 AT 800 AT 400 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 400 AT 500 AT 500 AT
LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG
SPARE SPARE SPARE SPARE
(SEE DWG E109)
FROM GEN A
NORMAL ATS-A GENERATOR
SOURCE SOURCE
BYPASS ATC-900
1600AF DSB-DF4A SEE SCHEDULE DSB-DF4A ISOLATION TRANSFER
1600AT 480V, 1600A, ATS CONTROL
FOR LOADS PP-DF6A 480V, 600A,
3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC
120KA/Ø 800AF 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC
SPD 800AT

MAINTENANCE
225AF 400AF 800AF 600AF 400AF 225AF 400AF 480/277V, 800A, ISOLATION
175AT 250AT 800AT 600AT 250AT 200AT 250AT 3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC BYPASS
MBP BIB RIB
SPARE SPACE 2X
SEE SCHEDULE PP-DF6A UPS1
FOR LOADS 300KVA

1600A MCC-DF3A FREEDOM FLASHGARD MCC

MLO 120KA/Ø 480V, 1600A,
SPD 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC

400A 150A 150A 150A 150A 400A 400A 150A 150A 150A 150A 150A 150A
FR10 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE5 SIZE5 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4
261A FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR MIS

18 2S2W 2S2W 2S2W 2S2W

PULSE SSRV SSRV Eaton 9395 UPS
SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L
VFD W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP
W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP

DC-DS-A
3R 3R 3R 3R
6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE
200 75 75 75 75 150 150 75 75 75 75 75 75
BAT-A
NCHWP-1 CWP-1 CWP-2 CWP-3 CWP-4 CHWP-1 CHWP-2 CT-1 CT-2 CT-3 CT-4 SA-1 EF-1
240FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 180FLA 180FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA
PDU-1
480V-3Ø 600AF 120KA/Ø
600AF 400AF IFS-DF7A 3W,65kA 500AT
150A SPD
600AT DSB-DF2A 400AT
P=361A
120KA/Ø 480V, 600A, XFMR-DF8A P=361A
SPD 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC XFMR-DF7A P=90A 300KVA XFMR-UPS1
225A 75KVA 480-208/120V 300KVA
480- 480-208/120V
S=833A
208/120V S=208A
150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF S=833A 208/120V, 3Ø, 4W
"DF7AP"
40AT 15AT 90AT 100AT 90AT 100AT 100AT RP-DF8A
480/277V 225A
SPARE SPACE 2X 3Ø, 4W, 65KA 225A
1200AF 400AF 400AF
POW-R-COMMAND 1000AT 400AT 400AT
LIGHTING CONTROL 208/120V, 225A,
3Ø, 4W, 10 KAIC
POW-R-COMMAND 208/120V, 1200A, CDP-A CDP-B
10 2 4X 4X 3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC 42 Circuit 42 Circuit
RECEPTACLE CONTROL
GYCOL FUEL HVAC HEAT COMFORT HEAT
PUMP PUMP AHU-1,2,3,4 REJ. COOLING REJ.
GCP-1 FOP-1 UNITS CH-1 UNITS SEE SCHEDULE IFS-DF7AP & DF7AS SEE SCHEDULE RP-DF8A SEE SCHEDULE PDU-1
HRU-1,2,3,4 HRU-5-9 FOR NORMAL & CONTROLLED LOADS FOR LOADS FOR CRITICAL LOADS

Figure 2. Power System One-Line (Continued)

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 9

Designing a Distribution System
Standardized Drawing Symbols Medium-voltage circuit breakers shown
on a one-line typically incorpo­rate
The transformer’s kVA ratings are
indicated at the KNAN, (Natural Air Cooled
In the North American market, the the Basic Square Breaker symbol with by Convection—Over 300C Fire Point Fluid
American National Standards Institute the ANSI Device Number 52 inside. Filled) and KNAF (Forced Air Cooled Over
or ANSI for short, in cooperation with Medium-voltage breakers may be 300C Fire Point Fluid Filled) ratings.
the Institute of Electrical & Electronics either fixed mount (square with device
Engineers has developed standardized number inside) or drawout as shown in The “T1” transformer is described as
drawing symbols and nomenclature to Figure 3 as well as the system one-line on “Delta” Primary, “Wye” Secondary
represent common devices represented Page 8. configuration in the text as well as further
on one-lines, control schematics and depicted by the relationship of the “H1,
other electrical drawings. The existing It is important to develop a naming H2 and H3” connections to the X1, X2, X3
Standard for North America (including convention so personnel working on or and X0 symbols adjacent to it. Similarly,
the Canadian Standard CSA Z99) is IEEE responding to an event on the power the verbiage in the text calls for surge
315-1975 (Reaffirmed 1993)/ANSI Y32.2. system can readily identify the equipment and lightning protection. Symbols for the
experiencing any problems.This naming arrester and the capacitor are shown
This version recognizes that “Electrical convention is also useful for those doing connected to the incoming terminations.
diagrams are a factor in international preventa­tive maintenance in documenting Their actual ratings should be defined
trade: the use of one common symbol which specific switchgear, breaker, on the drawing or in the specifications.
language ensures a clear presentation transformer or protective relay they
and economical diagram preparation need to address. Both the transformer’s primary and
for a variety of users.” Consequently, secondary amps are included as a
the Standards Coordinating Committee Transformers are common compo­nents reference for sizing the conductors. This is
has added various International of a power system and are used on useful to determine the quantity and size
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) both medium-voltage and low-voltage of the MV cables per NEC Article 310.60.
symbols that are in use worldwide. applications to step a voltage up or down While medium-voltage conductors are
to a desired level. They are available in available in 90C (MV90) or 105C (MV105)
Item A4.1.1 of IEEE 315 defines a a variety of winding configurations as ratings, the actual terminations in the
Single-Line or (One-Line) Diagram as: detailed in the “Typical Components of transformer or switchgear cable
“A diagram which shows, by means of a Power System” in this document.) compartments are limited to 90C. When
single lines and graphic symbols, the sizing the MV cables, the NEC derating
course of an electric circuit or system of Because there are many types and factors must also be applied depending
circuits and the component devices or configurations of transformers available, on the type of raceway or duct bank that
parts used therein.” it is necessary to properly document the will be required.
specific requirements on the One-Line.
Components such as those represent­ing Primary unit substation transformers Where higher transformer secondary
circuit protective devices like fuses and are used to convert a medium voltage to currents are involved, a busway flange
circuit breakers are indicated in their most another medium voltage. and non-segregated busway can be
basic form. Device repre­sentations can supplied to connect it to the down­stream
be created by adding other components Secondary Unit Substation Transformers MV switchgear (as shown in Figure 4).
and nomenclature to the base component transform a Medium Voltage to a Low Proper selection and application of the
drawing. Low-voltage <1000 V circuit Voltage Level, generally under 1000 Vac. busway requires that the rated short time
breakers are represented by the first They are available in Fluid-Filled and and short circuit withstand current values
two of the following symbols shown in Dry-Type styles. be specified.
Figure 3. Both types of unit substation
transformers can be supplied with
fans to increase the transformer’s kVA
LOW LOW MEDIUM ratings. Figure 4 from the medium-
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE VOLTAGE voltage half of the system one-line
on Page 8 shows “T1” as Eaton
“Peak” Style Triple Temperature Rated,
7.5 MVA, FR3 EnvirotempE Fluid Filled,
52 Power Transformer.

FIXED DRAW-OUT DRAW-OUT

TRANSFORMER “T1”
MOUNT POWER POWER M1-00
PRIMARY UNIT SUBSTATION STYLE (1)
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT CIRCUIT 13.8 KV DELTA PRIMARY - 95KV BIL H2 63
BREAKER BREAKER BREAKER P/FA = 479A
4.16/2.4 KV GROUNDED WYE - 60KV BIL T1
EATON “PEAK” 55C/65C/75C H1 H3 71 49
Figure 3. Circuit Breaker Symbols CU
7500/8400/9156 KVA KNAN X3 T1 T1
X0
9375/10500/11445 KVA KNAF X1
FR-3 FLUID FILLED, 6.5% MINIMUM Z
S/FA = 1589A (1) (1)
X2
WITH SURGE + LIGHTNING ARRESTERS (1) 600:5
P/FA = CURRENT RATING. PRIMARY, FORCED AIR. 2000 A BUSWAY HI (C200)
S/FA = CURRENT RATING. SECONDARY, FORCED AIR.

Figure 4. Transformer Information and Symbols

10 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
Short-circuit values are critical in the
design and specification of all electrical INCOMING SERVICE CALCULATIONS
equipment in a power system. The
Megawatts Required 8.17 MW KW = 8170 KVA = 10,213
transformer’s Impedance, (often KVA Conversion = Kilowatts x Power Factor PF = 0.8
abbreviated as %Z) must be shown NUMBER OF INCOMING SERVICES PARALLELED 1
on the One-Line in order to calculate Contingency =
Transformers Must Be Sized to have:
0 Feeders
1 Carry Entire Load. Min KVA Each = 10,213
the required ratings of downstream
equipment as indicated in Figure 5. Primary Temp Rise % Capacity Primary Secondary Secondary % Available
Voltage KV Rating Increase KVA Rating Current Voltage Current Impedence Sec SC *
It is important to remember that all 13.8 55C KNAN Base Rating 7500 313.8 4.16 1040.9 6.5 16014
13.8 65C KNAN 12.0% 8400 351.4 4.16 1165.8
transformers designed to ANSI standards 13.8 75C KNAN 22.1% 9158 383.1 4.16 1271.0
have a plus and minus 7.5% tolerance for 13.8
13.8
55C KNAF
65C KNAF
25.0%
40.0%
9375
10500
392.2
439.3
4.16
4.16
1301.2
1457.3
impedance. If a transformer requires an 13.8 75C KNAF 52.6% 11445 478.8 4.16 1588.5
Transformer Available Amps for Contingency Conditions = 1588.5
absolute minimum impedance to ensure Calculated Required Amps for Contingency Conditions = 1417.4
the secondary short-circuit level does not
exceed a critical value, it must be noted SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS AND SWITCHGEAR MVA SELECTION CRITERIA
on the One-Line and in the accompanying 5kV Max If Known SC= 11650 Available Primary SC Fault Current
project specifications. Breaker KA Rating f= 2.4132649 FORMULA = (SC*PV*1000*1.732*Z)/(100000*KVA)
50 VCP-W 25 25 M= 0.2929746 FORMULA = 1/(1+f)
50 VCP-W 40 40 I2 = 11323 FORMULA = (PV/SV)*M*SC
Consideration must also be given to the 50 VCP-W 50 50 # of Services Paralleled = 1
types of cable terminations based on the 50 VCP-W 63 63 With Known SC Current * Unlimited short circuit
Available Secondary Short Circuit Current 11,323 16014
available short-circuit ratings. Where the
available short-circuit exceeds 12.5 kA, NOTE: CALCULATION DOES NOT INCLUDE DOWNSTREAM MOTOR CONTRIBUTION

medium-voltage molded rubber

deadfront termina­tions are generally Figure 5. Incoming Service Calculation
not an option. In these cases, the type
This is done to indicate to the equip­ment
of terminations must be specified. Stress
manufacturer or installing contractor that
Cone cable terminations are available
the CT inputs to the relay should not be
in either Hot Shrink or Cold Shrink
grounded in more than one location.
configurations. Porcelain terminators or
potheads are a more expensive option, OR CTs generally are wired to shorting
but often have higher short-circuit ratings. ter­minal blocks as indicated by the “SB”
in the box shown in Figure 7. These are
Current transformers are used in both
used to short out the secondary of the CTs
low- and medium-voltage applications as
prior to equipment installation or when
sensing devices for protective relays and
OR servicing them.
meters.They are available in “donut” style,
which encircle the conductor, as well as
bar style, which is bolted in series with the
load conductors. Both styles work on the (3) PT'S
UTILITY
CT’s (2)
principal of electromagnetic coupling; a 14,400:120 V
500:5

current flowing through the conductor Figure 6. Current Transformer Symbols (3) 120:1 (3) 13.8 kV, 1200 A, 50 kA SYM S.C.
(15 kV - 95 KV BIL RATED)

they surround induces a proportional In the case of Differential Protection (3) 800:5
SB

isolated low level signal (either 1 A or Circuits such as the 87-T1 Transformer
STD (C100)

5 A) that can be measured by an Differential or the 87-B1 Bus Differential,

1
52-M1
G R A
TRIP M1
TRIP S1

electromechanical or electronic device.

M1A LO
1200 A N.C. 52
the CTs are oriented in opposing 86
(1)
TRIP M1
C/S
M1-L
(1)

Current transformers may be shown directions as illustrated in Figure 7. This M1 TRIP S1 86

T1
SB
in several formats as indicated in permits the Differential Relays (3) 800:5
STD (C100)
TS

Figure 6. to measure the current going into a 51G

T1
(1)
87
T1
(3)

transformer or bus bar and deduct the

(3) 600:5 MR
Set at 350:5 ETR-5000-T1

The dots, X’s or boxes are used to denote current flowing out of it. When more
(4) GROUND STUDS
(3-Ø, 1-GND)
TS TS TS

the instantaneous polarity orientation current is flowing into the zone of

of the CT. The polarity marks on the protection than is proportionally flowing H2
M1-00

P/FA=479 A
63
(1)

conductor generally face toward the out, the relay senses the “differential” H3 CU 71
T1
49
source of the current flow. The polarity and trips the circuit breakers at high 1
X0
X3 T1 T1

mark on the CT winding represents the

S/FA=1589 A (1) (1)
speed to protect against a fault anywhere X2
(1) 600:5
relationship of the CT’s X1 secondary in the zone.
2000 A BUSWAY HI (C200)

terminal to the H1 medium-voltage (4) GROUND STUDS

(3-Ø, 1-GND)
“POINT B” T1 - 11.32 KA
SCA WITHOUT MOTOR SCA,
terminal on bar type CTs or its input Note the “Y” symbol, as well as the SB
(3) 2000:5
CABLE % Z TO T1 &
BUSWAY % Z

orientation for donut style CTs. quantity “(3)” next to the CTs. This STD (C200)

represents three CTs configured in a

1
G R A
52-S1
(1) S1A LO
2000 A N.C.
three-phase grounded wye arrange­ment. 86
TRIP S1
C/S
52
S1-L

While most of the CTs on the system

S1

TS SB
one-line on Page 8 are shown this (3) 2000:5
STD (C200)

way, the CTs on the output side of (3) 2000:5

STD (C200)
the 2000 A breaker S1A are not grounded. “BUS A” 4.16 KV,
SB
2000 A, 60 KV BIL, 40 KA SC RATED

Figure 7. Example of Differential Circuit with

Current Transformer Symbols

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 11

Designing a Distribution System
It is highly recommended that the design Standard for Device Function Numbers,
engineer show Test Switches on the Acronyms and Contact Designations.
System One-Line and include them in the
specifications. These are shown on the See Table 56 in Power Distribution
one-line as a box with “TS” in it. Test Systems Reference Data Section of this
switches are used during protective relay document for Device Function Number
testing to provide an alternate path to
(3) PT’S
4200 V: information.
120 V
inject current and voltage from a test set, 35:1
These element numbers are shown in
when commissioning these devices in a circle on the One-Line. A given relay
the field. may have multiple voltage and current
When designing a power system, it is elements shown in a common box, such
necessary to select the ratio and the Figure 8. Voltage Transformer Symbol as the EDR 5000-M1 protecting the 52-M1
accuracy class for the CT’s. For protective breaker in Figure 9.
relaying, the CT must be sized to ensure The secondary output of both voltage and
current transformers are measured by The numbers in parenthesis define the
they do not saturate under fault quantity of each specific element. In many
conditions. This may result in a higher protective relays and used in calcula­tions
involving preset thresholds. cases this quantity is (3); one for each of
accuracy class with more physical mass the three phases. In some cases, such as
or a higher CT ratio being specified. Voltage monitoring elements of protective the 50/51N function, this is shown as a
Most of the CTs shown on Figure 7 relays compare the input from the VTs quantity of (1). The symbol to the right of
are Standard Accuracy Class for the against a desired set-point to see if the this relay represents a transition from (3)
ratios selected. The exception is the single system voltage is over or under that individual phase elements to a single
600:5 CT in transformer T1’s Neutral to nominal value. If the value exceeds a residual neutral protective element.
Ground Connection. This is shown as a plus or minus tolerance band around the
high accuracy CT. set-point, an output contact or contacts in The output of each protective function
the relay change state to signal an alarm is shown with a dashed line and arrow
When selecting CTs for metering indicating what action is to be taken if
purposes, such as those connected to the or trip the circuit breaker open.
the relay determines the monitored
Eaton PXM-6000 Power Quality Meter Microprocessor-based relays offer values exceed the preset thresholds.
(see Tab 3 for details) it is best to use the tremendous functionality over the The EDR-5000-M1 Relay’s 50/51 Elements
CT ratio as close to the actual load as older electromechanical and solid-state (Instantaneous Overcurrent and Time
possible. This is done to increase the predecessors. Many of these devices Overcurrent respectively) are shown
accuracy at the low end of the range offer multiple types of voltage and tripping a high-speed 86-M1 Lockout
because the CT’s excitation begins to current protective elements. Relay. The elements of the ETR-5000-T1
deteriorate at about 10% of its ratio Transformer Differential Relay are
setting. As an example, a 600:5A fixed Protective relay elements are generally shown similarly, also tripping an 86-T1
ratio CT would begin to lose accuracy denoted by a number or characters as lockout relay.
at 60 A. defined in the ANSI/IEEE C37.2
Where loads are light, during
construction or during early build out
“POINT A” 11.65 KA SCA
stages, the actual current that must be USG-1A (3) SINGLE PHASE POTHEADS (1/Ø)
AVAILABLE FROM UTILITY
measured by the meter may be only (4) GROUND STUDS (3-Ø, 1-GND)
(2) UTILITY PT’s
100 A. Multi-ratio CTs are frequently used (6) LIVE LINE INDICATORS (2/Ø) 14,400:120 V 10 A
to set the maximum ratio lower. If set at
100:5A, this would improve accuracy
down to 10 A for a 100 A load. Conversely, TRIP M1
TRIP S1
as the end loads grow, the maximum UTILITY
CT’s (2)
(3) PT’S
ratio setting can be easily increased by 14,400:120 V
500:5
changing the CT tap settings. (3) 120:1 (3) 13.8 kV, 1200 A, 50 kA SYM S.C.
27 59
TS (15 kV - 95 kV BIL RATED)
Voltage transformers are used to step M1 M1
(3) (3)
higher voltages down to safe levels for (3) 800:5
SB

inputs to relays and meters. Traditionally, STD (C100)

voltage transformers (VTs) utilize a higher EDR-5000-M1 1 TRIP M1
primary voltage winding that is a fixed 52-M1
G R A TRIP S1
M1A LO N.C.
ratio to the 120 Vac secondary winding. (1) (3) (1)
1200A
C/S
52
M1-L
Examples shown on the One-Line are 50/51N 50/51 86 TRIP M1 (1)
86
14,400 V:120 V (a ratio of 120:1) or M1 M1 M1 TRIP S1
T1
4200 V:120 V (a ratio of 35:1). Voltage TS SB
(3) 800:5 TS
transformers are often referred to as STD (C100)
(1) (3)
potential transformers or PTs. They are 51G 87
PXM6000
illustrated symbolically as shown in METER (3) 600:5 MR T1 T1
Set at 350:5
Figure 8. (4) GROUND STUDS
ETR-5000-T1
TS TS TS
(3-Ø, 1-GND)

Figure 9. Protective Relay Element Symbols

12 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
In both cases, the associated (86) lockout
relay then trips the incoming main
breaker “M1” and the transformer
EDR-5000 1
secondary breaker “S1”. Lockout relays
27
are used to multiply the tripping contacts A

for a given function so they can be wired 74

46 50R 51R
50
50P 51P 67P 67N LOP
59
A
Metering and
into multiple breaker’s separate control TC BF Statistics
59N Current and volt.:
circuits as indicated for the 86-B1 device unbalance
on the System One-Line. Their primary 3
CTS SOTF CLPU
%THD and THD
Fund. and RMS
function, however, is to require a manual 1
25 min./max./avg.
angles
55
reset of the Lockout Relay mechanism by 47
A/D
Power:
trained personnel after the cause of the 3 Fund. and RMS
MVA, Mwatt, Mvar,
fault is determined and corrected. 27 59 81
PF
M M U/O 81R 78V 50X 51X 51V 67G 32 32V
Event recorder
The 27 and 59 functions shown in the
EDR-5000 relay monitor undervoltage IRIG-B00X Zone Interlocking Breaker Wear Disturbance recorder Fault recorder

and overvoltage respectively. Their

outputs are shown combined into a
single dashed line directly tripping Figure 10. EDR-5000 Protective Relay Elements Available
both the incoming main breaker “M1” Figure 9 shows some additional One such requirement is the breaker’s
and the transformer secondary breaker important information about the close and latch rating. Where higher fault
“S1”.This reflects the engineer’s desire equipment required in the dashed current values exist, some utilities specify
to have only one output contact for both box that comprises utility switchgear this value at 130 kA peak, which is more in
the 27 and 59 functions. Because two “USG-1A”. This switchgear is defined as line with the older 1000 MVA rated design.
breakers need to be tripped, this will 15 kV Class with a 95 kV basic impulse Because the 40 kA K=1 design’s close and
only require two separate relay contacts rating. The bus is rated to handle 1200 A latch rating is only 104 kA, the 130 kA close
instead of four individual output contacts even though the actual ampacity flowing and latch rating for the 50 kA breaker
otherwise necessary. through it will be under 500 A. The would dictate it being used instead. It is
The direct trip shown on the System equipment will be operating at 13.8 kV very important to be cognizant of nuances
One-Line purposely does not use an and have a short-circuit rating of 50 kA in all utility specifications to avoid costly
86 lockout relay, as this under or over Symmetrical. problems or delays in energization.
voltage disturbance is anticipated to be Because this One-Line is for educational Certain utilities mandate the type of cable
caused by the utility and not a fault on the purposes, a hypothetical short-circuit termination that must be provided in the
end user’s power system. In these value at “Point A” from the Utility is switchgear such as the (3) single-phase
instances, a separate contact from the shown for reference at 11.65 kA. In pot-heads illustrated on Figure 9.
relay may be allocated to start a backup actuality, this value would be part of a
generator or to initiate a Main-Tie-Main short-circuit study. If using a program Utilities may also require neon glow
Transfer Scheme. such as SKM to calculate the down­stream tubes or other live line indicators to be
short-circuit values, the cable lengths located on all three incoming phases.
The EDR-5000 Relay and the ETR-5000 These devices are intended to caution
Relay are programmable multi-function and conduit types as well as the
transformer impedance would factor personnel that the incoming circuit may
devices with many protective elements be energized.
that can be utilized simultaneously. In a into the calculations.
more fully developed protection scheme, The “USG-1A” switchgear on the However, it is always best to follow
certain protective elements (such as the One-Line is shown with a 50 kA rating Occupational Safety and Health
50/51 functions) can be used in both when other lower ratings such as 40 kA Administration (OSHA) approved
relays to back each other up in the event and 25 kA are available at 15 kV. This has practices and assume that the circuit
of a failure. Figure 10 shows the many been done as an example to future design is live until a calibrated voltage
protective elements available in the engineers who may be involved in urban reading probe attached to a hot-stick
EDR-5000 Feeder Protective Relay. areas with medium-voltage services. deter­mines otherwise.
Eaton’s “E Series” relays include an ANSI These MV services typically have higher Most utilities and institutions involved
74 element to monitor the trip coil of the available short-circuit capacity. In most in the distribution of medium-voltage
circuit breaker or lockout relay they are cases, the serving utility may have power use portable ground cables
tripping. This circuit ensures the integrity specific specifications for the switchgear that are applied only after no voltage
of the device to operate correctly when and breakers used as medium-voltage presence has been confirmed. This
a trip signal is applied. The example service equipment. requires that ground studs be mounted
One-Line should show the relay circle in the switchgear in order to facilitate their
with the “74” in it next to the “86” lockout OSHA compliant grounding procedure.
relay and breaker “52” symbols. These
were purposely not shown on the
drawing as it would make it more
crowded and difficult to read.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 13

Designing a Distribution System
As shown on the System One-Line, there Key interlocks are available in a variety of This permits personnel who will be
are ground studs on the incom­ing and configurations including transfer blocks working on the equipment to be in a
outgoing sides of both the “USG-1A”, to capture keys from multiple sources. safe location outside of the arc flash zone
(13.8 kV) and “PSG-1A”(4.16 kV) They are often used as part of Lockout and when enabling the Arcflash Reduction
switchgear. Applying these portable Tag-Out procedures. It is recommended Maintenance Mode.
ground cables requires a safe that the design engineer refer to a key
disconnection of power in the zone interlock manufacturer such as Kirk or Note 4 also requires Zone Selective
to be grounded to ensure personnel Superior for further documentation and Interlocking. This feature permits higher
safety. Consequently, a Key Interlock specific operational details. speed tripping of the Main breaker, if it
Scheme would be required to prevent does not receive a restraining signal from
grounding unless the respective breakers Drawing Notes are extremely important a downstream feeder breaker that it is
in the zone were withdrawn from their as they describe specific functional tripping to clear a fault.
connected position and locked open. requirements. In Figure 12, Note 3 above
switchgear “SUS-F1A” describes an Note 6 adds a requirement for BACnet
The symbol representing the key interlock additional requirement for a Priority Load communications functionality to a future
shown on the One-Line next to the “M1” Shed Scheme to ensure the generator is Building Management System. It also
and “S1” breaker is the box with the circle not overloaded.The details of this scheme provides a point of demarcation between
and the letters “LO” inside it. The “LO” would need to be coordinated with the the scope of work to be provided by the
nomenclature indicates that the key generator manufacturer and further installing contractor and what portion of
“M1A” or key “S1A” respectively is defined in the switchgear specifications. the wiring and interface will be required
only removable when the device of the BMS vendor.
(breaker or fused switch) is in the Note 4 calls for DT1150+ electronic
breaker trip units that include an Arcflash Each of the circuit breaker symbols in the
Locked Open position. “SUS-F1A” switchgear are surrounded
Reduction Maintenance Mode.This feature
Key interlocks are also shown on the limits arc flash energy in compliance with by double arrows signify­ing that these
MVS switches in two of the (4) Primary Article 240.87 of the 2014 NEC by using an breakers are drawout versus fixed mount.
Selective Step-Down substations fed alternate high-speed analog instantaneous Additionally, the “E.O.” nomenclature
from MV Feeder Breaker F3A, as well as trip setting to reduce arcing time. Note 5 in the middle of the breaker symbol
on the medium-voltage switch “CUP-F1A”. requires a touchscreen panel to monitor represents “Electrically Operated”.
This is done to prevent paralleling of the the operating variables as well as be used This function makes it easier to open
two different sources involved in the to activate the Arcflash Reduction and close the breaker. It also enables the
Primary Selective Scheme. Maintenance Mode remotely. opportunity for remote control from a
handheld pendant operating station or
The 750 kVA pad-mounted transformers a wall-mounted control panel.
on the One-Line, feeding “Residence Hall
A” and “B”, are shown with internal
vacuum fault interrupters (VFIs) as their FROM PSG-2A (SEE DWG E102)
4.16 kV, 3Ø, 60Hz
BUSWAY RISER
(SEE DWG E106)
overcurrent protection. The VFIs offer 4 6
many of the benefits of a circuit breaker, RBP-F3A T5-RBP-F3A PXM6000
such as disconnection of all three phases M.H A
N.O. P=208A S=1804A
(3)
PT’S
METER
AL 480 V:120 V
simultaneously, and may be used with 8
LO 300E
250 KA
/Ø.SPD
external protective relays such as MAIN CB
E.O. “RBS-F3A”
EDR-3000 Distribution or ETR-3000 M.H
7
P
N.C.
1500 kVA
2000 AF
1800 AT
Transformer Differential Relay. The LO F3D 4.16 kV-480/277 V
5.75% Z
LSG
(3) 2000:5
VFI option is available for fluid-filled
RHBP-F3A T4-RHBP-F3A
transformers in both pad-mounted and N.O. P=104A S=2082A

unit substation configurations. M.H A

6 AL
RESIDENCE
VFI-3A
HALL B
Key interlocks are also used in the N.C.
600 A
(SEE DWG E105)
P
Main-Generator-Tie “Bus A” half of M.H
5
SELECTOR SWITCH
750 kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
55/65C 5.75% Z

double-ended 480/277 Vac secondary unit W/SURGE+LIGHTNING

ARRESTERS
4.16 kV-60 KV BIL
208/120 V-20 KV BIL

substation as shown in Figure 11 and DFP-F3A T3-DFP-F3A

Figure 12. This scheme permits only one M.H A
N.O. P=139A S=1203A
AL
source to feed “Bus A” of the double- 4
LO 200E DINING
ended switchgear at a time. FACILITY
(SEE DWG E104)
N.C.
M.H P

This arrangement, while functional in 3

LO F3B
1000kVA
4.16kV-480/277V

physically blocking multiple sources such 5.75% Z

as “MB-F1A”,“GB” and “MB-F1B” from N.O.

RHAP-F3A T2-RHAP-F3A
being paralleled, does not permit Bus “B” M.H
2
A
P=104A S=2082A
AL
of the double-ended substation to be “POINT C” F3A - VFI-2A
RESIDENCE
HALL A
alternately fed from the “MV-F1A” breaker 11.32 KA SCA
WITHOUT MOTOR N.C.
600 A
(SEE DWG E103)

or the “GB” breaker.This may or may not SCA & CABLE Z TO M.H P
750 kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
1 “POINT D” - 40,400 SCA
T1 & T2-RHAP SELECTOR SWITCH 55/65C 5.75% Z

be the intent of the design engineer. In W/SURGE+LIGHTNING

ARRESTERS
4.16 kV-60 KV BIL
208/120 V-20 KV BIL
WITH UNLIMITED PRIMARY SCA
& 50% MOTOR CONTRIBUTION
either case, the engineer must think M1-03
SEE XFMR TABLE 1.6-7 FOR
T2 ESTIMATING PURPOSES.
through the intent of the key interlock
scheme and develop the logic accordingly.
Figure 11. Drawing Notes and Key Interlock Scheme in LV Switchgear

14 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
Each circuit breaker is named and its As an example, a 1600 A breaker cannot Consequently, it is very important to
Frame Size (AF), Trip Rating (AT) and be used in a cell configured for 800 A indicate the actual breaker short-circuit
protective functions such as Long, as it would not likely protect the cell rating as well as the switchgear bus
Short and Ground (LSG) or Long, Short, bus runbacks and outgoing cables ratings on the One-Line. These also need
Instantaneous and Ground (LSIG) are appropriately. Likewise, a 65 kA short to be consistent with other schedules and
noted accordingly. Since this equipment circuit rated breaker could not be inserted drawings, as well as in the equipment
is drawout UL 1558 switchgear, the 4 cell into a switchgear cell rated for 85 kA. specifications. This can prevent a bidder
high structure number and associated from incorrectly quoting 85 kA rated
breaker cell are illustrated. Figure 12 shows the main bus for the switchgear with 65 kA rated breakers.
switchgear rated at 4000 A with an 85 kA
“Spare” breakers have been located in the short-circuit rating. A busway symbol The System One-Line shows the
top “A” cells 02A and 04A as well as cells is illustrated above the tie breaker, incoming surge protective device (SPD)
04B and 4C in structure #4.The generator indicating that it is connecting to the other in “SUS-F1A” is rated at 250 kA per phase.
breaker is also located in top cell 03A of half of a double-ended switchgear lineup. As shown in Figure 13, SPDs in the other
structure #3, for cable and conduit egress downstream equipment are rated
out the top. In this example, all other Eaton’s low-voltage busway can be at 120 kA per phase. This surge protection
breaker cables “feeding loads exit out the supplied in ratings of 6–30 cycles.The scheme as shown is applied in a tiered
bottom of the switchgear.This avoids 4000 A busway shown has a 200 kA 6 cycle approach per the IEEE Emerald Book. In
bottom exiting cables from covering rms symmetrical short-circuit rating that this arrangement, the highest level of
access to the lugs for the spare and exceeds the 85 kA rating of the “SUS-F1A” surge protection is at the incoming
generator breakers. Consequently, it switch­gear bus on the drawing. source. Downstream switchboards or
permits room to terminate the future The calculated short-circuit rating panelboards closer to the loads provide
cables, coming into the top of the required for the “SUS-F1A” switchgear the next of surge protection.
switchgear, easily at a later date. is dependent on a number of factors There is a considerable amount of
It is always wise to include spare breakers including: the available short circuit distribution equipment illustrated on
of important frame and trip sizes in a upstream, the inclusion of the cable and the example System One-Line. For
drawout switchgear lineup. These spare transformer impedances feeding it, as that reason, reference is made to other
breakers can either allow for future load well as the short-circuit contribution drawings and schedules that would
growth or provide a readily available from the motors downstream. comprise the hypothetical bid package.
backup that can be used in the event that In actuality, the short-circuit current As an example, 1600 A distribution
an active breaker requires maintenance available may be lower than the 85 kA switchboard DSB-DF4A has a note to see
or service. shown on the drawing, permitting a schedule DSB-DF4A for the end loads. The
potential cost and space savings, if the same is true for power panel PP-DF6A.
Note that interference interlocks are
supplied on breakers and in switchgear rating required is dropped to 65 kA or
compartments where the compartments below. A short-circuit study would need
are of the same physical size. This to be done to confirm this.
rejection feature ensures that an
insufficient short circuit or incorrect
ampacity rated breaker cannot be
inserted into the wrong size cell.

PSG-2A (SEE DWG E102) DRAWING NOTES

4.16 kV, 3Ø, 60Hz
Provide M1 Electrical Interlock With S1 Breaker. M1 Cannot Close if S1 is
ENGINE

1
DIESEL

Open. S1 Cannot Close Until M1 is Closed. Include Key Interlocks as Shown.

N.O. CUP-F1A Provide MB-F1A Key Interlock With Generator Breaker “GB” and Tie Breaker
2
A “LTA”. Only the Single “MGT” Key Can be Used to Close Any of these Breakers.
LO Provide Priority Load Shed Controls for Feeder Breakers in SUS-F1A Switchgear.
3
G Provide Interface With Generator Breaker “GB” to Enable Operation When Non-
N.C. Priority Loads have Been Shed.
P FDR (SEE DWG E108)
“G” Provide All Magnum Breakers in SUS-F1A & RBS-F3A Switchgear With DT1150+
LO F1A 4 4000 A BUSWAY TO
CLE 2000AF Trip Units Including Zone Selective Interlocking (ZSI) and Arc Flash Reduction
2000AT TIE CB “LTB” IN
600 A Maintenance System (ARMS) in Compliance with Article 240.87 of the 2014 NEC.
PORTABLE “SUS-F1B”
LOAD BANK Provide Remote Touchscreen Panel With “Switchgear Dashboard Interface” to
P FA=461 A 5 Monitor Operational Variables and Enable Arc Flash Reduction Maintenance Mode.
XFMR “ST-F1A”
CU 2500/3333 kVA Wire All DT1150+ Trip Units Communications Ports to an Ethernet Gateway With
TOUCH 6
115C AA/FA 5 BACnet IP Connectivity. BMS Vendor Will Provide Field Wiring and Integrate Into
SCREEN
4.16 KV-480/277 V BMS System on a Separate Contract.
S FA=4000 A Z=5.75%

2 3 2
MAIN CB TIE CB
MGT (3) PT’S “GB” SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATION “SUS-F1A”
“MB-F1A” 480 V: EG BACNET IP “LTA”
LO E.O. 4000 AF 120 V TO BMS LO E.O. 2000AF LO E.O. 4000 AF
4000 AT 2000AT 4000 AT
N.C. PXM6000 TO DT1150 N.O. LSG N.O.
LSG LSG
METER ETHERNET TRIP UNITS “DF5A”
01B (3) 4000:5 GATEWAY MAIN SWGR. BUS “A” 85 KA, 480/277 V, 4000 A, 3-PH, 4W, (ALL BREAKERS RATED SC AT 85 KA)

01D 02A 02B 02C 02D 03A 03B 03C 03D 04A 04B 04C 04D
“DF1A” “DF2A” “DF3A” “DF4A” “DF6A” “DF7A” “DF8A” “DF9A” “DF1OA” “DF11A” “DF12A”

250KA/Ø E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF
SPD 600 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 600 AT 800 AT 400 AT 600 AT 600 AT 400 AT 500 AT 500 AT
LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG
SPARE SPARE SPARE SPARE

Figure 12. Drawing Notes and Key Interlock Scheme in LV Switchgear

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 15

Designing a Distribution System

4000 AT 2000AT 4000 AT

N.C. PXM6000 TO DT1150 N.O. LSG SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATION “SUS-F1A” N.O.
LSG LSG
METER ETHERNET TRIP UNITS “DF5A”
01B (3) 4000:5 GATEWAY MAIN SWGR. BUS “A” 85 KA, 480/277 V, 4000 A, 3-PH, 4W

01D 02A 02B 02C 02D 03A 03B 03C 03D 04A 04B 04C 04D
“DF1A” “DF2A” “DF3A” “DF4A” “DF6A” “DF7A” “DF8A” “DF9A” “DF1OA” “DF11A” “DF12A”

250 KA/Ø E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF
SPD 600 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 1600 AT 800 AT 400 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 400 AT 500 AT 500 AT
LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG
SPARE SPARE SPARE SPARE
(SEE DWG E109)
FROM GEN A
NORMAL ATS-A GENERATOR
SOURCE SOURCE
BYPASS ATC-900
1600AF DSB-DF4A SEE SCHEDULE DSB-DF4A ISOLATION TRANSFER
1600AT 480V, 1600A, ATS CONTROL
FOR LOADS PP-DF6A 480 V, 600 A,
3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC
120 KA/Ø 800AF 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC
SPD 800AT

480/277V, 800A, MAINTENANCE

225AF 400AF 800AF 600AF 400AF 225AF 400AF ISOLATION
3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC
175AT 250AT 800AT 600AT 250AT 200AT 250AT BYPASS
MBP BIB RIB
SPARE SPACE 2X
SEE SCHEDULE PP-DF6A UPS1
FOR LOADS 300 KVA

1600 A MCC-DF3A FREEDOM FLASHGARD MCC

MLO 120 KA/Ø 480 V, 1600 A,
SPD 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC

400 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 400 A 400 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A
FR10 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE5 SIZE5 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4
261A FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR MIS

18 2S2W 2S2W 2S2W 2S2W

PULSE SSRV SSRV Eaton 9395 UPS
SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L SS0L
VFD W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP
W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP W/GFP

DC-DS-A
3R 3R 3R 3R
6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE
200 75 75 75 75 150 150 75 75 75 75 75 75
BAT-A
NCHWP-1 CWP-1 CWP-2 CWP-3 CWP-4 CHWP-1 CHWP-2 CT-1 CT-2 CT-3 CT-4 SA-1 EF-1
240FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 180FLA 180FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA
PDU-1
480V-3Ø 600AF 120 KA/Ø
600AF 400AF IFS-DF7A 3W,65 kA 500AT
150 A SPD
600AT DSB-DF2A 400AT
P=361A
120KA/Ø 480V, 600A, XFMR-DF8A P=361A
SPD 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC XFMR-DF7A P=90A 300 KVA XFMR-UPS1
225 A 75KVA 480-208/120 V 300 KVA
480- 480-208/120 V
208/120 V S=833A
150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF S=208A S=833A
“DF7AP” 208/120 V, 3Ø, 4W
40AT 15AT 90AT 100AT 90AT 100AT 100AT RP-DF8A
480/277 V 225A
SPARE SPACE 2X 3Ø, 4W, 65KA 225A
1200AF 400AF 400AF
POW-R-COMMAND 1000AT 400AT 400AT
LIGHTING CONTROL 208/120 V, 225 A,
3Ø, 4W, 10 KAIC
208/120 V, 1200 A, CDP-A CDP-B
POW-R-COMMAND
10 2 4X 4X 3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC 42 Circuit 42 Circuit
RECEPTACLE CONTROL
GYCOL FUEL HVAC HEAT COMFORT HEAT
PUMP PUMP AHU-1,2,3,4 REJ. COOLING REJ.
GCP-1 FOP-1 UNITS CH-1 UNITS SEE SCHEDULE IFS-DF7AP & DF7AS SEE SCHEDULE RP-DF8A SEE SCHEDULE PDU-1
HRU-1,2,3,4 HRU-5-9 FOR NORMAL & CONTROLLED LOADS FOR LOADS FOR CRITICAL LOADS

Figure 13. Distribution Equipment Downstream of the SUS-P1A Switchgear

Typical loads are shown, however, for the Motor control centers are used to group This combination starter is mounted in
various motors being fed out of motor overcurrent protection and different starter a removable “bucket”. Lower ampacity
control center MCC-DF3A. Each motor’s types for the motors in a portion of a buckets are wired to stabs on the rear
designation and full load amps are shown power system.They may also contain of the bucket and manually plugged
below the motor symbol that contains the associated control and distribution directly onto the vertical power bus bars
motor’s horsepower rating. equipment as well as connectivity in the MCC.
interfaces to industrial control or Building
Safety switch symbols are shown Note: Larger hp starter sizes may be physically
Management Systems (BMS). Motor hardwired to the bus.
between the MCC and the motor symbol. starters, and motor protective overload
Safety switches are used to electrically relays are available in both electro­
isolate the motor during maintenance or Eaton’s FlashGardE motor control center
mechanical and electronic solid-state “bucket” shown in Figure 14 adds
to ensure it does not start unexpectedly configura­tions.
when personnel are working on or in the an additional level of personnel safety.
equipment it is powering. The operating In a motor control center application, the The FlashGard design incorpo­rates a
handles of safety switches have starter is provided with either a thermal- RotoTract™ lead screw assembly that
provisions for applying a lock-out tag-out magnetic circuit breaker or high magnetic withdraws the stab assembly off the
device. They are generally provided with circuit protector (HMCP) selected to energized bus bars and into the bucket. A
fuse protection to ensure adequate permit the high inrush current of the spring-loaded shutter then automatically
short-circuit ratings for the application. motor while starting. Either type of closes off access to the bus bars.
For those situations requiring a short- overcurrent protective device provided
circuit rating of 10 kA or less, a non-fused must be selected to coordinate with the
safety switch may be specified. motor overload protection relay.

16 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
The 150 hp CHWP-1 and CHWP-2 chilled
water pumps in MCC-DF3A are shown
Racking Tool Receiver Unit Latch
being fed from solid-state reduced
Power Stab voltage starters (SSRV). These SSRV
Position starters reduce the motor inrush and
n Connected Internal ramp them up smoothly to their full
n Disconnected Shutter running speed. SSRV Starters can be
Position used to reduce the “water hammer”
n Open
effect where the pipes in the system
Handle n Close
experience a sudden thrust of pressure.
Mechanism
Recent declines in the cost of VFDs and
their associated energy savings capability
Breaker have led to their growing popularity in a
number of HVAC applications. While VFDs
Pilot Device still have a higher initial purchase cost
Island
than standard starters or solid-state
n Start, Stop,
Starter Auto/Man reduced voltage starters, they have a
relatively short payback period. A savvy
building owner and design engineer will
recognize that the total cost of ownership
and energy savings must be considered
when electing to specify VFDs.
Figure 14. Freedom FlashGard FVNR Starter Figure 13 illustrates a Clean Power,
(18 Pulse) VFD in the MCC-DF3A feeding
The 75 hp Circulating Water Pump Eaton’s solid-state overload relays also
NCHWP-1, a 200 hp motor. This VFD
motors CWP1 through CWP4 shown have the ability to communicate status
contains a phase shifting transformer that
in Figure 13 are examples of full voltage including current per phase and other
feeds an AC to DC converter. This DC
non-reversing starters (FVNR). The key operational variables back to a
voltage is main­tained in capacitors on its
drawing documents these as having a full control system.
DC Bus. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors
load amp (FLA) rating of 96 A.
Motors are available in a number of (IGBTs) are switched ON and OFF at a
Based on rating of 96 A (75 hp),
winding styles and performance high frequency to simulate an AC
which would require a NEMA Size 4
characteristics. The 75 hp CT-1 through sinusoidal output waveform.
combination starter.
CT-4 motors shown fed from MCC-DF3A
The output voltage and frequency of this
The starter symbol shown on the drawing are of the two-speed, two-winding
VFD can be set by a digital signal from the
includes a normally open contactor.This variety. Note that six-pole disconnects
keypad or an external analog signal such
is followed by an over­load relay symbol. are required for two-speed, two-wind­ing
as 4–20 mA. A set-point controller in the
The overload relay measures the current motors. Because the cooling towers are
VFD can also be used to maintain a
flowing through the starter contacts to the typically located outdoors on a roof, a
temperature, flow rate or pressure level
motor and calculates when an extended NEMA 3R drip-proof safety switch would
by utilizing an external feedback signal
overload condition is present that will be required.
from a sensor.
damage the motor. A contact from the
overload relay is wired into the control Many two-speed starters are applied on
The use of VFDs in heating, ventilating,
circuit of the starter, which deenergizes the motor loads such as cooling towers,
air conditioning (HVAC) has been
con­tactor coil in the event of an overload. where the fan needed to run at a lower
popularized due to the VFD’s ability to
speed or higher speed, to optimize the
save energy. When motors on centrifugal
Electromechanical overload relays sense heat transfer and main­tain water
fans and pumps are oper­ated at reduced
an overcurrent by directing the current temperature in the return supply to
speeds, the energy required to produce
through a melting eutectic element or a the chiller.
the torque at motor’s output shaft is
heater pack. The heat is proportional to
ASHRE 90.1 is recommending the use reduced by the cube of the speed. See
the amount of current flowing. When the
of variable frequency drives in Eaton Application Paper IA04003002E
eutectic element melts or the bimetal
applications where they can reduce for details.
bends due to the heat from the heater
pack, the relay opens the control circuit. energy consumption and improve the
This type of centrifugal load is best
performance of the equipment they are
served by a variable torque VFD that
The “SSOL” nomenclature next to the powering. As an example, in lieu of
optimizes the volts per hertz relation­ship
overload relay shows these particular two-speed motors on cooling towers,
throughout the speed range. In addition
starters as having solid-state overload VFDs are being used to maximize
to the dramatic energy savings that can
relays. The text “W/GFP” calls for ground efficiency of the cooling process. In these
be experienced below 80% of the motor’s
fault equipment protection. In the past, cases, a sensor is placed in the wet well
base speed, VFDs ensure a soft motor
this would have had to be added as a of the cooling tower to monitor the
start and acceleration throughout the
separate relay, however, many of the new temperature of the water. A set-point
speed range.
overload relays use microprocessors to controller in the VFD utilizes the output
monitor a number of variables including signal from a sensor mounted in the Eaton’s CPX Clean Power (18 Pulse) VFDs
voltage to the motor. Eaton’s C440, C441 return water pan as feedback to modulate are available in low voltage for operation
and C445 all include phase loss and the speed of the fan. with 208 V, 230 V, 480 V and 575 V motors.
ground fault protection.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 17

Designing a Distribution System
As illustrated on the Power Figure 16 shows one possible application In this arrangement, consideration would
System One-Line on Page 8, a of an Eaton 9395 uninterruptable power need to be given to generator stability. An
medium-voltage Clean Power VFD is supply (UPS-1) being fed through ATS or generator failure would potentially
available for use with 4.16 kV motors. automatic transfer switch (ATS-A). This result in the UPS running on batteries
The input voltage can be either 4.16 kV arrangement addresses a potential loss until they were out of reserve power.
or its internal phase shifting transformer of power from switchgear SUS-F1A.
can be configured to step-down a higher If this approaches is utilized, the ATS
input voltage, such as 13.8 kV, to power should be of the BYPASS/ISOLATION
a 4.16 kV motor. design as indicated on the One-Line.
2 Eaton’s contactor-based BYPASS/
Medium-voltage VFDs are used to start TIE CB
“LTA”
ISOLATION transfer switch is available
and control the speed of high horse­power LO E.O. 4000 AF with removable contactors. This permits
4000 AT
motors in sewage and fresh water N.O.
LSG them to be interchanged with a spare or
pumping applications. They are also SWITCHGEAR “SUS-F1A”
the alternate source contactor during
used on medium-voltage high hp HVAC “DF11A”
04C
“DF12A”
04D maintenance and testing.
chillers. See Tab 10 for details.
E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF A second option for feeding the UPS
Below the MCC in Figure 13 is IFS-DF7A. 500 AT
LSIG
500 AT
LSIG would be to avoid providing the ATS
This is an assembly that allows several and feed the “MBP” and “BIB” from
pieces of electrical distribution equipment (SEE DWG E109) one breaker in switchgear SUS-F1A and
to be pre-wired into a switchboard at FROM GEN A the “RIB” input breaker from one breaker
Eaton’s manufacturing facility. As shown, NORMAL
SOURCE
ATS-A GENERATOR
SOURCE
in switchgear SUS-F1A and the “BIB”
the IFS includes a 480/277 V main breaker BYPASS ATC-900 input breaker from another as shown
ISOLATION TRANSFER
feeding a 480/277 Vac 225 A lighting ATS CONTROL in Figure 17.
480 V, 600 A,
control panelboard. 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC

A 75 kVA 480 V to 208/120 V transformer is

UPS1 2
also part of the IFS switchboard. It feeds a 300 KVA TIE CB
208/120 V panelboard with remote control MBP BIB RIB
“LTA”
LO E.O. 4000 AF
breakers to feed various receptacle loads. 4000 AT
N.O.
LSG
The Integrated Facility System SWITCHGEAR “SUS-F1A”

Switchboard (IFS) arrangement, “DF11A”

04C
“DF12A”
04D

as shown in Figure 15 is a great

alternative to traditional wall-mounted E.O. 800AF
500 AT
E.O. 800AF
500 AT
panelboards and floor or trapeze MIS
LSIG LSIG

mounted transformers. Because all

of this equipment comes as a prewired Eaton 9395 UPS

assembly, it generally takes less floor and

wall space than traditional con­struction DC-DS-A

methods. It also reduces installation time

and labor costs. LOAD
BAT-A

Figure 16. UPS-1 Connection Option 1 UPS1

300 KVA
MBP BIB RIB
During normal operation, power flows
from the “Preferred” Normal source from
breaker DF12A in switchgear SUS-F1A,
through the ATS feeding the inputs to the
rectifier input breaker (RIB) and manual
isolation switch (MIS).
When power is lost at the input to ATS-A, MIS
the ATS sends a run command to
Eaton 9395 UPS
Generator A. While the generator is
starting and no power is available to the
DC-DS-A
UPS, the UPS inverter will use the DC
energy stored in its batteries to generate
an AC sine wave to feed the loads. BAT-A

LOAD
As soon as generator power is available,
the ATS will transfer to the generator Figure 17. UPS-1 Connection Option 2
source and begin to feed the UPS’s
Figure 15. Integrated Facility inverter section.
System Switchboards

18 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
This would provide an alternate Larger kVA UPSs are used in industrial
path to supply the UPS during a applications such as microprocessor
maintenance event, such as servicing chip manufacturing operations. They
a breaker or cable termination. are also used to power ultraviolet
Unfortunately, in the event of a power purification equipment at fresh water
outage to the “SUS-F1A” switchgear, due pumping stations.
to substation transformer failure or
maintenance, power to both the UPS In a data center application, a UPS may be
Inverter and static switch would be lost. used to feed power to one or more power
Since the purpose of the static bypass is distribution units (PDUs).These PDUs
to operate in the event of a downstream are similar in functionality to an IFS
fault, the UPS inverter would not be Switchboard.They incorporate an integral
capable of responding to faults of this trans­former to step down the incoming
nature. It would, however, continue to 480 V UPS feed to a 208/120 V supply.
use battery power to feed the loads until The end utilization voltage is distrib­uted
the batteries were fully discharged. through integrated panelboards out to the
various computer loads. Individual circuits
Because most UPS battery systems are have CTs so each can be monitored on the
not intended to provide long periods of common touchscreen display.
standby power under the aforemen­tioned
condition, resumption of Normal power Eaton PDUs can be provided in a variety
from the “SUS-F1A” switchgear would of configurations including other larger
need to be done quickly.This may be frame breakers that can feed remote
difficult as personnel would need to first power panels (RPPs).
open the 4000 A “MB-F1A” main breaker.
They would then need to manually operate
the Key Interlock Scheme to enable a
second source, such as the 2000 kW
generator or the tie breaker to the other
half of the double-ended switchgear.
To ensure a quick resumption of power,
transfer switches are also used in a
number of healthcare and mission-critical
applications to automatically connect to
an alternate source should main power
fail. While UPSs are traditionally used
to back up sensitive servers and data
processing equip­ment, there are
many other places they are utilized. In
healthcare, they ensure a continuous
source of reliable power is available for
electronic imaging equipment.

Figure 18. Power Distribution Unit

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 19

Designing a Distribution System
Additional Drawings, The 310.15(B) (3) from the National
Electrical Code defines the Allowable
The equipment ground sizes are per
NEC Table 250.122 based on the trip
Schedules and Specifications Ampacities of Insulated Conductors rated rating of the overcurrent device pro­
While a Power System One-Line is the 0-90 degrees C. While details of this table tecting the phase and neutral conduc­tors.
basis for defining the interrelation­ships are included in the reference section of Note that they do not take voltage drop
between the various types of distribution this chapter, it should be noted that Listed into consideration.
equipment, there is often more Distribution Equipment is provided with
terminations rated at 75 °C. Table 1. Ampacity of CU Conductors
information that needs to be conveyed.
Conductor Ampacity (Copper)
Because the end loads and the conductors From a pragmatic standpoint, this means Conductor Amperes Conductor Amperes
feeding them are the basis for proper that the equipment could be fed from Size at 75 ºC Size at 75 ºC
selection and application of the circuit conductors rated at either 60 °C or 75 °C.
breakers, a valuable step in the selection Derating would be required for the 14   15 3/0 200

process is developing a schedule. conductor ampacity at 60 °C making it 12   20 4/0 230
less practical. It also means that the 10   30   250 255
The overcurrent protection of many equipment could be fed from 90 °C   8   50   300 285
loads, such as motors and distribution conductors, but only if applied at the
  6   65   350 310
transformers, must conform to the 75 °C ratings due to the limitations of
the equipment ratings.   4   85   400 335
requirements of Articles 240, 430 and
450 of the National Electrical Code.   3 100   500 380
Particular consideration needs to The following tables are adjusted in   2 115   600 420
be given to the length and type of accordance with NEC 240.4(D) to show
  1 130   700 460
conductors that will need to connect the actual allowable ampacities of copper
and aluminum conductors terminating in 1/0 150   750 475
the distribution equipment.
electrical distribution assemblies. 2/0 175 1000 545
As cable length increases, so does its
resistance in the circuit leading to a drop in A schedule based on the allowable
ampacity of copper conductors in Table 2. Ampacity of AL Conductors
the voltage at the end of the conductor run
feeding the loads. Cable lengths exceeding Table 1 is shown in Figure 19. Conductor Ampacity (Aluminum)
100 feet generally need to be upsized to It includes the relevant requirements Conductor Amperes Conductor Amperes
offset for voltage drop concerns. for secondary unit substation “SUS-F1A” Size at 75 ºC Size at 75 ºC
shown on the One-Line. This schedule
Cable length, size and the raceway they outlines the breaker frame sizes, trip 14 — 3/0 155
are installed in, also have an impact on settings and particulars of the trip 12   15 4/0 180
the impedance of the conductor in the units required. 10   25   250 205
circuit. Greater impedance helps to   8   40   300 230
reduce the available short circuit at the It also annotates the names for
the breakers as well as their circuit   6   50   350 250
terminals of the distribution equipment
or end load. nameplate designations. The cable   4   65   400 270
sizes and quantities are determined   3   75   500 310
by utilizing the tables in the NEC,   2   90   600 340
(as condensed into Table 1).   1 100   700 375
1/0 120   750 385
2/0 135 1000 445

SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATION "SUS-F1A"

4000A, 480/277VAC, 3-PH, 4W, 85kA Rated Switchgear and Circuit Breakers
BUS Structure Breaker Trip Poles, N bar Conduit Conduit Cable Entry Position
Location Cell # Name Frame Size Trip Size Function connection Circuit Nameplate Feeder Size Quantity Size into Unit Substation

1C MB-F1A 4000 4000 LSG + ZSI MAIN BREAKER "MB-F1A" Close Coupled
2A DF1A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
2B DF2A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N DSB-DF2A (2) sets (4)#350MCM +(1)#1G 2 3" UNDERGROUND
2C DF-3A 1600 1600 LSIG + ZSI 3 MCC-DF3A (4) sets (3)#600MCM + (1)#4/0G 4 4" UNDERGROUND
2D DF-4A 1600 1600 LSIG + ZSI 3N DSB-DF4A (4) sets (3)#600MCM + (1)#4/0G 4 4" UNDERGROUND
3A DF-5A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
SUS - F1A

3B DF6A 800 800 LSIG + ZSI 3N PP-DF6A (2) sets (4)#600MCM + (1)#1/0G 2 3.5" UNDERGROUND
3C DF7A 800 400 LSIG + ZSI 3N IFS-DF7A (1) set (4)#600MCM + (1)#3G 1 3.5" UNDERGROUND
3D DF8A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3 XFMR-DF8A (2) sets (4)#350MCM +(1)#1G 2 3" UNDERGROUND
4A DF9A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
4B DF10A 800 400 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
4C DF11A 800 500 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
4D DF12A 800 500 LSIG + ZSI 3 UPS1-INPUT-DF12A (2) sets (3)#250MCM +(1)#2G 2 2" UNDERGROUND
5C LTA 4000 4000 LSG + ZSI 3N TIE CB "LTA" 4000A Busway OVERHEAD

Note 1: Looking at the front of the Unit Substation; Right of the Main Breaker is BUS 1. The TIE Breaker is on the far Right of the Lineup and connects to
Switchgear "SUS-F1B" Through 4000A Busway

Figure 19. Unit Substation Cable Entry Position

20 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
In order to provide an effective ground On other occasions, the room does not There is an expectation that further
fault path as required by 250.4(A)(5) and have enough height to accommodate advances will enable the potential to
250.4(B)(4) of the 2014 NEC, upsizing of standard equipment. In these cases, integrate maintenance, spare parts
the equipment ground conductors are special reduced height switchboards and actual performance data into these
required by Article 250.122(B) “when or switchgear may be provided. BIM models. Eaton offers a suite of
the ungrounded conductors are BIM component models ranging
increased in size from the minimum While this equipment may not be from automatic transfer switches to
size that has a sufficient ampacity for documented as standard, Eaton can panelboards and switchboards that are
the intended installation”. provide assistance in developing a available from the Eaton website. Larger
reduced height alternative solution. manufactured to order switch­gear BIM
In these cases, “wire-type equipment models are available from your local
grounding conductors, where installed, As design and drafting tools have
evolved, the push to include 3D drawings Eaton application engineer or sales office.
shall be increased in size proportionally
according to the circular mil area of the has subsequently evolved into an
ungrounded conductors”. enhanced technology called Building
Information Modeling (BIM). BIM
When developing schedules, it is drawings include the 3D aspect but
important to remember that conductor also include the capability to assign
sizing is also impacted by the derating equipment performance parameters and
tables for ambient temperature and interdependencies. This permits architects
conductor fill when installed in raceways. and construction firms to be alerted to
potential “collisions” between incoming/
There are a number of ways to create outgoing conduits and other potential
cable schedules, the most common of obstructions such as existing conduits/
which is to name the conductor as is busduct, HVAC duct or plumbing in the
shown on the medium-voltage portion space above or below the equipment.
of the One-Line on Page 8.
Schedules are most often used to
define requirements for low-voltage TOP VIEW

switchboards and panelboards. They 36.00 30.00

may also be utilized to enumerate the

various automatic transfer switches AIRWAY

and the cables connecting them to the 30.00 OUTGOING

CONDUIT AREA
normal and emergency sources as well
as the end load. Figure 21. BIM 3D Model Top View
FRONT VIEW
Other drawings that are necessary to
produce the installation package are floor PANEL PA3 Power System Voltages
plans that include room dimensions,
equipment locations allocated within the The System One-Line on
PRIMARY MCB
space, appropriate clearances per code Page 8, shows an Incoming utility
requirements and means of egress from primary service feeding different types of
the area where the equipment is located. distribution equipment at
each of the various utilization voltages
These drawings have been done primarily necessary to power the actual loads.
90.00
in 2D CAD programs with boxes showing
equipment dimensions on the floorplan. The One-Line illustrates a number of
225 KVA
A front view of the equipment is also voltage transformations and is a good
used to detail the elevation requirements. example of the types of choices and
Equipment occasionally requires top-hats challenges a power systems design
CONTACTOR
or pullboxes that add height above the & RELAY engineer faces today.
COMPARTMENT
switchboard or switchgear.

Figure 20. Equipment Floorplan and Elevation

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 21

Designing a Distribution System
Voltage Classifications A power system design engineer should
attempt to familiarize them­selves with
The most common service voltage
arrangements are in the low-voltage
ANSI and IEEET standards define various the application of all equipment available range (<600 Vac). Normal residential
voltage classifications for single-phase in the various voltage classes. This is services are at 240/120 three-wire,
and three-phase systems.The terminology particularly true if they are involved in (two phases each at 240 and a Neutral
used divides voltage classes into: designing industrial facilities or campus Conductor). Connection from each 240 V
arrange­ments that may be served by a phase to neutral provides 120 V for the
■ Low voltage utility at medium or high voltage. lighting and plug loads.
■ Medium voltage
A three-phase, four-wire low-voltage
■ High voltage
service is generally provided for
■ Extra-high voltage Incoming Service Voltage commercial customers. It includes
■ Ultra-high voltage When designing a new power a neutral and may be provided at
distribution system, the engineer needs 208/120 Vac wye, 240/120 Vac wye or
Table 3 presents the nominal system 480 /277 Vac wye.
to be knowledgeable of the local utility
voltages for these classifications.
requirements including the service Typical applications for the commercial
Table 3. Standard Nominal System voltage that is available to be provided category of three-phase low-voltage
Voltages and Voltage Ranges for their client. Meeting with the utility’s services are small commercial buildings,
(From IEEE Standard 141-1993) customer service representative department stores, office buildings,
Voltage Nominal System Voltage
responsible for the installation site, kindergarten through 12th grade schools
Class early in the design process, can help and light manufacturing facilities.
Three-Wire Four-Wire
set expectations for both parties and
Low 240/120 208Y/120 avoid subsequent delays. There are a number of other older service
voltage 240 240/120 configurations utilized in rural locations
480 480Y/277 Most utilities will require a load letter such as Delta Hi Leg. These were used
600 — when requesting a new service or as an inexpensive way to supply
Medium 2400 4160Y/2400 upgrade to an existing utility service. 240 V three-phase and 240 V or 120 V
voltage 4160 8320Y/4800 The letter must include calculated values single-phase from a single-pole mount
4800 12000Y/6930 for the types of continuous and non- transformer.
6900 12470Y/7200 continuous loads that will be served.
13,200 13200Y/7620 As a general rule, the serving utility will
13,800 13800Y/7970 Article 220 of the NEC covers branch-
23,000 20780Y/12000
offer a basic service option that is outlined
circuit, feeder and service calculations. in the tariff documents that have been
34,500 22860Y/13200
46,000 24940Y/14400 It also includes references to other approved by the governing authority or
69,000 34500Y/19920 articles that pertain to specific types agency that regulates the utility. This basic
High 115,000 — of installations requiring special service option is one that minimizes the
voltage 138,000 — calculation considerations. utility costs and best accommodates their
161,000 — system requirements.
230,000 — The determination of the utility service
Extra-high 345,000 —
voltage is driven by a combination of The utility may alternately offer to
voltage 500,000 — factors including the engineers initial upcharge the client for extending or
765,000 — load letter, prevailing utility standards reinforcing cable connections to a
Ultra-high 1,100,000 — and the type of facility being served. location on their overhead or under­
voltage ground grid where they can supply the
Excessively high megawatt loads such
as those required by large wastewater service the user is requesting. In major
The 2014 National Electrical Code has treatment plants or complex process cities where the serving utility utilizes
ushered in a change to the definition facilities like petrochemical refining will underground spot networks, the option to
of low voltage.The NEC elevated the typically exceed the utility’s infra­structure select a voltage other than that available
maximum voltage threshold for this to serve the end customer at low-voltage. is either limited or extremely expensive.
category from 600 V maximum to In these instances, a medium voltage Utility metering requirements vary from
1000 V maximum.This was done to service at 34.5, 33 kV, 26.4 kV, 13.8 kV, one serving entity to another and are
accommodate the growing solar 13.2 kV, 12.47 kV or 4.16 kV will be more complex for medium-voltage
market where voltages up to 1000 V mandated. Extremely large loads may switchgear used as service equipment.
are becoming more commonplace. even involve a utility interconnect at the
69 kV or high voltage level. Commercial low-voltage utility
In general, the voltage classes above metering (<600 V) is more common
medium voltage are utilized for trans­ The System One-Line on Page 8 is an and includes standardized designs
mission of bulk power from generating example of a power system for a that can be provided in various low-
stations to the utilities substations that hypothetical college campus with a design voltage switchboard and drawout
transform it to the distribution voltage load over 8 megawatts at a 0.8 power switchgear configurations.
used on their system. factor.This would require a Utility service
of over 400 A at 13.8 kV.

22 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
Incoming Service
Considerations APPLICATION ZONES OF ARTICLE 230 - SERVICES PARTS I - VII & ASSOCIATED APPLICABLE NEC ARTICLES

UTILITY OWNED POLE MOUNT UTILITY OWNED PADMOUNT TRANSFORMER

Article 230 of the National Electrical TRANSFORMER OR UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION

Code: “covers service conductors and Part II - Overhead Service Conductors Part III - Underground Service Conductors
equipment for the protection of services 230.24 - Clearances 230.32 - Depth of Burial & Protection

and their installation requirements”. Service Head Terminal Box, Meter or Other Enclosure

Figure 22 provides the scope of pertinent Part IV - Service Entrance Conductors

references that apply to incoming service Part V - Service Equipment General Utility
Meter
Article 250 - Grounding & Bonding
equipment. These range from conductor
Part VI - Service Equipment Disconnecting Means
types from overhead service utility drops Part VII - Service Equipment Overcurrent Protection
1000 A & Above Main CB at
to underground utility feeds and their 230-95 - Ground Fault Protection of Equipment
480/277 Vac to be Provided with
Equipment Ground Fault Protection
proper installation. Article 408 - Switchboards, Switchgear & Panelboards

Parts V, VI and VII of Article 230 spell out Article 240 - Overcurrent Protection

the common requirements for low- Articles 215 & 225 - Feeders

voltage service equipment <1000 Vac. Articles 210 & 225 - Branch Circuits 75 kVa
These parts cover locations permitted, HVAC
480–208/120 V

various marking require­ments including Distribution Distribution Lighting

Section 230.66 that requires service Panel Panel Panelboard

equipment be listed and marked as

Suitable for Use as Service Equipment,
(SUSE). Also included is Section 230.71, Figure 22. Application Zones of 2014 NEC Articles Related to Incoming Utility Services
which limits the number of incoming The NEC Article 230 does not specifi­cally Article 110 of the NEC covers a broad
main service disconnects to a maximum require that electrical service rooms be range of requirements for electrical
of six. fire rated rooms or that sprinklers be installations. It includes provisions that
Section 230.95 of this Article requires provided. However, survivability govern the construction and spatial
equipment ground fault protection for requirements for fire pump disconnects requirements for egress, clearances
service disconnect(s) 1000 A and above in local building code requirements, in and working space in rooms containing
when applied on solidly grounded wye addition to NEC Article 450 or additional electrical distribu­tion and service
services, where the phase to ground utility specifications may require fire equipment.
voltage exceeds 150 V. rated rooms, particularly if medium-
voltage service is being supplied. Table 4 includes combined tables from
Article 250 of the NEC contains the NEC Article 110, showing the minimum
requirements for grounding and bonding Space allocation should be considered “depth of the working space in the
of electrical systems. Specific details when laying out equipment in a service direction of live parts” required in front
pertaining to grounding for the incoming room. Both low- and medium-voltage and behind medium-voltage equipment
service equipment begin at Section 250.24. utility metering typically adds an and low-voltage equipment.
additional equipment structure, or
These include application of the structures, to an incoming service lineup.
grounding electrode conductor in Section These are used to accommo­date the
250.50 to its sizing in accor­dance with current transformers and potential taps
Table 250.66. Requirements for bonding or voltage transformers necessary for
of service equipment begins in Section the external utility revenue meter to
250.90. Sizing of the main bonding calculate usage.
jumper and system bonding jumper are
also covered in Table 250.102(C)(1). Table 4. NEC Minimum Depth of Clear Working Space at Equipment
A more in-depth discussion of ground Minimum Depth of Clear Working Space at Electrical Equipment
fault protection can be found in Section Combined NEC Tables 110.26 (A) & 110.34 (A)
1.5 of this Design Guide. Nominal (Phase) Typical System Condition Condition Condition
to Ground Voltage Voltage 1 Live Parts to 2 Live Parts to 3 Live Parts
Ungrounded Surfaces Grounded Surfaces to Live Parts
Feet Feet Feet

0–150 V 208/120 V 3 ft 3 ft 3 ft
151–600 V 480/277 V 3 ft 3 ft 6 in 4 ft
601–2500 V 4160 V 3 ft 4 ft 5 ft
2501–9000 V 13,800 V 4 ft 5 ft 6 ft
9001–25,000 V 34,500 V 5 ft 6 ft 9 ft
NEC Definition of Live Parts: “Energized conductive Components.”
NEC Definition of Energized: “Electrically Connected to, or is a source of voltage.”
MVTransformers with Snubber Capacitors or MV EPR Cables holding a capacitive charge are considered
“Live” until the voltage is bled off by grounding procedures.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 23

Designing a Distribution System
Additional work space may need to be
allocated for OSHA required grounding
Utilization Voltage Selection In higher motor hp applications, a motor’s
4.16 kV utilization voltage may be the
practices, prior to servicing deenergized Very large inductive loads such as higher same as the 4.16 kV service voltage. In
medium-voltage equip­ment. As an horsepower motors used on HVAC these cases, the service equipment would
example, 6-foot-long insulated hot sticks chillers, sewage treatment pumps and need to feed power through cables or
are typically used to keep personnel at a in process or other Industries can draw busway to a medium-voltage starter or
safe distance, while applying portable tremendous amounts of power. Motors variable frequency drive.
ground cables. This procedure is utilized also inherently have high inrush currents
to discharge any residual capacitive during full voltage starting, which can However, in installations where there are
voltage present on cables terminating cause a significant voltage dip on the many long cable runs that are feeding
in a medium-voltage transformer power system feeding it. As a result, other large loads, the medium-voltage
primary cable compartment or in the many utilities have limitations on the distribution may have a higher service
rear cable compartment of medium- maximum horsepower motor that can be voltage such as 13.8 kV. In this case, the
voltage switchgear. line started directly from their system. service voltage would need to be
stepped-down to the 4.16 kV utilization
To limit the impact of this phenomena, voltage through a primary unit substation
a variety of techniques can be used to transformer as illustrated by the System
reduce the motor’s starting inrush One-Line on Page 8.
current. These generally involve the
use of electromechanical or solid-state Conversely, small end loads, short runs
reduced voltage starters. Variable and a high percentage of lighting and/or
frequency drives in both low and receptacle loads would favor lower
medium voltage are also available utilization voltages such as 208 Y/120 V.
as shown on the System One-Line on If the incoming service was at 13.8 kV,
Page 8. See Components of a Power as noted in the previous example,
System section for further details. secondary unit substations, pad-mounted
transformers or unitized power centers
could be used to step-down to the
Voltage Recommendations 208 Y/120 V utilization voltage required.
As renewable energy or cogeneration by Motor Horsepower This approach is often used to reduce
are added, power systems are becoming Some factors affecting the selection or offset voltage drop issues on multi
more complex and so too is their service of motor operating voltage include: building sites such as college or hospital
interface for utility power. Many Public campuses. It is also used in large single
Service Commissions have adopted ■ Motor, motor starter and cable first cost building sites like distribution warehouses
Standard Interface Requirements (SIR) ■ Motor, motor starter and cable and high rise “skyscraper” buildings.
for Distributed Energy Resources (DER) installation cost
based on IEEE 1547. These are intended Note: The “Types of Systems” section of this
to protect the utility system from user- ■ Motor and cable losses Design Guide illustrates a number of power
system designs that improve reliability and
owned generation back-feeding into a ■ Motor availability
uptime during maintenance or service outages.
fault or dead cable on the utility grid. ■ Voltage drop Among these schemes are a variety of
Utilities may have their own specifica­ ■ Qualifications of the building configurations showing medium-voltage
sources feeding substation or pad-mounted
tions and tariffs for the interconnection of operating staff; and many more transformers that step it down to the
this Dispersed or Distributed Generation appropriate low voltage for end load utilization.
(DG). These include capacity limitations The following table is based in part
and/or the addition of charges for the on the above factors and experience.
Because all the factors affecting the A problem can arise, however, when a
“spinning reserves” they must keep on low-voltage service is the only utility
hand, should the user’s DG assets fail or selection are rarely known, it is only
an approximate guideline. service option and cable distances
load increase. between the incoming service and the
Consequently, the design engineer must Table 5. Selection of Motor Horsepower Ratings utilization loads are great. In these
be aware that special relaying protection as a Function of System Voltage instances, a practical way to offset for
may need to be included in the design. Motor Voltage Motor System the voltage drop to the end utilization
Also, additional analysis of the utility (Volts) hp Range Voltage loads is the use of low-voltage busway
tariffs and rate structures may be in lieu of cable.
     460 Up to 500      480
necessary to validate the projected    2300 250 to 2000    2400 Another technique to address voltage
payback of participation in peak    4000 250 to 3000    4160 drop concerns for long cable runs is
demand reduction programs using    4600 250 to 3000    4800 to use a step-up and step-down
owner-supplied generation. 13,200 Above 2000 13,800 transformer arrangement.

24 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Designing a Distribution System
To accomplish this, a step-up trans­former Low-Voltage Utilization The National Electrical Code permits
is added after the low-voltage service. The With most low-voltage services, the voltage up to 300 V to ground on circuits
transformer primary is configured in a service voltage is the same as the supplying permanently installed electric
delta and is fed by the grounded and utilization voltage. However, when discharge lamp fixtures, provided the
bonded low-voltage incoming utility the engineer is faced with a decision luminaires do not have an integral
service. The step-up transformer wye between 208Y/120 V and 480Y/277 V manual switch and are mounted at least
secondary is often at medium voltage, secondary distribution for commercial 8 ft (2.4 m) above the floor. This permits
typically at 4.16 kV, with the transformers and institutional buildings, the choice a three-phase, four-wire, solidly grounded
wye secondary grounded. depends on several factors. The most 480Y/277 V system to supply directly all
important of these are the size and types of the fluorescent and high-intensity
A 4.16 kV delta primary step-down discharge (HID) lighting in a building at
transformer is then located near the of loads (motors, fluorescent lighting,
incandescent lighting, receptacles) and 277 V, as well as motors at 480 V.
served load and has its wye secondary
grounded in accordance with NEC Article length of feeders. In general, power
250.30 to create a separately derived system designs with HVAC equipment Technical Factors
system. This step-down transformer’s with a significant quantity of motors, The principal advantage of the use of
secondary voltage may be the same as predominantly fluorescent lighting loads, higher secondary voltages in buildings is
the incoming service, or it may be at and long feeders, will tend to make that for a given load, less current means
higher utilization voltage. 480Y/277 V more economical. smaller conductors and lower voltage
drop. Also, a given conductor size can
Caution must be taken when selecting the Industrial installations with large motor
supply a large load at the same voltage
step-up transformers to be used in this loads are almost always 480 V resistance
drop in volts, but a lower percentage
type of application. Step-up transformers, grounded, wye systems (see further
voltage drop because of the higher
particularly designs that are not optimized discussion on this topic in the Grounding/
supply voltage. Fewer or smaller circuits
for step-up purposes, such as a reverse-fed Ground Fault Protection section of this
can be used to transmit the power from
standard transformer, exhibit extremely Design Guide).
the service entrance point to the final
high inrush during energization. distribution points. Smaller conductors
Practical Factors can be used in many branch circuits
Unless the step-up transformers are
specifically wound for low inrush, Because most low-voltage distribution supplying power loads, and a reduction
the magnetizing current during initial equipment available is rated for up to in the number of lighting branch circuits
energization, may exceed the 6X make 600 V, and conductors are insulated for is usually possible.
capabilities of a low-voltage fused 600 V, the installation of 480 V systems
uses the same techniques and is It is easier to keep voltage drops within
bolted pressure switch. This can result acceptable limits on 480 V circuits than
in a condition where a portion of the essentially no more difficult, costly or
hazardous than for 208 V systems. The on 208 V circuits. When 120 V loads are
switch contact surface can weld before supplied from a 480 V system through
full engagement. The current passing major difference is that an arc of 120 V
to ground tends to be self-extinguishing, step-down transformers, voltage drop
through the smaller contact area will in the 480 V supply conductors can be
then eventually cause the switch to while an arc of 277 V to ground tends to
be self-sustaining and likely to cause compensated for by the tap adjust­ments
overheat and fail. on the transformer, resulting in full 120 V
severe damage.
Many step-up transformer applications output. Because these transformers are
involve a 208 Vac incoming service For this reason, Article 230.95 of the usually located close to the 120 V loads,
stepping this voltage up to the utilization National Electrical Code requires secondary voltage drop should not be
voltage of 480 Vac for HVAC motor loads ground fault protection of equipment a problem. If it is, taps may be used to
in a building. The design engineer must on grounded wye services of more than compensate by raising the voltage at
be aware of some potential pitfalls and 150 V to ground, but not exceeding the transformer.
plan ahead when involved in this type 600 V phase-to-phase (for practical
purpose, 480Y/277 V services), for any The interrupting ratings of circuit
of application. breakers and fuses at 480 V have
service disconnecting means rated
Larger step-up transformers offer fewer 1000 A or more. increased considerably in recent years,
transformer voltage taps, if any at all.They and protective devices are now available
also exhibit poor voltage regulation when Article 215.10 of the NEC extends this for any required fault duty at 480 V.
experiencing transient shock loads, such equipment ground fault requirement to In addition, many of these protective
as motors starting. When designing power feeder conductors and clarifies the need devices are current limiting, and can be
systems utilizing step-up transformers for equipment ground fault protection used to protect down­stream equipment
to feed motor loads, a Motor Starting for 1000 A and above, feeder circuit against these high fault currents.
Analysis should be performed to ensure protective devices on the 480/277 Vac
that the motors will start and operate secondary of trans­formers. Article 210.13
as intended. has been added to the 2014 NEC,
essentially recognizing the same need
for equipment ground fault protection on
1000 A branch circuits being fed from the
480/277 Vac secondary of transformers.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 25

Designing a Distribution System
Economic Factors
Utilization equipment suitable for
principal loads in most buildings
is available for either 480 V or 208 V
systems. Three-phase motors and Elevator
their controls can be obtained for either Panel

voltage, and for a given horsepower are Typical

less costly at 480 V. LED lighting as well as
earlier technologies including fluorescent,
Typical Emergency
HID and high pressure sodium can all be HVAC Lighting Panel
applied in either 480 V or 208 V systems. Panel (Typical Every
However, in almost all cases, the installed Third Floor)
equipment will have a lower total cost at
the higher voltage. 480Y/277 V 208Y/120 V Typical
Panel Panel
Dry Type Transformer
480∆-208Y/120 V
(Typical Every Floor)
HVAC Busway Emergency Elevator
Feeder Riser Lighting Riser
Riser

Building and Typical Typical

Miscellaneous
Loads
Typical

Typical Typical
Spare

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Automatic
1 4000 A Transfer Switch
Main CB
Gen. CB
Utility Emergency
CTs or Standby
Metering
PTs Generator
Utility 4000A at 480Y/277V
Service 100,000A Available Fault Current

Figure 23. Typical Power Distribution and Riser Diagram for a Commercial Office Building
a Include ground fault trip.

26 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Types of Systems
Types of Systems This makes it possible for the utility
to minimize the installed transformer
Additionally, a fault on the Service
Switchgear or Switchboards low-voltage
In many cases, power is supplied by capacity. However, if capacity require­ bus will cause the main overcurrent
the utility to a building at the utilization ments grow, the voltage regulation and protective device to operate, interrupting
voltage. In these cases, the distribution efficiency of this system may be poor service to all loads. Service cannot be
of power within the building is achieved because of the low-voltage feeders and restored until the necessary repairs have
through the use of a simple radial single source. Typically, the cost of the been made. A fault on a low-voltage
distribution system. low-voltage feeder circuits and their feeder circuit will interrupt service to all
associated circuit breakers are high the loads supplied by that feeder.
when the feeders are long and the
Simple Radial System peak demand is above 1000 kVA. An engineer needs to plan ahead for
In a conventional low-voltage radial these contingencies by incorporating
system, the utility owns the pole-mounted Where a utility’s distribution system is fed backup power plans during the initial
or pad-mounted transformers that step by overhead cables, the likelihood of an design of the power system. Resiliency
their distribution voltage down from outage due to a storm, such as a hurricane from storms, floods and other natural
medium voltage to the utilization voltage, or blizzard, increases dramatically. Wind disasters can be accomplished with the
typically 480/277 Vac or 208/120 Vac. In or ice formation can cause tree branches addition of permanently installed standby
these cases, the service equipment is to fall on these suspended cables, causing generation, or by including a provision in
generally a low-voltage main distribution an unplanned power outage. The failure the incoming Service equipment for the
switchgear or switch­board. Specific of pole-mounted utility transformers can connection of a portable roll-up
requirements for service entrance result in an outage lasting a day or more. temporary generator.
equipment may be found in NEC Note: See Generator and Generator Systems
Article 230, Services. in the Typical Power Systems Components
section of this Design Guide for further details.
Low-voltage feeder circuits are run
from the switchboard or switchgear
assemblies to panelboards that are
located closer to their respective loads Utility
Medium-Voltage
as shown in Figure 24. Each feeder is Distribution
connected to the switchgear or switch­
board bus through a circuit breaker or
Utility Owned
other overcurrent protective device. A Pole or Padmount
Utility
relatively small number of circuits are Meter Transformer
used to distribute power to the loads.
Because the entire load is served from 480/277 Vac (VT’s or Tap by Utility)
a single source, full advantage can be Service Entrance
Equipment (CT’s by Utility)
taken of the diversity among the loads.

75 kVA
480–208/120 V
HVAC
Distribution Distribution Lighting
Panel Panel Panelboard

Figure 24. Low-Voltage Radial System

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 27

Types of Systems
Figure 25 shows a typical incoming It is important to consider the ground­ing If the three-phase generator neutral
service switchboard with the addition of of the generator neutral when using is brought back through the transfer
a key interlocked generator breaker. In automatic transfer switches in power switches and grounded at the service
this design, the breaker pair shares a system design. If the generator neutral is entrance, a three-pole transfer switch
single key that can only be used to close grounded at the generator, a sepa­rately with solid neutral should be provided.
one breaker at a time. This arrangement derived system is created. This requires
ensures against parallel­ing with the utility the use of four-pole transfer switches for
but requires manual intervention in the a three-phase system.
event of an outage.
In a typical standby generation arrange­
ment, automatic transfer switches are
used to feed either Nor­mal utility power Utility
or an alternate gener­ator source of Medium-Voltage
backup power to the critical loads. The Distribution
transfer switches sense the loss of power
from the Nor­mal source and send a run Utility Owned
command to the generator to start. Utility Pole or Padmount G
Meter Transformer
Once the generator is running, the
transfer switches sense that voltage is 480/277 Vac (VT’s or Tap by Utility)
Service Entrance
available and automatically open the Equipment (CT’s by Utility)
Normal contactor and close the Generator
contactor. When the Normal source K1 K1
returns, the transfer switch opens the
Generator contactor and closes the
Normal source contactor.
The location and type of the transfer
switches depends on the Utility and the
overall design intent. Transfer switches 75 kVA
can be Service Entrance Rated and 480–208/120 V
HVAC
used as the main Service Disconnect
feeding all the loads downstream. Distribution Distribution Lighting
See Figure 26. Panel Panel Panelboard

Transfer switches can be also be incor­

porated into the service switchboard as Figure 25. Typical Incoming Service Switchboard
an integral part of the assembly.
Alternately, they can be located down­ Typical Transfer Switch Installation
stream of the incoming service and Typical Transfer Switch Installation Rated for Service Entrance
applied only to the individual loads they Utility Service Utility Service
are feeding. This approach of isolating
only those critical loads that must
function during a power outage can
reduce the generator kVA necessary. This Service Service
can reduce space and cost requirements. Disconnect Disconnect
G
G Generator
Generator ATS ATS
Breaker
Breaker

Load Load

Figure 26. Main Service Disconnect Feeding Downstream

28 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Types of Systems
In cases where the utility service voltage is Each secondary unit substation is an However, because power is distributed
at some voltage higher than the utilization assembled unit consisting of a three- to the load areas at a primary voltage,
voltage within the building, the system phase, liquid-filled or air-cooled losses are reduced, voltage regulation is
design engineer has a choice of a number transformer, an integrally connected improved, feeder circuit costs are reduced
of types of systems that may be used.This primary fused switch, and low-voltage substantially, and large low-voltage feeder
discussion covers several major types of switchgear or switchboard with circuit circuit breakers are eliminated. In many
distribution systems and practical breakers or fused switches. Circuits are cases the inter­rupting duty imposed on
modifications of them. run to the loads from these low-voltage the load circuit breakers is reduced.
protective devices.
1. Simple medium-voltage radial This modern form of the simple radial
Because each transformer is located system will usually be lower in initial
2. Loop-primary system— within a specific load area, it must have investment than most other types of
radial secondary system sufficient capacity to carry the peak load primary distribution systems for build­
3. Primary selective system— of that area. Consequently, if any diversity ings in which the peak load is above
secondary radial system exists among the load area, this modified 1000 kVA. A fault on a primary feeder
primary radial system requires more circuit or in one transformer will cause
4. Two-source primary— transformer capacity than the basic form an outage to only those secondary loads
secondary selective system of the simple radial system. served by that feeder or trans­former.
In the case of a primary main bus fault
5. Sparing transformer system
or a utility service outage, service is
6. Simple spot network interrupted to all loads until the trouble
is eliminated.
7. Medium-voltage distribution
system design
In those cases where the customer
receives his supply from the primary Primary Fused Switch
system and owns the primary switch and
Transformer
transformer along with the secondary
low-voltage switchboard or switchgear,
600V Class
the equipment may take the form of Switchboard
a separate primary switch, separate
transformer, and separate low-voltage
switchgear or switch­board. This
equipment may be combined in the Distribution
Dry-Type
form of an outdoor pad-mounted Transformer
transformer with internal primary
fused switch and secondary main Distribution MCC Distribution Lighting
breaker feeding an indoor switchboard. Panel Panel Panelboard

Another alternative would be a

secondary unit substation where the
primary fused switch, transformer and Figure 27. Simple Radial System
secondary switchgear or switchboard
are designed and installed as a close-
coupled single assembly.
52 Primary Main Breaker
A modern and improved form of the
conventional simple medium-voltage
radial system distributes power at a 52 52 52 52 52 52 Primary Feeder Breakers
primary voltage. The voltage is stepped
down to utilization level in the several
load areas within the building typically
through secondary unit substation
transformers. The transformers are
usually connected to their associated
load bus through a circuit breaker, as
shown in Figure 28.
Secondary Unit
Primary Substation
Cables

Figure 28. Primary and Secondary Simple Radial System

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 29

Types of Systems
Reducing the number of transformers per 2. Loop Primary System— utilizing three on-off switches or a
primary feeder by adding more primary four-position sectionalizing switch and
feeder circuits will improve the flexibility Radial Secondary System vacuum fault interrupter (VFI) internal
and service continuity of this system; This system consists of one or more to the transformer saving cost and
the ultimate being one secondary unit “PRIMARY LOOPS” with two or more reducing footprint.
substation per primary feeder circuit. This transformers connected on the loop. This
of course increases the investment in the system is typically most effective when When pad-mounted compartmental­ized
system but minimizes the extent of an two services are available from the utility transformers are used, they are furnished
outage resulting from a transformer or as shown in Figure 29. Each primary loop with loop-feed oil-immersed gang-
primary feeder fault. is operated such that one of the loop operated load break sectionalizing
sectionalizing switches is kept open to switches and Bay-O-Net expulsion
Primary connections from one secondary prevent parallel operation of the sources. fuses in series with partial range back-up
unit substation to the next secondary unit current-limiting fuses. By operating the
substation can be made with “double” When secondary unit substations are appropriate sectionalizing switches, it
lugs on the unit substation primary switch used, each transformer may have its is possible to disconnect any section of
as shown, or with load break or non-load own duplex (2-load break switches with the loop conductors from the rest of
break separable connectors made in load side bus connection) sectionalizing the system. In addition, it is possible to
manholes or other locations. See Eaton’s switches and primary load break fused disconnect any transformer from the loop.
Cooper PowerE series Molded Rubber switch as shown in Figure 30 or
Medium Voltage Connectors on Eaton’s
website for more details.
Depending on the load kVA connected
to each primary circuit and if no ground
fault protection is desired for either the
primary feeder conductors and trans­ Primary Main Breaker 1 52 52 Primary Main Breaker 2
formers connected to that feeder or the
main bus, the primary main and/or feeder 52
breakers may be changed to primary
Tie
fused switches. This will significantly Breaker
52 52 52 52 Loop Feeder Breaker
reduce the first cost, but also decrease
the level of conductor and equipment
Loop A
protection. Thus, should a fault or
Loop B
overload condition occur, downtime
increases significantly and higher costs
associated with increased damage levels NC NO NC NC
and the need for fuse replacement is Fault Sensors
typically encountered. In addition, if only
one primary fuse on a circuit opens, the
secondary loads are then single phased,
causing damage to low-voltage motors.
Another approach to reducing costs is
to eliminate the primary feeder breakers
completely, and use a single primary main
breaker or fused switch for protection of
a single primary feeder circuit with all
NC NC NO NC NC NC
secondary unit substations supplied
from this circuit. Although this system
results in less ini­tial equipment cost,
system reliability is reduced drastically
because a single fault in any part of the
primary conductor would cause an outage
to all loads within the facility.

Secondary Unit Substations Consisting of:

Duplex Primary Switches/Fused Primary Switches/
Transformer and Secondary Main Feeder Breakers

Figure 29. Loop Primary—Radial Secondary System

30 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Types of Systems

Loop Loop Primary Metal-Clad

Feeder Feeder
Switchgear Lineup
Load Break 52 52 Primary Main Breaker
Loop Switches
Bus A 52 Bus B

52 52 52 52 Primary Feeder Breaker

Fused Feeder A1 Feeder B1 Feeder B2

Disconnect To Other
Switch Feeder A2 Substations

NO

NC

NO Typical Secondary Unit

Substation Duplex Primary
Switch/Fuses
NC Transformer/600V Class
Figure 30. Secondary Unit Substation Secondary Switchgear
Loop Switching NO

Main Source Alternate Source NC

3-Position
Selector Switch
Figure 33. Basic Primary Selective—Radial Secondary System
Vacuum Fault
Interrupter (VFI) A key interlocking scheme is normally When a primary feeder conductor
recommended to prevent closing all fault occurs, the associated loop feeder
sectionalizing devices in the loop. Each breaker opens and interrupts service to
primary loop sectionalizing switch and all loads up to the normally open primary
the feeder breakers to the loop are loop load break switch (typically half of
interlocked such that to be closed they the loads). Once it is determined which
require a key (which is held captive until section of primary cable has been faulted,
the switch or breaker is opened) and one the loop sectionalizing switches on each
less key than the number of key interlock side of the faulted conductor can be
cylinders is furnished. An extra key is opened, the loop sectionalizing switch
Figure 31. VFI / Selector Switch Combination provided to defeat the interlock under that had been previously left open can
qualified supervision. then be closed to all secondary unit
substations while the faulted conduc­tor
Loop Feeder Loop Feeder In addition, the two primary main is replaced. If the fault should occur in a
breakers, which are normally closed, conductor directly on the load side of
and primary tie breaker, which is one of the loop feeder breakers, the loop
normally open, are either mechanically feeder breaker is kept open after tripping
4-Position
or electrically interlocked to prevent and the next load side loop sectionalizing
Partial Range T-Blade
Sectionalizing paralleling the incoming source lines. switch manually opened so that the
Current-Limiting Fuse
Load-Break For slightly added cost, an automatic faulted conductor can be sectionalized
Bay-O-Net Switch throw-over scheme can be added
Expulsion Fuse and replaced.
between the two main breakers and tie
breaker. During the more common event Under this condition, all secondary unit
of a utility outage, the automatic transfer substations are supplied through the
scheme provides significantly reduced other loop feeder circuit breaker, and thus
power outage time. all conductors around the loop must be
sized to carry the entire load connected
The system in Figure 29 has higher costs to the loop. Where separable load break
than in Figure 28, but offers increased or non-load break connectors are used,
reliability and quick restora­tion of service they too must be sized to handle the
Figure 32. Pad-Mounted Transformer when 1) a utility outage occurs, 2) a
Loop Switching entire load of the loop. Increasing the
primary feeder conductor fault occurs, or number of primary loops (two loops
3) a transformer fault or overload occurs. shown in Figure 33) will reduce the extent
Should a utility outage occur on one of of the outage from a conductor fault, but
the incoming lines, the associated will also increase the system investment.
pri­mary main breaker is opened and the
tie breaker closed either manually or
through an automatic transfer scheme.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 31

Types of Systems
When a transformer fault or overload Mechanical and/or key interlocking is This means limited cable space especially
occurs, the transformer primary fuses furnished such that both switches cannot if double lugs are furnished for each line
open, and the transformer primary switch be closed at the same time (to prevent as shown in Figure 33. The downside is
manually opened, disconnecting the parallel operation) and interlocking that should a faulted primary conductor
transformer from the loop, and leaving such that access to either switch or fuse have to be changed, both lines would
all other secondary unit substation loads assembly cannot be obtained unless both have to be de-energized for safe changing
unaffected. switches are opened. of the faulted conductors.
A basic primary loop system that A second alternative is utilizing a three-
uses a single primary feeder breaker Primary
position selector switch internal to the
connected directly to two loop feeder Feeders transformer, allowing only one primary
switches which in turn then feed the feeder to be connected to the transformer
loop is shown in Figure 34. In this at a time without the need for any inter­
Load Break
basic system, the loop may be normally Switches locking.The selector switch is rated for
operated with one of the loop section­ load-breaking. If overcurrent protection is
alizing switches open as described above also required, a vacuum fault interrupter
or with all loop sectionalizing switches (VFI), also internal to the transformer, may
closed. If a fault occurs in the basic Fuses
be utilized, reducing floor space.
primary loop system, the single loop
feeder breaker trips, and secondary In Figure 33 when a primary feeder fault
loads are lost until the faulted conductor occurs, the associated feeder breaker
is found and eliminated from the loop opens and the transformers normally
by opening the appropriate loop supplied from the faulted feeder are out
sectionalizing switches and then of service. Then manually, each primary
reclosing the breaker. switch connected to the faulted line must
be opened and then the alternate line
primary switch can be closed connect­ing
Figure 35. Duplex Fused Switch in the transformer to the live feeder, thus
Two Structures restoring service to all loads. Note that
One alternate to the duplex switch each of the primary circuit conductors for
52
arrangement, a non-load break selector Feeder A1 and B1 must be sized to handle
switch mechanically interlocked with a the sum of the loads normally connected
Loop A Loop A
load break fused switch can be used as to both A1 and B1. Similar sizing of
shown in Figure 36. The non-load break Feeders A2 and B2, etc., is required.
In cases where only one primary line selector switch is physically located in the If a fault occurs in one transformer, the
is available, the use of a single primary rear of the load break fused switch, thus
breaker provides the loop connections associated primary fuses blow and
to the loads as shown here. only requiring one structure and a lower interrupt the service to just the load
cost and floor space savings over the served by that transformer. Service
Figure 34. Single Primary Feeder— duplex arrangement. The non-load break cannot be restored to the loads normally
Loop System switch is mechanically interlocked to served by the faulted transformer until
prevent its operation unless the load the transformer is repaired or replaced.
break switch is opened. The main
3. Primary Selective System— disadvantage of the selector switch is Cost of the primary selective—secondary
Secondary Radial System that conductors from both circuits are radial system is greater than that of
The primary selective—secondary radial terminated in the same structure. the simple primary radial system of
system, as shown in Figure 33, differs Figure 27 because of the additional
from those previously described in that primary main breakers, tie breaker,
it employs at least two primary feeder
Primary two-sources, increased number of feeder
Feeders
circuits in each load area. It is designed breakers, the use of primary-duplex or
so that when one primary circuit is out selector switches, and the greater amount
of ser­vice, the remaining feeder or Non-Load Break of primary feeder cable required.
Selector Switches
feeders have sufficient capacity to carry Inter- The benefits from the reduction in the
the total load. Half of the transformers lock Load Break amount of load lost when a primary feeder
are normally connected to each of the Disconnect
is faulted, plus the quick restoration of
two feeders. When a fault occurs on one service to all or most of the loads, may
Fuses
of the primary feeders, only half of the more than offset the greater cost.
load in the building is dropped.
Having two sources allows for either
Duplex fused switches as shown in manual or automatic transfer of the two
Figure 33 and detailed in Figure 35 may be primary main breakers and tie breaker
utilized for this type of system. Each should one of the sources become
duplex fused switch consists of two load unavailable.
break three-pole switches each in their
own separate structure, connected
together by bus bars on the load side. Figure 36. Fused Selector Switch in
Typically, the load break switch closest to One Structure
the transformer includes a fuse assembly
with fuses.

32 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Types of Systems
The primary selective-secondary radial In either of the above emergency Under this condition, all equipment
system, however, may be less costly conditions, the in-service transformer interrupt­ing and momentary ratings
or more costly than a primary loop— of a double-ended unit substation would should be suitable for the fault current
secondary radial system of Figure 29 have to have the capability of serving the available from both sources.
depending on the physical location of the loads on both sides of the tie breaker. For
transformers. It also offers comparable this reason, transform­ers used in this For double-ended unit substations
downtime and reliability. The cost of application must have equal kVA ratings equipped with ground fault systems
conductors for the types of systems may on each side of the double-ended unit special consideration to transformer
vary depending on the location of the substation. The transformers are sized neutral grounding and equipment
transformers and loads within the facility. so the normal operating maximum load operation should be made—see
The cost differences of the conductors on each transformer is typically about Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
may offset cost of the primary switching 2/3 base nameplate kVA rating. section of this Design Guide. Where
equipment. two single-ended unit substations
Typically these transformers are furnished are connected together by busway
with fan-cooling and/or lower than or external tie conductors, it is
4. Two-Source Primary— normal temperature rise such that recommended that a tie breaker
under emergency conditions they can be furnished at each end of the tie
Secondary Selective System continuously carry the maximum load conductors. The second tie breaker
This system uses the same principle of on both sides of the secondary tie breaker. provides a means to isolate the
duplicate sources from the power supply Because of this spare transformer capacity, interconnection between the two
point using two primary main breakers the voltage regulation provided by the single-ended substations for
and a primary tie breaker.The two primary double-ended unit substation system maintenance or servicing purposes.
main breakers and primary tie breaker under normal conditions is better than
being either manually or electrically that of the systems previously discussed.
interlocked to prevent closing all three at
the same time and paralleling the sources. The double-ended unit substation
Upon loss of voltage on one source, a arrangement can be used in conjunction
manual or automatic transfer to the with any of the previous systems
alternate source line may be used to discussed, which involve two primary
restore power to all primary loads. sources. Although not recommended,
if allowed by the utility, momentary
Each transformer secondary is arranged re-transfer of loads to the restored
in a typical double-ended unit substation source may be made closed transition
arrangement as shown in Figure 37.The (anti-parallel interlock schemes would
two secondary main breakers and have to be defeated) for either the
secondary tie breaker of each unit primary or secondary systems.
substation are again either mechanically
or electrically interlocked to prevent
parallel operation. Upon loss of secondary .
source voltage on one side, manual or
automatic transfer may be used to transfer
the loads to the other side, thus restoring
power to all secondary loads. 52 52 Primary Main Breakers

This arrangement permits quick restora- 52

tion of service to all loads when a primary
feeder or transformer fault occurs by 52 52 52 52 Primary Feeder Breakers
opening the associated secondary main
and closing the secondary tie breaker. To Other Substations To Other Substations
If the loss of secondary voltage has
occurred because of a primary feeder Typical
fault with the associated primary feeder Double-Ended
breaker opening, then all secondary loads Unit
Substation
normally served by the faulted feeder
would have to be transferred to the
opposite primary feeder.
This means each primary feeder conductor
must be sized to carry the load on both
sides of all the secondary buses it is
serving under secondary emergency
transfer If the loss of voltage was due to
Primary Fused Switch Transformer Tie Breaker Secondary Main Breaker
a failure of one of the transformers in the
double-ended unit substation, then the
associated primary fuses would open Figure 37. Two-Source Primary—Secondary Selective System
taking only the failed transformer out of
service, and then only the secondary loads
normally served by the faulted transformer
would have to be transferred to the
opposite transformer.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 33

Types of Systems
5. Sparing Transformer System The sparing transformer system operates In facilities without qualified electrical
The sparing transformer system concept as follows: power operators, an open transition with
came into use as an alternative to the key interlocking is often a prudent design.
■ All main breakers, including the sparing
capital cost intensive double-ended main breaker, are normally closed; the Note: Each pair of “main breaker/tie breaker”
secondary unit substation distribution tie breakers are normally open key cylinders should be uniquely keyed to
system (see Two-Source Primary— prevent any paralleled source operations.
■ Once a transformer (or primary cable
Secondary Selective System). It essen­
or primary switch/fuse) fails, the Careful sizing of these transformers
tially replaces double-ended substations
associated secondary main breaker is as well as careful specification of the
with single-ended substations and one or
opened. The associated tie breaker is transformers is required for reliability.
more “sparing” transformer substa­tions
then closed, which restores power to Low temperature rise specified with
all interconnected on a common
the single-ended substation bus continuous overload capacity or
secondary bus—see Figure 38.
■ Schemes that require the main to upgraded types of transformers should
Generally no more than three to five be opened before the tie is closed be considered.
single-ended substations are on a (“open transition”), and that allow any
sparing loop. tie to be closed before the substation One disadvantage to this system is
main is opened, (“closed transition”) the external secondary tie system, see
The essence of this design philosophy is Figure 38. As shown, all single-ended
that conservatively designed and loaded are possible
substations are tied together on the
transformers are highly reliable electrical With a closed transition scheme, it is secondary with a tie busway or cable
devices and rarely fail. There­fore, this common to add a timer function that system. Location of substations is
design provides a single com­mon backup opens the tie breaker unless either main therefore limited because of voltage
transformer for a group of transformers breaker is opened within a time interval. drop and cost considerations.
in lieu of a backup trans­former for each
and every transformer. This system This closed transition allows power to Routing of busway, if used, must be
design still maintains a high degree of be transferred to the sparing transformer carefully layed out. It should also be
continuity of service. without interruption, such as for routine noted, that a tie busway or cable fault will
maintenance, and then back to the essentially prevent the use of the sparing
Referring to Figure 38, it is apparent that substation. This closed transition transfer transformer until it is repaired. Commonly,
the sparing concept backs up primary has an advantage in some facilities; the single-ended substa­tions and the
switch and primary cable failure as well. however, appropriate interrupting sparing transformer must be clustered.
Restoration of lost or failed utility power capacities and bus bracing must be This can also be an advantage, as more
is accomplished similarly to primary specified suitable for the momentary kVA can be supported from a more
selective scheme previously discussed. It parallel operation. compact space layout.
is therefore important to use an automatic
throw-over system in a two source lineup
of primary switchgear to restore utility
power as discussed in the “Two-Source
Primary” scheme—see Figure 37.
A major advantage of the sparing
transformer system is the typically lower
total base kVA of transformation. In a K K K
double-ended substation design, each
transformer must be rated to carry the
sum of the loads of two buses and usually
requires the addition of cooling fans to
accomplish this rating. In the “sparing” Sparing Transformer
concept, each transformer carries only
its own load, which is typically not a
fan-cooled rating. In addition to first
K K
cost savings, there is a side benefit of
reduced equipment space.

Typical Secondary Busway Loop

K K
Typical Single-Ended Substation

Figure 38. Sparing Transformer System

34 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Types of Systems
6. Simple Spot Network Systems The purpose of the network protector is This occurs in many radial systems
The ac secondary network system is the to protect the integrity of the network because more and smaller feeders
system that has been used for many years bus voltage and the loads served from it are often used in order to minimize the
to distribute electric power in the high- against transformer and primary feeder extent of any outage when a primary
density, downtown areas of cities, usually faults by quickly disconnecting the fault event occurs.
in the form of utility grids. Modifications defective feeder-transformer pair from
the network when backfeed occurs. In spot networks, when a fault occurs on
of this type of system make it applicable a primary feeder or in a transformer, the
to serve loads within buildings. The simple spot network system fault is isolated from the system through
The major advantage of the secondary resembles the secondary-selective radial the automatic tripping of the primary
network system is continuity of service. system in that each load area is supplied feeder circuit breaker and all of the
No single fault anywhere on the primary over two or more primary feeders through network protectors associated with that
system will interrupt service to any of the two or more trans­formers. In network feeder circuit. This operation does not
system’s loads. Most faults will be cleared systems, the transformers are connected interrupt service to any loads. After the
without interrupting service to any load. through network protectors to a common necessary repairs have been made, the
Another outstanding advantage that the bus, as shown in Figure 39, from system can be restored to normal
network system offers is its flexibil­ity which loads are served. Because the operating conditions by closing the
to meet changing and growing load transformers are connected in parallel, primary feeder breaker. All network
conditions at minimum cost and minimum a primary feeder or transformer fault protectors associated with that feeder
interruption in service to other loads on does not cause any service interrup­tion will close automatically.
the network. In addition to flexibility and to the loads.
The chief purpose of the network bus
service reliability, the secondary network The paralleled transformers supplying normally closed ties is to provide for the
system provides exceptionally uniform each load bus will normally carry equal sharing of loads and a balancing
and good voltage regulation, and its high load currents, whereas equal loading of of load currents for each primary
efficiency materially reduces the costs of the two separate transformers supplying service and transformer regardless of
system losses. a substation in the secondary-selective the condition of the primary services.
Three major differences between the radial system is difficult to obtain.The
interrupting duty imposed on the out­going Also, the ties provide a means for
network system and the simple radial isolating and sectionalizing ground fault
system account for the outstanding feeder breakers in the network will be
greater with the spot network system. events within the switchgear network bus,
advantages of the network. First, a thereby saving a portion of the loads from
network protector is connected in the The optimum size and number of primary service interruptions, yet isolating the
secondary leads of each network feeders can be used in the spot network faulted portion for corrective action.
transformer in place of, or in addition system because the loss of any primary
to, the secondary main breaker, as shown feeder and its associated transformers The use of spot network systems provides
in Figure 39. Also, the secondaries does not result in the loss of any load users with several important advantages.
of each transformer in a given location even for an instant. In spite of the spare First, they save trans­former capacity.
(spot) are connected together by a capacity usually supplied in network Spot networks permit equal loading of
switchgear or ring bus from which the systems, savings in primary switch­gear transformers under all conditions. Also,
loads are served over short radial feeder and secondary switchgear costs often networks yield lower system losses and
circuits. Finally, the primary supply has result when compared to a radial system greatly improve voltage conditions.
sufficient capacity to carry the entire design with similar spare capacity.
building load with­out overloading when
any one primary feeder is out of service.
A network protector is a specially
Typical Feeder
designed heavy-duty air power breaker, Primary Circuit
spring close with electrical motor-charged To Other
mechanism, with a network relay to Networks
Network Transformer
control the status of the protector
(tripped or closed). Network Protector
Fuses
The network relay is usually a solid-state
microprocessor-based component Optional Main, 50/51
Relaying and/or
integrated into the protector enclosure Network Disconnect Tie Tie
that functions to automatically close Drawout
the protector only when the voltage Low-Voltage
LV Feeder NC NC Switchgear
conditions are such that its associated
transformer will supply power to the
secondary network loads. It also serves Customer Customer Customer
to automatically open the protector when Loads Loads Loads
power flows from the secondary to the
network transformer. Figure 39. Three-Source Spot Network

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 35

Types of Systems
The voltage regulation on a network 7. Medium-Voltage Distribution Retransfer to the “Normal” can be closed
system is such that both lights and transition subject to the approval of the
power can be fed from the same load System Design utility. Closed transition momen­tarily
bus. Much larger motors can be started (5–10 cycles) parallels both utility sources.
A. Single Bus, Figure 40
across-the-line than on a simple radial Caution: when both sources are paralleled,
system. This can result in simplified motor The sources (utility and/or generator(s)) the fault current available on the load
control and permits the use of relatively are connected to a single bus. All feeders side of the main device is the sum of the
large low voltage motors with their less are connected to the same bus. available fault current from each source
expensive control. This configuration is the simplest system; plus the motor fault contribution. It is
however, outage of the utility results in recommended that the short-circuit ratings
Finally, network systems provide a of the bus, feeder breakers and all load
greater degree of flexibility in adding total outage.
side equipment are rated for the increased
future loads; they can be connected to Normally the generator does not have available fault current.
the closest spot network bus. adequate capacity for the entire load.
A properly relayed system equipped If the utility requires open transfer, the
Spot network systems are economical for disconnection of motors from the bus
buildings that have heavy concen­trations with load shedding, automatic voltage/
frequency control may be able to must be ensured by means of suitable
of loads covering small areas, with time delay on reclosing as well as
considerable distance between areas, maintain partial system operation.
supervision of the bus voltage and its
and light loads within the distances Any future addition of breaker sections to phase with respect to the incoming
separating the concentrated loads. They the bus will require a shutdown of the source voltage.
are commonly used in hospitals, high rise bus, because there is no tie breaker.
office buildings, institutional buildings This busing scheme does not preclude the
or laboratories where a high degree of use of cogeneration, but requires the use
service reliabil­ity is required from the of sophisticated automatic syn­chronizing
Utility
utility sources. Spot network systems and synchronism checking controls, in
are especially economical where three addition to the previously mentioned
G
or more primary feeders are available. load shedding, automatic frequency and
voltage controls.
Principally, this is due to supplying
each load bus through three or more This configuration is more expensive
transformers and the reduction in spare than the scheme shown in Figure 40, but
cable and transformer capacity required. service restoration is quicker. Again,
52 52 a utility outage results in total outage to
They are also economical when the load until transfer occurs. Extension
compared to two transformer double- Main Bus of the bus or adding breakers requires a
ended substations with normally opened shutdown of the bus.
tie breakers.
If paralleling sources, reverse current,
Emergency power should be connected reverse power and other appropriate
to network loads downstream from the 52
relaying protection should be added as
network, or upstream at primary voltage, requested by the utility.
not at the network bus itself.
One of Several Feeders

Utility #1 Utility #2
Figure 40. Single Bus

B. Single Bus with Two Sources from Normal Standby

the Utility, Figure 41
Same as the single bus, except that two
utility sources are available.This system is
operated normally with the main breaker
to one source open. Upon loss of the
normal service, the transfer to the standby 52 NC 52 NO
normally open (NO) breaker can be
automatic or manual. Automatic transfer
is preferred for rapid service restoration
especially in unattended stations. Loads

Figure 41. Single Bus with Two-Sources

36 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Types of Systems
C. Multiple Sources with Tie Breaker, In Figure 43, closing of the tie breaker Summary
Figure 42 and Figure 43 following the opening of a main breaker The medium-voltage system configu­
This configuration is similar to the can be manual or auto­matic. However, rations shown are based on using
configuration shown in Figure 41. because a bus can be fed through two tie metal-clad drawout switchgear. The
It differs significantly in that both utility breakers, the control scheme should be service continuity required from electrical
sources normally carry the loads and also designed to make the selection. systems makes the use of single-source
by the incorporation of a normally open The third tie breaker allows any bus to be systems impractical.
tie breaker. The outage to the system load fed from any utility source.
for a utility outage is limited to half of In the design of a modern medium-
the system. Again, the closing of the tie voltage system, the engineer should:
breaker can be manual or automatic.The Caution for Figure 41,
Figure 42 and Figure 43: 1. Design a system as simple as possible.
statements made for the retransfer of the
configu­ration shown in Figure 41 apply to If continuous paralleling of sources is 2. Limit an outage to as small a portion
this scheme also. planned, reverse current, reverse power of the system as possible.
and other appropriate relaying protection
should be added. When both sources are 3. Provide means for expanding the
paralleled for any amount of time, the system without major shutdowns.
Utility #1 Utility #2
fault current available on the load side of 4. Design a protective relaying
the main device is the sum of the system so that only the faulted
available fault current from each source part is removed from service, and
plus the motor fault contribution. It is damage to it is minimized consistent
required that bus bracing, feeder breakers with selectivity.
and all load side equipment is rated for
the increased available fault current. 5. Specify and apply all equipment
52 NC 52 NC
within its published ratings and
national standards pertaining to
NO
Bus #1 Bus #2 the equipment and its installation.
52

Utility #1 Utility #2 Utility #3

52 52

Load Load

Figure 42. Two-Source Utility with 52 NC 52 NC 52 NC

Tie Breaker
NO NO
If looped or primary selective distribution Bus #1 Bus #2 Bus #3
system for the loads is used, the buses 52 52
can be extended without a shutdown by
closing the tie breaker and transferring
the loads to the other bus. 52 NO 52 Typical Feeder 52 52 52 NO

This configuration is more expensive

Tie Busway
than the configuration shown in
Figure 41. The system is not limited
to two buses only. Another advantage Figure 43. Triple-Ended Arrangement
is that the design may incorporate
momentary paralleling of buses on
retransfer after the failed line has been
restored to prevent another outage.
See the Caution for Figure 41,
Figure 42 and Figure 43.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 37

Power System Analysis
Systems Analysis ■ Protective device coordination—
determine characteristics and set­tings
The following additional studies should
be considered depending upon the
A major consideration in the design of of medium voltage protective relays type and complexity of the distribution
a distribution system is to ensure that it and fuses, and entire low voltage circuit system, the type of facility and the type
provides the required quality of service to breaker and fuse coordination of loads to be connected to the system:
the various loads. This includes: serving ■ Load flow—simulate normal and ■ Harmonic analysis
each load under normal conditions, under abnormal load conditions of system
abnormal conditions and providing the voltages, power factor, line and ■ Transient stability
desired protection to service and system transformer loadings ■ Insulation coordination
apparatus so that interruptions of service ■ Grounding study
■ Motor starting—identify system
are minimized.
voltages, motor terminal voltage, ■ Switching transient
Under normal conditions, the important motor accelerating torque, and
technical factors include voltage profile, motor accelerating time when The Power Systems Engineering Team
losses, load flow, effects of motor starting large motors within Eaton’s Electrical Services &
starting, service continuity and reliability. Systems division can provide any of the
Short-circuit calculations define system studies discussed in this section.
The prime considerations under faulted
momentary and steady-state fault
conditions are apparatus protection, fault
currents for specific points in the electrical
isolation service continuity and of course
system. This information is used to select
personnel safety.
protective devices and to determine Short-Circuit Currents—
During the system preliminary planning required equipment bus bracing and General
stage, before selection of the distribution withstand levels. These calculations are
apparatus, several distribution systems generated for both normal, emergency The amount of current available in a
should be analyzed and evaluated, and alternative system configurations. short-circuit fault is determined by the
including both economic and technical capacity of the system voltage sources
Computer software programs can and the impedances of the system,
factors. During this stage, if system
identify the fault current at any bus in including the fault. Voltage sources
size or complexity warrant, it may be
the distribution system under any include the power supply (utility or
appropriate to provide a thorough review
number of scenarios of source and load on-site generation) plus all rotating
of each system under both normal and
combinations. It is often necessary to machines connected to the system at the
abnormal conditions.
evaluate the distribution system in all the time of the fault, and are not connected
This type of dynamic analysis is typically possible operating states of sources and through power conversion equipment
done using Computer Simulation loads to understand available fault such as variable frequency drives.
Software. Selection of components such currents in all possible states. The results
as circuit breakers, cables, transformers, of these calculations permit optimizing A fault may be either an arcing or bolted
equipment motors and generators are service to the loads while properly fault. In an arcing fault, part of the circuit
entered into a power flow one-line of the applying distribution appara­tus within voltage is consumed across the arc and
system. Changes to these variables, their intended limits. the total fault current is somewhat smaller
including the type of breaker as well as its than for a bolted fault. The bolted fault
Articles 110.21(B) and 110.24 of 2014 condition results in the highest fault
trip unit settings, the size and length of
National Electrical Code (NEC) have magnitude fault currents, and therefore is
conductors, the hp of motors and kVA
increased the field-applied available the value sought in the fault calculations.
of transformers and generators, can
fault current marking requirements for
be adjusted to reflect the impact this Basically, the short-circuit current is
electrical equipment. Article 110.24(A)
will have on the short-circuit energy determined by applying Ohm’s Law to
states: “Service equipment in other than
available at various points in the power an equivalent circuit consisting of a
dwelling units shall be legibly marked in
distribution system. constant voltage source and a time-
the field with the maximum available fault
The principal types of computer current. The field mark­ing(s) shall include varying impedance. A time-varying
programs used to provide system the date the fault-current calculation was impedance is used in order to account for
studies include: performed and be of sufficient durability the changes in the effective voltages of
to withstand the environment involved.” the rotating machines during the fault.
■ Short circuit—identify three-phase Article 110.24(B) then takes this a step
and line-to-ground fault currents and In an AC system, the resulting short-
further stating: “When modifications to
system impedances circuit current starts out higher in
the electrical installation occur that affect
magnitude than the final steady-state
■ Arc flash—calculates arc flash energy the maximum available fault current at
value and asymmetrical (due to the DC
levels, which leads to the proper the service, the maximum available fault
offset) about the X-axis. The current then
selection of personal protective current shall be verified or recal­culated as
decays toward a lower symmetrical
equipment (PPE) necessary. The required field marking(s)
steady-state value.
■ Circuit breaker duty—identify
in 110.24(A) shall be adjusted to reflect
asymmetrical fault current based the new level of maximum available
on X/R ratio fault current.”

38 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
The time-varying characteristic of the Synchronous reactance (Xd), which The electric network that determines the
impedance accounts for the symmetrical determines fault current after steady- short-circuit current consists of an AC
decay in current. The ratio of the state condition is reached. It has no driving voltage equal to the pre-fault
reactive and resistive components effect as far as short-circuit calculations system voltage and an impedance
(X/R ratio) accounts for the DC decay, are concerned, but is useful in the corresponding to that observed when
see Figure 44. The fault current consists of determination of relay settings. looking back into the system from the
an exponentially decreasing direct- fault location.
current component superimposed upon a Transformer impedance, in percent, is
decaying alternating-current. defined as that percent of rated primary In industrial medium- and high-voltage
voltage that must be applied to the work, it is generally satisfactory to regard
The rate of decay of both the DC and AC transformer to produce rated current reactance as the entire imped­ance;
components depends upon the ratio of flowing in the secondary, with the resistance may be neglected. However,
reactance to resistance (X/R) of the circuit. secondary shorted through zero this is normally permissible only if the
The greater this ratio, the longer the resistance. It is important to note that X/R ratio of the medium voltage system
current remains higher than the steady- the transformer percent impedance is is equal to or more than 25.
state value that it would eventually reach. a per-unit value typically expressed on
the base kVA rating of the transformer. In low-voltage (1000 V and below)
The total fault current is not symmetrical Therefore, it is not necessary to calcu­late calculations, it is usually worthwhile to
with respect to the time-axis because of maximum fault current produced at attempt greater accuracy by including
the direct-current component, hence it is the fan-cooled rating or the higher resistance with reactance in dealing
called asymmetrical current.The DC temperature rise kVA ratings because the with impedance. It is for this reason,
component depends on the point on the per-unit impedance at those kVA ratings plus ease of manipulating the various
voltage wave at which the fault is initiated. increases by the same ratio, making the impedances of cables and buses and
fault current calculation results the same. transformers of the low-voltage circuits,
See Figure 45 for multiplying factors that that computer studies are recommended
relate the rms asymmetrical value of total Therefore, assuming the primary voltage
can be sustained (generally referred to before final selection of apparatus and
current to the rms symmetrical value, and system arrangements.
the peak asymmetrical value of total as an infinite or unlimited supply), the
current to the rms symmetrical value. maximum current a transformer can When evaluating the adequacy of
deliver to a fault condition is the quantity short-circuit ratings of medium voltage
The AC component is not constant if of (100 divided by percent impedance) circuit breakers and fuses, both the rms
rotating machines are connected to the times the transformer rated secondary symmetrical value and asymmetrical
system because the impedance of this current. Limiting the power source fault value of the short-circuit current should
apparatus is not constant. The rapid capacity to the transformer primary will be determined.
variation of motor and generator thereby reduce the maximum fault
impedance is due to these factors: current from the transformer secondary. For low-voltage circuit breakers and
fuses, the rms symmetrical value should
Subtransient reactance (Xd ), deter­mines be determined along with either: the
fault current during the first cycle, and X/R ratio of the fault at the device or the
after about 6 cycles this value increases to asymmetrical short-circuit current.
the transient reactance. It is used for the
calculation of the momentary interrupting
and/or momentary withstand duties of
Total Current—A Wholly Offset
equipment and/or system. Asymmetrical Alternating Wave
3.0
Transient reactance (Xd ), which rms Value of Total Current
determines fault current after about Alternating Component -
2.5
6 cycles and this value in 1/2 to 2 seconds Symmetrical Wave
increases to the value of the synchronous 2.0 rms Value of
reactance. It is used in the setting of the Alternating Component
phase overcurrent relays of generators 1.5
Scale of Curent Values

and medium-voltage circuit breakers.

1.0

0.5
1 2 3 4
0

0.5

–1.0

Direct Component—The Axis

–1.5 of Symmetrical Wave Time in Cycles of
a 60 Hz Wave
–2.0

Figure 44. Structure of an Asymmetrical Current Wave

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 39

Power System Analysis
Fault Current Waveform Based on a 60 Hz system and t = 1/2 cycle (ANSI/IEEE C37.13.2015)

Relationships
The following Figure 45 describes the
relationship between fault current peak Peak multiplication factor =
values, rms symmetrical values and rms
asymmetrical values depending on the
calculated X/R ratio. The table is based on
the following general formulas:

rms multiplication factor =

1.

Example for X/R =15

2.

Where:
I = Symmetrical rms current
Ip = Peak current
e = 2.718
w = 2 p f
f = Frequency in Hz
t = Time in seconds

2.8

2.7
PEAK MAXIMUM ASYMMETRICAL

RMS MAXIMUM ASYMMETRICAL

Based Upon: rms Asym = DC 2 + rms Sym2
2.6 with DC Value
RMS SYMMETRICAL

Taken at Current Peak

RMS SYMMETRICAL
2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2 1.8
R
TO
C

2.1 1.7
FA
N
PEAK MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =

I O
AT

RMS MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =

2.0 1.6
IC
PL
I
LT

1.9 1.5
U
M

R
AK

CTO
1.8 1.4
PE

FA
N
TIO
1.7 L ICA 1.3
IP
U LT
1.6 SM 1.2
RM

1.5 1.1

1.4
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CIRCUIT X/R RATIO (TAN PHASE)

Figure 45. Relation of X/R Ratio to Multiplication Factor

40 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Fault Current Calculations For motors fed through adjustable
frequency drives or solid-state soft
Calculation Methods
The following pages describe various
The calculation of asymmetrical currents starters, there is no contribution to methods of calculating short-circuit
is a laborious procedure since the degree fault current, unless 1) they have an currents for both medium- and low-
of asymmetry is not the same on all three internal run contactor or 2) they have voltage systems. A summary of the
phases. It is common practice for medium a bypass contactor. types of methods and types of
voltage systems, to calculate the rms calculations is as follows:
symmetrical fault current, with the When the motor load is not known, the
assumption being made that the DC following assumptions generally are ■ Medium-voltage switchgear—
component has decayed to zero, and then made.The following percentage estimates exact method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 42
apply a multi­plying factor to obtain the are based on design load or transformer
nameplate rating, when known. ■ Medium-voltage switchgear—
first half-cycle rms asymmetrical current, quick check table . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 45
which is called the “momentary current.”
208Y/120 V Systems ■ Medium-voltage switchgear
For medium-voltage systems (defined Example 1—verify ratings of
■ Assume 50% lighting and 50%
by IEEE as greater than 1000 V up to breakers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 46
motor load
69,000 V) the multiplying factor is ■ Medium-voltage switchgear
established by NEMAT and ANSI or Example 2—verify ratings
standards depending upon the of breakers with rotating
operating speed of the breaker. ■ Assume motor feedback contribu­tion
of twice full load current of transformer loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 47
For low-voltage systems, short-circuit ■ Medium-voltage switchgear
study software usually calculates the or Example 3—verify ratings
symmetrical fault current and the faulted of breakers with
system X/R ratio using UL and ANSI 240/480/600 V Three-Phase, generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 48
guidelines. If the X/R ratio is within the Three-Wire or Four-Wire Systems ■ Medium-voltage fuses—
standard (lower than the breaker test ■ Assume 100% motor load exact method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 48
X/R ratio), and the breaker interrupting
current is under the symmetrical fault or ■ Power breakers—asymmetry
value, the breaker is properly rated. derating factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 49
■ Assume motors 25% synchronous ■ Molded case breakers—
If the X/R ratio is higher than UL or ANSI and 75% induction asymmetry derating
standards, the study applies a multiplying factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 50
factor to the symmetrical calculated value or
(based on the X/R value of the system ■ Short-circuit calculations—
■ Assume motor feedback contribu­tion short cut method for
fault) and compares that value to the of four times full load current
breaker symmetrical value to assess if a system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 51
of transformer
it is properly rated. ■ Short-circuit calculations—
short cut method for
In the past, especially using manual 480Y/277 V Systems in end of cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 55
calculations, a multiplying factor of 1.35 Commercial Buildings
(based on the use of an X/R ratio of 6.6 ■ Short-circuit currents—
■ Assume 50% induction motor load
representing a source short-circuit power chart of transformers
factor of 15%) was used to calculate or 300–3750 kVA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 139
the asymmetrical current. These values
■ Assume motor feedback contribu­tion
take into account that medium voltage
of two times full load current of
breakers are rated on maximum
transformer or source
asymmetry and low voltage breakers
are rated average asymmetry.
To determine the motor contribution Medium-Voltage Motors
during the first half-cycle fault current, If known, use actual values otherwise
when individual motor horsepower load use the values indicated for the same
is known, the subtransient reactances type of motor.
found in the IEEE Red Book should be
used in the calculations.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 41

Power System Analysis
Fault Current Calculations Ultimately, as vacuum circuit breakers
became more and more prevalent in the
This is the rms symmetrical current
that the breaker can interrupt down
for Specific Equipment— industry, the IEEE C37.06-2000 standard to a voltage equal to maximum rated
Exact Method was published to recognize both MVA voltage divided by K (for example,
and K = 1 rated breakers. 4.76/1.24 = 3.85). If this breaker is applied
The purpose of the fault current calcu­ in a system rated at 2.4 kV, the calculated
lations is to determine the fault current The following is a review of the meaning fault current must be less than 36 kA.
at the location of a circuit breaker, fuse of the ratings. Additional information on
or other fault interrupting device in order this topic can be found in the VacClad-W For example, consider the following case:
to select a device adequate for the Metal-Clad Switchgear Design Guides.
Assume a 12.47 kV system with 20,000 A
calculated fault current or to check the symmetrical available. In order to
thermal and momentary ratings of non- The Rated Maximum Voltage determine if an Eaton Type 150 VCP-W 500
interrupting devices. When the devices to This designates the upper limit of design vacuum breaker is suitable for this
be used are ANSI-rated devices, the fault and operation of a circuit breaker. For application, check the following:
current must be calculated and the device example, a circuit breaker with a 4.76 kV
selected as per ANSI standards. rated maximum voltage cannot be used From the Standard Metal-Clad
in a 4.8 kV system. Switchgear Assembly Ratings table,
The calculation of available fault found in the Eaton VacClad-W Design
current and system X/R rating is also Guides, under column “Rated Maximum
used to verify adequate bus bar bracing K-Rated Voltage Factor­ Voltage” V = 15 kV, under column “Rated
and momentary withstand ratings of The rated voltage divided by this factor short-circuit Current” I = 18 kA, “Rated
devices such as contactors. determines the system kV a breaker can Voltage Range Factor” K = 1.3.
be applied up to the short-circuit kVA
rating calculated by the formula Test 1 for V/Vo x I or 15 kV/12.47 kV x
Medium-Voltage VCP-W 18 kA = 21.65; also check K x I (which is
Metal-Clad Switchgear shown in the column headed “Maximum
MVA breaker ratings first originated Symmetrical Interrupting Capability”)
many years ago to describe the preferred Note: Interrupting capabilities of some of or 1.3 x 18 kA = 23.4 kA. Because both of
ratings of air-magnetic circuit breakers
today’s vacuum breakers may have K=1, these numbers are greater than the
whereby the interrupting current is constant available system fault current of 20,000 A,
that had published short-circuit current across its entire operating range.
interruption ratings based on their the breaker is acceptable (assumes the
rated maximum voltage. These breaker’s momentary and fault close
breakers, however, could achieve Rated Short-Circuit Current rating is also acceptable).
higher interruption ratings at lower For K = 1 breakers, this is the symmetri­cal Note: If the system available fault current were
operating voltages until the maximum current that a breaker can interrupt across 22,000 A symmetrical, this breaker could not be
interruption rating was exceeded. it’s operational range. With MVA rated used even though the “Maximum Symmetrical
Interrupting Capability” is greater than 22,000
breakers (K >1), this is the symmetrical
The ratio of these two interruption ratings because Test 1 calculation is not satisfied.
rms value of current that the breaker can
is called rated voltage range indicator (K).
interrupt at rated maximum voltage. For For approximate calculations, Table 6
The rated voltage range indicator, K, is
example, with an Eaton 50 VCP-W 250 provides typical values of % reactance
greater than 1 for MVA rated breakers.
circuit breaker, it should be noted that the (X) and X/R values for various rotating
For example, an Eaton 150 VCP-W 500,
product x 4.76 x 29,000 = 239,092 kVA equipment and transformers. For
(15 kV – 500 MVA rated breaker with a
is less than the nominal 250,000 kVA sim­plification purposes, the transformer
K=1.30 rating has a published interruption
listed. This rating (29,000 A) is also the impedance (Z) has been assumed to
rating of 18 kA at 15 kV, but has a
base quantity that all the “related” be primarily reactance (X). In addition,
maximum interrup­tion rating of 23 kA
capabili­ties are referred to. the resistance (R) for these simplified
(18 kA x 1.30) at 11.5 kV (15 kV divided
by 1.30). cal­culations has been ignored. For
Maximum Symmetrical detailed calculations, the values from
As new vacuum interrupting technologies Interrupting Capability the IEEE Red Book Standard 141, for
were developed, scientists discovered rotating machines, and ANSI C57 and/or
With K=1 breakers, the short-time
that reducing the operating voltage did C37 for transformers should be used.
withstand current and the maximum
not increase the short-circuit current
symmetrical interrupting current are
interrupting capability of new interrupters.
equal to the rated symmetrical
In fact, as the operating voltage is
interrupting current. For MVA rated
reduced, the short-circuit current inter-
breakers (K >1), this is expressed in rms
rupting capability changes only little.
symmetrical amperes or kiloamperes
There­fore the MVA (K >1.0) basis of rating
and is K x I rated; 1.24 x 29,000 = 35,960
no longer accurately reflected the true
rounded to 36 kA.
interrupting characteristics of the newer
circuit breaker designs.

42 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Table 6. Reactance X The Close and Latch Capability
System Reactance X Used for Typical Values and Range K = 1 and K >1 breakers also differ in the
Component Short-Circuit Close and Latch on Component Base calculations for the breaker’s close and
Duty (Momentary) % Reactance X/R Ratio latch rating. With K = 1 breakers, this is
a calculated peak value using 2.6 x the
Two-pole turbo generator X X   9 (7–14) 80 (40–120) breaker’s symmetrical interrupting rating.
Four-pole turbo generator X X 15 (12–17) 80 (40–120)
For MVA rated breakers (K >1), this is
Hydro generator with damper wedges X X 20 (13–32) 30 (10–60) also a related quantity expressed in rms
and synchronous condensers
asymmetri­cal amperes by 1.6 x maximum
Hydro generator without 0.75X 0.75X 16 (16–50) 30 (10–60) symmetrical interrupting capability.
damper windings
For example, 1.6 x 36 = 57.6 or 58 kA,
All synchronous motors 1.5X 1.0X 20 (13–35) 30 (10–60) or 1.6 K x rated short-circuit current.
Induction motors above 1000 hp, 1.5X 1.0X 17 (15–25) 30 (15–40)
1800 rpm and above 250 hp, 3600 rpm Another way of expressing the close and
All other induction motors 3.0X 1.2X 17 (15–25) 15 (2–40) latch rating is in terms of the peak current,
50 hp and above which is the instantaneous value of the
Induction motors below 50 hp Neglect Neglect — — current at the crest. ANSI Standard C37.09
and all single-phase motors indicates that the ratio of the peak to rms
Distribution system from X X As specified 15 (5–15) asymmetrical value for any asymmetry
remote transformers or calculated of 100% to 20% (percent asymmetry is
Current limiting reactors X X As specified 80 (40–120) defined as the ratio of DC component of
or calculated the fault in per unit to ) varies not more
Transformers than ±2% from a ratio of 1.69.Therefore,
ONAN to 10 MVA, 69 kV X X   8.0 18 (7–24)
the close and latch current expressed
in terms of the peak amperes is = 1.6 x
ONAN to 10 MVA, above 69 kV X X   8.0 to 10.5 18 (7–24)
Depends
1.69 x K x rated short-circuit current.
OFAF 12–30 MVA X X 20 (7–30)
on primary In the calculation of faults for the purposes
OFAF 40–100 MVA X X windings 38 (32–44)
BIL rating of breaker selection, the rotating machine
impedances specified in ANSI Standard
C37.010 Article 5.4.1 should be used.
Table 7. Typical System X/R Ratio Range (for Estimating Purposes) The value of the impedances and their
Type of Circuit X/R Range X/R ratios should be obtained from
the equipment manufacturer. At initial
Remote generation through other types of circuits such as transformers rated 10 MVA 15 or less short-circuit studies, data from manufac-
or smaller for each three-phase bank, transmission lines, distribution feeders, etc. turers is not available.Typical values of
Remote generation connected through transformer rated 10 MVA to 100 MVA for each 15–40 imped­ances and their X/R ratios are given
three-phase bank, where the transformers provide 90% or more of the total equivalent in Table 6.
impedance to the fault point
Remote generation connected through transformers rated 100 MVA or larger for each 30–50 The ANSI Standard C37.010 allows the
three-phase bank where the transformers provide 90% or more of the total equivalent use of the X values only in determin­ing
impedance to the fault point the E/X value of a fault current. The
Synchronous machines connected through transformers rated 25–100 MVA for each 30–50 R values are used to determine the
three-phase bank X/R ratio, in order to apply the proper
Synchronous machines connected through transformers rated 100 MVA and larger 40–60 multiplying factor, to account for the
Synchronous machines connected directly to the bus or through reactors 40–120 total fault clearing time, asymmetry,
and decrement of the fault current.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 43

Power System Analysis
The steps in the calculation of fault Step 5: Reduce the resistance network by two or more transformations or the per
currents and breaker selection are to an equivalent resistance. Call this unit reactance external to the generation
described herein­after: resistance RI. The above calculations of is 1.5 times or more than the subtran­sient
XI and RI may be calculated by several reactance of the generation on a common
Step 1: Collect the X and R data of the computer programs. base. Also use Figure 48 where the fault is
circuit elements. Convert to a common supplied by a utility only.
kVA and voltage base. If the reactances Step 6: Calculate the E/XI value, where E
and resistances are given either in ohms is the prefault value of the voltage at the Step 9: Interrupting duty short-circuit
or per unit on a different voltage or kVA point of fault nominally assumed 1.0 pu. current = E/XI x MFx = E/X2.
base, all should be changed to the same X
kVA and voltage base. This caution does Step 7: Determine X/R = I as Step 10: Construct the sequence
previously calculated. RI (positive, negative and zero) networks
not apply where the base voltages are the
same as the transformation ratio. properly connected for the type of fault
Step 8: Go to the proper curve for under consideration. Use the X values
Step 2: Construct the sequence networks the type of fault under consideration required by ANSI Standard C37.010 for
and connect properly for the type of fault (three-phase, phase-to-phase, phase-to- the “Close and Latch” duty value of the
under consideration. Use the X values ground), type of breaker at the loca­tion short-circuit current.
required by ANSI Standard C37.010 for the (2, 3, 5 or 8 cycles), and contact parting
“interrupting” duty value of the short- time to determine the multi­plier to the Step 11: Reduce the network to
circuit current. calculated E/XI. an equivalent reactance. Call the
reac­tance X. Calculate E/X x 1.6 if the
Step 3: Reduce the reactance network See Figure 46, Figure 47 and Figure 48 breaker close and latch capability is
to an equivalent reactance. Call this for 5-cycle breaker multiplying factors. given in rms amperes or E/X x 2.7 if the
reactance XI. Use Figure 48 if the short circuit is fed breaker close and latch capability is given
predominantly from generators removed in peak or crest amperes.
Step 4: Set up the same network for from the fault
resistance values.

130 130 130

120 120 120

8

7
5

110 110 110

4
6

12
10
5

8
100 100 100

6
4

4
3

90 90 90

3
80 80 80

IME
Ratio X/R

Ratio X/R
Ratio X/R

70 70 70
TIME

GT
IN
60 60 RT
ING

60 PA
ART

50 50 50
AC
T P

NT
AC

CO

40 40 40
NT
CO

30 30 30
5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE
BREAKER BREAKER BREAKER
20 20 20

10 10 10

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes

Figure 46. Three-phase Fault Multiplying Factors Figure 47. Line-to-Ground Fault Multiplying Factors Figure 48. Three-phase and Line-to-Ground Fault
that Include Effects of AC and that Include Effects of AC and Multiplying Factors that Include Effects of DC
DC Decrement DC Decrement Decrement Only

44 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Step 12: Select a breaker whose: Application Quick Check Table
A. Maximum voltage rating exceeds the For application of circuit breakers in Note: For assemblies containing vacuum
operating voltage of the system: a radial system supplied from a single breakers at high altitudes, system voltage
source transformer, short-circuit duty is not derated.
B. was determined using E/X amperes and
Note: Intermediate values may be obtained
1.0 multiplying factor for X/R ratio of 15 by interpolation.
or less and 1.25 multiplying factor for
Refer to VCP-W Current Rating tables in X/R ratios in the range of 15 to 40. Refer
the VacClad-W Metal-Clad Switchgear Table 8. Altitude Derating
to Table 9 below.
Design Guide. Altitude in Correction Factor
Feet (Meters) Current Voltage
Application Above 3,300 ft (1,000 m)
Where:
I = Rated short-circuit current The rated one-minute power frequency    3300 (1006) (and below) 1.00 1.00
withstand voltage, the impulse with­stand    5000 (1524) 0.99 0.95
Vmax = Rated maximum voltage 10,000 (3048) 0.96 0.80
voltage, the continuous current rating,
of the breaker and the maximum voltage rating must be
multiplied by the appropriate correction
Vo = Actual system voltage
factors below to obtain modified ratings
KI = Maximum symmetrical that must equal or exceed the application
interrupting capacity requirements.

C. E/X x 1.6 ≤ rms closing and Table 9. Application Quick Check Table
latching capability of the breaker
Source Operating Voltage
and/or Transformer kV
MVA Rating
E/X x 2.7 ≤ Crest closing and Motor Load 2.4 4.16 6.6 12 13.8
latching capability of the breaker.
100% 0%
The ANSI standards do not require the   1   1.5 50VCP-W250 50VCP-W250 150VCP-W500 150VCP-W500 150VCP-W500
inclusion of resistances in the calcula­tion   1.5   2 12 kA 10.1 kA 23 kA 22.5 kA 19.6 kA
of the required interrupting and close   2   2.5
and latch capabilities. Thus the calculated   2.5   3 50VCP-W250
values are conservative. However, when   3   3.75 36 kA
the capa­bilities of existing switchgear   3.75   5
are investi­gated, the resistances should   5   7.5 50VCP-W250
be included.   7.5 10 50VCP-W350 33.2 kA
10 a 10 49 kA
For single line-to-ground faults, the
sym­metrical interrupting capability 10 12 a
12 15 50VCP-W350 75VCP-W500
is 1.15 x the symmetrical interrupting 41.3 kA
capability at any operating voltage, but 46.9 kA
not to exceed the maximum symmetrical 15 20
capability of the breaker. 20 a 20 BreakerType and symmetrical interrupting 150VCP-W750 150VCP-W750
capacity at the operating voltage 35 kA 30.4 kA
25
ANSI C37 provides further guidance for 30
medium voltage breaker application.
50 a 150VCP-W1000 150VCP-W1000
46.3 kA 40.2 kA
Reclosing Duty a Transformer impedance 6.5% or more, all other transformer impedances are 5.5% or more.
ANSI Standard C37.010 indicates the
reduction factors to use when circuit
breakers are used as reclosers. Eaton
VCP-W breakers are listed at 100% rating
factor for reclosing.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 45

Power System Analysis
Application of K >1 Breakers on a Symmetrical Current Rating Basis For Three-Phase Fault

Example 1—Fault Calculations

Given a circuit breaker interrupting and momentary rating in the table below,
verify the adequacy of the ratings for a system without motor loads, as shown.
Table 10. Short-Circuit Duty
Type V Max. Three-Phase Symmetrical Interrupting Capability Close and Latch
Breaker at V Max. Max. KI at 4.16 kV Oper. Voltage or Momentary

50VCP–W250 4.76 kV 29 kA 36 kA 58 kA I3
(29) = 33.2 kA I1

LG symmetrical interrupting capability

— 36 kA 1.15 (33.2) = 38.2 kA I2

Note: Interrupting capabilities I1 and I2 at operating voltage must not exceed maximum symmetrical
interrupting capability Kl.

Check capabilities I1, I2 and I3 on the following utility system

where there is no motor contribution to short circuit.
On 13.8 kV System, 3.75 MVA Base
13.8 kV
would use 1.0 multiplying factor for
X short-circuit duty, therefore, short-
= 15 circuit duty is 8.6 kA sym. for three-
R
phase fault I1 and momentary duty is
375 MVA 8.6 x 1.6 = 13.7 kA I3.
Available
For Line-to-Ground Fault

13.8 kV

3750 kVA For this system, X0 is the zero sequence

reactance of the transformer, which is
equal to the transformer positive sequence
reactance and X1 is the posi­tive sequence
reactance of the system.
4.16 kV
Therefore,

50VPC-W250

Using 1.0 multiplying factor

(see Table 11), short-circuit
duty = 9.1 kA Sym. LG (I2)
Figure 49. Example 1—One-Line Diagram Answer
From transformer losses per unit or The 50VCP-W250 breaker capabilities
percent R is calculated exceed the duty requirements and
may be applied.

With this application, shortcuts could

have been taken for a quicker check of
the application. If we assume unlimited
short circuit available at 13.8 kV and that
Trans. Z = X

X/R ratio 15 or less multiplying factor is

1.0 for short-circuit duty.
The short-circuit duty is then
9.5 kA Sym. (I1, I2) and momentary
duty is 9.5 x 1.6 kA = 15.2 kA (I3).

46 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Example 2—Fault Calculations
Given the system shown with motor loads, 13.8 kV System
calculate the fault currents and determine
proper circuit breaker selection. 21 kA Sym. Available X = 15
13.8 kV R
All calculations on per unit basis.
7.5 MVA base 7500 kVA
X = 5.5% X
Z = 5.53% = 10
R = 0.55% R

6.9 kV
1

X X
= 25 = 35
R R
2 3
197A FL 173A FL
X''d = 20% X''d = 25%

3000 hp
1.0 PF 2500 hp
Syn. Ind.

Figure 50. Example 2—One-Line Diagram

Source of Interrupting Momentary X X (1) 1

Short-Circuit Current E/X Amperes E/X Amperes R R (X) R
Table 11. Multiplying Factor for E/X Amperes I1 SourceTransformer 0.628 0.628 11 11 = 157
(ANSI C37) 0.070 = 8.971 0.070 = 8.971 0.070
System Type VCP-W Vacuum Circuit Breaker I2 3000 hp Syn. Motor 0.628 0.628 25 25 = 39
X/R Rated Interrupting Time, 5-Cycle (1.5) 0.638 = 0.656 0.638 = 0.984 0.638

Type of Fault I3 2500 hp Ind. Motor 0.628 0.628 35 35 = 39

(1.5) 0.908 = 0.461 0.908 = 0.691 0.908
Ratio Three- LG Three-Phase
Phase and LG
I3F = 10.088 10.647 Total 1/R = 235
Source of Short Circuit or 10.1 kA x 1.6

Local Remote 17.0 kA Momentary Duty

    1 1.00 1.00 1.00

  15 a 1.00 1.00 1.00
  20 1.00 1.02 1.05
  25 1.00 1.06 1.10
  30 1.04 1.10 1.13
System = 0.062 (235) = 14.5 is a Multiplying Factor of 1.0 from Table 11
  36 1.06 1.14 1.17
  40 1.08 1.16 1.22
  45 1.12 1.19 1.25 Table 12. Short-Circuit Duty = 10.1 kA
  50 1.13 1.22 1.27
  55 1.14 1.25 1.30 Breaker V Three-Phase Symmetrical Interrupting Capability Close and Latch
Type Max. at V Max. Max. KI at 6.9 kV Oper. Voltage or Momentary
  60 1.16 1.26 1.32
  65 1.17 1.28 1.33
75VCP-W500 8.25 kV 33 kA 41 kA 8.25 66 kA
  70 1.19 1.29 1.35
6.9 (33) = 39.5 kA
  75 1.20 1.30 1.36
  80 1.21 1.31 1.37 150VCP-W500 15 kV 18 kA 23 kA 15 (18) 37 kA
6.9 (39.1) = 23 kA
  85 — — 1.38
(But not to exceed KI)
  90 1.22 1.32 1.39
  95 — — 1.40
100 1.23 1.33 1.41
100 1.24 1.34 1.42 Answer
120 1.24 1.35 1.43
130 1.24 1.35 1.43 Either breaker could be properly applied,
a Where system X/R ratio is 15 or less, the
but price will make the type 150VCP-W500
multiplying factor is 1.0. the more economical selection.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 47

Power System Analysis
Example 3—Fault Calculations Medium-Voltage Fuses—
Check breaker application or generator bus for the system of generators shown.
Fault Calculations
Each generator is 7.5 MVA, 4.16 kV 1040 A full load, IB = 1.04 kA
There are two basic types of medium
Sub transient reactance Xd” = 11% or, X = 0.11 pu voltage fuses. The following definitions
are taken from ANSI Standard C37.40.

Expulsion Fuse (Unit)

A vented fuse (unit) in which the expulsion
effect of the gases produced by internal
arcing, either alone or aided by other
mechanisms, results in current interruption.

Current-Limiting Fuse (Unit)

A fuse unit that, when its current-
responsive element is melted by a
current within the fuse’s specified
current-limiting range, abruptly
introduces a high resistance to reduce
current magnitude and duration, resulting
in subsequent current interruption.
There are two classes of fuses; power and
distribution. They are distinguished from
Table 11 each other by the current ratings and
minimum melting type characteristics.
The current-limiting ability of a current-
limiting fuse is specified by its threshold
ratio, peak let-through current and I2t
characteristics.

Interrupting Ratings of Fuses

Answer Modern fuses are rated in amperes rms
symmetrical. They also have a listed
The 50VCP-W250 breaker could be applied. The use of a specific generator circuit asymmetrical rms rating that is 1.6 x the
breaker such as the Eaton VCP-WG should also be investigated. symmetrical rating.
Refer to ANSI/IEEE C37.48 for fuse
interrupting duty guidelines.

Calculation of the Fuse Required

Interrupting Rating:
Step 1—Convert the fault from the utility to
percent or per unit on a convenient voltage
and kVA base.
G1 G2 G3
Step 2—Collect the X and R data of all the
other circuit elements and convert to a
percent or per unit on a conve­nient kVA
and voltage base same as that used in
Step 1. Use the substran­sient X and R for
all generators and motors.
4.16 kV Step 3—Construct the sequence networks
using reactances and connect properly for
the type of fault under consideration and
reduce to a single equivalent reactance.

Figure 51. Example 3—One-Line Diagram

48 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Step 4—Construct the sequence networks
using resistances and connect properly
Low-Voltage Power Circuit The multiplying factor MF can be
calculated by the formula:
for the type of fault under consideration Breakers—Fault Calculations
and reduce to a single equivalent The steps for calculating the fault current
resistance. for the selection of a low voltage power
Step 5—Calculate the E/XI value, where E circuit breaker are the same as those
is the prefault value of the voltage at the used for medium voltage circuit breakers
except that where the connected loads to If the X/R of system feeding the breaker
point of fault normally assumed 1.0 in pu.
the low voltage bus includes induction is not known, use X/R = 15.
For three-phase faults E/XI is the fault
current to be used in determining the and synchronous motor loads. For fused breakers by the formula:
required interrupting capability of the fuse.
The assumption is made that in
Note: It is not necessary to calculate a single 208Y/120 V systems the contribution
phase-to-phase fault current. This current is from motors is two times the full load
very nearly x three-phase fault. The current of the step-down transformer.
line-to-ground fault may exceed the three- This corresponds to an assumed
phase fault for fuses located in generating 50% motor aggregate impedance
stations with solidly grounded neutral
If the X/R of the system feeding the
generators, or in delta-wye trans­formers with
on a kVA base equal to the transformer breaker is not known, use X/R = 20.
the wye solidly grounded, where the sum of the kVA rating or 50% motor load.
Refer to Table 13 for the standard ranges
positive and negative sequence impedances on
For 480 V, 480Y/277 V and 600 V of X/R and power factors used in testing
the high voltage side (delta) is smaller than the
impedance of the transformer. sys­tems, the assumption is made and rating low voltage breakers. Refer
that the contribution from the motors to Table 14 for the circuit breaker
For single line-to-ground fault: is four times the full load current of interrupting rating derating factors to be
the step-down transformer, which used when the calculated X/R ratio or
corresponds to an assumed 25% power factor at the point the breaker is
aggregate motor impedance on a to be applied in the power distribution
kVA base equal to the transformer system falls outside of the X/R or power
kVA rating or 100% motor load. factors used in test­ing and rating the
circuit breakers. The derating factors
In low-voltage systems that contain
shown in Table 13 are the inverse of
generators, the subtransient reactance
the MF (multiplying factors) calculated
Step 6—Select a fuse whose published should be used.
above. These derat­ing factors are applied
interrupting rating exceeds the calculated
The X/R ratio is calculated in the same to the nameplate interrupting rating of
fault current.
manner as that for medium-voltage the breaker to indicate the device’s
Figure 45 should be used where older circuit breakers. If the X/R at the point interrupting capacity at the elevated
fuses asymmetrically rated are involved. of fault is greater than 6.6, a multiply­ing X/R ratio.
factor (MF) must be applied.
The voltage rating of power fuses used on
three-phase systems should equal or The calculated symmetrical amperes
exceed the maximum line-to-line voltage should be multiplied by the multiply­ing
rating of the system. Current limiting factor (MF) and compared to the
fuses for three-phase systems should be nameplate rating to ensure the breaker
so applied that the fuse voltage rating is is applied within its rating.
equal to or less than 1.41 x nominal
system voltage.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 49

Power System Analysis
Molded Case Breakers and Low-Voltage Circuit Breaker Established standard values include
the following:
Insulated Case Circuit Interrupting Derating Factors
Table 13. Standard Test Power Factors
Breakers—Fault Calculations Refer to Table 13 for the standard ranges
Interrupting Power Factor X/R Test
of X/R and power factors used in testing
The method of fault calculation is the Rating in kA Test Range Range
and rating low voltage breakers. Refer to
same as that for low voltage power circuit Molded Case Circuit Breaker
Table 14 for the circuit breaker
breakers.The calculated fault current 10 or Less 0.45–0.50 1.98–1.73
interrupting rating de-rating factors to
times the MF must be less than the breaker Over 10 to 20 0.25–0.030 3.87–3.18
be used when the calculated X/R ratio or
interrupting capacity. Because molded Over 20 0.15–0.20 6.6–4.9
power factor at the point the breaker is
case breakers are tested at lower X/R Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker
to be applied in the power distribution
ratios, the MFs are different than those All 0.15 Maximum 6.6 Minimum
system falls outside of the Table 13
for low voltage power circuit breakers.
X/R or power factors used in testing and
rating the circuit breakers. For distribution systems where the
Normally the short-circuit power factor calculated short-circuit current X/R ratio
or X/R ratio of a distribution system need differs from the standard values given
not be considered in applying low voltage in the above table, circuit breaker
circuit breakers.This is because the ratings interrupting rating derating factors from
established in the applicable standard are Table 14 table should be applied.
based on power factor values that amply
cover most applications.

Table 14. Circuit Breaker Interrupting Rating Derating Factors

% P.F. X/R Interrupting Rating
Molded Case or Insulated Case Power Circuit Breaker
>10 kA
≤ / = 10 kA ≤ / = 20 kA > 20 kA Unfused Fused

50   1.73 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

30   3.18 0.847 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
25   3.87 0.805 0.950 1.000 1.000 1.000
20   4.90 0.762 0.899 1.000 1.000 1.000
15   6.59 0.718 0.847 0.942 1.000 0.939
12   8.27 0.691 0.815 0.907 0.962 0.898
10   9.95 0.673 0.794 0.883 0.937 0.870
  8.5 11.72 0.659 0.778 0.865 0.918 0.849
  7 14.25 0.645 0.761 0.847 0.899 0.827
  5 19.97 0.627 0.740 0.823 0.874 0.797

Note: These are derating factors applied to the breaker and are the inverse of MF.

50 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Short-Circuit Calculations
Determination of Short-Circuit Current
Note: Transformer impedance generally relates to self-ventilated rating (e.g., with ONAN/ONAF/OFAF transformer use OA base).
Note: kV refers to line-to-line voltage in kilovolts.
Note: Z refers to line-to-neutral impedance of system to fault where R + jX = Z.
Note: When totalling the components of system Z, arithmetic combining of impedances as “ohms Z”. “per unit Z”. etc., is considered a shortcut
or approximate method; proper combining of impedances (e.g., source, cables transformers, conductors, etc.). should use individual R and
X components. This Total Z = Total R + j Total X (see IEEE “Red Book” Standard No. 141).

Page 53

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Power System Analysis
Example Number 1
How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors

A. System Diagram B. Impedance Diagram (Using “Short Cut” Method for Combining Impedances and Sources).

A B C
Utility Source 500 MVA
Major Contribution
Utility

Cables
Transformer
Switchboard Fault
1000 kV A
5.75%
480V Cables

Cable Fault
Switchboard Fault

F1 Zm
Zu 0.002 pu Zm 1.00 pu Zm 1.00 pu 1.00 pu
100 ft (30m)
3–350 kcmil Cable Zc
in Steel Conduit Zc Zc
A B C 0.0575 pu 0.027 pu 0.027 pu 0.027 pu
Switchboard Fault Zequiv
Mixed Load—Motors and Lighting F1
Each Feeder—100 ft (30m) of 3–350 kcmil
Cable in Steel Conduit Feeding Lighting and Zc 0.027 pu
250 kVA of Motors
Cable Fault
F2 F2
Cable Fault
Combining Series Impedances: ZTOTAL = Z1 + Z2 + ... +Zn
C. Conductor impedance from Table 61. 1 = 1 + 1 + ... 1
Combining Parallel Impedances:
Conductors: 3–350 kcmil copper, single ZTOTAL Z1 Z2 Zn
conductors Circuit length: 100 ft (30 m),
in steel (magnetic) conduit Impedance
Z = 0.0617 ohms/ 1,000 ft (304.8 m). 0.0595 pu
0.0777 pu
0.342 pu 0.0507 pu
ZTOT = 0.00617 ohms (100 circuit feet)
F1 F1 Es
D. Fault current calculations (combining
0.027 pu 0.027 pu
impedances arithmetically, using
approximate “Short Cut” method— F2
see Note 4, Page 53)

Figure 52. Example Number 1

52 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Example Number 2
Fault Calculation—Secondary Side of Single-Phase Transformer

Figure 53. Example Number 2

Shortcut Method—End of Cable Conductor ohms for 500 kcmil conductor

from Table 61 in mag­netic conduit is X 30,000 A available
This method uses the approximation of 0.00551 ohms per 100 ft (30 m). For 100 ft
adding Zs instead of the accurate method (30 m) and two conductors per phase 100 ft (30 m)
of Rs and Xs. we have: 2–500 kcmil per phase
For Example: For a 480/277 V system with 0.00551/2 = 0.00273 ohms X If = 23,160 A
30,000 A symmetrical available at the line (conductor impedance)
side of a conductor run of 100 ft (30 m) of Figure 54. Short-Circuit Diagram
2–500 kcmil per phase and neutral, the Add source and conductor impedance or
approximate fault current at the load side 0.00923 + 0.00273 = 0.01196 total ohms
end of the conductors can be calculated
as follows. Next, 277 V/0.01196 ohms = 23,160 A rms
at load side of conductors
277 V/30,000 A = 0.00923 ohms
(source impedance)

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 53

Power System Analysis
Determining X and R Values Voltage Drop Considerations Computer Equipment: With the
proliferation of data-processing and
from Transformer Loss Data The first consideration for voltage drop is
that under the steady-state conditions of computer- or microprocessor-controlled
normal load, the voltage at the utilization manufacturing, the sensitivity of
Method 1:
equipment must be adequate. Fine-print computers to voltage has become an
Given a 500 kVA, 5.5% Z transformer important consideration. Severe dips of
with 9000W total loss; 1700W no-load notes in the NEC recommend sizing
feeders and branch circuits so that the short duration can cause a computer to
loss; 7300W load loss and primary “crash”—shut down completely, and
voltage of 480 V. maximum voltage drop in either does not
exceed 3%, with the total voltage drop for other voltage transients caused by
Watts Load Loss = 3 x (I2 x R) feeders and branch circuits not to exceed starting and stopping motors can cause
5%, for efficiency of operation. (Fine print data-processing errors. While voltage
notes in the NEC are not mandatory.) drops must be held to a mini­mum, in
many cases computers will require
Local energy codes as well as the special power-conditioning equipment
standards for high performance to operate properly.
R = 0.0067 ohms green buildings should be referenced
to determine any additional project Industrial Plants: Where large motors
related voltage drop requirements. exist, and unit substation transformers
are relatively limited in capacity,
In addition to steady-state conditions, voltage dips of as much as 20% may
voltage drop under transient condi­tions, be permissible if they do not occur too
with sudden high-current, short-time frequently. Lighting is often supplied from
Method 2: loads, must be considered.The most separate transformers, and is minimally
Using same values above. common loads of this type are motor affected by voltage dips in the power
inrush currents during starting.These systems. However, it is usually best to
loads cause a voltage dip on the system as limit dips to between 5 and 10% at most.
a result of the voltage drop in conductors,
transformers and generators under the One critical consideration is that a large
high current.This voltage dip can have voltage dip can cause a dropout (opening)
numerous adverse effects on equipment of magnetic motor contactors and control
in the system, and equipment and relays. The actual dropout voltage varies
conduc­tors must be designed and sized considerably among starters of different
to minimize these problems. In many manufacturers.
cases, reduced-voltage starting of motors The only standard that exists is that of
How to Estimate Short-Circuit to reduce inrush current will be necessary. NEMA, which states that a starter must
Currents at Transformer Secondaries: not drop out at 85% of its nominal coil
voltage, allowing only a 15% dip. While
Method 1: Recommended Limits of most starters will tolerate con­siderably
To obtain three-phase rms symmetrical Voltage Variation more voltage dip before dropping out,
short-circuit current available at General Illumination: Flicker in limiting dip to 15% is the only way to
transformer secondary terminals, incandescent lighting from voltage dip ensure continuity of oper­ation in all cases.
use the formula: can be severe; lumen output drops about
X-Ray Equipment: Medical x-ray and
three times as much as the voltage dips.
similar diagnostic equipment, such as
That is, a 10% drop in voltage will result
CAT-scanners, are extremely sensitive to
in a 30% drop in light output. While the
where %Z is the transformer impedance low voltage. They present a small, steady
lumen output drop in fluorescent lamps
in percent, from Table 61 through load to the system until the instant the
is roughly proportional to voltage drop, if
Table 67, Page 139. x-ray tube is “fired.” This presents a brief
the voltage dips about 25%, the lamp will
but extremely high instantaneous
This is the maximum three-phase go out momentarily and then restrike.
momentary load.
sym­metrical bolted-fault current, For high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps
assuming sustained primary voltage In some modern x-ray equipment,
such as mercury vapor, high-pressure
during fault, i.e., an infinite or unlimited the firing is repeated rapidly to
sodium or metal halide, if the lamp goes
primary power source (zero source create multiple images. The voltage
out because of an excessive voltage dip, it
impedance). Because the power source regulation must be maintained within
will not restrike until it has cooled.This will
must always have some impedance, the manufacturer’s limits, usually 2 to 3%,
require several minutes.These lighting
this is a conservative value; actual fault under these momentary loads, to ensure
flicker effects can be annoying, and in the
current will be somewhat less. proper x-ray exposure.
case of HID lamps, sometimes serious.
Note: This will not include motor short-circuit
In areas where close work is being
contribution.
done, such as drafting rooms, precision
assembly plants, and the like, even a
Method 2:
slight variation, if repeated, can be very
Refer to Table 27 in the Reference section, annoying, and reduce efficiency. Voltage
and use appropriate row of data based on variation in such areas should be held to
transformer kVA and primary short-circuit 2 or 3% under motor-starting or other
current available. This will yield more transient conditions.
accurate results and allow for including
motor short-circuit contribution.

54 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Motor Starting Engine Generator Systems In other words, a NEMA design C motor
Motor inrush on starting must be limited With an engine generator as the source with an autotransformer would have a
to minimize voltage dips. Table 15 on the of power, the type of starter that will limit starting torque of approximately full-load
next page will help select the proper type the inrush depends on the characteristics (see Table 15) whereas the NEMA design
of motor starter for various motors, and of the generator. Although automatic D motor under the same conditions
to select generators of adequate voltage regulators are usually used with would have a starting torque of
size to limit voltage dip. See Eaton’s all AC engine-generators, the initial dip approximately 1-1/2 times full-load.
Low-Voltage Motor Control Center (MCC) in voltage is caused by the inherent Note: If a resistance starter were used for the
Design Guide for additional data on regulation of the generator and occurs same motor terminal voltage, the starting
reduced voltage motor starting. too rapidly for the voltage regulator to torque would be the same as that obtained
respond. It will occur whether or not a with autotransformer type, but the starting
regulator is installed. current would be higher, as shown.
Utility Systems
Where the power is supplied by a utility Consequently, the percent of initial voltage
network, the motor inrush can be assumed drop depends on the ratio of the starting Shortcut Method
to be small compared to the system kVA taken by the motor to the generator
capacity, the inherent regulation of The last column in Table 15 has been
capacity, and voltage at the source can
the generator, the power-factor of the worked out to simplify checking. The
be assumed to be constant during motor
load thrown on the generator, and the figures were obtained by using the
starting. Voltage dips resulting from motor
percentage load carried by the generator. formula above and assuming 1 kVA
starting can be calculated on the basis
generator capacity and 1% voltage drop.
of the voltage drop in the conductors
between the power source and the motor A standard 80% power-factor engine-
resulting from the inrush current. type generator (which would be used Example:
where power is to be supplied to motor
Assuming a project having a 1000 kVA
Where the utility system is limited, the loads) has an inherent regulation of
generator, where the voltage variation
utility will often specify the maximum approximately 40% from no-load to
must not exceed 10%. Can a 75 hp,
permissible inrush current or the full-load. This means that a 50% variation
1750 rpm, 220 V, three-phase, squirrel-cage
maximum hp motor they will permit in load would cause approximately 20%
motor be started without objectionable
to be started across-the-line. variation in voltage (50% x 40% = 20%).
lamp flicker (or 10% voltage drop)?
Assume that a 100 kVA, 80% PF engine-
Transformer Considerations From tables in the circuit protective
type generator is supplying the power
devices reference section, the full-load
If the power source is a transformer, and and that the voltage drop should not
amperes of this size and type of motor is
the inrush kVA or current of the motor exceed 10%. Can a 7-1/2 hp, 220 V,
158 A.To convert to same basis as the last
being started is a small portion of the 1750 rpm, three-phase, squirrel-cage
column, 158 A must be divided by the
full-rated kVA or current of the transformer, motor be started without exceeding this
generator capacity and % voltage drop, or:
the transformer voltage dip will be small voltage drop?
and may be ignored. As the motor inrush
becomes a significant percentage of the Starting current (%F.L.) =
transformer full-load rating, an estimate of
the transformer voltage drop must be Checking against the table, 0.0158 falls
added to the conductor voltage drop to within the 0.0170–0.0146 range for a
obtain the total voltage drop to the motor. From the nameplate data on the motor, NEMA A with an autotransformer starter.
the full-load amperes of a 7-1/2 hp. This indicates that a general-purpose
Accurate voltage drop calculation would motor with autotransformer starting can
220 V, 1750 rpm, three-phase, squirrel-
be complex and depend upon transformer be used.
cage motor is 19.0 A. Therefore:
and conductor resistance, reactance and
impedance, as well as motor inrush Starting current (%F.L.) = Note: Designers may obtain calculated
current and power factor. However, an information from engine generator
approximation can be made on the basis manufacturers.
of the low power-factor motor inrush
current (30–40%) and impedance of The calculation results in conservative
the transformer. From Table 15, a NEMA design C or NEMA results.The engineer should provide to the
design B motor with an autotrans­former engine-generator vendor the starting kVA
starter gives approximately this starting of all motors connected to the generator
For example, if a 480 V transformer ratio. It could also be obtained from a and their starting sequence.The engineer
has an impedance of 5%, and the properly set solid-state adjust­able should also specify the maximum
motor inrush current is 25% of the reduced voltage starter. allowable drop.The engineer should
transformer full-load current (FLC), request that the engine-generator vendor
The choice will depend upon the torque consider the proper generator size when
then the worst case voltage drop will requirements of the load since the use of
be 0.25 x 5%, or 1.25%. closed-transition autotransformer reduced
an autotransformer starter reduces the voltage starters, and soft-start solid-state
starting torque in direct proportion to the starter are used; so the most economical
The allowable motor inrush current reduction in starting current. method of installation is obtained.
is determined by the total permissible
voltage drop in transformer and
conductors.

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Power System Analysis
Table 15. Factors Governing Voltage Drop
Type of Motor a Starting Starting How Starting Starting Torque per Unit of Full-Load Amperes
Torque Current b Started Current Full Load Torque per kVA Generator
% Full-Load c Motor Rpm Capacity for Each
1% Voltage Drop
1750 1150 c 850

Design A Normal Normal Across-the-line 600–700 1.5 1.35 1.25 0.0109–.00936

resistance 480–560 A 0.96 0.87 0.80 0.0136–.0117
autotransformer 375–450 Á 0.96 0.87 0.80 0.0170–.0146
Design B Normal Low Across-the-line 500–600 1.5 1.35 1.25 0.0131–.0109
resistance 400–480 A 0.96 0.87 0.80 0.0164–.01365
autotransformer 320–400 Á 0.96 0.87 0.80 0.0205–.0170
Design C High Low Across-the-line 500–600 — 0.2 to 2.5 — 0.0131–.0109
resistance 400–480 A — 1.28 to 1.6 — 0.0164–.01365
autotransformer 320–400 Á — 1.28 to 1.6 — 0.0205–.0170
Wound rotor High Low Secondary controller 100% current — — — —
for 100% — — — —
torque — — — 0.0655
Synchronous (for compressors) Low — Across-the-line 300 40% Starting, 40% Pull-In 0.0218
Synchronous (for centrifugal pumps) Low — Across-the-line 450–550 60% Starting, 110% Pull-In 0.0145–.0118
Autotransformer 288–350 d 38% Starting, 110% Pull-In 0.0228–.0197
a Consult NEMA MG-1 sections 1 and 12 for the exact definition of the design letter.
b In each case, a solid-state reduced voltage starter can be adjusted and controlled to provide the required inrush current and torque characteristics.
c Where accuracy is important, request the code letter of the motor and starting and breakdown torques from the motor vendor.
d Using 80% taps.

Voltage Drop Formulas If the receiving end voltage, load current and power factor (PF)
are known.
Approximate Method
Voltage Drop
ER is the receiving end voltage.

where abbreviations are same as below “Exact Method.” Exact Method 2—If receiving or sending mVA and its power
factor are known at a known sending or receiving voltage.
Exact Methods
Voltage drop
Exact Method 1—If sending end voltage and load PF are known.

where:
EVD = Voltage drop, line-to-neutral, volts
where:
ES = Source voltage, line-to-neutral, volts
ER = Receiving line-line voltage in kV
I = Line (Load) current, amperes
ES = Sending line-line voltage in kV
R = Circuit (branch, feeder) resistance, ohms
MVAR = Receiving three-phase mVA
X = Circuit (branch, feeder) reactance, ohms
MVAS = Sending three-phase mVA
cosq = Power factor of load, decimal
Z = Impedance between and receiving ends
sinq = Reactive factor of load, decimal
g = The angle of impedance Z
qR = Receiving end PF
qS = Sending end PF, positive when lagging

56 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power System Analysis
Voltage Drop Table 16. Temperature Correction Factors
for Voltage Drop
To select minimum conductor size:
1. Determine maximum desired
Conductor Percent Correction voltage drop, in volts.
Voltage Drop Tables Size Power Factors %
Note: Busway voltage drop tables are shown in
2. Divide voltage drop by
100 90 80 70 60 (amperes x circuit feet).
Eaton’s Low-Voltage Busway Design Guide.
No. 14 to No. 4 5.0 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.6 3. Multiply by 100.
Tables for calculating voltage drop for No. 2 to 3/0 5.0 4.2 3.7 3.5 3.2
copper and aluminum conductors, in 4/0 to 500 kcmil 5.0 3.1 2.6 2.3 1.9 4. Find nearest lower voltage drop value
600 to 1000 kcmil 5.0 2.6 2.1 1.5 1.3
either magnetic (steel) or nonmagnetic in tables, in correct column for type of
(aluminum or non-metallic) conduit, conductor, conduit and power factor.
appear on Page 50. These tables give Read conductor size for that value.
voltage drop per ampere per 100 ft (30 m) Calculations
of circuit length. The circuit length is from 5. Where this results in an oversized
the beginning point to the end point of the cable, verify cable lug sizes for molded
To calculate voltage drop: case breakers and fusible switches.
circuit regardless of the number of
1. Multiply current in amperes by the Where lug size available is exceeded,
conductors.
length of the circuit in feet to get go to next higher rating.
ampere-feet. Circuit length is the
Tables are based on the following distance from the point of origin to
conditions: Example:
the load end of the circuit.
1. Three or four single conductors in A three-phase, four-wire lighting feeder
a conduit, random lay. For three- 2. Divide by 100. on a 208 V circuit is 250 ft (76.2 m) long.
conductor cable, actual voltage The load is 175 A at 90% PF. It is desired to
3. Multiply by proper voltage drop value use aluminum conductors in aluminum
drop will be approximately the same in tables. Result is voltage drop.
for small conductor sizes and high conduit. What size conductor is required
power factors. Actual voltage drop to limit the voltage drop to 2% phase-
Example: to-phase?
will be from 10 to 15% lower for
larger conductor sizes and lower A 460 V, 100 hp motor, running at 80% PF,
draws 124 A full-load current. It is fed by 1.
power factors.
three 2/0 copper conductors in steel
2. Voltage drops are phase-to-phase, conduit. The feeder length is 150 ft (46 m).
for three-phase, three-wire or three- What is the voltage drop in the feeder? 2.
phase, four-wire 60 Hz circuits. For What is the percentage voltage drop?
other circuits, multiply voltage drop
given in the tables by the following 1. 124 A x 150 ft (46 m) = 18,600 A-ft 3.
correction factors: 2. Divided by 100 = 186 4. In table, under aluminum conduc­tors,
3. Three-phase, four-wire, nonmagnetic conduit, 90% PF, the
3. Table: 2/0 copper, magnetic conduit, nearest lower value is 0.0091.
phase-to-neutral x 0.577 80% PF = 0.0187
Single-phase, two-wire x 1.155 Conductor required is 500 kcmil.
186 x 0.0187 = 3.48 V drop (Size 4/0 THW would have adequate
Single-phase, three-wire, 3.48 x 100 = 0.76% drop
phase-to-phase x 1.155 ampacity, but the voltage drop would
460 be excessive.)
Single-phase, three-wire,
phase-to-neutral x 0.577 4. Conclusion: 0.76% voltage drop
is very acceptable. (See NEC 2005
4. Voltage drops are for a conductor Article 215, which suggests that a
temperature of 75 °C. They may be voltage drop of 3% or less on a feeder
used for conductor temperatures is acceptable.)
between 60 °C and 90 °C with
reasonable accuracy (within ±5%).
However, correction factors in
Table 16 can be applied if desired. The
values in the table are in percent of
total voltage drop.
For conductor temperature of 60 °C–
SUBTRACT the percentage from
Table 16.
For conductor temperature of 90 °C–ADD
the percentage from Table 16.

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Power System Analysis
Table 17. Voltage Drop—Volts per Ampere per 100 Feet (30 m); Three-Phase, Phase-to-Phase
Conductor Size Magnetic Conduit (Steel) Nonmagnetic Conduit (Aluminum or Nonmetallic)
AWG or kcmil Load Power Factor, % Load Power Factor, %
60 70 80 90 100 60 70 80 90 100
Copper Conductors
      14 0.3390 0.3910 0.4430 0.4940 0.5410 0.3370 0.3900 0.4410 0.4930 0.5410
      12 0.2170 0.2490 0.2810 0.3130 0.3410 0.2150 0.2480 0.2800 0.3120 0.3410
      10 0.1390 0.1590 0.1790 0.1980 0.2150 0.1370 0.1580 0.1780 0.1970 0.2150
         8 0.0905 0.1030 0.1150 0.1260 0.1350 0.0888 0.1010 0.1140 0.1250 0.1350
         6 0.0595 0.0670 0.0742 0.0809 0.0850 0.0579 0.0656 0.0730 0.0800 0.0849
         4 0.0399 0.0443 0.0485 0.0522 0.0534 0.0384 0.0430 0.0473 0.0513 0.0533
         2 0.0275 0.0300 0.0323 0.0342 0.0336 0.0260 0.0287 0.0312 0.0333 0.0335
         1 0.0233 0.0251 0.0267 0.0279 0.0267 0.0218 0.0238 0.0256 0.0270 0.0266
     1/0 0.0198 0.0211 0.0222 0.0229 0.0213 0.0183 0.0198 0.0211 0.0220 0.0211
     2/0 0.0171 0.0180 0.0187 0.0190 0.0170 0.0156 0.0167 0.0176 0.0181 0.0169
     3/0 0.0148 0.0154 0.0158 0.0158 0.0136 0.0134 0.0141 0.0147 0.0149 0.0134
     4/0 0.0130 0.0134 0.0136 0.0133 0.0109 0.0116 0.0121 0.0124 0.0124 0.0107
   250 0.0122 0.0124 0.0124 0.0120 0.0094 0.0107 0.0111 0.0112 0.0110 0.0091
   300 0.0111 0.0112 0.0111 0.0106 0.0080 0.0097 0.0099 0.0099 0.0096 0.0077
   350 0.0104 0.0104 0.0102 0.0096 0.0069 0.0090 0.0091 0.0091 0.0087 0.0066
   500 0.0100 0.0091 0.0087 0.0080 0.0053 0.0078 0.0077 0.0075 0.0070 0.0049
   600 0.0088 0.0086 0.0082 0.0074 0.0046 0.0074 0.0072 0.0070 0.0064 0.0042
   750 0.0084 0.0081 0.0077 0.0069 0.0040 0.0069 0.0067 0.0064 0.0058 0.0035
1000 0.0080 0.0077 0.0072 0.0063 0.0035 0.0064 0.0062 0.0058 0.0052 0.0029
Aluminum Conductors
      12 0.3296 0.3811 0.4349 0.4848 0.5330 0.3312 0.3802 0.4328 0.4848 0.5331
      10 0.2133 0.2429 0.2741 0.3180 0.3363 0.2090 0.2410 0.2740 0.3052 0.3363
         8 0.1305 0.1552 0.1758 0.1951 0.2106 0.1286 0.1534 0.1745 0.1933 0.2115
         6 0.0898 0.1018 0.1142 0.1254 0.1349 0.0887 0.1011 0.1127 0.1249 0.1361
         4 0.0595 0.0660 0.0747 0.0809 0.0862 0.0583 0.0654 0.0719 0.0800 0.0849
         2 0.0403 0.0443 0.0483 0.0523 0.0535 0.0389 0.0435 0.0473 0.0514 0.0544
         1 0.0332 0.0357 0.0396 0.0423 0.0428 0.0318 0.0349 0.0391 0.0411 0.0428
     1/0 0.0286 0.0305 0.0334 0.0350 0.0341 0.0263 0.0287 0.0322 0.0337 0.0339
     2/0 0.0234 0.0246 0.0275 0.0284 0.0274 0.0227 0.0244 0.0264 0.0274 0.0273
     3/0 0.0209 0.0220 0.0231 0.0241 0.0217 0.0160 0.0171 0.0218 0.0233 0.0222
     4/0 0.0172 0.0174 0.0179 0.0177 0.0170 0.0152 0.0159 0.0171 0.0179 0.0172
   250 0.0158 0.0163 0.0162 0.0159 0.0145 0.0138 0.0144 0.0147 0.0155 0.0138
   300 0.0137 0.0139 0.0143 0.0144 0.0122 0.0126 0.0128 0.0133 0.0132 0.0125
   350 0.0130 0.0133 0.0128 0.0131 0.0100 0.0122 0.0123 0.0119 0.0120 0.0101
   500 0.0112 0.0111 0.0114 0.0099 0.0076 0.0093 0.0094 0.0094 0.0091 0.0072
   600 0.0101 0.0106 0.0097 0.0090 0.0063 0.0084 0.0085 0.0085 0.0081 0.0060
   750 0.0095 0.0094 0.0090 0.0084 0.0056 0.0081 0.0080 0.0078 0.0072 0.0051
1000 0.0085 0.0082 0.0078 0.0071 0.0043 0.0069 0.0068 0.0065 0.0058 0.0038

58 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

System Protection Considerations
Overcurrent Protection To study and accomplish coordination
requires:
■ Understanding of operating charac­
teristics and available adjustments of
and Coordination each protective device
■ A one-line diagram, the roadmap
Overcurrents in a power distribution of the power distribution system, ■ Any special overcurrent protection
system can occur as a result of both showing all protective devices and requirements including utility
normal (motor starting, transformer the major or important distribution limitations; refer to Figure 55
inrush, etc.) and abnormal (overloads, and utilization apparatus To ensure complete coordination, the
ground fault, line-to-line fault, etc.)
■ Identification of desired degrees time-trip characteristics of all devices
conditions. In either case, the funda­
of power continuity or criticality of in series should be plotted on a single
mental purposes of current-sensing
loads throughout system sheet of standard log-log paper. Devices
protective devices are to detect the
■ Definition of operating-current of different-voltage systems can be
abnormal overcurrent and with proper
characteristics (normal, peak, starting) plotted on the same sheet by converting
coordination, to operate selectively to
of each utilization circuit their current scales, using the voltage
protect equipment, property and
ratios, to the same voltage­basis. Such
personnel while minimizing the outage ■ Equipment damage or withstand
a coordination plot is shown in
of the remainder of the system. characteristics Figure 55.
With the increase in electric power ■ Calculation of maximum short-
consumption over the past few decades, circuit currents (and ground fault
dependence on the continued supply of currents if ground fault protection
this power has also increased so that the is included) available at each
direct costs of power outages have risen protective device location
significantly. Power outages can create
dangerous and unsafe conditions as a
result of failure of lighting, elevators, SCALE X 100 = CURRENT IN AMPERES AT 480V

ventilation, fire pumps, security systems,

10,000
1000

2000

3000

4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
100

200

300

400

500
600
700
800
900
70
80
90
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
1000 1000
communications systems, and the like. In 900
800 4.16 kV 250 MVA
900
800
700 700
addition, economic loss from outages can 600 600

be extremely high as a result of computer

500 500
400 400

downtime, or, especially in industrial 300 B 300

process plants, interruption of production. 200

A D
200
C
Protective equipment must be adjusted D
and maintained in order to function 100
90
250A 100
90
80 1000
properly when an overcurrent occurs.
80
70 70
60
kVA 4,160V ∆ 60
Coordination, however, begins during 50
5.75% 480/277V 50

power system design with the knowledge­ 40

ANSI Three-Phase 19,600A 40

Thru Fault
able analysis and selection and application
30 30
Protection Curve
of each over­current protective device in 20 (More Than 10 in
Lifetime)
C 1,600A 20

the series circuit from the power source(s) 24,400A

to each load apparatus. 10
9
B
600A
10
9
8 8
7 7
M
The objective of coordination is to localize 6 6

TIME IN SECONDS
TIME IN SECONDS

5 5
the overcurrent disturbance so that the 4
20,000A
4

protective device closest to the fault on 3

175A
3
A
the power-source side has the first chance 2 B C 2

to operate. Each preceding protective

device upstream toward the power 1 1

source should be capable, within its .9

.8
M
100 hp –
.9
.8
.7 124A FLC .7
designed settings of current and time, .6
.5
.6
.5
to provide backup and de-energize the .4 X = Available fault current .4
including motor
circuit if the fault persists. Sensitivity of .3 contribution. .3

coordination is the degree to which the .2

Ground
Fault Trip .2

protective devices can minimize the C

damage to the faulted equipment. .1 .1
.09 .09
.08 .08
.07 .07
.06 Transformer .06
B Inrush
.05 .05
Max. Three-Phase

.04 .04

.03 .03
4.16 kV Fault

A
480V Fault

.02 .02
Max.

.01 .01
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
70
80
90
100

200

300

400

500
600
700
800
900
1000

2000

3000

4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000

SCALE X 100 = CURRENT IN AMPERES AT 480V

Figure 55. Time-Current Characteristic Curves for Typical Power Distribution System Protective Devices
Coordination Analysis

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 59

System Protection Considerations
In this manner, primary fuses and circuit Therefore in coordination studies, the Application data is available for all
breaker relays on the primary side of a knee of the short-time pickup setting protective equipment to permit systems
substation transformer can be coordinated on the secondary breaker should be to be designed for adequate overcurrent
with the low voltage breakers.Transformer multiplied by protection and coordination.
damage points, based on ANSI standards,
and low voltage cable heating limits can ■ For circuit breakers of all types,
also be plotted on this set of curves to time-current curves permit selection of
ensure that apparatus limitations are instantaneous and inverse-time trips
before it is compared to the minimum
not exceeded. melting time of the upstream primary ■ For more complex circuit breakers,
fuse curve. In the example shown, the with solid-state trip units, trip curves
Ground-fault curves may also be included include long- and short-time delays, as
knee is at 4000 A 30 sec., and the 30-sec.
in the coordination study if ground-fault well as ground-fault tripping, with a
trip time should be compared to the MMT
protection is provided, but care must be wide range of settings and features to
(minimum melt time) of the fuse curve at
used in interpreting their meaning. provide selectivity and coordination
4000 x 1.1547 = 4619 A. In this case, there
Standard definitions have been is adequate clearance to the fuse curve. ■ For current-limiting circuit breakers,
established for overcurrent protective fuses, and circuit breakers with integral
In the example shown, the ANSI
devices covering ratings, operation fuses, not only are time-current
three-phase through fault transformer
and application systems. Referring to characteristic curves available, but also
protection curve must be multiplied
Figure 55, the Single Line Diagram data on current-limiting performance
by 0.577 and replotted in order to
references the below defined equipment. and protection for downstream devices
determine the protection given by the
M—Motor (100 hp). Dashed line shows primary for a single line to ground fault In a fully rated system, all circuit breakers
initial inrush current, starting current in the secondary. must have an interrupting capacity
during 9-sec. acceleration, and drop to adequate for the maximum available fault
Maximum 480 V three-phase fault
124 A normal running current, all well current at their point of application. All
indicated on the horizontal current axis.
below CBA trip curve. breakers are equipped with long-time-
Maximum 4160 V three-phase fault delay (and possibly short delay) and
A—CB (175 A) coordinates selectively instantaneous over­current trip devices.
indicated, converted to 480 V basis.
with motor M on starting and running and A main breaker may have short time-
with all upstream devices, except that CB delay tripping to allow a feeder breaker
B will trip first on low level ground faults. to isolate the fault while power is
B—CB (600 A) coordinates selectively The ANSI protection curves are maintained to all the remaining feeders.
with all upstream and downstream specified in ANSI C57.109 for liquid- A selective or fully coordinated system
devices, except will trip before A on filled transformers and C57.12.59 for permits maximum service continuity.
limited ground faults, since A has no dry-type transformers. The tripping characteristics of each
ground fault trips. overcurrent device in the system must
Illustrative examples such as shown
C—Main CB (1600 A) coordinates here start the coordination study from the be selected and set so that the breaker
selectively with all downstream devices lowest rated device proceeding upstream. nearest the fault opens to isolate the
and with primary fuse D, for all faults on In practice, the setting or rating of the faulted circuit, while all other breakers
load side of CB. utility’s protective device sets the upper remain closed, continuing power to the
limit. Even in cases where the customer entire unfaulted part of the system.
D—Primary fuse (250 A, 4160 V) coor­
owns the medium voltage or higher The 2014 edition of the National Electrical
dinates selectively with all secondary
distribution system, the setting or rating Code contains specific requirements for
protective devices. Curve converted to
of the lowest set protective device at the designing certain circuits with selective
480 V basis. Clears transformer inrush
source deter­mines the settings of the coordination. Article 100 defines selective
point (12 x FLC for 0.1 sec.), indicating
downstream devices and the coordination. coordina­tion: Coordination (Selective), the
that fuse will not blow on inrush. Fuse is
underneath right-half of ANSI three-phase Therefore the coordination study should following definition: “Localization of an
withstand curve, indicating fuse will start at the present setting or rating of the overcurrent condition to restrict outages
protect transformer for high-magnitude upstream device and work toward the to the circuit or equipment affected,
faults up to ANSI rating. lowest rated device. If this procedure accomplished by the selec­tion and
results in unacceptable settings, the installation of overcurrent protective
Delta-wye transformer secondary devices and their ratings or settings for
setting or rating of the upstream device
side short circuit is not reflected to the the full range of available overcurrents,
should be reviewed. Where the utility is
primary by the following relation for L-L from overload to the maximum available
the sole source, they should be consulted.
and L-G faults. fault current, and for the full range of
Where the owner has its own medium or
higher voltage distribution, the settings overcurrent protective device opening
or ratings of all upstream devices should times associated with those overcurrents.”
be checked.
For line-to-line fault, the secondary (low
If perfect coordination is not feasible, then
voltage) side fault current is 0.866 x I
lack of coordination should be limited to
three-phase fault current.
the smallest part of the system.
However, the primary (high voltage) side
fault is the same as if the secondary fault
was a three-phase fault.

60 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

System Protection Considerations
Article 620.62 (elevators, dumbwaiters, In general for systems such as shown in B. Devices Rated 800 A or Less. The next
escalators, moving walks, wheelchair Figure 55: higher standard overcurrent device
lifts, and stairway chair lifts) requires rating (above the ampacity of the
“Where more than one driving machine 1. The settings or ratings of the conductors being protected) shall be
disconnecting means is supplied by a transformer primary side fuse and permitted to be used, provided all of
single feeder, the overcurrent protective main breaker must not exceed the the following conditions are met.
devices in each disconnecting means settings allowed by NEC Article 450.
shall be selectively coordinated with any 1. The conductors being protected
2. At 12 x IFL the minimum melting time are not part of a branch circuit
other supply side overcurrent protective characteristic of the fuse should be
device.” A similar require­ment under supplying more than one
higher than 0.1 second. receptacle for cord-and-plug-
Article 700.28 is as follows; “Emergency
system(s) overcurrent devices shall be 3. The primary fuse should be to the left connected portable loads.
selectively coordinated with all supply of the transformer damage curve as 2. The ampacity of the conductors
side overcurrent protective devices.” much as possible.The correction factor does not correspond with the
Article 701.27 states that “Legally required for a single line-to-ground factor must standard ampere rating of a fuse or
standby system(s) overcurrent devices be applied to the damage curve. a circuit breaker without overload
shall be selectively coordinated with all trip adjustments above its rating
4. The setting of the short-time delay
supply side overcurrent devices.” (but that shall be permitted to have
element must be checked against the
Exception: Selective coordination shall fuse Minimum Melt Time (MMT) after other trip or rating adjustments).
not be required between two overcurrent it is corrected for line-to-line faults. 3. The next higher standard rating
devices located in series if no loads selected does not exceed 800 A.
5. The maximum fault current must be
are connected in parallel with the
indicated at the load side of each C. Overcurrent Devices Rated Over
downstream device.
protective device. 800 A. Where the overcurrent device is
In addition, for healthcare facilities, rated over 800 A, the ampacity of the
6. The setting of a feeder protective
Article 517.26, Application of Other conductors it protects shall be equal
device must comply with Article 240
Articles requires that “The life safety to or greater than the rating of the
and Article 430 of the NEC. It also must
branch of the essential electrical system overcurrent device as defined in
allow the starting and acceleration
shall meet the requirements of Article Section 240.6.
of the largest motor on the feeder
700, except as amended by Article 517.“
while carrying all the other loads on D. Small Conductors. Unless specifically
All Overcurrent Protective Devices must the feeder. permitted in 240.4(E) or 240.4(G), the
have an interrupting capacity not less overcurrent protection shall not
than the maximum available short-circuit exceed 15 A for 14 AWG, 20 A for 12
current at their point of application. A Protection of Conductors (Excerpts AWG, and 30 A for 10 AWG copper; or
selective system is a fully rated system from NFPA 70-2014, Article 240.4) 15 A for 12 AWG and 25 A for 10 AWG
with tripping devices chosen and adjusted Conductors, other than flexible cords and aluminum and copper-clad aluminum
to provide the desired selectivity. fixture wires, shall be protected against after any correction factors for
The tripping characteristics of each overcurrent in accordance with their ambient temperature and number of
overcurrent device should not over­lap, ampacities as specified in Section 310.15, conductors have been applied.
but should maintain a minimum time unless otherwise permitted or required in
240.4 (A) through (G). E. Tap Conductors. Tap conductors shall
interval for devices in series (to allow be permitted to be protected against
for normal operating tolerances) at all A. Power Loss Hazard. Conductor overcurrent in accordance with the
current values. Generally, a maximum of overload protection shall not be following:
four low voltage circuit breakers can be required where the interruption of
operated selectively in series, with the the circuit would create a hazard, 1. 210.19(A)(3) and (A)(4) Household
feeder or branch breaker downstream such as in a material handling magnet Ranges and Cooking Appliances
furthest from the source. circuit or fire pump circuit. Short- and Other Loads.
Specify true rms sensing devices in order circuit protection shall be provided. 2. 240.5(B)(2) Fixture Wire.
to avoid false trips due to rapid currents Note: FPN See NFPA 20-2013, standard for 3. 240.21 Location in Circuit.
or spikes. Specify tripping elements with the Installation of Stationary Pumps for
I2t or I4t feature for improved coordination Fire Protection. 4. 368.17(B) Reduction in Ampacity
with other devices having I2t or I4t Size of Busway.
characteristics and fuses.
5. 368.17(C) Feeder or Branch Circuits
(busway taps).
6. 430.53(D) Single Motor Taps.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 61

System Protection Considerations
Circuit Breaker Cable The maximum allowable settings are: For low-voltage systems with high-
1200 A pickup, 1 second or less trip delay magnitude available short-circuit
Temperature Ratings at currents of 3000 A or greater. currents, common in urban areas and
UL listed circuit breakers rated 125 A large industrial installations, several
or less shall be marked as being suitable The characteristics of the ground-fault trip solutions are available:
for 60 ºC (140 ºF), 75 ºC (167 ºF) only or elements create coordination problems
60/75 ºC (140/167 ºF) wire. All Eaton with downstream devices not equipped ■ High interrupting molded case breakers
breakers rated 125 A or less are marked with ground fault protection. The National ■ Current-limiting circuit breakers or
60/75 ºC (140/167 ºF). All UL listed circuit Electrical Code exempts fire pumps and current-limiting fuses
breakers rated over 125 A are suitable for continuous industrial processes from
■ Limiters integral with molded case
75 ºC conductors. this requirement.
circuit breakers (TRI-PACT)
Conductors rated for higher tempera­tures The NEC has addressed the concern ■ MDS-L power circuit breakers with
may be used, but must not be loaded that the impedance added by a step-up, integral current-limiting fuses or
to carry more current than the 75 ºC step-down or isolation transformer MDS-X without current-limiting fuses
ampacity of that size conductor for causes the primary side ground fault
equipment marked or rated 75 ºC or protection to be desensitized to faults To provide current limiting, these devices
the 60 ºC ampacity of that size conductor on its secondary side. Consequently, must clear the fault completely within the
for equipment marked or rated 60 ºC. Article 215.10 clarifies the need for first half-cycle, limiting the peak current
However, when applying derated factors, equipment ground fault protection on (Ip) and heat energy (I2t) let-through to
so long as the actual load does not exceed 1000 A and above 480 Vac feeder circuit considerably less than what would have
the lower of the derated ampacity or the disconnects on the secondary of these occurred without the device.
75 ºC or 60 ºC ampacity that applies. transformers. Article 210.13 has been
added to the 2014 NEC, which recognized For a fully fusible system, rule-of-thumb
the same need for branch circuits being fuse ratios or more accurate I2t curves
Zone Selective Interlocking fed by transformers, as for feeder circuits can be used to provide selectivity
outlined in Article 215.10. and coordination. For fuse-breaker
Trip elements equipped with zone combinations, the fuse should be selected
selective interlocking, trip without (coordinated) so as to permit the breaker
It is recommended that in solidly
intentional time delay unless a restraint to handle those overloads and faults
grounded 480/277 V systems where main
signal is received from a protective device within its capacity; the fuse should
breakers are specified to be equipped with
downstream. Breakers equipped with this operate before or with the current breaker
ground fault trip elements that the feeder
feature reduce the damage at the point of only on large faults, approaching the
breakers be specified to be equipped with
fault if the fault occurs at a location within current interrupting capacity of the
ground fault trip elements as well.
the zone of protection. breaker, to minimize fuse blowing.
The upstream breaker upon receipt of
the restraint signal will not trip until Suggested Ground Fault Settings The three-pole FDCE breakers include
a Digitrip 310+ electronic trip unit and
its time-delay setting times out. If the are available in three models covering
breaker immediately downstream of the
For the main devices:
A ground fault pickup setting equal to loads from 15 A through 225 A. Optional
fault does not open, then after timing out, equipment ground fault allows the
the upstream breaker will trip. 20–30% of the main breaker rating but not
to exceed 1200 A, and a time delay equal designer to extend protection to smaller
Breakers equipped with ground fault trip to the delay of the short- time element, loads that are more likely to cause a
elements should also be specified to but not to exceed 1 second. ground fault trip, such as motors or
include zone interlocking for the ground lighting. Zone Selective Interlocking is
fault trip element. also available to ensure coordinated
For the feeder ground fault setting: tripping with upstream breakers.
A setting equal to 20–30% of the feeder
Ground Fault Protection ampacity and a time delay to coordinate The Series G high performance, current-
with the setting of the main (at least limiting circuit breaker series offers
Article 230.95 of NEC requires ground- 6 cycles below the main). interrupting ratings to 200 kA. Frames
fault protection of equipment shall be are EGC, JGC and LGU.
provided for solidly grounded wye If the desire to selectively coordinate
electrical services of more than 150 V to ground fault devices results in settings
ground, but not exceeding 600 V phase- that do not offer adequate damage
to-phase for each service disconnect protection against arcing single line-
rated 1000 A or more. ground faults, the design engineer
should decide between coordination
The rating of the service disconnect shall and damage limitation.
be considered to be the rating of the
largest fuse that can be installed or the
highest continuous current trip setting
for which the actual overcurrent device
installed in a circuit breaker is rated or
can be adjusted.

62 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

System Protection Considerations
Any of these current-limiting devices— The 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC) Arc Flash Considerations
fuses, fused breakers or current-limit­ing included new marking require­ments for The Arcflash Reduction Maintenance
breakers—cannot only clear these large electrical equipment. Article 110.24 applies System™ is available on power circuit
faults safely, but also will limit the Ip and to service equipment in other than breakers, insulated case circuit breakers
I2t let-through significantly to prevent dwelling units and mandates that they and molded case circuit breakers. The
damage to apparatus downstream, “shall be legibly marked in the field with trip units have maintenance settings of
extending their zone of protection. the maximum available fault current. 2.5 to 4 times the current setting. These
Without the current limitation of the The field marking(s) shall include the breakers deliver faster clearing times
upstream device, the fault current could date the fault-current calculation was than standard instantaneous trip by
exceed the withstand capability of the performed and be of sufficient durability eliminating the microprocessor
down­stream equipment. to withstand the environ­ment involved.” processing latencies. This system
Article 110.24 (B) requires that: “When is superior to simply reducing the
Underwriters Laboratories tests and lists modifications to the electrical installation
these series combinations. Application instantaneous setting and results in
occur that affect the maximum available arc energy reduction that can allow
information is available for combinations fault current at the service, the maximum
that have been tested and ULT-listed for for reduced PPE, improving worker
available fault current shall be verified or dexterity and mobility. The system can
safe operation. recalculated as necessary.The required also include a remote activation switch
Protective devices in electrical distribution field marking(s) in 110.24 (A) shall be with status indicator.
systems may be properly coordinated adjusted to reflect the new level of
when the systems are designed and built, maximum available fault current.” NEC 2014 240.87 requires Arc Energy
but that is no guarantee that they will Reduction “Where the highest continu­ous
Consequently, periodic study of current trip setting for which the actual
remain coordinated. System changes protective-device settings and ratings is
and additions, plus power source overcurrent device installed in a circuit
as important for safety and preventing breaker is rated or can be adjusted is
changes, frequently modify the protection power outages as is periodic maintenance
requirements, sometimes causing loss 1200 A or higher, 240.87(A) and (B)
of the distribution system. shall apply.
of coordination and even increasing
fault currents beyond the ratings of In addition, NFPA 70E 130.3 requires the A. Documentation shall be available to
some devices. study be reviewed periodically, but not those authorized to design, install,
less than every 5 years, to account for operate or inspect the installation as
changes in the electrical distribution to the location of the circuit breaker(s).
system that could affect the original
arc-flash analysis. B. Method to Reduce Clearing Time.
One of the following or approved
equivalent means shall be provided:
1. Zone-selective interlocking
2. Differential relaying
3. Energy-reducing maintenance
switching with local status indicator
4. Energy-reducing active arc flash
mitigation system
5. An approved equivalent means”

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 63

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
Grounding Any person coming in contact with such an
object while grounded could be seriously
The equipment grounding system must
be bonded to the grounding electrode at
Grounding encompasses several injured or killed. In addi­tion, current flow the source or service; however, it may be
different but interrelated aspects of from the accidental grounding of an also connected to ground at many other
electrical distribution system design and energized part of the system could points. This will not cause problems with
construction, all of which are essential to generate sufficient heat (often with the safe operation of the electrical
the safety and proper operation of the arcing) to start a fire. distribution system.
system and equip­ment supplied by it.
Among these are: equipment grounding, To prevent the establishment of such Where computers, data processing,
system grounding, static and lightning unsafe potential difference requires that: or microprocessor-based industrial
protection, and connection to earth as a process control systems are installed,
■ The equipment grounding conductor the equipment grounding system must
reference (zero) potential. provide a return path for ground fault be designed to minimize interference
currents of sufficiently low impedance with their proper operation. Often,
to prevent unsafe voltage drop
1. Equipment Grounding isolated grounding of this equipment,
■ The equipment grounding conductor or isolated electrical supply systems
Equipment grounding is essential to
be large enough to carry the maximum are required to protect microprocessors
safety of personnel. Its function is to
ground fault current, without burning from power system “noise” that does
ensure that all exposed noncurrent-
off, for sufficient time to permit not in any way affect motors or other
carrying metallic parts of all structures
protective devices (ground fault relays, electrical equipment.
and equipment in or near the electrical
circuit breakers, fuses) to clear the fault
distribution system are at the same Such systems must use single-point
potential, and that this is the zero The grounded conductor of the system ground concept to minimize “noise”
reference potential of the earth. (usually the neutral conductor), although and still meet the NEC requirements.
grounded at the source, must not be used Any separate isolated ground mat must
Equipment grounding is required by both
for equipment grounding. be tied to the rest of the facility ground
the National Electrical Code (Article 250)
and the National Electrical Safety Code mat system for NEC compliance.
The equipment grounding conductor may
regardless of how the power system is be the metallic conduit or raceway of the
grounded. Equipment grounding also wiring system, or a separate equipment 2. System Grounding
provides a return path for ground fault grounding conductor, run with the circuit
currents, permitting protective devices System grounding connects the electrical
conductors, as permitted by NEC. If a
to operate. supply, from the utility, from transformer
separate equipment grounding conductor
secondary windings, or from a generator,
is used, it may be bare or insulated; if
Accidental contact of an energized to ground. A system can be solidly
insulated, the insulation must be green,
conductor of the system with an grounded (no intentional impedance to
green with yellow stripe or green tape.
improperly grounded noncurrent- ground), impedance grounded (through
Conductors with green insulation may
carrying metallic part of the system a resistance or reactance), or ungrounded
not be used for any purpose other than
(such as a motor frame or panelboard (with no intentional connection to ground.
for equipment grounding.
enclosure) would raise the potential of
the metal object above ground poten­tial.

3. Medium-Voltage System: Grounding

Table 18. Features of Ungrounded and Grounded Systems (from ANSI C62.92)
Description A B C D E
Ungrounded Solidly Grounded Reactance Grounded Resistance Grounded Resonant Grounded

(1) Apparatus Fully insulated Lowest Partially graded Partially graded Partially graded
insulation
(2) Fault to Usually low Maximum value rarely Cannot satisfactorily be Low Negligible except when
ground current higher than three-phase reduced below one-half Petersen coil is short
short circuit current or one-third of values circuited for relay
for solid grounding purposes when it may
compare with solidly
grounded systems
(3) Stability Usually unimportant Lower than with other Improved over solid Improved over solid Is eliminated from
methods but can be grounding particularly grounding particularly consideration during
made satisfactory by use if used at receiving end if used at receiving end single line-to-ground faults
of high-speed breakers of system of system unless neutralizer is short
circuited to isolate fault by
relays
(4) Relaying Difficult Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Requires special
provisions but can be
made satisfactory
(5) Arcing Likely Unlikely Possible if reactance Unlikely Unlikely
grounds is excessive
(6) Localizing Effect of fault transmitted Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults transmitted Effect of faults transmitted
faults as excess voltage on system or part of system system or part of system as excess voltage on as excess voltage on
sound phases to all parts where they occur where they occur unless sound phases to all sound phases to all
of conductively reactance is quite high parts of conductively parts of conductively
connected network connected network connected network

64 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
Table 18. Features of Ungrounded and Grounded Systems (Continued)
Description A B C D E
Ungrounded Solidly Grounded Reactance Grounded Resistance Grounded Resonant Grounded
(7) Double faults Likely Likely Unlikely unless reactance Unlikely unless resistance Seem to be more likely but
is quite high and insulation is quite high and insulation conclusive information
weak weak not available
(8) Lightning Ungrounded neutral Highest efficiency and If reactance is very high Arresters for ungrounded, Ungrounded neutral
protection service arresters must be lowest cost arresters for ungrounded neutral service usually service arresters must
applied at sacrifice in cost neutral service must be must be applied at sacrifice be applied at sacrifice in
and efficiency applied at sacrifice in cost in cost and efficiency cost and efficiency
and efficiency
(9)Telephone Will usually be low except Will be greatest in Will be reduced from Will be reduced from Will be low in magnitude
interference in cases of double faults magnitude due to higher solidly grounded values solidly grounded values except in cases of double
or electrostatic induction fault currents but can be faults or series resonance
with neutral displaced but quickly cleared particularly at harmonic frequencies,
duration may be great with high speed breakers but duration may be great
(10) Radio May be quite high during Minimum Greater than for Greater than for solidly May be high during faults
interference faults or when neutral solidly grounded, grounded, when faults
is displayed when faults occur occur
(11) Line Will inherently clear Must be isolated for Must be isolated for Must be isolated for Need not be isolated but
availability themselves if total length each fault each fault each fault will inherently clear itself
of interconnected line is in about 60 to 80 percent
low and require isolation of faults
from system in increasing
percentages as length
becomes greater
(12) Adaptability Cannot be interconnected Satisfactory indefinitely Satisfactory indefinitely Satisfactory with solidly- Cannot be interconnected
to unless interconnecting with reactance-grounded with solidly-grounded or reactance-grounded unless interconnected
interconnection system is ungrounded or systems systems systems with proper system is resonant
isolating transformers attention to relaying grounded or isolating
are used transformers are used.
Requires coordination
between interconnected
systems in neutralizer
settings
(13) Circuit Interrupting capacity Same interrupting Interrupting capacity Interrupting capacity Interrupting capacity
breakers determined by three-phase capacity as required for determined by three-phase determined by three-phase determined by three-phase
conditions three-phase short circuit fault conditions fault conditions fault conditions
will practically always be
satisfactory
(14) Operating Ordinarily simple but Simple Simple Simple Taps on neutralizers must
procedure possibility of double faults be changed when major
introduces complication system switching is
in times of trouble performed and difficulty
may arise in intercon­
nected systems. Difficult
to tell where faults are
located
(15)Total cost High, unless conditions Lowest Intermediate Intermediate Highest unless the arc
are such that arc tends to suppressing characteristic
extinguish itself, when is relied on to eliminate
transmission circuits may transmission circuits when
be eliminated, reducing it may be lowest for the
total cost particular types of service

Because the method of grounding these conditions at any point in a system With selective ground fault isolation the
affects the voltage rise of the unfaulted is not effectively grounded. fault current should be at least 60% of the
phases above ground, ANSI C62.92 three-phase current at the point of fault.
classifies systems from the point of view The aforementioned definition is Damage to cable shields must be checked.
of grounding in terms of a coefficient of significance in medium-voltage Although this fact is not a problem
of grounding distribution systems with long lines and except in small cables, it is a good idea
with grounded sources removed during to supplement the cable shields returns
light load periods so that in some locations of ground fault current to prevent
in the system the X0/X1, R0/X1 may exceed damage, by installing an equipment
the defining limits. Other standards (cable grounding conductor.
and lightning arrester) allow the use of
This same standard also defines systems 100% rated cables and arresters selected The burdens on the current transformers
as effectively grounded when COG is less on the basis of an effectively grounded must be checked also (for saturation
than or equal to 0.8. Such a system would system only where the criteria in the above considerations), where residually
have X0/X1 less than or equal to 3.0 and are met. In effectively grounded system connected ground relays are used and the
R0/X1 less than or equal to 1.0. Any other the line-to-ground fault current is high and current transformers supply current to
grounding means that does not satisfy there is no significant voltage rise in the phase relays and meters.
unfaulted phases.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 65

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
If ground sensor current transformers In general, where residually connected Grounding Point
(zero sequence type) are used they must ground relays are used (51N), the fault The most commonly used grounding point
be of high burden capacity. current at each grounded source should is the neutral of the system.This may be
not be limited to less than the current a neutral point created by means of a
Table 19 taken from ANSI-C62.92 indicates transformers rating of the source. This
the characteristics of the zigzag or a wye-broken delta grounding
rule will provide sensitive differential transformer in a system that was operating
various methods of grounding. protection for wye-connected generators as an ungrounded delta system.
and transformers against line-to-ground
Reactance Grounding faults near the neutral. In general, it is a good practice that all
It is generally used in the grounding of the source neutrals be grounded with the
Of course, if the installation of ground same grounding impedance magnitude.
neutrals of generators directly connected
fault differential protection is feasible, or However, neutrals should not be tied
to the distribution system bus, in order to
ground sensor current transformers are together to a single resistor. Where one of
limit the line-to-ground fault to somewhat
used, sensitive differential relaying in the medium-voltage sources is the utility,
less than the three-phase fault at the
resistance grounded system with greater their consent for impedance grounding
generator terminals. If the reactor is so
fault limitation is feasible. In general, must be obtained.
sized, in all probability the system will
ground sensor current transformers
remain effectively grounded. The neutral impedance must have a
(zero sequence) do not have high
burden capacity. voltage rating at least equal to the rated
Resistance Grounded line-to-neutral voltage class of the system.
Medium-voltage systems in general Resistance grounded systems limit the It must have at least a 10-second rating
should be low resistance grounded. The circulating currents of triplen harmonics equal to the maximum future line-to-
ground fault is typically limited to about and limit the damage at the point of fault. ground fault current and a continuous
200–400 A but less than 1000 A (a cable This method of grounding is not suitable rating to accommodate the triplen
shield consideration). With a properly for line-to-neutral connection of loads. harmonics that may be present.
sized resistor and relaying application, On medium-voltage systems, 100% cable
selective fault isolation is feasible. The insulation is rated for phase-to-neutral
fault limit provided has a bearing on voltage. If continued operation with
4. Low-Voltage System: Grounding
whether residually connected relays one phase faulted to ground is desired, Solidly grounded three-phase systems
are used or ground sensor current increased insulation thickness is required. (Figure 56) are usually wye-connected, with
transformers are used for ground For 100% insulation, fault clearance is the neutral point grounded. Less common
fault relaying. recommended within one minute; for is the “red-leg” or high-leg delta, a 240 V
133% insulation, one hour is acceptable; system supplied by some utilities with
for indefinite operation, as long as one winding center-tapped to provide 120
necessary, 173% insulation is required. V to ground for lighting. This 240 V,
three-phase, four-wire system is used
Table 19. Characteristics of Grounding where 120 V lighting load is small
Grounding Classes Ratios of Symmetrical Percent Fault Per Unit Transient compared to 240 V power load, because
and Means Component Parameters a Current LG Voltage the installation is low in cost to the utility.
X0/X1 R0/X1 R0/X0 b c
A. Effectively d
Phase A
1. Effective
2. Very effective
0-3
0-1
0-1
0-0.1
—
—
>60
>95
≤2
<1.5 • • • Phase B
N
B. Noneffectively • Phase C
1. Inductance
a. Low inductance 3-10 0-1 — >25 <2.3
• Neutral

b. High inductance >10 — <2 <25 ≤2.73 g

2. Resistance Grounded Wye
a. Low resistance 0-10 — Š2 <25 <2.5
b. High resistance — >100 ≤(-1) <1 ≤2.73 • Phase B
3. Inductance and resistance >10 — >2 <10 ≤2.73
4. Resonant e — — <1 ≤2.73 • • • Phase C
Phase A
5. Ungrounded/capacitance
a. Range A ∞ to -40 f — — <8 ≤3 i • Neutral
b. Range B -40 to 0 — — >8 >3 hi
a Values of the coefficient of grounding (expressed as a percentage of maximum phase-to-phase voltage) Center-Tapped (High-Leg) Delta
corresponding to various combinations of these ratios are shown in the ANSI C62.92 Appendix figures.
Coefficient of grounding affects the selection of arrester ratings. • Phase A
b Ground-fault current in percentage of the three-phase short-circuit value.
c Transient line-to-ground voltage, following the sudden initiation of a fault in per unit of the crest of the • • Phase B
prefault line-to-ground operating voltage for a simple, linear circuit. • Phase C
d In linear circuits, Class A1 limits the fundamental line-to-ground voltage on an unfaulted phase to 138%
of the prefault voltage; Class A2 to less than 110%. Corner-Grounded Delta
e See ANSI 62.92 para. 7.3 and precautions given in application sections.
f Usual isolated neutral (ungrounded) system for which the zero-sequence reactance is capacitive (negative). Figure 56. Solidly Grounded Systems
g Under restriking arcing ground fault conditions (e.g., vacuum breaker interrupter operation), this value
can approach 500%.
h Same as NOTE (6) and refer to ANSI 62.92 para. 7.4. Each case should be treated on its own merit.
i Under arcing ground fault conditions, this value can easily reach 700%, but is essentially unlimited.

66 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
A corner-grounded three-phase delta Most transformer-supplied systems are These faults are usually arcing and can
system is sometimes found, with one either solidly grounded or resis­tance cause severe damage if at least one of
phase grounded to stabilize all voltages grounded. Generator neutrals are often the grounds is not cleared immediately.
to ground. Better solutions are available grounded through a reactor, to limit If the second circuit is remote, enough
for new installations. ground fault (zero sequence) currents to current may not flow to cause protection
values the generator can withstand. to operate. This can leave high voltages
Ungrounded systems (Figure 57) and stray currents on structures and
can be either wye or delta, although jeopardize personnel.
the ungrounded delta system is far Selecting the Low-Voltage System
more common. Grounding Method In general, where loads will be connected
There is no one “best” distribution system line-to-neutral, solidly grounded systems
for all applications. In choosing among are used. High resistance grounded
solidly grounded, resistance grounded, systems are used as substitutes for
• Phase A
or ungrounded power distribution, the ungrounded systems where high
• • Phase B characteristics of the system must be system availability is required.
Phase C weighed against the requirements of
Ungrounded Delta power loads, lighting loads, continuity With one phase grounded, the voltage to
of service, safety and cost. ground of the other two phases rises 73%,
Phase A to full phase-to-phase voltage. In low-
• • • Phase B Under ground fault conditions, each voltage systems this is not important,
N system behaves very differently: since conductors are insulated for 600 V.
• Phase C
Ungrounded Wye
■ A solidly grounded system produces A low-voltage resistance grounded
high fault currents, usually with arcing, system is normally grounded so that
and the faulted circuit must be cleared the single line-to-ground fault current
Figure 57. Ungrounded Systems on the first fault within a fraction of a exceeds the capacitive charging current
Resistance-grounded systems second to minimize damage of the system. If data for the charging
(Figure 58) are simplest with a ■ An ungrounded system will pass limited current is not available, use 40–50 ohm
wye connection, grounding the neutral current into the first ground fault— resistor in the neutral of the transformer.
point directly through the resistor. only the charging current of the system, In commercial and institutional
Delta systems can be grounded by caused by the distributed capacitance installations, such as office buildings,
means of a zig-zag or other grounding to ground of the system wiring and shopping centers, schools and hospitals,
transformer. Wye broken delta equip­ment. In low-voltage systems, lighting loads are often 50% or more of
transformer banks may also be used. this is rarely more than 1 or 2 A the total load. In addition, a feeder outage
Therefore, on first ground fault, an on first ground fault is seldom crucial—
ungrounded system can continue in even in hospitals, that have emergency
Phase A power in critical areas. For these reasons,
• • • Phase B service, making it desirable where power
a solidly grounded wye distribution, with
N outages cannot be tolerated. However, if
R • Phase C the ground fault is intermittent, sputtering the neutral used for lighting circuits, is
or arcing, a high voltage—as much as usually the most economical, effective
6 to 8 times phase voltage—can be built and convenient design. In some
Resistance-Grounded Wye up across the system capacitance, from instances, it is an NEC requirement.
the phase conductors to ground. In industrial installations, the effect of
• • Phase A
Similar high voltages can occur as a shutdown caused by a single ground
• • fault could be disastrous. An interrupted
• Phase B a result of resonance between system
• Phase C capacitance and the inductances of process could cause the loss of all the
• transformers and motors in the system. materials involved, often ruin the process
N • However, the phase-to-phase voltage is equipment itself, and sometimes create
R • not affected. This high transient phase-to- extremely danger­ous situations for
ground voltage can puncture insulation operating personnel.
at weak points, such as motor windings, On the other hand, lighting is usually only
Delta With Derived Neutral Resistance- and is a frequent cause of multiple motor
Grounded Using Zig-Zag Transformer a small fraction of the total industrial
failures on ungrounded systems. electrical load. Conse­quently, a solidly
Locating a first fault on an ungrounded grounded neutral circuit conductor is not
Figure 58. Resistance-Grounded Systems
system can be difficult. If, before the first imperative. When required, a neutral to
These arrangements create a derived fault is cleared, a second ground fault feed the lighting loads can be obtained
neutral point, which can be either solidly occurs on a different phase, even on a from inexpensive lighting transformers.
or impedance-grounded. If the grounding different, remote feeder, it is a high-
transformer has sufficient capacity, the current phase-to-ground-to-phase fault.
neutral created can be solidly grounded
and used as part of a three-phase,
four-wire system.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 67

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
Because of the ability to continue in The resulting ground fault current is Overcurrent protection is designed
operation with one ground fault on the rarely enough to cause the phase to protect conductors and equipment
system, many existing industrial plants overcurrent protection device to open against currents that exceed their
use ungrounded delta distribu­tion. instantaneously and prevent damage. ampacity or rating under prescribed
Today, new installations can have all time values. An overcurrent can result
the advantages of service continuity of Sometimes, the ground fault is below the from an overload, short circuit or (high
the ungrounded delta, yet minimize the trip setting of the protective device and it level) ground fault condition.
problems of the system, such as the does not trip at all until the fault escalates
difficulty of locating the first ground fault, and extensive damage is done. For these When currents flow outside the normal
risk of damage from a second ground reasons, low level ground protection current path to ground, supplementary
fault, and damage transient overvoltages. devices with mini­mum time delay ground fault protection equipment will be
settings are required to rapidly clear required to sense low-level ground fault
A high-resistance grounded wye ground faults.This is emphasized by the currents and initiate the protection
distribution can continue in operation NEC requirement that a ground fault relay required. Normal phase overcurrent
with a ground fault on the system and on a service shall have a maximum delay protection devices provide no protection
will not develop transient overvoltages. of one second for faults of 3000 A or more. against low-level ground faults.
And, because the ground point is The NEC (Sec. 230.95) requires that There are three basic means of sensing
established, locating a ground fault is ground fault protection, set at no more ground faults. The most simple and direct
less difficult than on an ungrounded than 1200 A, be provided for each service method is the ground return method as
system especially when a “pulsing disconnecting means rated 1000 A or illustrated in Figure 59. This sensing
contactor” design is applied. When more on solidly grounded wye services method is based on the fact that all
combined with sensitive ground-fault of more than 150 V to ground, but currents supplied by a trans­former
protection, damage from a second not exceeding 600 V phase-to-phase. must return to that transformer.
ground fault can be nearly eliminated. Practically, this makes ground fault
protection mandatory on 480Y/277 V
Ungrounded delta systems can be services, but not on 208Y/120 V services. Main
converted to high-resistance grounded
systems, using a zig-zag or other On a 208 V system, the voltage to ground Neutral
grounding transformer to derive a neutral, is 120 V. If a ground fault occurs, the arc Service
Transformer
with similar benefits. While the majority goes out at current zero, and the voltage Sensor GFR
of manufacturing plants use solidly to ground is often too low to cause it Typical
Feeder
Ground Bus
grounded systems, in many instances, to restrike. Therefore, arcing ground
the high-resistance grounded distribu­tion faults on 208 V systems tend to be Main Bonding
will be the most advantageous. self-extinguishing. Jumper
Typical
Grounding Equipment 4W Load
On a 480 V system, with 277 V to Electrode Grounding
Conductor Conductor
Ground Fault Protection ground, restrike usually takes place
A ground fault normally occurs in one after current zero, and the arc tends to
be self-sustaining, causing severe and Figure 59. Ground Return Sensing Method
of two ways: by accidental contact of
an energized conductor with normally increasing damage, until the fault is When an energized conductor faults to
grounded metal, or as a result of an cleared by a protective device. grounded metal, the fault current returns
insulation failure of an energized The NEC requires ground fault service along the ground return path to the
conductor. When an insulation failure disconnecting means rated 1000 A or neutral of the source transformer. This
occurs, the energized conductor contacts higher. This protection works so fast that path includes the main bonding jumper
normally noncurrent-carrying grounded for ground faults on feeders, or even as shown in Figure 59.
metal, which is bonded to or part of the branch circuits, it will often open the A current sensor on this conductor
equipment grounding conductor. service disconnect before the feeder or (which can be a conventional bar-type or
In a solidly grounded system, the fault branch circuit overcurrent device can window type CT) will respond to ground
current returns to the source primarily operate. This is highly undesirable, and fault currents only. Normal neutral
along the equipment grounding in the NEC (230.95), an informational currents resulting from unbalanced loads
conductors, with a small part using parallel note states that “additional ground fault will return along the neutral conductor
paths such as building steel or piping. If protective equipment may be needed and will not be detected by the ground
the ground return impedance was as low on feeders and branch circuits where return sensor.
as that of the circuit conductors, ground maximum continuity of electric service
is necessary.” This is an inexpensive method of sensing
fault currents would be high, and the
ground faults where protection per
normal phase overcurrent protection Unless it is acceptable to disconnect the NEC (230.95) is desired. For it to operate
would clear them with little damage. entire service on a ground fault almost properly, the neutral must be grounded
Unfortunately, the impedance of the anywhere in the system, such additional in only one place as indicated in
ground return path is usually higher, stages of ground fault protection must Figure 59. In many installations, the
the fault itself is usually arcing and the be provided. At least two stages of servicing utility grounds the neutral at the
impedance of the arc further reduces the protection are mandatory in healthcare transformer and additional grounding is
fault current. In a 480Y/277 V system, the facilities (NEC Sec. 517.17). required in the service equipment per
voltage drop across the arc can be from NEC (250.24(A)(2)).
70 to 140 V.

68 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
In such cases, and others including This method of sensing ground faults As with the zero sequence sensing
multiple source with multiple, inter­ can be employed on the main discon­nect method, the resultant residual sensor
connected neutral ground points, where protection per NEC (230.95) is output to the ground fault relay or integral
residual or zero sequence ground desired. It can also be easily employed ground fault tripping circuit will be zero if
sensing methods should be employed. in multi-tier systems where additional all currents flow only in the circuit
levels of ground fault protection are conductors. Should a ground fault occur,
A second method of detecting ground desired for added service continuity. the current from the faulted conductor
faults involves the use of a zero sequence Additional grounding points may be will return along the ground path, rather
sensing method, as illus­trated in employed upstream of the sensor, but than on the other circuit conductors, and
Figure 60. This sensing method requires a not on the load side. the resid­ual sum of the sensor outputs
single specially designed sensor, either of will not be zero. When the level of ground
a toroidal or rectangular shaped Ground fault protection employing fault current exceeds the pre-set current
configuration.This core balance current ground return or zero sequence sensing and time delay settings, a ground fault
transformer surrounds all the phase and methods can be accomplished by the use tripping action will be initiated.
neutral conductors in a typical three- of separate ground fault relays (GFRs)
phase, four-wire distribution system. and disconnects equipped with standard This method of sensing ground faults can
shunt trip devices. Alternately, it can be be economically applied on main service
This sensing method is based on the fact done by circuit breakers using electronic disconnects where circuit break­ers with
that the vectorial sum of the phase and trip units with integral ground fault integral ground fault protection are
neutral currents in any distribution circuit protection using external connections provided. It can be used in protec­tion
will equal zero unless a ground fault from sensors arranged for this mode of schemes per NEC (230.95) or in multi-tier
condition exists downstream from the sensing. In some cases, a reliable source schemes where additional levels of
sensor. All currents that flow only in the of control power is needed. ground fault protection are desired for
circuit conductors, including balanced or added service continuity. Additional
unbalanced phase-to-phase and phase- The third basic method of detecting grounding points may be employed
to-neutral normal or fault currents, and ground faults involves the use of multiple upstream of the residual sensors, but
harmonic currents, will result in zero current sensors connected in a residual not on the load side.
sensor output. sensing method as illus­trated in
Figure 61. This is a very common sensing Both the zero sequence and residual
However, should any conductor become method used with circuit breakers sensing methods have been commonly
grounded, the fault current will return equipped with elec­tronic trip units, referred to as “vectorial summation”
along the ground path—not the normal current sensors and integral ground fault methods.
circuit conductors. Consequently, the protection.The three-phase sensors are
sensor will have an unbalanced magnetic required for normal phase overcurrent Most distribution systems can use either
flux condition. The ground fault relay will protection. Ground fault sensing is of the three sensing methods exclusively
sense the unbalance and provide a trip obtained with the addition of an identically or a combination of the sensing methods
signal to the breaker. rated sensor mounted on the neutral. depending upon the complexity of the
system and the degree of service
In a residual sensing scheme, the continuity and selective coordination
Zero
Sequence
Alternate
Sensor
relationship of the polarity markings— desired. Different methods will be
Sensor Location as noted by the “X” on each sensor—is required depending upon the number
Main
critical. Because the vectorial sum of the of supply sources, and the number and
currents in all the conductors will total location of system grounding points.
zero under normal, non-ground faulted
Neutral
conditions, it is imperative that proper As an example, one of the more
polarity connections are employed to frequently used systems where continuity
GFR Typical reflect this condition. of service to critical loads is a factor is
Feeder the dual source system illustrated in
Figure 62. This system uses tie-point
Typical Sensor
Residual
grounding as permitted under NEC Sec.
Polarity
4W Load
Marks
Sensors 250.24(A)(3). The use of this grounding
Main method is limited to services that are
Figure 60. Zero Sequence Sensing Method dual fed (double-ended) in a common
enclosure or grouped together in
Zero sequence sensors are available with
Neutral separate enclo­sures, employing a
various window openings for circuits with
secondary tie.
small or large conductors, and even with
Typical
large rectangular win­dows to fit over bus GFR Feeder

bars or multiple large size conductors in

parallel. Some sensors have split cores Typical
for installation over existing conductors 4W Load

without disturbing the connections.

Figure 61. Residual Sensing Method

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 69

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
This scheme uses individual sensors
connected in ground return fashion. Under
Power Power
tie breaker closed operating conditions, Transformer Transformer
either the M1 sensor or M2 sensor could
see neutral unbalance currents and
possibly initiate an improper tripping Main Neutral Sensor Neutral Sensor Main
operation. However, with the polarity Bkr. Main Bkr. 52-1 Tie Bkr. Main Bkr. 52-2 Bkr.
arrangements of these two sensors along 52-1 52-T 52-2
ØA, ØB, ØC ØA, ØB, ØC
with the tie breaker auxiliary switch (T/a) Neutral Neutral
and interconnections as shown, this Neutral Sensor
possibility is eliminated. Typical ( )B5
Tie Bkr. 52-T
Typical
( )B5
4-Wire ( )B4
Selective ground fault tripping coordina­ ( )B4 52-T 52-T 4-Wire

M2N
M1G

M2G
M1N
Feeder Feeder

TN
TG
a a
tion between the tie breaker and the
33-
two main circuit breakers is achieved by 52-T
4-Wire 4-Wire
pre-set current pickup and time delay Load
B5 B4 B4 B5 B4 B5 Load
settings between devices GFR/1, GFR/2 B4 B5
Digitrip Digitrip Digitrip
B4 B5
Main Bkr. Main Bkr. Main Bkr.
and GFR/T. Digitrip 52-1 52-T 52-2 Digitrip

The advantages of increased service

continuity offered by this system can only Figure 62. Dual Source System—Single Point Grounding
be effectively used if additional levels of Note: This GF scheme requires trip units to be set to source ground sensing.
ground fault protection are added on each
downstream feeder. Some users prefer
individual grounding of the transformer Power Power
neutrals. In such cases, a partial Transformer Transformer
differential ground fault scheme should
be used for the mains and tie breaker.
An example of a residual partial differ­ X X
X
Neutral Neutral X

ential scheme is shown in Figure 63. The Sensor Main Sensor Main
scheme typically relies upon the vector Main Breaker 52-1 Breaker 52-2 Main
sum of at least two neutral sensors in Breaker Breaker
52-1 52-2
combination with each breakers’ three-
phase sensors. To reduce the complexity Phase A, Tie Breaker Phase A,
of the drawing, each of the breakers’ Phase B, 52-T Phase B,
three-phase sensors have not been Phase C Phase C
shown. It is absolutely critical that the Neutral X
Neutral
sensors’ polarities are supplied as shown, Neutral Sensor X
the neutral sensor ratings of the mains Tie Breaker 52-T

Trip Unit
Trip Unit

and tie are the same, and that there are no Typical X
X
Typical X
X

Four-Wire Four-Wire
other grounds on the neutral bus made Feeder 52-1 52-T 52-2 Feeder
downstream of points shown. a a a
An infinite number of ground fault
protection schemes can be developed Four-Wire Load Four-Wire Load
Trip Unit Trip Unit Trip Unit
depending upon the number of alternate Main Breaker Tie Breaker Main Breaker
sources, the number of grounding points 52-1 52-T 52-2
and system interconnections involved.
Depending upon the individual system Figure 63. Dual Source System—Multiple Point Grounding
configuration, either mode of sensing
or a combination of all types may be To maintain maximum service continu­ity, The use of GFRs (or circuit breakers with
employed to accomplish the desired more than two levels (zones) of ground integral ground fault protection) that
end results. fault protection will be required, so that incorporate Zone Selective Interlocking,
ground fault outages can be localized and allows a coordinated response in a
The NEC (230.95) limits the maximum service interrup­tion minimized. To obtain system by operating in a time delayed
setting of the ground fault protection used selectivity between different levels of mode for ground faults occurring most
on service equipment to 1200 A (and timed ground fault relays, time delay settings remote from the source. This time delayed
tripping at 3000 A for one second). In order should be employed with the GFR furthest mode is only actuated when the GFR
to prevent tripping of the main service downstream having the minimum time protecting the zone containing the fault
disconnect on a downstream feeder delay. This will allow the GFR nearest the sends a restraining signal to the upstream
ground fault, ground fault protection fault to operate first. GFRs. The absence of a restraining signal
must be provided on all the feeders. from a downstream GFR is an indication
With several levels of protection, this will to the next upstream GFR that a ground
reduce the level of protection for faults fault is within its zone of protection and it
within the upstream GFR zones. Zone will operate instantaneously to clear the
interlocking was developed for GFRs to fault with minimum damage and
overcome this problem. maximum service continuity.

70 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
This operating mode permits all GFRs to Further Information These supplemental grounding
operate instantaneously for a fault within ■ PRSC-4E—System Neutral Ground­ing electrodes include: the effectively
their zone and still provide complete and Ground Fault Protection grounded metal frame of the building,
selectivity between zones. (ABB Publication) a concrete-encased electrode, a copper
conductor ground ring encircling the
The National Electrical Manufacturers ■ PB 2.2—NEMA Application Guide
building, or a made electrode such as one
Association (NEMA) states, in their for Ground Fault Protective Devices or more driven ground rods or a buried
application guide for ground fault for Equipment plate. Where any of these electrodes are
protection, that zone interlocking is ■ IEEE Standard 142—Grounding of present, they must be bonded together
necessary to minimize damage from Industrial and Commercial Power into one grounding electrode system.
ground faults. A two-wire connection is Systems (Green Book)
required to carry the restraining signal One of the most effective grounding
■ IEEE Emerald Book (Standard 1100)
from the GFRs in one zone to the GFRs in electrodes is the concrete-encased
the next zone. ■ UL 96A, Installation Requirements for electrode, sometimes called the Ufer
Lightning Protection Systems ground, named after the man who
Circuit breakers with integral ground fault developed it. It consists of at least 20 ft
protection and standard circuit breakers (6 m) of steel reinforcing bars or rods not
with shunt trips activated by the ground Lightning and Surge Protection
less than 1/2 inches (12.7 mm) in
fault relay are ideal for ground fault Physical protection of buildings from diameter, or at least 20 ft (6 m) of bare
protection. Eaton’s Pringle Bolted direct damage from lightning is beyond copper conductor, size No. 4 AWG
Pressure Type fused switches have an the scope of this section. Requirements or larger, encased in at least 2 inches
optional integral ground fault protection will vary with geographic location, (50.8 mm) of concrete. It must be located
relay and meet UL Class 1 requirements building type and environ­ment, and within and near the bottom of a concrete
to open safely on faults up to 12 times many other factors (see IEEE/ANSI foundation or footing that is in direct
their rating. Eaton’s Shunt Trip Safety Standard 142, Grounding of Industrial contact with the earth. Tests have shown
Switches have passed Class 1 ground and Commercial Power Systems). Any this electrode to provide a low-resistance
fault testing and include an integral shunt lightning protection system must be earth ground even in poor soil conditions.
trip mechanism that can be field wired to grounded, and the lightning protection
an external ground fault relay. ground must be bonded to the electrical The electrical distribution system and
equipment grounding system. equipment ground must be connected
Power distribution systems differ widely to this grounding electrode system by
from each other, depending upon the a grounding electrode conductor. All
requirements of each end user’s facility Grounding Electrodes other grounding electrodes, such as those
type and application. A power system At some point, the equipment and for the lightning protection system, the
design professional needs to carefully system grounds must be connected telephone system, television antenna and
evaluate total system overcurrent to the earth by means of a grounding cable TV system grounds, and computer
protection, including ground fault electrode system. systems, must be bonded to this
currents, to meet these needs. grounding electrode system.
Experienced and knowledgeable Outdoor substations usually use a ground
engineers have to consider the impact grid, consisting of a number of ground There are many books written about the
on all power sources (utility and on-site rods driven into the earth and bonded design and application of grounding
generation), the effects of outages and together by buried copper conductors.The systems. For those diligent engineers
the cost impact of downtime, as well as required grounding electrode system for a seeking more information, the following
safety for people and equipment from building is spelled out in NEC Article 250. publications are recommended reading:
arc flash hazards, when balancing
enhanced protection schemes against The preferred grounding electrode is a ■ Soares Book on Grounding and
initial equipment cost. They must metal underground water pipe in direct Bonding, 2014 NEC. IAEI 12th Edition
apply protective devices, analyzing the contact with the earth for at least 10 ft by International Association of
time-current characteristics and fault (3 m). However, because underground Electrical Inspectors
interrupting capacity, as well as selectivity water piping is often plastic outside the ■ McGraw Hill’s National Electrical Code
and coordination methods to provide building, or may later be replaced by 2014 Grounding & Earthing Handbook
the most safe and cost-effective plastic piping, the NEC requires this
distribution system. electrode to be supplemented by
and bonded to at least one other
grounding electrode.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 71

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
Medium-Voltage Equipment Surge Recognizing that distribution system can Surge Protection Recommendations
be subject to voltage transients caused 1. For circuits exposed to lightning,
Protection Considerations by lighting or switching, the industry surge arresters should be applied in
has developed standards to provide line with Industry standard practices.
Transformers
guidelines for surge protection of electrical
If the voltage withstand/BIL rating of equipment.Those guide­lines should be 2. Transformers—Because each
the transformer is less than that of the used in design and protection of electrical installation is unique, a variety of
switchgear feeding the transformer, distribution systems independent of the different factors can impact how the
surge protection is recommended at circuit breaker interrupting medium.The various electrical components interact
the transformer terminals, in line with industry standards are: as a system (i.e.,: transformer type
established practices. In addition, and MVA rating, system impedances,
consideration should be given to using ANSI C62 the Manufacturer’s Vacuum
surge arresters and/or surge capacitors   Guides and Standards for Interrupter Current Chop Rating, etc.).
for transformers having equal or greater   Surge Protection Consequently, there is no singular
withstand/BIL ratings than that of the answer for all situations. The optimum
switchgear feeding the transformer for IEEE 242—Buff Book
  IEEE Recommended Practice for application of snubbers may require
distribution systems where reflected recommendations from a switching
voltage waves and/or resonant conditions   Protection and Coordination of
  Industrial and Commercial transient study.
may occur.
  Power Systems Typical rules of thumb are:
Typically incoming voltage surges are
reflected at the transformer primary IEEE 141—Red Book a. Close-coupled to medium-
terminals, resulting in voltages at the   Recommended Practice for Electric voltage primary breaker: Provide
ends of the transformer primary   Power Distribution for Industrial Plants transients surge protection, such
terminals/windings of up to two times IEEE C37.20.2 as Surge Arrester in parallel with
the incoming voltage wave. System   Standards for Metal-Clad Switchgear RC Snubber. The surge protection
capacitance and inductance values device selected should be located
combined with the transformer Eaton’s medium-voltage metal-clad and and connected at the transformer
impedance values can cause resonant metal-enclosed switchgear that uses primary terminals or it can be
conditions resulting in amplified reflected vacuum circuit breakers is applied over located inside the switchgear and
waves. Surge arresters/capacitors when a broad range of circuits. It is one of the connected on the transformer side
required, should be located as close to many types of equipment in the total of the primary breaker.
the transformer primary terminals distribution system. Whenever a b. Cable-connected to medium-
as practical. switching device is opened or closed, voltage primary breaker: Provide
certain interactions of the power system transient surge protection, such
Where concerns exist for transformer elements with the switching device can as surge arrester in parallel with
failures or life reduction due to cause high frequency voltage transients RC Snubber for transformers
switching transients, Eaton offers an in the system. connected by cables with lengths
environmentally friendly oil-filled
Due to the wide range of applications up to 150 feet. The surge protection
hardened transformer solution.
and variety of ratings used for different device should be located and
elements in the power systems, a given connected at the transformer
Motors terminals. Surge protection
circuit may or may not require surge
Surge capacitors and, where appropriate, protection. Therefore, Eaton does not is generally not needed for
surge arresters should be applied at the include surge protection as standard transformers with lightning
motor terminals. with its metal-clad or metal-enclosed impulse withstand ratings equal
medium-voltage switchgear. to that of the switchgear and
Generators connected to the switchgear by
The system designer must specify cables at least 150 feet or longer.
Surge capacitors and station class surge the optional type and extent of surge For transformers with lower BIL,
arresters should be properly applied at protection necessary, depending on the provide surge arrester in parallel
the machine terminals. individual circuit characteristics and cost with RC Snubber.
considerations. Because transformers c. When special transient resis­tant
Surge Protection have both high initial installation and transformer designs are used, RC
replacement costs, the specifying snubbers may not be required for
Eaton’s VacClad-W metal-clad switch­gear engineer should consider commissioning
is applied over a broad range of circuits, power transformer protection.
an optional study. These switching However, they may be needed for
and is one of the many types of equipment transient studies and their associated
in the total system.The distribution system instrument transformer protection.
recommendations can be provided by
can be subject to voltage transients caused Eaton’s Engineering Services & Systems
by lighting or switching surges. group (EESS).
The following are Eaton’s recommenda­
tions for surge protection of medium-
voltage equipment. Please note these
recommendations are valid when using
Eaton’s vacuum breakers only.

72 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
RC Snubber to dampen internal Types of Surge Protection Devices B. Low Resistance Grounded Sys­tems
transformer resonance: Generally surge protective devices should (systems grounded through resistor
be located as closely as possible to the rated for 10 seconds): Arrester
The natural frequency of transformer 10-second MCOV capability at 60 ºC,
windings can under some circum- circuit component(s) that require
protection from the transients, and which is obtained from manufacturer’s
stances be excited to resonate. data, should be equal to 1.05 x VLL,
Transformer windings in resonance connected directly to the terminals of the
component with conductors that are as where VLL is nominal line-to-line
can produce elevated internal service voltage, and 1.05 factor allows
voltages that produce insulation short and flat as possible to minimize the
inductance. It is also important that surge for +5% voltage variation above the
damage or failure. An RC Snubber nominal voltage.
applied at the transformer terminals protection devices should be properly
as indicated above can dampen grounded for effectively shunting high C. Ungrounded or Systems Grounded
internal winding resonance and frequency transients to ground. through impedance other than a
prevent the production of damag­ing 10-second resistor: Arrester MCOV
elevated internal voltages. This is Surge Arresters rating should be equal to 1.05 x VLL/T,
typically required where rectifiers, Modern metal-oxide surge arresters are where VLL and T are as defined above.
UPS or similar electronic equipment recommended as this design ensures
is on the transformer secondary. Refer to Table 20 for recommended
better performance and high reliability of ratings for metal-oxide surge arresters
3. Arc-Furnace Transformers—Provide surge protection schemes. Manufacturer’s that are sized in accordance with the
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC technical data must be consulted for above guidelines, when located in
Snubber at the trans­former terminals. correct application of a given type of Eaton’s switchgear.
surge arrester.
4. Motors—Provide Surge Arrester in
parallel with RC Snubber at the motor Many manufacturer’s published arrester Surge Capacitors
terminals. For those motors using MCOV (maximum continuous operating Metal-oxide surge arresters limit the
VFDs, surge protection should be voltage) ratings are based on 40 ºC or magnitude of prospective surge over­
applied and precede the VFD devices 45 ºC ambient temperature. In general, the voltage, but are ineffective in control­ling
as well. following guidelines are recommended for its rate of rise. Specially designed surge
arrester selections, when installed inside capacitors with low internal inductance
5. Generators—Provide station class Eaton’s medium-voltage switchgear: are used to limit the rate of rise of this
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC surge overvoltage to protect turn-to-turn
Snubber at the generator terminals. A. Solidly Grounded Systems: Arrester
MCOV rating should be equal to insulation. Recommended values for
6. Capacitor Switching—No surge 1.05 x VLL/(1.732 x T), where VLL is surge capacitors are: 0.5 µf on 5 and
protection is required. Make sure nominal line-to-line service voltage, 7.5 kV, 0.25 µf on 15 kV, and 0.13 µf on
that the capacitor’s lightning impulse 1.05 factor allows for +5% voltage systems operating at 24 kV and higher.
withstand rating is equal to that of variation above the nominal voltage
the switchgear. according to ANSI C84.1, and T is
derating factor to allow for operation
7. Shunt Reactor Switching—Provide at 55 ºC switchgear ambient, which
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC should be obtained from the arrester
Snubber at the reactor terminals. manufacturer for the type of arrester
8. Motor Starting Reactors or Reduced under consideration. Typical values of
Voltage Auto-Transformers— T are: 0.946 to 1.0.
Provide Surge Arrester in parallel
with RC Snubber at the reactor or
RVAT terminals.
9. Switching Underground Cables—
Surge protection should be properly
applied as determined by a switching
transient study.

Figure 64. Surge Protection Devices

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 73

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
RC Snubber Under high frequency transient Better protection: An RC Snubber in
A RC Snubber device consists of a conditions, the capacitor offers very low parallel with Surge Arrester for protection
non-inductive resistor R sized to match impedance, thus effectively “inserting” from high frequency transients and
surge impedance of the load cables, the resistor R and ZnO in the power voltage peaks.
typically 20 to 30 ohms, and connected in system as a cable terminating network,
thus minimizing reflection of the steep Best protection: RC Snubber with surge
series with a Surge Capacitor C.The Surge suppressor, plus proper surge arrester
Capacitor is typically sized to be 0.15 to wave-fronts of the voltage transients and
prevents voltage doubling of the traveling preceding it where needed for protection
0.25 microfarad. Under normal operating against lightning. The RC Snubber with
conditions, impedance of the capacitor wave. The ZnO element limits the peak
voltage magnitudes. surge suppressor provides protection
is very high, effectively “isolating” the from high frequency voltage transients
resistor R from the system at normal The combined effects of R, ZnO, and limits peak magnitude of the
power frequencies, and minimizing heat and capacitor of this device provides transient to 1 to 2 PU. A surge arrester
dissipation during normal operation. optimum protection against high provides protection from higher voltage
Under high frequency transient conditions, frequency transients by absorbing, peaks resulting from lightning surges.
the capacitor offers very low impedance, damping, and by limiting the peak
amplitude of the voltage wave-fronts. Note that special design liquid-filled and
thus effectively “inserting” the resistor R in dry-type transformers are avail­able that do
the power system as a cable terminating Please note that this suppressor is not a
lightning protection device. If lightning not require the addition of RC Snubbers to
resistor, thus minimizing reflection of the mitigate switching transients.
steep wave-fronts of the voltage transients can occur or be induced in the electrical
and prevents voltage doubling of the system, a properly rated and applied
traveling wave.The RC Snubber provides surge arrester must precede this device. Further Information
protection against high frequency ■ IEEE/ANSI Standard 142—Grounding
transients by absorbing and damping Industrial and Commercial Power
the transients. Surge Protection Summary Systems (Green Book)
Minimum protection: Surge Arrester for ■ IEEE Standard 241—Electric Power
An RC Snubber is most effective in protection from high overvoltage peaks,
mitigating fast-rising transient volt­ages, Systems in Commercial Buildings
or Surge Capacitor for protection from (Gray Book)
and in attenuating reflections and fast-rising transient. Please note that
resonances before they have a chance ■ IEEE Standard 141—Electric Power
the surge arresters or surge capacitor
to build up, but does not limit the peak Distribution for Industrial Plants
alone may not provide adequate surge
magnitude of the transient.Therefore, (Red Book)
protection from escalating voltages
the RC Snubber alone may not provide caused by circuit resonance. Note that
adequate protection.To limit peak when applying surge capacitors on both
magnitude of the transient, application of sides of a circuit breaker, the surge
a surge arrester should also be considered. capacitor on one side of the breaker must
be an RC Snubber or RC Snubber with
RC Snubber with Surge Suppressor surge suppressor, to mitigate possible
This type of device consists of parallel virtual current chopping.
combination of Resistor (R) and Zinc
Good protection: Surge arrester in parallel
Oxide Voltage Suppressor (ZnO),
with surge capacitor for protection from
connected in series with a Surge
high overvoltage peaks and fast rising
Capacitor. The resistor R is sized to match
transient.This option may not provide
the surge impedance of the load cables,
adequate surge protection from escalating
typically 20 to 30 ohms. The ZnO is a
voltages caused by circuit resonance.
gapless metal-oxide nonlinear arrester,
When applying surge capacitors on
set to trigger at 1 to 2 PU voltage, where
both sides of a circuit breaker, the surge
1 PU = 1.412*(VL-L/1.732). The Surge
capacitor on one side of the breaker must
Capacitor is typically sized to be 0.15 to
be an RC Snubber or RC Snubber with
0.25 microfarad. As with RC Snubber,
surge suppressor, to mitigate possible
under normal operating conditions,
virtual current chopping.
impedance of the capacitor is very high,
effectively “isolating” the resistor R and
ZnO from the system at normal power
frequencies, and minimizing heat
dissipation during normal operation.

74 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
Table 20. Surge Arrester Selections—Recommended Ratings
Service Distribution Class Arresters Station Class Arresters
Voltage Solidly Low Resistance High Resistance or Solidly Low Resistance High Resistance or
Line-to-Line Grounded System Grounded System Ungrounded System Grounded System Grounded System Ungrounded System
kV
Arrester Ratings kV Arrester Ratings kV
Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV Nominal MCOV

  2.30   3   2.55   3   2.55   3   2.55   3   2.55   3   2.55   3   2.55
  2.40   3   2.55   3   2.55   6   5.10   3   2.55   3   2.55   6   5.10
  3.30   3   2.55   3   2.55   6   5.10   3   2.55   3   2.55   6   5.10
  4.00   3   2.55   6   5.10   6   5.10   3   2.55   6   5.10   6   5.10
  4.16   6   5.10   6   5.10   6   5.10   6   5.10   6   5.10   6   5.10
  4.76   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65
  4.80   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65
  6.60   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65
  6.90   6   5.10   6   5.10   9   7.65   6   5.10   9   7.65   9   7.65
  7.20   6   5.10   6   5.10 10   8.40   6   5.10   9   7.65 10   8.40
  8.32   9   7.65   9   7.65 12 10.20   9   7.65   9   7.65 12 10.20
  8.40   9   7.65   9   7.65 12 10.20   9   7.65   9   7.65 12 10.20
11.00   9   7.65   9   7.65 15 12.70   9   7.65 10   8.40 15 12.70
11.50   9   7.65 10   8.40 18 15.30   9   7.65 12 10.20 18 15.30
12.00 10   8.40 10   8.40 18 15.30 10   8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30
12.47 10   8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30 10   8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30
13.20 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30
13.80 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30 12 10.20 15 12.70 18 15.30
14.40 12 10.20 12 10.20 21 17.00 12 10.20 15 12.70 21 17.00
18.00 15 12.70 15 12.70 27 22.00 15 12.70 18 15.30 27 22.00
20.78 18 15.30 18 15.30 30 24.40 18 15.30 21 17.00 30 24.40
22.00 18 15.30 18 15.30 30 24.40 18 15.30 21 17.00 30 24.40
22.86 18 15.30 21 17.00 — — 18 15.30 24 19.50 36 29.00
23.00 18 15.30 21 17.00 — — 18 15.30 24 19.50 36 29.00
24.94 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 24 19.50 36 29.00
25.80 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 24 19.50 36 29.00
26.40 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 27 22.00 39 31.50
33.00 27 22.00 30 24.40 — — 27 22.00 36 29.00 45 36.50
34.50 30 24.40 30 24.40 — — 30 24.40 36 29.00 48 39.00
38.00 30 24.40 — — — — 30 24.40 36 29.00 — —

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 75

Typical Components of a Power System
Typical Power System Because the majority of medium- and
low-voltage switchgear is mounted
Power Equipment Losses
Components indoors, they are typically provided
Table 21. Power Equipment Losses
in NEMA 1A enclosures. In these Equipment Watts
The System One-line on Page 8, applications, ventilation openings
Loss
illustrates schematically the various types are normally provided to allow heat Medium-Voltage Switchgear
of power distribution equipment that an to escape from the enclosures. Where (Indoor, 5 and 15 kV)
engineer will encounter during the design 1200 A breaker   600
required, optional dust screens and 2000 A breaker 1400
of a power system. It is important to gasketing can be provided. 3000 A breaker 2100
consider the various physical attributes of 4000 A breaker 3700
the various pieces of electrical equipment Many indoor applications are in base­
ments or areas where condensation Medium-Voltage Switchgear
that will be utilized as well as the (Indoor, 5 and 15 kV)
constraints that will be encountered in on the ceiling may leak on top of the
switchgear. Additional concerns may   600 A unfused switch   500
their application.
1200 A unfused switch   750
arise where sprinklers are provided above   100 A CL fuses   840
Electrical equipment that distributes the switchgear or alternately, on the floor
power has a heat loss due to the above. Eaton can provide “sprinkler Medium-Voltage Starters (Indoor, 5 kV)
impedance and/or resistance of its resistant” low-voltage switchgear or   400 A starter FVNR   600
conductors. This heat is radiated into the low- and medium-voltage switchgear   800 A starter FVNR 1000
electrical room where the equip­ment is   600 A fused switch   500
with a drip hood. 1200 A fused switch   800
placed and must be removed to ensure
excess heat does not cause failures. For outdoor environments, this equip­ Low-Voltage Switchgear (Indoor, 480 V)
Table 21 provides heat loss in watts ment may be mounted in a NEMA 3R   800 A breaker   400
for typical power distribution equipment drip-proof enclosure. Where equipment 1600 A breaker 1000
is located outdoors, the humidity in the 2000 A breaker 1500
that may be used in the sizing of
HVAC equipment. air may condense during evening hours, 3200 A breaker 2400
resulting in water droplets fall­ing on 4000 A breaker 3000
As indicated on the one-line, a number of 5000 A breaker 4700
the bus bars in the equipment. Under
distribution components, are provided these circumstances, an optional space Fuse limiters—800 A CB   200
with a description of the physical structure Fuse limiters—1600 A CB   500
heater may be provided and wired to a Fuse limiters—2000 A CB   750
in which they are to be enclosed.The thermostat or humidistat for control.
National Electrical Manufacturers Fuse truck—3200 A CB 3600
Association (NEMA) has developed a Because many countries around the Fuse truck—4000 A CB 4500
set of standards to ensure the consistent world refer to International Electro­ Structures—3200 A 4000
application performance of enclosures. technical Commission standards (IEC), Structures—4000 A 5000
designers should reference Table 25 Structures—5000 A 7000
As an example, the panelboard shown to determine the appropriate alternate High resistance grounding 1200
in Figure 2 is called out as being NEMA enclosure rating. Panelboards (Indoor, 480 V)
4X. Table 22 and Table 23, show the   225 A, 42 circuit   300
various performance data for these
enclosures in indoor and outdoor Low-Voltage Busway (Indoor, Copper, 480 V)
applications respectively. Table 24 covers   800 A     44 per foot
enclosures to be installed in explosive or 1200 A     60 per foot
1350 A     66 per foot
hazardous environments.
1600 A     72 per foot
2000 A     91 per foot
2500 A   103 per foot
3200 A   144 per foot
4000 A   182 per foot
5000 A   203 per foot
Motor Control Centers (Indoor, 480 V)
NEMA Size 1 starter     39
NEMA Size 2 starter     56
NEMA Size 3 starter     92
NEMA Size 4 starter   124
NEMA Size 5 starter   244
Structures   200
Adjustable Frequency Drives (Indoor, 480 V)
Adjustable frequency drives > 96%
efficiency

Note: The information provided on power

equipment losses is generic data intended to
be used for sizing of HVAC equipment.

76 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Enclosures
The following are reproduced from NEMA 250.
Table 22. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 1a 2a 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13

Incidental contact with the enclosed equipment n n n n n n n n n n

Falling dirt n n n n n n n n n n
Falling liquids and light splashing n n n n n n n n n
Circulating dust, lint, fibers and flyings b n n n n n n n
Settling airborne dust, lint, fibers and flyings b n n n n n n n n
Hosedown and splashing water n n n n
Oil and coolant seepage n n n
Oil or coolant spraying and splashing n
Corrosive agents n n
Occasional temporary submersion n n
Occasional prolonged submersion n
a These enclosures may be ventilated.
b These fibers and flying are nonhazardous materials and are not considered the Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings. For Class III type ignitable
fibers or combustible flyings, see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.

Table 23. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 3 3R c 3S 4 4X 6 6P

Incidental contact with the enclosed equipment n n n n n n n

Rain, snow and sleet d n n n n n n n
Sleet e n
Windblown dust n n n n n n
Hosedown n n n n
Corrosive agents n n
Occasional temporary submersion n n
Occasional prolonged submersion n
c These enclosures may be ventilated.
d External operating mechanisms are not required to be operable when the enclosure is ice covered.
e External operating mechanisms are operable when the enclosure is ice covered.

Table 24. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against Class Enclosure Types Enclosure Type
Atmospheres Typically Containing 7 and 8, Class I Groups f 9, Class II Groups f
(For Complete Listing, See NFPA 497M) A B C D E F G 10

Acetylene I n
Hydrogen, manufactured gas I n
diethyl ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I n
Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane, acetone, toluene, isoprene I n
Metal dust II n
Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II n
Flour, starch, grain dust II n n
Fibers, flyings g III n
Methane with or without coal dust MSHA n
f For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings, see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
g Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust, a product suitable for one class or group may not be suitable for another class or group unless so marked on
the product.
Note: If the installation is outdoors and/or additional protection is required by Table 22 and Table 23, a combination-type enclosure is required.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 77

Typical Components of a Power System
Table 25. Conversion of NEMA Enclosure Type Ratings to IEC 60529 Enclosure Classification Designations (IP) (From NEMA Publication 250)
(Cannot be Used to Convert IEC Classification Designations to NEMA Type Ratings)

IP NEMA Enclosure Type IP

First 1 2 3 3R 3S 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13 Second
Character Character
IP0– IP–0
IP1– IP–1
IP2– IP–2
IP3– IP–3
IP4– IP–4
IP5– IP–5
IP6– IP–6
IP–7
IP–8
A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
A = A shaded block in the “A” column indicates that the NEMA Enclosure Type exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529
IP First Character Designation. The IP First Character Designation is the protection against access to hazardous parts and solid
foreign objects.
B = A shaded block in the “B” column indicates that the NEMA Enclosure Type exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529
IP Second Character Designation. The IP Second Character Designation is the protection against the ingress of water.

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USE

An IEC IP45 Enclosure Rating is specified. What NEMA Type Enclosures meet and exceed the IP45 rating?

Referencing the first character, 4, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP4–” in the leftmost column in the
table; the blocks in Column “A” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 5, 6, 6P, 12, 12K and 13 are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC protection requirements against access to hazardous parts and solid foreign
objects. Referencing the second character, 5, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP–5” in the rightmost
column in the table; the blocks in Column “B” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC requirements for protection against the ingress of water. The absence of shading
in Column “B” beneath the “NEMA Enclosure Type 5” indicates that Type 5 does not meet the IP45 protection
requirements against the ingress of water. Likewise, the absence of shading in Column “B” for NEMA Type 12,
12K and 13 enclosures indicates that these enclosures do not meet the IP45 requirements for protection against
the ingressof water. Only Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P have both Column “A” in the “IP4–” row and Column “B”
in the “IP–5” row shaded and could be used in an IP45 application.

The NEMA Enclosure Type 3 not only meets the IP45 Enclosure Rating, but also exceeds the IEC requirements
because the NEMA Type requires an outdoor corrosion test; a gasket aging test; a dust test; an external icing
test; and no water penetration in the rain test. Slight differences exist between the IEC and NEMA test methods,
but the IEC rating permits the penetration of water if “it does not deposit on insulation parts, or reach live parts.”
The IEC rating does not require a corrosion test; gasket aging test; dust test or external icing test. Because the
NEMA ratings include additional test requirements, this table cannot be used to select IP Designations for NEMA
rated enclosure specifications.

IEC 60529 specifies that an enclosure shall only be designated with a stated degree of protection indicated by
the first characteristic numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection. Furthermore, IEC 60529
states that an enclosure shall only be designated with a degreeof protection indicated by the second characteristic
numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection up to and including the secondcharacteristic
numeral 6. An enclosure designated with a second characteristic numeral 7 or 8 only is considered unsuitable
for exposure to water jets (designated by second characteristic numeral 5 or 6) and need not comply with
requirements for numeral 5 or 6 unless it is dual coded. Because the IEC protection requirements become more
stringent with increasing IP character value up through 6, once a NEMA Type rating meets the requirements for
an IP designation up through 6, it will also meet the requirements for all lower IP designations. This is apparent
from the shaded areas shown in the table.

78 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Transformers Transformers were the key component
in the growth of alternating current (AC)
Because there are a number of
categories with the ANSI C57 family,
The work of early electrical pioneer distribution systems over the direct the design engineer needs to pinpoint
Michael Faraday, in documenting the current (DC) alternative promoted by the transformer design type. When
principal of electro-magnetic induction, Thomas Edison. designing systems involving different
led to a discovery that voltage flowing types of transformers such as larger
through a coil wrapped around a donut NEMA has worked through the years to fluid-filled units like the 7500 kVA (7.5
shaped piece of iron could induce a standardize transformer primary and MVA) unit “T1” shown in Figure 2
voltage in a second coil of wire also secondary full load amperes (FLA). on Page 8, the impedance can be 6.5%
wrapped around the iron. This discovery Table 26 is a compilation of various or greater.
was key to Faraday’s work in 1831 and transformers kVA and primary voltages
became the basis for others in the along with their primary FLA. Table 28 through Table 33 provide further
development of transformer technology. information on the impedances and
Transformers are designed with a specific electrical characteris­tics of various styles
While Sebastian Ferranti and others number of primary versus secondary of transformers. Note that smaller
continued to develop and patent winding turns. These are a ratio of the dry-type distribution transformers may
transformer technology, it was a primary voltage to the secondary voltage. not have uniform impedances across
demonstration of a power transformer Each winding has a specific amount of various manufac­turers due to design
during 1884 in Turin, Italy that caught the resistance, however, when first energized, characteristics and construction
attention of George Westinghouse. In acts like a short circuit drawing a high tolerances.
1885, Westinghouse purchased the inrush current that falls off as the core
American rights to manufacture the material magnetizes. This combination of Eaton offers dry-type distribution
transformer developed by Lucien electrical properties is termed impedance. transformers, secondary substation
Gaulard and John Gibbs. transformers in liquid and dry
Dry-type power transformers that meet configurations, liquid and dry net­work
In subsequent years, William Stanley, Jr., the ANSI C57 standard follow a specific transformers, tamper-proof pad-
Westinghouse’s chief engineer, would requirement for impedance based on mounted, liquid filled transformers,
alter the Gaulard and Gibbs design by their kVA rating and type. Lower and liquid-filled and dry-type primary
changing the series coil arrangement impedances allow more secondary substation transformers. The features of
to a parallel coil design. Stanley also short-circuit current to flow versus each type of transformer are explained on
developed the “E” coil using laminated higher impedance versions. our web page and in the Design Guide
stamped steel core pieces. Both of these For example, a 300 kVA three-phase associated with each product.
innovations improved the transformer power transformer has 5% impedance
by stabiliz­ing its regulation as well whereas higher kVA transformers have
as improving its manufacturability 5.75%. See Table 27 for information on
and efficiency. transformer secondary FLA ratings and
short-circuit current available.

Table 26. Transformer Full-Load Current, Three-Phase, Self-Cooled Ratings

Voltage, Line-to-Line
kVA 208 240 480 600 2400 4160 7200 12,000 12,470 13,200 13,800 22,900 34,400

       30     83.3     72.2     36.1     28.9       7.22       4.16     2.41     1.44     1.39     1.31     1.26     0.75     0.50
       45   125   108     54.1     43.3     10.8       6.25     3.61     2.17     2.08     1.97     1.88     1.13     0.76
       75   208   180     90.2     72.2     18.0     10.4     6.01     3.61     3.47     3.28     3.14     1.89     1.26
     112-1/2   312   271   135   108     27.1     15.6     9.02     5.41     5.21     4.92     4.71     2.84     1.89
     150   416   361   180   144     36.1     20.8   12.0     7.22     6.94     6.56     6.28     3.78     2.52
     225   625   541   271   217     54.1     31.2   18.0   10.8   10.4     9.84     9.41     5.67     3.78
     300   833   722   361   289     72.2     41.6   24.1   14.4   13.9   13.1   12.6     7.56     5.04
     500 1388 1203   601   481   120     69.4   40.1   24.1   23.1   21.9   20.9   12.6     8.39
     750 2082 1804   902   722   180   104   60.1   36.1   34.7   32.8   31.4   18.9   12.6
   1000 2776 2406 1203   962   241   139   80.2   48.1   46.3   43.7   41.8   25.2   16.8
   1500 4164 3608 1804 1443   361   208 120   72.2   69.4   65.6   62.8   37.8   25.2
   2000 — 4811 2406 1925   481   278 160   96.2   92.6   87.5   83.7   50.4   33.6
   2500 — — 3007 2406   601   347 200 120 116 109 105   63.0   42.0
   3000 — — 3609 2887   722   416 241 144 139 131 126   75.6   50.4
   3750 — — 4511 3608   902   520 301 180 174 164 157   94.5   62.9
   5000 — — — 4811 1203   694 401 241 231 219 209 126   83.9
   7500 — — — — 1804 1041 601 361 347 328 314 189 126
10,000 — — — — 2406 1388 802 481 463 437 418 252 168

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Typical Components of a Power System
Table 27. Secondary Short-Circuit Current of Typical Power Transformers
Transformer Maximum 208 V, Three-Phase 240 V, Three-Phase 480 V, Three-Phase 600 V, Three-Phase
Rating Short-
Rated Short-Circuit Current Rated Short-Circuit Current Rated Short-Circuit Current Rated Short-Circuit Current
Three-Phase Circuit kVA
Load rms Symmetrical Amps Load rms Symmetrical Amps Load rms Symmetrical Amps Load rms Symmetrical Amps
kVA and Available
Contin- Contin- Contin- Contin-
Impedance from Trans- 50% Com- Trans- 100% Com- Trans- 100% Com- Trans- 100% Com-
uous uous uous uous
Percent Primary former Motor bined former Motor bined former Motor bined former Motor bined
Current, Current, Current, Current,
System Alone a Load b Alone a Load b Alone a Load b Alone a Load b
Amps Amps Amps Amps

  300 50,000 834 14,900 1700 16,600 722 12,900 2900 15,800 361 6400 1400 7800 289 5200 1200 6400
5% 100,000 834 15,700 1700 17,400 722 13,600 2900 16,500 361 6800 1400 8200 289 5500 1200 6700
150,000 834 16,000 1700 17,700 722 13,900 2900 16,800 361 6900 1400 8300 289 5600 1200 6800
250,000 834 16,300 1700 18,000 722 14,100 2900 17,000 361 7000 1400 8400 289 5600 1200 6800
500,000 834 16,500 1700 18,200 722 14,300 2900 17,200 361 7100 1400 8500 289 5700 1200 6900
Unlimited 834 16,700 1700 18,400 722 14,400 2900 17,300 361 7200 1400 8600 289 5800 1200 7000
  500 50,000 1388 21,300 2800 25,900 1203 20,000 4800 24,800 601 10,000 2400 12,400 481 8000 1900 9900
5% 100,000 1388 25,200 2800 28,000 1203 21,900 4800 26,700 601 10,900 2400 13,300 481 8700 1900 10,600
150,000 1388 26,000 2800 28,800 1203 22,500 4800 27,300 601 11,300 2400 13,700 481 9000 1900 10,900
250,000 1388 26,700 2800 29,500 1203 23,100 4800 27,900 601 11,600 2400 14,000 481 9300 1900 11,200
500,000 1388 27,200 2800 30,000 1203 23,600 4800 28,400 601 11,800 2400 14,200 481 9400 1900 11,300
Unlimited 1388 27,800 2800 30,600 1203 24,100 4800 28,900 601 12,000 2400 14,400 481 9600 1900 11,500
  750 50,000 2080 28,700 4200 32,900 1804 24,900 7200 32,100 902 12,400 3600 16,000 722 10,000 2900 12,900
5.75% 100,000 2080 32,000 4200 36,200 1804 27,800 7200 35,000 902 13,900 3600 17,500 722 11,100 2900 14,000
150,000 2080 33,300 4200 37,500 1804 28,900 7200 36,100 902 14,400 3600 18,000 722 11,600 2900 14,500
250,000 2080 34,400 4200 38,600 1804 29,800 7200 37,000 902 14,900 3600 18,500 722 11,900 2900 14,800
500,000 2080 35,200 4200 39,400 1804 30,600 7200 37,800 902 15,300 3600 18,900 722 12,200 2900 15,100
Unlimited 2080 36,200 4200 40,400 1804 31,400 7200 38,600 902 15,700 3600 19,300 722 12,600 2900 15,500
1000 50,000 2776 35,900 5600 41,500 2406 31,000 9800 40,600 1203 15,500 4800 20,300 962 12,400 3900 16,300
5.75% 100,000 2776 41,200 5600 46,800 2406 35,600 9800 45,200 1203 17,800 4800 22,600 962 14,300 3900 18,200
150,000 2776 43,300 5600 48,900 2406 37,500 9800 47,100 1203 18,700 4800 23,500 962 15,000 3900 18,900
250,000 2776 45,200 5600 50,800 2406 39,100 9800 48,700 1203 19,600 4800 24,400 962 15,600 3900 19,500
500,000 2776 46,700 5600 52,300 2406 40,400 9800 50,000 1203 20,200 4800 25,000 962 16,200 3900 20,100
Unlimited 2776 48,300 5600 53,900 2406 41,800 9800 51,400 1203 20,900 4800 25,700 962 16,700 3900 20,600
1500 50,000 4164 47,600 8300 55,900 3609 41,200 14,400 55,600 1804 20,600 7200 27,800 1444 16,500 5800 22,300
5.75% 100,000 4164 57,500 8300 65,800 3609 49,800 14,400 64,200 1804 24,900 7200 32,100 1444 20,000 5800 25,800
150,000 4164 61,800 8300 70,100 3609 53,500 14,400 57,900 1804 26,700 7200 33,900 1444 21,400 5800 27,200
250,000 4164 65,600 8300 73,900 3609 56,800 14,400 71,200 1804 28,400 7200 35,600 1444 22,700 5800 28,500
500,000 4164 68,800 8300 77,100 3609 59,600 14,400 74,000 1804 29,800 7200 37,000 1444 23,900 5800 29,700
Unlimited 4164 72,500 8300 80,800 3609 62,800 14,400 77,200 1804 31,400 7200 38,600 1444 25,100 5800 30,900
2000 50,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 24,700 9600 34,300 1924 19,700 7800 27,500
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 31,000 9600 40,600 1924 24,800 7800 32,600
150,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 34,000 9600 43,600 1924 27,200 7800 35,000
250,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 36,700 9600 46,300 1924 29,400 7800 37,200
500,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 39,100 9600 48,700 1924 31,300 7800 39,100
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 2406 41,800 9600 51,400 1924 33,500 7800 41,300
2500 50,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 28,000 12,000 40,000 2405 22,400 9600 32,000
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 36,500 12,000 48,500 2405 29,200 9600 38,800
150,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 40,500 12,000 52,500 2405 32,400 9600 42,000
250,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 44,600 12,000 56,600 2405 35,600 9600 45,200
500,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 48,100 12,000 60,100 2405 38,500 9600 48,100
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 3008 52,300 12,000 64,300 2405 41,800 9600 51,400
3000 50,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 30,700 14,000 44,700 2886 24,600 11,500 36,100
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 41,200 14,000 55,200 2886 33,000 11,500 44,500
150,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 46,600 14,000 60,600 2886 37,300 11,500 48,800
250,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 51,900 14,000 65,900 2886 41,500 11,500 53,000
500,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 56,800 14,000 70,800 2886 45,500 11,500 57,000
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 3609 62,800 14,000 76,800 2886 50,200 11,500 61,700
3750 50,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 34,000 18,000 52,000 3608 27,200 14,400 41,600
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 47,500 18,000 65,500 3608 38,000 14,400 52,400
150,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 54,700 18,000 72,700 3608 43,700 14,400 58,100
250,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 62,200 18,000 80,200 3608 49,800 14,400 64,200
500,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 69,400 18,000 87,400 3608 55,500 14,400 69,900
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 4511 78,500 18,000 96,500 3608 62,800 14,400 77,200
a Short-circuit capacity values shown correspond to kVA and impedances shown in this table. For impedances other than these, short-circuit currents are inversely
proportional to impedance.
b The motor’s short-circuit current contributions are computed on the basis of motor characteristics that will give four times normal current. For 208 V, 50% motor
load is assumed while for other voltages 100% motor load is assumed. For other percentages, the motor short-circuit current will be in direct proportion.

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Typical Components of a Power System
Approximate Impedance Data Table 31. 15 kV Class Primary— Table 33. 600V Primary Class Three-Phase DOE
Dry-Type Substation Transformers 2016 Energy-Efficient Dry-Type Distribution
Table 28. Typical Impedances— Transformers, Copper Wound
Three-Phase Transformers Liquid-Filled a kVA %Z %R %X X/R
150 °C Rise kVA %Z %X %R X/R
kVA Liquid-Filled
  300 4.50 2.87 3.47   1.21 150 °C Rise Copper
Network Padmount
  500 5.75 2.66 5.10   1.92   15 3.10 1.59 2.66 0.60
    37.5 — —   750 5.75 2.47 5.19   2.11   30 2.52 0.79 2.39 0.33
    45 — — 1000 5.75 2.16 5.33   2.47   45 3.80 2.60 2.77 0.94
    50 — — 1500 5.75 1.87 5.44   2.90   75 2.84 1.94 2.08 0.93
    75 — 3.4 2000 5.75 1.93 5.42   2.81 112.5 3.63 3.11 1.88 1.66
  112.5 — 3.4 2500 5.75 1.74 5.48   3.15 150 3.02 2.64 1.46 1.81
  150 — 3.4 225 4.34 3.98 1.73 2.31
80 °C Rise
  225 — 3.4 300 3.48 3.19 1.38 2.31
  300 4.50 1.93 4.06   2.10
  300 5.00 3.4 115 °C Rise Copper
  500 5.75 1.44 5.57   3.87
  500 5.00 4.6
  750 5.75 1.28 5.61   4.38   15 2.90 1.59 2.43 0.66
  750 5.00 5.75   30 2.35 0.97 2.14 0.45
1000 5.75 0.93 5.67   6.10
1000 5.00 5.75   45 3.85 2.87 2.57 1.12
1500 5.75 0.87 5.68   6.51
1500 7.00 5.75
2000 5.75 0.66 5.71   8.72   75 2.86 2.12 1.92 1.10
2000 7.00 5.75 112.5 4.02 3.59 1.82 1.97
2500 5.75 0.56 5.72 10.22
2500 7.00 5.75 150 3.34 3.05 1.37 2.23
3000 — 5.75
225 5.03 4.78 1.58 3.02
3750 — 6.00 Table 32. 600 V Primary Class Three-Phase DOE 300 4.14 3.94 1.29 3.06
5000 — 6.50 2016 Energy-Efficient Dry-Type Distribution 80 °C Rise Copper
a Values are typical. For guaranteed values, refer Transformers, Aluminum Wound
  15 3.09 2.04 2.32 0.88
to transformer manufacturer.
kVA %Z %X %R X/R   30 2.53 1.73 1.85 0.94
  45 1.70 1.16 1.25 0.93
Table 29. 15 kV Class Primary— 150 °C Rise Aluminum
Oil Liquid-Filled Substation Transformers   75 2.42 2.07 1.25 1.66
  15 4.04 2.08 3.46 0.60
112.5 2.27 1.98 1.09 1.81
kVA %Z %R %X X/R   30 2.52 1.13 2.25 0.50
150 2.89 2.65 1.15 2.31
  45 3.75 2.64 2.67 0.99
65 °C Rise 225 3.11 2.95 0.96 3.06
  75 4.05 3.34 2.29 1.46
  112.5 5.00 1.71 4.70 2.75 112.5 4.66 4.22 1.99 2.12
  150 5.00 1.88 4.63 2.47 150 3.48 3.09 1.61 1.92
  225 5.00 1.84 4.65 2.52
225 4.20 3.96 1.39 2.85
  300 5.00 1.35 4.81 3.57 300 4.46 4.26 1.32 3.23
  500 5.00 1.50 4.77 3.18
  750 5.75 1.41 5.57 3.96 115 °C Rise Aluminum
1000 5.75 1.33 5.59 4.21   15 3.77 2.08 3.14 0.66
1500 5.75 1.12 5.64 5.04   30 2.34 1.37 1.90 0.72
2000 5.75 0.93 5.67 6.10   45 4.26 3.44 2.52 1.37

2500 5.75 0.86 5.69 6.61   75 4.45 3.90 2.14 1.83
112.5 5.17 4.81 1.89 2.54
150 3.89 3.59 1.49 2.41
Table 30. DOE 2016 Transformer Efficiencies— 225 4.90 4.73 1.28 3.69
Medium-Voltage Three-Phase Distribution 300 4.80 4.65 1.21 3.85
Transformers b 80 °C Rise Aluminum
kVA % Efficiency   15 4.19 2.94 2.98 0.99
  30 2.50 1.76 1.78 0.99
Liquid- Dry Transformers   45 2.43 2.01 1.37 1.46
Filled
  75 3.11 2.81 1.32 2.12
All 25–45 46–95 M96 kV 112.5 2.61 2.31 1.21 1.92
BILs kV BIL kV BIL BIL 150 2.80 2.64 0.93 2.85
225 3.35 3.20 0.99 3.23
    15 98.65 97.5 97.18 —
    30 98.83 97.9 97.63 —
    45 98.92 98.1 97.86 —
    75 99.03 98.33 98.13 —
  112.5 99.11 98.52 98.36 —
  150 99.16 98.65 98.51 —
  225 99.23 98.82 98.69 98.57
  300 99.27 98.93 98.81 98.69
  500 99.35 99.09 98.99 98.89
  750 99.40 99.21 99.12 99.02
1000 99.43 99.28 99.2 99.11
1500 99.48 99.37 99.3 99.21
2000 99.51 99.43 99.36 99.28
2500 99.53 99.47 99.41 99.33
b Based on transformer operating at 50% of
nameplate base kVA.

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Typical Components of a Power System
Transformer Loss Data Transformer losses for various loading At 0% load:
can be estimated in the following manner.
Transformer Losses at Reduced Loads The no load watt losses of the transformer 1800 watts
Information on losses based on actual are due to magnetization and are present At 50% load:
transformer test data can be obtained whenever the transformer is energized.
from the manufacturer. Transformer The load watt losses are the difference 1800 watts + (13,300)(0.5)2 =
manufacturers provide no load watt between the no load watt losses and the 1800 watts + 3325 watts = 5125 watts
losses and total watt losses in accor­dance full load watt losses. The load watt losses
At 100% load:
with ANSI standards. The calculated are proportional to I2R and can be
difference between the no load losses and estimated to vary with the transformer 1800 watts + 13,300 watts = 15,100 watts
the total losses are typically described load by the square of the load current.
At 110% load:
as the load losses. Although transformer For example, the approximate watts loss
coils are manufactured with either data for a 1000 kVA oil-filled substation 1800 watts + (13,300)(1.1)2 =
aluminum or copper conductors, the transformer is shown in the table as 1800 watts + 16,093 watts = 17,893 watts
industry has sometimes referred to having 1800 watts no load losses and
these load losses as the “copper losses.” Because transformer losses vary between
15,100 watts full load losses, so the load designs and manufacturers, additional
losses are approxi­mately 13,300 watts losses such as from cooling fans can be
(15,100–1800). The transformer losses can ignored for these approximations.
be calculated for various loads as follows.
Note: 1 watthour = 3.413 Btu.

82 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

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Table 34. Three-Phase Transformer Winding Connections
Phasor Diagram Notes

DELTA-DELTA Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram:

H1 H3 X1 X3

Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0

DELTA-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire grounded service with XO grounded.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. With XO grounded, the transformer acts as a ground source for the secondary system.
4. Fundamental and harmonic frequency zero-sequence currents in the secondary lines
X1 X0 supplied by the transformer do not flow in the primary lines. Instead the zero sequence
currents circulate in the closed delta primary windings.
H1 H3 5. When supplied from an effectively grounded primary system does not see load
X3 unbalances and ground faults in the secondary system.
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 30

WYE-DELTA Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire delta service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. Grounding the primary neutral of this connection would create a ground source for
the primary system.This could subject the transformer to severe overloading during
a primary system disturbance or load unbalance.
X1
4. Frequently installed with mid-tap ground on one leg when supplying combination
three-phase and single-phase load where the three-phase load is much larger than
H1 H3
X3 single-phase load.
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 30 5. When used in 25 kV and 35 kV three-phase four-wire primary systems, ferroresonance
can occur when energizing or de-energizing the transformer using single-pole switches
located at the primary terminals. With smaller kVA transformers the probability of
ferroresonance is higher.
WYE-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service only, even if XO is grounded.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. This connection is incapable of furnishing a stabilized neutral and its use may
result in phase-to-neutral overvoltage (neutral shift) as a result of unbalanced
phase-to-neutral load.
X0
4. If a three-phase unit is built on a three-legged core, the neutral point of the primary
windings is practically locked at ground potential.
H1 H3 X1 X3

Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0

GROUNDED WYE-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for four-wire effectively grounded source only.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or for four-wire grounded service with
Phasor H2 X2 XO grounded.
Diagram:
3. Three-phase transformers with this connection may experience stray flux tank
heating during certain external system unbalances unless the core configuration
H0 X0 (four or five legged) used provides a return path for the flux.
4. Fundamental and harmonic frequency zero-sequence currents in the secondary
H1 H3 X1 X3
lines supplied by the transformer also flow in the primary lines (and primary
neutral conductor).
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0
5. Ground relay for the primary system may see load unbalances and ground
faults in the secondary system.This must be considered when coordinating
overcurrent protective devices.
6. Three-phase transformers with the neutral points of the high-voltage and low-
voltage windings connected together internally and brought out through an
HOXO bushing should not be operated with the HOXO bushing ungrounded
(floating).To do so can result in very high voltages in the secondary systems.
DELTA-DELTA Connection with Tap 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. When using the tap for single-phase circuits, the single-phase load kVA should
X4 not exceed 5% of the three-phase kVA rating of the transformer.The three-phase
rating of the transformer is also substantially reduced.

H1 H3 X1 X3

Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0

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Typical Components of a Power System
Sound Levels Area Consideration Because values given in Table 36 are
In determining permissible sound lev­els in general higher than those given in
Sound Levels of Electrical Equipment within a building, it is necessary to Table 35, the difference must be
for Offices, Hospitals, Schools and consider how the rooms are to be used attenuated by distance and by proper use
Similar Buildings and what levels may be objectionable to of materials in the design of the building.
Insurance underwriters and building occupants of the building. The ambient It may appear that a transformer is noisy
owners require that the electrical sound level values given in Table 35 are because the level in the room where it
apparatus be installed for maximum representative average values and may is located is high. Two transformers of
safety and minimum impact on normal be used as a guide in determining the same sound output in the same
functioning of the property. Architects suitable building levels. room increase the sound level in the
should take particular care with the room approximately 3 dB, and three
The decrease in sound level varies at an transformers by about 5 dB, etc. A good
designs for hospitals, schools and similar
approximate rate of 6 dB for each engineer needs to consider these factors
buildings to keep the sound perception
doubling of the distance from the source while designing the electrical rooms and
of such equipment as motors, blowers
of sound to the listener. For example, if allocating locations for the transformers.
and transformers to a minimum.
the level 6 ft (1.8 m) from a transformer
Even though transformers are relatively is 50 dB, the level at a distance of 12 ft In many buildings, floors between
quiet, resonant conditions may exist near (3.7 m) would be 44 dB and at 24 ft different levels can act like the sound
the equipment, which will amplify their (7.3 m) the level decreases to 38 dB, board in a piano. In these cases, sounds
normal 120 Hz hum. Therefore, it is etc. However, this rule applies only to due to structure-transmitted vibrations
important that consid­eration be given equipment in large areas equivalent to originating from the trans­former are
to the reduction of amplitude and to the an out-of-door installation, with no lowered by mounting the transformers
absorption of energy at this frequency. nearby reflecting surfaces. on vibration dampeners or isolators.
This problem begins in the designing There are a number of different sound
Table 35. Typical Sound Levels vibration isolating materials that may
stages of the equipment and the building.
Description Average be used with good results.
There are two points worthy of Decibel
consideration: Level (dB) Dry-type power transformers are
often built with an isolator mounted
■ What sound levels are desired in Radio, recording andTV studios 25–30 between the transformer support and
Theatres and music rooms 30–35 case members. The natural period
the normally occupied rooms of
Hospitals, auditoriums and churches 35–40
this building? of the core and coil structure when
Classrooms and lecture rooms 35–40 mounted on vibration dampeners is
■ To effect this, what sound level in Apartments and hotels 35–45
the equipment room and what type Private offices and conference rooms 40–45 about 10% of the fundamental frequency.
of associated acoustical treatment The reduction in the transmitted vibration
Stores 45–55
will give the most economical Residence (radio,TV off) and is approximately 98%.
installation overall? small offices 53
Medium office (3 to 10 desks) 58
If the floor or beams beneath the
A relatively high sound level in the transformer are light and flexible,
Residence (radio,TV on) 60
equipment room does not indicate an Large store (5 or more clerks) 61
the isolator must be softer or have
abnormal condition within the apparatus. Factory office 61 improved characteristics in order to
However, absorption may be necessary Large office 64
keep the transmitted vibrations to a
if sound originating in an unoccupied Average factory 70 minimum. (Enclosure covers and
equipment room is objectionable outside Average street 80 ventilating louvers are often improperly
the room. Furthermore, added absorption tightened or gasketed and their vibration
material usually is desirable if sound is can produce unnecessary noise.)
magnified due to reflections. Transformer Sound Levels The building structure will assist the
While some sound reduction or Transformers emit a continuous 120 Hz dampeners if the transformer is mounted
attenuation takes place as the sound hum with harmonics when connected to above heavy floor members or if mounted
waves travel through building walls, the 60 Hz circuits. The fundamental frequency on a heavy floor slab. Positioning of the
remainder may be reflected in various is the “hum” that annoys people primarily transformer in relation to walls and other
directions, resulting in a build-up or because of its continuous nature. For reflecting surfaces has a great effect on
apparent higher levels. This is especially purposes of reference, sound measuring reflected noise and resonances. Often,
true if resonance occurs because of room instruments convert the different placing the transformer at an angle to
dimensions or material characteristics. frequencies to 1000 Hz and a 40 dB the wall, rather than parallel to it, will
level. Transformer sound levels based reduce noise.
on NEMA publication TR-1 are listed in
Table 36. Electrical connections to a substation
transformer should be made with flexible
braid or conductors; connections to an
individually mounted transformer should
be in flexible conduit.

84 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Table 36. Maximum Average Sound Levels for Medium-Voltage Transformers—Decibels
kVA Liquid-Filled Transformers Dry-Type Transformers
Self-Cooled Forced-Air Self-Cooled Forced-Air
Rating (OA) Cooled Rating (FA) Rating (AA) Cooled Rating (FA)

300 55 — 58 67
500 56 — 60 67
750 57 67 64 67
1000 58 67 64 67
1500 60 67 65 68
2000 61 67 66 69
2500 62 67 68 71
3000 63 67 68 71
3750 64 67 70 73
5000 65 67 71 73
6000 66 68 72 74
   7500 67 69 73 75
10,000 68 70 — 76

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Typical Components of a Power System
Motor Protection Table 37. Motor Circuit Protector (MCP), Circuit Breaker and Fusible Switch Selection Guide
Consistent with the 2014 NEC 430.6(A)(1) Horsepower Full Load Fuse Size NEC 430.52 Recommended Eaton
circuit breaker, HMCP and fuse rating Amperes Maximum Amperes Circuit Motor Circuit
(NEC) FLA
selections are based on full load currents Breaker Protector Type HMCP
for induction motors running at speeds Time Delay Non-Time Delay Amperes Amperes Adj. Range
normal for belted motors and motors 230 V, Three-Phase
with normal torque characteristics using     1     3.6     10     15   15     7     21–70
data taken from NEC Table 430.250     1-1/2     5.2     10     20   15   15     45–150
(three-phase). Actual motor nameplate     2     6.8     15     25   15   15     45–150
ratings shall be used for selecting motor     3     9.6     20     30   20   30     90–300
running overload protection. Motors     5   15.2     30     50   30   30     90–300
built special for low speeds, high     7-1/2   22     40     70   50   50   150–500
torque characteristics, special starting   10   28     50     90   60   50   150–500
conditions and applications will require   15   42     80   150   90   70   210–700
other considerations as defined in the   20   54   100   175 100 100   300–1000
application section of the NEC.   25   68   125   225 125 150   450–1500
  30   80   150   250 150 150   450–1500
These additional considerations may   40 104   200   350 150 150   750–2500
require the use of a higher rated HMCP,   50 130   250   400 200 150   750–2500
or at least one with higher magnetic   60 154   300   500 225 250 1250–2500
  75 192   350   600 300 400 2000–4000
pickup settings. 100 248   450   800 400 400 2000–4000
Circuit breaker, HMCP and fuse 125 312   600 1000 500 600 1800–6000
ampere rating selections are in line with 150 360   700 1200 600 600 1800–6000
200 480 1000 1600 700 600 1800–6000
maximum rules given in NEC 430.52
and Table 430.250. Based on known 460 V, Three-Phase
characteristics of Eaton type breakers,     1     1.8       6       6   15     7     21–70
specific units are recom­mended. The     1-1/2     2.6       6     10   15     7     21–70
current ratings are no more than the     2     3.4       6     15   15     7     21–70
    3     4.8     10     15   15   15     45–150
maximum limits set by the NEC rules for
motors with code letters F to V or without     5     7.6     15     25   15   15     45–150
    7-1/2   11     20     35   25   30     90–300
code letters. Motors with lower code   10   14     25     45   35   30     90–300
letters will require further considerations.   15   21     40     70   45   50   150–500
In general, these selections were   20   27     50     90   50   50   150–500
  25   34     60   110   70   70   210–700
based on:   30   40     70   125   70 100   300–1000
  40   52   100   175 100 100   300–1000
1. Ambient—outside enclosure not more
than 40 °C (104 °F).   50   65   125   200 110 150   450–1500
  60   77   150   150 125 150   750–2500
2. Motor starting—infrequent starting,   75   96   175   300 150 150   750–2500
stopping or reversing. 100 124   225   400 175 150   750–2500
125 156   300   500 225 250 1250–2500
3. Motor accelerating time—10 seconds 150 180   350   600 250 400 2000–4000
or less. 200 240   450   800 350 400 2000–4000
575 V, Three-Phase
4. Locked rotor—maximum 6 times
    1     1.4       3       6   15     3       9–30
motor FLA.
    1-1/2     2.1       6     10   15     7     21–70
Type HMCP motor circuit protector may     2     2.7       6     10   15     7     21–70
    3     3.9     10     15   15     7     21–70
not set at more than 1300% of the motor
full-load current to comply with NEC     5     6.1     15     20   15   15     45–150
    7-1/2     9     20     30   20   15     45–150
430.52. (Except for NEMA Design B   10   11     20     35   25   30     90–300
energy high-efficiency motors that can   15   17     30     60   40   30     90–300
be set up to 1700%.)   20   22     40     70   50   50   150–500
  25   27     50     90   60   50   150–500
Circuit breaker selections are based on   30   32     60   100   60   50   150–500
types with standard interrupting ratings.   40   41     80   125   80 100   300–1000
Higher interrupting rating types may be   50   52   100   175 100 100   300–1000
required to satisfy specific system   60   62   110   200 125 150   750–2500
application requirements.   75   77   150   250 150 150   750–2500
100   99   175   300 175 150   750–2500
For motor full load currents of 208 V and
125 125   225   400 200 250 1250–2500
200 V, increase the corresponding 230 V 150 144   300   450 225 250 1250–2500
motor values by 10 and 15% respectively. 200 192   350   600 300 400 2000–4000

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Table 38. 60 Hz, Recommended Protective Setting for Induction Motors
hp Full Load Minimum Wire Size Minimum Conduit Size, Fuse Size NEC 430.52 Recommended Eaton:
Amperes 75 °C Copper Ampacity Inches (mm) Maximum Amperes a Circuit Motor Circuit
(NEC) FLA at 125% FLA THW THWN Time Non-Time Breaker b Protector
Size Amperes XHHN Delay Delay Amperes Amperes Adjustable Range
115 V, Single-Phase
    3/4 13.8 14   20 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   25   45   30 Two-pole device
1 16 14   20 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   30   50   35 not available
1-1/2 20 12   30 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   35   60   40
2 24 10   30 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   45   80   50
3 34   8   50 0.75 (19.1) 0.50 (12.7)   60 110   70
5 56   4   85 1.00 (25.4) 0.75 (19.1) 100 175 100
7-1/2 80   3 100 1.00 (25.4) 1.00 (25.4) 150 250 150
230 V, Single-Phase
   3/4   6.9 14   20 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   15   25   15 Two-pole device
1   8 14   20 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   15   25   20 not available
1-1/2 10 14   20 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   20   30   25
2 12 14   20 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   25   40   30
3 17 12   30 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   30   60   40
5 28 10   50 0.50 (12.7) 0.50 (12.7)   50   90   60
7-1/2 40   8   50 0.75 (19.1) 0.50 (12.7)   70 125   80
a Consult fuse manufacturer’s catalog for smaller fuse ratings.
b Types are for minimum interrupting capacity breakers. Ensure that the fault duty does not exceed breaker’s I.C.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 87

Typical Components of a Power System
Generators and The other requirements for grounded
systems were renumbered to accom­
Types of Generators
Generator Systems modate the 250.30(A)(2) change. 250.30(B)
Generators can be either synchronous
or asynchronous. Asynchronous
(3)—Ungrounded Systems—was added generators are also referred to as
and this language requires a supply-side induction generators. The construction
bonding jumper to be installed from the is essentially the same as an induction
source of a sepa­rately derived system motor. It has a squirrel-cage rotor and
to the first dis­connecting means in wound stator. An induction generator
accordance with 250.30(A)(2). Another is a motor driven above its designed
new require­ment, 250.30(C)—Outdoor synchronous speed thus generating
Source—was added that requires a power. It will operate as a motor if it is
grounding electrode connection at the running below synchronous speed.
source location when the separately
Typical Diesel Genset—Caterpillar derived system is located outside of the The induction generator does not have
build­ing or the structure being supplied. an exciter and must operate in parallel
with the utility or another source. The
Article 445.19—Generators Supplying
Introduction Multiple Loads—was also revised
induction generator requires VARs from
The selection and application of an external source for it to generate
to require that the generator have power. The induction generator operates
generators into the electrical distribution overcurrent protection per 240.15(A)
system will depend on the particular at a slip frequency so its output frequency
when using individual enclosures is automatically locked in with the utility’s
application. There are many factors to tapped from a single feeder.
consider, including code requirements, frequency.
environmental constraints, fuel sources, Article 517.17(B)—Feeder Ground Fault An induction generator is a popular choice
control complexity, utility requirements Protection (Healthcare Facilities)—now for use when designing cogeneration
and load requirements. The healthcare allows, but does not require, multiple systems, where it will operate in parallel
requirements for legally required levels of Ground Fault Protection with the utility.This type of generator
emergency standby generation Equipment (GFPE) upstream of the offers certain advantages over a
systems are described starting on transfer switch when the choice is made synchronous generator. For example,
Page 100. to provide GFPE on the alternate power voltage and frequency are controlled by
source (i.e., generator). the utility; thus voltage and frequency
Systems described in this section are
applicable to healthcare requirements, Article 701.6(D)—Signals (Legally regulators are not required. In addition,
as well as other facilities that may require Required Standby Systems)—now the generator construction offers high
a high degree of reliability. The electrical requires ground fault indication for reliability and little maintenance. Also, a
supply for data centers, financial legally required standby systems of minimum of protective relays and controls
institutions, telecommunica­tions, more than 150 V to ground and OCPDs are required. Its major disadvantages are
government and public utilities also rated 1000 A or more. that it requires VARs from the system and
require high reliability. Threats of disaster it normally cannot operate as a standby/
or terror attacks have prompted many emergency generator.
facilities to require complete self- Types of Engines Synchronous generators, however, are the
sufficiency for continuous operation. Many generator sets are relatively small most common.Their output is determined
in size, typically ranging from several by their field and governor controls.
kilowatts to several megawatts. These Varying the current in the DC field
NEC Changes Related to units are often required to come online windings controls the voltage output.
Generator Systems and operate quickly. They need to have The frequency is controlled by the speed
Article 250.30—Grounding Separately the capacity to run for an extended period of rotation.The torque applied to the
Derived AC Systems—was completely of time. generator shaft by the driving engine
rewritten for clarity and for usability in The internal combustion engine is an controls the power output. In this manner,
the 2011 NEC. Most notably, the term excellent choice as the prime mover the synchro­nous generator offers precise
equipment bonding jumper was for the majority of these applications. control over the power it can generate. In
changed to supply-side bonding jumper Diesel-fueled engines are the most cogeneration applications, it can be used
(see 250.30(A)(2)). This was necessary common, but other fuels used include to improve the power factor of the system.
to ensure proper identification and natural gas, digester gas, landfill gas,
installation of bonding conductors propane, biodiesel, crude oil, steam
within or on the supply side of service and others.
equipment and between the source of a
separately derived system and the first Some campuses and industrial facilities
disconnecting means. use and produce steam for heating and
other processes. These facilities may find
it economically feasible to produce
electricity as a byproduct of the steam
production. These installations would
typically be classified as a cogeneration
facility producing a fairly constant power
output and operating in parallel with the
electric utility system.

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Typical Components of a Power System
Generator Systems Multiple Isolated Standby Generators Multiple generator systems have a
The second type of generator system more complex control and protection
Emergency Standby Generator System is a multiple isolated set of standby requirement as the units have to be
There are primarily three types of generators. Figure 66 shows multiple synchronized and paralleled together.
generator systems. The first and simplest generators connected to a paralleling The generators are required to share the
type is a single generator that operates bus feeding multiple transfer switches. load proportionally without swings or
independently from the electric utility The utility is the normal source for the prolonged hunting in voltage or frequency
power grid. This is typically referred to transfer switches. The generators and the for load sharing.They may also require
as an emergency standby generator utility are never continuously connected multiple levels of load shedding and/or
system. Figure 65 shows a single standby together in this scheme. load restoration schemes to match
generator, utility source and generation capacity.
a transfer switch. Multiple generators may be required to
meet the load requirements (N system). Multiple Generators Operating in
In this case, the load is either supplied Generators may be applied in an N+1
Parallel with Utility System
from the utility or the generator. The or a 2N system for improved system
generator and the utility are never reliability. The third type of system is either one
continuously connected together. This with a single or multiple generators that
simple radial system has few require­ operate in parallel with the utility system.
ments for protection and control. It also Figure 67 shows two generators
Utility
has the least impact on the complete G1 G2
and a utility source feeding a switchgear
electric power distribution system. lineup feeding multiple loads. This system
It should be noted that this type of typically requires generator capacity
generator system improves overall
Switchgear sufficient to carry the entire load or
electrical reliability but does not provide sophisticated load shedding schemes.
the redundancy that some facilities This system will require a complete and
require if the generator fails to start
ATS-1 ATS-2 complex protection and control scheme.
or is out for maintenance. The electric utility may have very stringent
and costly protection requirements for the
system. IEEE standard 1547 describes the
Load 1 Load 2
interconnection require­ments for
Utility paralleling to the utility.
G1 Figure 66. Multiple Isolated Set of
Standby Generators
In an N system, where N is the number of Utility
G1 G2
generators required to carry the load; if a
generator fails or is out for maintenance,
then the load may be dropped. This is Switchgear
unacceptable for most critical 24/7
ATS operations. In an N + 1 system, N is the
number of generators needed to carry
the load and 1 is an extra generator for
redundancy. If one generator fails to start
or is out for maintenance, it will not affect
Load the load. Load 1 Load 2 Load 3

In a 2N system, there is complete 100%

Figure 65. Emergency Standby redundancy in the standby generation Figure 67. Multiple Generators Operating in
Generator System system such that the failure of one Parallel with Utility System
complete set of generators will not
affect the load.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 89

Typical Components of a Power System
Generator Fundamentals The application of generators adds If the generator’s neutral is bonded to
A generator consists of two primary special protection requirements to ground separate from the system-neutral,
components, a prime mover and an the system. The size, voltage class, it is a separately derived system and a
alternator. The prime mover is the importance and dollar investment four-pole transfer switch is required or
energy source used to turn the rotor will influence the protection scheme ground fault relays could misoperate
of the alternator. It is typically a diesel associated with the generator(s). The and unbalanced neutral current may be
combustion engine for most emergency mode of operation will influence the carried on ground conductors.
or standby systems. In cogeneration utility company’s interface protection
requirements. Paralleling with the electric An IEEE working group has studied the
applications, the prime mover may practice of low resistance grounding of
come from a steam driven turbine or utility is the most complicated of the
utility inter-tie requirements. IEEE ANSI medium-voltage generators within the
other source. On diesel units, a governor general industry. This “working group”
and voltage regulator are used to control 1547 provides recom­mended practices.
found that, for internal generator ground
the speed and power output. faults, the vast majority of the damage
The alternator is typically a synchro­nous Generator Grounding and Bonding is done after the generator breaker is
tripped offline, and the field and turbine
machine driven by the prime mover. A (Ref. NEC 2014, Article 250.30(A)(1) are tripped. This is due to the stored
voltage regulator controls its voltage
output by adjusting the field.The output of
and (2)) energy in the generator flux that takes
a single generator or multiple paralleled Generator grounding methods need several seconds to dissipate after the
generator sets is controlled by these to be considered and may affect the generator is tripped offline.
two inputs.The alternator is designed distribution equipment and ratings.
It is during this time that the low
to operate at a specified speed for the Generators may be connected in delta
resistance ground allows significant
required output frequency, typically 60 or or wye, with wye being the most typical
amounts of fault current to flow into
50 Hz.The voltage regulator and engine connection. A wye-connected generator
the ground fault. Because the large fault
governor along with other systems define can be solidly grounded, low impedance
currents can damage the generator’s
the generator’s response to dynamic load grounded, high impedance grounded
winding, application of an alternate
changes and motor starting characteristics. or ungrounded. The Grounding/Ground
protection method is desirable during
Fault Protection section of this Design
Generators are rated in power and this time period. One of the solutions set
Guide discusses general ground­ing
voltage output. Most generators are forth by this “working group” is a hybrid
schemes, benefits of each and protection
designed to operate at a 0.8 power factor. high resistance grounding (HHRG)
considerations.
For example, a 2000 kW generator at scheme as shown in Figure 68.
277/480 V would have a kVA rating of A solidly grounded generator may have a
In the HHRG scheme, the low resistance
2500 kVA (2000 kW/ 08 pf) and a lower zero sequence impedance than its
ground (LRG) is quickly tripped offline
continuous current rating of 3007A positive sequence impedance. In this case,
when the generator protection senses
. the equipment will need to be rated for the
the ground fault. The LRG is cleared at
larger available ground fault current.The
Typical synchronous generators for the same time that the generator breaker
generator’s neutral may be connected to
industrial and commercial power systems clears, leaving the high resistance ground
the system-neutral; if it is, the generator
range in size from 100–3000 kVA and from portion connected to control the transient
is not a separately derived system and a
208 V–13,800 V. Other ratings are available overvoltages during the coast-down
three-pole transfer switch is used.
and these discussions are applicable to phase of the generator, thereby all but
those ratings as well. eliminating generator damage.

Generators must be considered in the

short-circuit and coordination study as
they may greatly impact the rating of the HRG
electrical distribution system. This is
51G
especially common on large installations
Gen R 59G
with multiple generators and systems 86
that parallel with the utility source. R LRG
Phase 87GN
Short-circuit current contribution from Relays
a generator typically ranges from 8 to
12 times full load amperes.

Figure 68. Hybrid High Resistance Grounding Scheme

90 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Generator Controls During this time, the breakers for the
other generators are held open and not
Generator Short-Circuit
The engine generator set has controls to
maintain the output frequency (speed) permitted to close until certain conditions Characteristics
and voltage. These controls consist of a are met. Once the paralleling bus is If a short circuit is applied directly to
governor and voltage regulator. As loads energized, the remaining generators the output terminals of a synchronous
change on the system, the frequency and must be synchronized to it before the generator, it will produce an extremely
voltage will change. The speed control will generators can be paralleled. high current initially, gradually decaying
then adjust the governor to correct for the Synchronization compares the voltage to a steady-state value. This change is
load (kW) change. The voltage regulator phasor’s angle and magnitude. Both represented by a varying reactive
will change the field current to adjust the generators must be operating at the same impedance. Three specific reactances
voltage to the desired voltage value. frequency and phase-matched within are used for short-circuit fault currents.
These are the basic controls found on typically 5 to 10 degrees with each other. They are:
all synchronous generators. The voltage magnitude typically must be ■ Subtransient reactance Xd”, which is
Multiple generator systems require more within 20 to 24%. used to determine the fault current
sophisticated controls. Generators are A synch-scope is typically supplied on during the first 1 to 5 cycles
paralleled in a multi-generator system paralleling gear. The synch-scope displays ■ Transient reactance Xd’, which is used
and they must share the load. These the relative relationship between voltage to determine the fault current during
systems often have a load shed scheme, phasors on the generator to be paralleled the next 5 to 200 cycles
which adds to the complexity. and the bus. ■ Synchronous reactance Xd”, which is
Multiple generator schemes need a If the generator is running slower than used to determine the steady- state
master controller to prevent units from the bus (less than 60 Hz) then the needle fault current
being connected out-of-phase. The on the scope will spin in the counter-
sequence of operation is to send a start The subtransient reactance Xd” will range
clockwise direction. If it is running faster, from a minimum of approxi­mately 9%
signal to all generators simulta­neously. then it will rotate in the clockwise
The first unit up to frequency and voltage for a two-pole, wound-rotor machine to
direction. The greater the frequency approximately 32% for a low-speed,
will be permitted to close its respective difference, the faster is the rotation. It
breaker and energize the paralleling bus. salient-pole, hydro-generator. The initial
is important that the generators are in symmetrical fault current can be as much
phase before they are paralleled. Severe as 12 times full load current.
damage will occur if generators are
paralleled out-of-phase. Depending on the generator type, the
zero sequence impedance may be less
than the subtransient reactance and the
ground fault current substan­tially higher
than the three-phase short-circuit current.
For example, a 2500 kVA, 480/277 V,
four-pole, 2/3 pitch standby generator has
a 0.1411 per unit subtransient reactance
Xd” and a 0.033 per unit zero sequence
Xo reactance. The ground current is
approximately a third larger than the
three-phase fault current. The ground fault
current can be reduced to the three-phase
level by simply adding a small reactance
between the generator neutral and
ground while still being considered
solidly grounded.
An electric power system analysis must
be performed based on the worst- case
operating conditions. Typically this is
when all sources are paralleled. If the
system can operate with both the utility
supply and generators in parallel, then
the equipment must be rated for the
combined fault current plus motor
contribution. If the generator and utility
will not be paralleled, then both cases will
need to be looked at independently and
the worst case used for selecting the
equipment ratings.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 91

Typical Components of a Power System
Generator Protection
Generator protection will vary and Generator Protection ANSI/IEEE
depend on the size of the generator, Std 242-1986
type of system and importance of the
generator. Generator sizes are defined as:
small—1000 kVA maximum up to 600 V 1 1 1 1
(500 kVA maximum when above 600 V); Alternate
51 51V 32 40
medium over 1000 kVA to 12,500 kVA Location
maximum regardless of voltage; large—
from 12,500–50,000 kVA.
The simplest is a single generator system
used to feed emergency and/or standby 1 3
loads. In this case, the generator is the 51G
Gen 87
only source available when it is operating
in the emergency mode and must keep 1
operating until the normal source returns.
51 Preferred
Location Gen
Figure 69 Part (A) shows minimum
recommended protection for a single 1
generator used as an emergency or 51G
standby system. Phase and ground time
overcurrent protection (Device 51 and
51G) will provide protection for external (A) (A) Single Isolated Generator on Low-Voltage System (B)
(B) Multiple Isolated Generator on Medium-Voltage System
faults. For medium-voltage generators,
a voltage controlled time overcurrent
relay (Device 51V) is recommended for Figure 69. Typical Protective Relaying Scheme for Small Generators
the phase protec­tion as it can be set
more sensitive than standard overcurrent
relays and is less likely to false operate
on normal overloads. R

This scheme may not provide adequate

protection for internal generator faults
when no other power source exists. 50/5A 87-1
Local generator controllers may offer
additional protection for voltage and
frequency conditions outside the 50/5A 87-2
generator’s capabilities.
Figure 69 Part (B) shows the 50/5A 87-3
recommended protection for multiple,
isolated, medium-voltage, small
generators. Additional protection may
be desired and could include generator
differential, reverse power, and loss of
field protection. Differential protection
(Device 87) can be accom­plished with Gen
either a self-balancing set of CTs as
in Figure 70 or with a percentage
differential scheme as in Figure 71
on Page 93.
The percentage differential scheme offers
the advantage of reducing the possibility
for false tripping due to CT saturation. Figure 70. Self-Balancing Generator Differential
The self-balancing scheme offers the Relay Scheme
advantages of increased sensitivity,
needing three current transformers in
lieu of six, and the elimination of current
transformer external wiring from the
generator location to the generator
switchgear location.

92 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Reverse power protection (Device 32) is
used to prevent the generator from being
motored. Motoring could damage (with Grounding
other hazards) the prime mover. A steam Resistor

turbine could overheat and fail. A diesel 51G

or gas engine could either catch fire or
explode. A steam turbine can typically
withstand approx­imately 3% reverse
power where a diesel engine can
withstand up to 25% reverse power.
Loss of field protection (Device 40) is
needed when generators are operating 87
in parallel with one another or the power
grid. When a synchronous generator 01 R1
loses its field, it will continue to generate PC
R1
power as an induction generator
obtaining its excitation from the other 02 R2
Gen
machines on the system. OC
R2

During this condition, the rotor will 03 R3

quickly overheat due to the slip frequency 87G R3

currents induced in it. Loss of excitation
in one machine could jeopardize the
operation of the other machines beyond
their capability and the entire system. 52

To Main Bus OC = Operating coil

PC = Permissive coil

Figure 71. Generator Percentage Differential Relay (Phase Scheme) and Ground Differential Scheme
Using a Directional Relay

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 93

Typical Components of a Power System
Typical protection for larger generators
is shown in Figure 72. It adds phase
unbalance and field ground fault
protection. Phase unbalance (Device 46) 3
or negative sequence overcurrent
protection prevents the generator’s 87B
rotor from overheating damage. 81U/O

Unbalanced loads, fault conditions or

open phasing will produce a negative
27/59
sequence current to flow. The unbalanced
currents induce double system frequency
currents in the rotor, which quickly causes
rotor overheating. Serious damage will
3 1 1 1
occur to the generator if the unbalance is
allowed to persist. 51V 40 32 46

Other protection functions such as under/ 3 1

overvoltage (Device 27/59) could be 87 87G
applied to any size generator. The voltage 60

regulator typically maintains the output Voltage Regulator and

voltage within its desired output range. Metering Circuits
This protection can provide backup 1

protection in case the voltage regulator 1 64

fails. Under/overfrequency protection 49

(Device 81U/81O) could be used for
backup protection for the speed control.
Sync check relays (Device 25) are typically Gen
E
applied as a breaker permissive close
function where generators are paralleled.
Many modern protective relays are
microprocessor-based and provide a
full complement of generator protection 51G

functions in a single package. The cost per

protection function has been drastically
reduced such that it is feasible to provide
more complete protection even to
smaller generators.
IEEE ANSI 1547 provides recommended Figure 72. Typical Protective Relaying Scheme for Large Generator
practices for utility inter-tie protection.
If the system has closed- transition or
paralleling capability, additional pro­tection
may be required by the utility.Typically,
no additional protection is required if the
generator is paralleled to the utility for
a maximum of 100 msec or less.
Systems that offer soft transfer, peak
shaving or co-generation will require
additional utility inter-tie protection.
The protection could include directional
overcurrent and power relays and even
transfer trip schemes. Please consult your
local utility for specific requirements.

94 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Generator Set Sizing Typical rating definitions for diesel
gensets are: standby, prime plus 10,
Electrical rating definitions for natural gas
powered gensets are typically defined as
and Ratings continuous and load management standby or continuous with definitions
Many factors must be considered when (paralleled with or isolated from utility). similar to those mentioned above for
determining the proper size or electrical Any diesel genset can have several diesels. Natural gas gensets recover
rating of an electrical power generator electrical ratings depending on the more slowly than diesel gensets when
set. The engine or prime mover is sized to number of hours of operation per year subjected to block loads. Diesel engines
provide the actual or real power in kW, as and the ratio of electrical load/genset have a much more direct path from the
well as speed (frequency) control through rating when in operation. The same engine governor and fuel delivery system
the use of an engine governor. diesel genset can have a standby rating to the combustion chamber, resulting in
of 2000 kW at 0.8 power factor (pf) and a a very responsive engine-generator.
The generator is sized to supply the kVA continuous rating of 1825 kW at 0.8 pf.
needed at startup and during normal A natural gas engine is challenged with
running operation. It also provides voltage The lower continuous rating is due to the air-fuel flow dynamics and a much more
control through the use of a brushless additional hours of operation and higher indirect path from the engine governor
exciter and voltage regulator.Together the load that the continuous genset must (throttle actuator) and fuel delivery
engine and generator provide the energy carry. These additional require­ments put system (natural gas pressure regulator,
necessary to supply electrical loads in more stress on the engine and generator fuel valve and actuator, carburetor mixer,
many different applications encountered and therefore the rating is decreased to aftercooler, intake manifold) to the
in today’s society. maintain longevity of the equipment. combustion chamber. This results in a
less responsive engine-generator. Diesel
The generator set must be able to supply Different generator set manufacturers use gensets recover about twice as fast as
the starting and running electrical load. It basically the same diesel genset electrical natural gas gensets.
must be able to pick up and start all motor rating definitions. These are based on
loads and low power factor loads, and International Diesel Fuel Stop Power For the actual calculations involved for
recover without excessive voltage dip or standards from organiza­tions like ISO, sizing a genset, there are readily accessible
extended recovery time. DIN and others. computer software programs that are
available on the genset manu­facturer’s
■ Standby diesel genset rating— Internet sites or from the manufacturer’s
Nonlinear loads like variable frequency
Typically defined as supplying dealers or distributors.These programs
drives, uninterruptible power supply
varying electrical loads for the are used to quickly and accurately size
(UPS) systems and switching power
duration of a power outage with the generator sets for their application.The
supplies also require attention because
load normally connected to utility, programs take into consideration the
the SCR switching causes voltage and
genset operating <100 hours per many different parameters discussed
current waveform distortion and
year and no overload capability above, including the size and type of the
harmonics. The harmonics generate
additional heat in the generator wind­ings, ■ Prime plus 10 rating—Typically defined electrical loads (resistive, inductive, SCR,
and the generator may need to be upsized as supplying varying electrical loads etc.), reduced voltage soft starting devices
to accommodate this. for the duration of a power outage with (RVSS), motor types, voltage, fuel type,
the load normally connected to utility, site conditions, ambient conditions and
The type of fuel (diesel, natural gas, genset operating <500 hours per year other variables.
propane, etc.) used is important as it and overload capability of 10% above
is a factor in determining generator set its rating for 1 hour out of 12 The software will optimize the starting
response to transient overloads. It is also sequences of the motors for the least
■ Continuous rating—Typically defined
necessary to determine the load factor amount of voltage dip and determine the
as supplying unvarying electrical loads starting kVA needed from the genset. It
or average power consumption of the
(i.e., base loaded) for an unlimited time also provides transient response data,
generator set. This is typically defined as
the load (kW) x time (hrs. while under that ■ Load management ratings—Apply to including voltage dip magnitude and
particular load) / total running time. When gensets in parallel operation with the recovery duration. If the transient
this load factor or average power is taken utility or isolated/islanded from utility response is unaccept­able, then design
into consideration with peak demand and these ratings vary in usability from changes can be considered, including
requirements and the other operating <200 hours per year to unlimited usage oversizing the generator to handle the
parameters mentioned above, the additional kvar load, adding RVSS devices
Refer to generator set manufacturers for to reduce the inrush current, improving
overall electrical rating of the genset
further definitions on load manage­ment system power factor and other methods.
can be determined.
ratings, load factor or average power
Other items to consider include the consumption, peak demand and how The computer software programs are
unique installation, ambient, and site these ratings are typically applied. Even quite flexible in that they allow changes
requirements of the project. These though there is some standardization of to the many different variables and
will help to determine the physical these ratings across the manufacturers, parameters to achieve an optimum
configuration of the overall system. there also exists some uniqueness with design. The software calculates how
regard to how each manufacturer applies to minimize voltage dips and can
their generator sets. recommend using paralleled gensets
vs. a single genset.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 95

Typical Components of a Power System
Genset Sizing Guidelines Generator Set Installation ■ Hazardous waste considerations for
fuel, antifreeze, engine oil
Some conservative rules of thumb for
genset sizing include:
and Site Considerations ■ Meeting local building and
There are many different installation electrical codes
1. Oversize genset 20–25% for reserve parameters and site conditions that ■ Genset exposure (coastal conditions,
capacity and for across the line must be considered to have a successful
motor starting. dust, chemicals, etc.)
generator set installation. The following
■ Properly sized starting systems
2. Oversize gensets for unbalanced is a partial list of areas to consider when
(compressed air, batteries and charger)
loading or low power factor conducting this design. Some of these
installation parameters include: ■ Allowing adequate space for
running loads.
installation of the genset and for
3. Use 1/2 hp per kW for motor loads. ■ Foundation type (crushed rock, maintenance (i.e., air filter removal,
concrete, dirt, wood, separate oil changing, general genset
4. For variable frequency drives, oversize concrete inertia pad, etc.) inspection, etc…)
the genset by at least 40% for six-
■ Foundation to genset vibration ■ Flex connections on all systems that
pulse technology drives.
dampening (spring type, cork and are attached to the genset and a rigid
5. For UPS systems, oversize the genset rubber, etc.) structure (fuel piping, founda­tion
by 40% for 6 pulse and 15% for 6 pulse ■ Noise attenuation (radiator fan vibration isolators, exhaust, air intake,
with input filters or 12 pulse. mechanical noise, exhaust noise, control wiring, power cables, radiator
air intake noise) flanges/duct work, etc.)
6. Always start the largest motor first
when stepping loads. ■ Combustion and cooling air ■ Diesel fuel day tank systems
requirements (pumps, return piping)
For basic sizing of a generator system, ■ Fuel storage tank (double walled,
■ Exhaust backpressure requirements
the following example could be used: fire codes) and other parameters
■ Emissions permitting

Step 1: Calculate Running Amperes ■ Delivery and rigging requirements Please see the generator set manufac­
■ Genset derating due to high altitudes
turer’s application and installation
■ Motor loads:
or excessive ambient temperatures guidelines for proper application
200 hp motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 A
❏ and operation of their equipment.
❏ 100 hp motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 A
❏ 60 hp motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 A
■ Lighting load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 A
■ Miscellaneous loads . . . . . . . . . . 95 A
■ Running amperes. . . . . . . . . . . . 445 A

Step 2: Calculating Starting Amperes

Using 1.25 Multiplier
■ Motor loads:
200 hp motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 A
❏
❏ 100 hp motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 A
❏ 60 hp motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 A
■ Lighting load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 A
■ Miscellaneous loads . . . . . . . . . . 95 A
■ Starting amperes. . . . . . . . . . . . 516 A

Step 3: Selecting kVA of Generator

■ Running kVA =
(445 A x 480 V x 1.732)/1000 = 370 kVA
■ Starting kVA =
(516 A x 480 V x 1.732)/1000 = 428 kVA
Solution
Generator must have a minimum starting
capability of 428 kVA and minimum
running capability of 370 kVA. Figure 73. Typical Genset Installation
Note: Courtesy of Caterpillar, Inc.
Also, please see section
“Factors Governing Voltage Drop”
on Page 56 for further discussion on
generator loading and reduced voltage
starting techniques for motors.

96 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
Capacitors and Power Factor ANSI Standard C37.06 (indoor oilless
circuit breakers) indicates the preferred
Low-Voltage Capacitor Switching
ratings of Eaton’s Type VCP-W vacuum Circuit breakers and switches for use
with a capacitor must have a current
Capacitor General Application breaker. For capacitor switching, careful
rating in excess of rated capacitor
attention should be paid to the notes
Considerations accompanying the table. The definition current to provide for overcurrent from
Additional application information of the terms are in ANSI Standard C37.04 overvoltages at fundamental frequency
is available in Eaton’s Power Factor Article 5.13 (for the latest edition). and harmonic currents. The following
Capacitors and Harmonic Filters Design The application guide ANSI/IEEE percent of the capacitor-rated current
Guide and on our website as follows: Standard C37.012 covers the method should be used as a general guideline:

■ Capacitor selection of calculation of the quantities covered Fused and unfused switches. . . . . 165%
by C37.06 Standard.
■ Where to install capacitors in a plant Molded case breaker or
distribution system Note that the definitions in C37.04 make equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150%
■ Locating capacitors on reduced voltage
the switching of two capacitors banks in
close proximity to the switch­gear bus a Insulated case breakers. . . . . . . . . 135%
and multi-speed starters
back-to-back mode of switching. This
■ Harmonic considerations Magnum DS power
classification requires a definite purpose
circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135%
■ Eliminating harmonic problems circuit breaker (breakers specifically
■ National Electrical Code requirements designed for capacitance switching). Contactors:
We recommend that such application be Open type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135%
referred to Eaton.
Medium-Voltage Enclosed type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150%
Capacitor Switching A breaker specified for capacitor
switching should include as applicable: The NEC, Section 460.8(C), requires the
Capacitance switching constitutes severe disconnecting means to be rated not less
operating duty for a circuit breaker. At the 1. Rated maximum voltage. than 135% of the rated capacitor current
time the breaker opens at near current (for 600 V and below).
zero, the capacitor is fully charged. After 2. Rated frequency.
interruption, when the alternating voltage Refer to Eaton’s Power Factor Capacitors
3. Rated open wire line charging
on the source side of the breaker reaches and Harmonic Filters Design Guide for
switching current.
its opposite maximum, the voltage that switching device ampere ratings. They
appears across the contacts of the open 4. Rated isolated cable charging and re based on percentage of capacitor-
breaker is at least twice the normal peak shunt capacitor switching current. rated current as indicated (above). The
line-to-neutral voltage of the circuit. If a interrupting rating of the switch must
breakdown occurs across the open 5. Rated back-to-back cable charging be selected to match the system fault
contact, the arc is re-established. Due and back-to-back capacitor current available at the point of capacitor
to the circuit constants on the supply switching current. application. Whenever a capacitor bank
side of the breaker, the voltage across the 6. Rated transient overvoltage factor. is purchased with less than the ultimate
open contact can reach three times the kvar capacity of the rack or enclosure, the
normal line-to-neutral voltage. After 7. Rated transient inrush current and switch rating should be selected based on
it is interrupted and with subsequent its frequency. the ultimate kvar capacity—not the initial
alternation of the supply side voltage, installed capacity.
the voltage across the open contact is 8. Rated interrupting time.
Refer to Eaton’s Power Factor Capacitors
even higher. 9. Rated capacitive current switching life. and Harmonic Filters Design Guide for
10. Grounding of system and recommended selection of capacitor
capacitor bank. switching devices; recommended
maximum capacitor ratings for various
Load break interrupter switches are motor types and voltages; and for
permitted by ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.30 required multipliers to determine
to switch capacitance, but they must have capacitor kvar required for power
tested ratings for the purpose. factor correction.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 97

Typical Components of a Power System
Motor Power Factor Definitions To derate a capacitor used on a system
voltage lower than the capacitor voltage
kvar—rating of the capacitor in
Correction reactive kilovolt-amperes. This value rating, such as a 240 V capacitor used on a
Refer to Eaton’s Power Factor Capacitors is approximately equal to the motor 208 V system, use the following formula:
and Harmonic Filters Design Guide no-load magnetizing kilovars.
containing suggested maximum % AR (amp reduction) is the percent
capacitor ratings for induction motors reduction in line current due to the
switched with the capacitor. The data is capacitor. A capacitor located on the
general in nature and representative of For the kVAC required to correct the
motor side of the overload relay reduces power factor from a given value of
general purpose induction motors of line current through the relay. Therefore,
standard design. The preferable means COS f1 to COS f2, the formula is:
a different overload relay and/or setting
to select capacitor ratings is based on may be necessary. The reduction in line kVAC = kW (tan phase1–tan phase2)
the “maximum recommended kvar” current may be determined by measuring
information available from the motor Capacitors cause a voltage rise. At light
line current with and without the
manufacturer. If this is not possible or load periods the capacitive voltage rise
capacitor or by calculation as follows:
feasible, the tables can be used. can raise the voltage at the location of
the capacitors to an unacceptable level.
An important point to remember is that if This voltage rise can be calculated
the capacitor used with the motor is too approximately by the formula:
large, self-excitation may cause a motor- If a capacitor is used with a lower kvar
damaging over­voltage when the motor rating than listed in tables, the % AR can
and capacitor combination is disconnected be calculated as follows:
from the line. In addition, high transient
torques capable of damaging the motor MVAR is the capacitor rating and MVASC is
shaft or coupling can occur if the motor is the system short-circuit capacity.
reconnected to the line while rotating and
The tables can also be used for other With the introduction of variable speed
still generating a voltage of self-excitation.
motor ratings as follows: drives and other harmonic current
Low-speed pump motors, or motors with
more than four poles, will typically exhibit A. For standard 60 Hz motors generating loads, the capacitor
low power factor and high FLA. operating at 50 Hz: impedance value determined must
kvar = 1.7–1.4 of kvar listed not be resonant with the inductive
% AR = 1.8–1.35 of % AR listed reactances of the system.

B. For standard 50 Hz motors

operating at 50 Hz:
kvar = 1.4–1.1 of kvar listed
% AR = 1.4–1.05 of % AR listed
C. For standard 60 Hz wound-rotor
motors:
kvar = 1.1 of kvar listed
% AR = 1.05 of % AR listed
Note: For A, B, C, the larger multipliers
apply for motors of higher speeds; i.e.,
3600 rpm = 1.7 mult., 1800 rpm = 1.65 mult., etc.

98 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Components of a Power System
BIL—Basic Impulse Levels Table 39. Metal-Clad Switchgear Voltage and Table 42. Liquid-Immersed Transformers Voltage
ANSI standards define recommended and Insulation Levels (From IEEE Std. C37.20.2-2015) and Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Levels
required BIL levels for: Rated Maximum Impulse (BIL) (From ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00)
Voltage (kV rms) Withstand (kV) Application Nominal BIL
■ Metal-clad switchgear System (kV Crest) a
(typically vacuum breakers)   4.76   60 Voltage
  8.25   95 (kV rms)
■ Metal-enclosed switchgear 15.0   95
(typically load interrupters, switches) 27.0 125 Distribution     1.2   30 — — —
38.0 150     2.5   45 — — —
■ Pad-mounted and overhead
    5.0   60 — — —
distribution switchgear
    8.7   75 — — —
■ Liquid immersed transformers Table 40. Metal-Enclosed   15.0   95 — — —
■ Dry-type transformers Switchgear Voltage and Insulation Levels   25.0 150   125 — —
(From IEEE Std. C37.20.3-2013)   34.5 200   150   125 —
Table 39 through Table 43 Rated Maximum Impulse   46.0 250   200 — —
contain those values. Voltage (kV rms) Withstand (kV)   69.0 350   250 — —
Power     1.2   45     30 — —
  4.76   60     2.5   60     45 — —
  8.25   95     5.0   75     60 — —
15.0   95
    8.7   95     75 — —
27.0 125   15.0 110     95 — —
38.0 150   25.0 150 — — —
  34.5 200 — — —
  46.0 250   200 — —
Table 41. Pad Mounted and Overhead   69.0 350   250 — —
Distribution Switchgear, Voltage and
115.0 550   450   350 —
Insulation Levels 138.0 650   550   450 —
Rated Maximum Impulse 161.0 750   650   550 —
Voltage Level (kV rms) Withstand (kV) 230.0 900   825   750   650
Pad Mount Switchgear (per IEEE C37.74-2014) 345.0 1175 1050   900 —
500.0 1675 1550 1425 1300
15.5   95 765.0 2050 1925 1800 —
27 125
38 150 a BIL values in bold typeface are listed as
Overhead Switchgear (per IEEE C37.60-2012) standard. Others listed are in common use.

15   95 Table 43. Dry-Type Transformers Voltage and

15.5 110 Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Levels
27 125
(BIL)—From ANSI/IEEE C57.12.01-1998)
38 150
38 170 Nominal BIL (kV Crest) b
System
Voltage
(kV rms)

  1.2 —   10   20   30

  2.5 —   20   30   45
  5.0 —   30   45   60
  8.7 —   45   60   95
15.0 —   60   95 110
25.0 95 c 110 125 150
34.5 — 125 c 150 200
b BIL values in bold typeface are listed as
standard. Others listed are in common use.
Optional higher levels used where exposure
to overvoltage occurs and higher protection
margins are required.
c Lower levels where surge arrester protective
devices can be applied with lower spark-
over levels.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 99

Typical Application by Facility Type
Healthcare Facilities In addition to NFPA guidelines, there
are additional standards documents
All electrical power in a healthcare facility
is important, though some loads are not
Healthcare facilities are defined by important in the design of healthcare critical to the safe opera­tion of the facility.
NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency) power distribution systems and These “non-essential” or “normal” loads
as “Buildings or portions of buildings accreditation of those facilities including: include things such as general lighting,
in which medical, dental, psychiatric, general lab equip­ment, non-critical
nursing, obstetrical, or surgical care ■ Joint Commission—Environment service equipment, patient care areas, etc.
are provided.” Due to the critical nature of Care 2016 These loads are not required to be fed
of the care being provided at these ■ Facility Guidelines Institute (FGI)— from an alternate source of power.
facilities and their increasing depen­dence Guidelines for Design and
on electrical equipment for preservation Construction of Hospitals and The electrical system requirements for
of life, healthcare facilities have special Outpatient Facilities—2014 the essential electrical system (EES) vary
requirements for the design of their according to the associated risk to the
electrical distribution systems.These These codes, standards and guidelines patients, visitors and staff that might
requirements are typically much more represent the most industry recognized occupy that space. NFPA 99 assigns a
stringent than commercial or industrial requirements for healthcare electrical risk category to each space within the
facilities.The following section design. However, the electrical design healthcare facility based on the risk
summarizes some of the unique engineer should consult with the associated with a failure of the power
requirements of healthcare authorities having jurisdiction over distribution system serving that space.
facility design. the local region for specific electrical These risk categories are summarized
distribution requirements. in Table 44.
There are several agencies and organi­
zations that develop requirements for The risk category of the space within the
healthcare electrical distribution system Healthcare Electrical System healthcare facility determines whether or
not that space is required to be served by
design.The following is a listing of some of Requirements an Essential Electrical System (EES). If an
the specific NFPA (National Fire Protection Healthcare electrical systems usually
Agency) standards that affect healthcare EES is required to serve the space, the risk
consist of two parts: category also dictates whether the EES
facility design and implementation:
1. Non-essential or normal must meet Type 1 or Type 2 requirements.
■ NFPA 37-2015—Standard for Stationary electrical system. Table 45 lists the associated EES Type
Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines requirements for each risk category.
■ NFPA 70-2014—National Electrical Code 2. Essential electrical system.
■ NFPA 99-2015—Healthcare Facilities
■ NFPA 101-2015—Life Safety Code Table 44. Essential Electrical System (EES) Risk Categories
■ NFPA 110-2016—Standard for Risk Category Failure of Such Equipment or System is Likely to Cause:
Emergency and Standby
Power Systems Category 1 ...major injury or death of patients or caregivers…
■ NFPA 111-2016—Standard on Stored Category 2 ...minor injury to patients or caregivers…
Electrical Energy Emergency and Category 3 ...patient discomfort…
Standby Power Systems Category 4 ...no impact on patient care…

Table 45. Essential Electrical System (EES) Risk Category by Type

Risk Category Essential Electrical System (EES) Type Example

Category 1 Type 1 Critical Care Space

Category 2 Type 2 General Care Space
Category 3 EES not required Basic Examination Space
Category 4 EES not required Waiting Room

100 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Application by Facility Type

Normal Source Normal Source Normal Source Emergency Power Supply

Non-Essential Loads Non-Essential Loads

Manual Transfer Switch

Equipment Life Safety Critical

Delayed Automatic Transfer Switch Branch Branch Branch

Essential Electrical System

Automatic (Non-Delaying)
Transfer Switch

Figure 74. Typical Large Hospital Electrical System—Type 1 Essential Electrical System

Type 1 Essential Electrical The transfer switches can be non-delayed Table 46. Type 1 EES Applicable Codes
automatic, delayed automatic or manual Description Standard Section
Systems (EES) transfer depending on the requirements
Type 1 essential electrical systems (EES) of the specific branch of the EES that they Sources NFPA 99 6.4.1
have the most stringent require­ments for are feeding. It is permissible to feed Uses NFPA 99 6.4.1.1.8
providing continuity of electrical service multiple branches or systems of the EES Emergency NFPA 110 4.1
and will, therefore, be the focus of this from a single automatic transfer switch Power Supply
section. Type 1 EES requirements meet provided that the maximum demand on Classification
or exceed the requirements for Type 2 the EES does not exceed 150 kVA. This Distribution NFPA 99 6.4.2
facilities. configuration is typically seen in smaller NEC 517.30
healthcare facilities that must meet Type 1 General NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.1
Sources:Type 1 systems are required to EES requirements (see Figure 75). NEC 517.25 thru 517.31
have a minimum of two independent
Life Safety NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.3
sources of electrical power—a normal Branch NEC 517.32
source that generally supplies the entire
Normal Source Critical NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.4
facility and one or more alter­nate sources Branch NEC 517.33
that supply power when the normal source
Alternate Equipment NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.5
is interrupted.The alternate source(s) must Branch NEC 517.34
be an on-site generator driven by a prime Source
Wiring NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.6
mover unless a generator(s) exists as the NEC 517.30.(C)
normal power source. In the case where a G
generator(s) is used as the normal source,
it is permissible for the alternate source to
be a utility feed.
Alternate source generators must be
classified as Type 10, Class X, Level 1
gensets per NFPA 110 Tables 4.1(a) and
Non-Essential
4.2(b) that are capable of providing power Loads
to the load in a maximum of 10 seconds.
Typically, the alternate sources of power Entire Essential
are supplied to the loads through a Electric System
series of automatic and/or manual (150 kVA or Less)
transfer switches.
Figure 75. Small Healthcare Facility Electrical
System—Single EES Transfer Switch

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 101

Typical Application by Facility Type
Essential Electrical System Branches: 3. Task illumination and selected The following equipment must be
The Type 1 EES consists of three separate receptacles in the following patient arranged for delayed automatic or manual
branches capable of supply­ing power care areas: infant nurseries, transfer to the emergency power supply:
considered essential for life safety and medication prep areas, pharmacy,
effective facility operation during an selected acute nursing areas, 1. Select heating equipment.
interruption of the normal power source. psychiatric bed areas, ward 2. Select elevators.
They are the life safety branch, critical treatment rooms, nurses’ stations.
branch and equipment branch. 3. Supply, return and exhaust ventilating
4. Specialized patient care task systems for surgical, obstetrical,
A. Life Safety Branch—supplies illumination, where needed. intensive care, coronary care, nurseries
power for lighting, receptacles and emergency treatment areas.
and equipment to perform the 5. Nurse call systems.
following functions: 6. Blood, bone and tissue banks. 4. Supply, return and exhaust ventilating
systems for airborne infectious/
1. Illumination of means of egress. 7. Telephone equipment rooms isolation rooms, labs and medical
2. Exit signs and exit direction signs. and closets. areas where hazardous materials
are used.
3. Alarms and alerting systems. 8. Task illumination, selected
receptacles and selected power 5. Hyperbaric facilities.
4. Emergency communications circuits for the following: general
systems. care beds (at least one duplex 6. Hypobaric facilities.
receptacle), angiographic labs, 7. Autoclaving equipment.
5. Task illumination, battery chargers cardiac catheterization labs,
for battery powered lighting, and coronary care units, hemodialysis 8. Controls for equipment listed above.
select receptacles at the generator. rooms, selected emergency room
9. Other selected equipment in kitchens,
6. Elevator lighting control, treatment areas, human
laundries, radiology rooms and
communication and signal physiology labs, intensive care
central refrigeration as selected.
systems. units, selected postoperative
recovery rooms. Any loads served by the generator that
7. Automatic doors used for egress. are not approved as outlined above as
9. Additional circuits and single-
These are the only functions permitted part of the essential electrical system
phase fraction motors as needed f
to be on the life safety branch. Life must be connected through a separate
or effective facility operation.
safety branch equip­ment and wiring transfer switch. These transfer switches
must be entirely independent of all C. Equipment Branch—consists of major must be configured such that the loads
other loads and branches of service. electrical equipment necessary for will not cause the generator to overload
This includes separation of raceways, patient care and Type 1 operation. and must be shed in the event the
boxes or cabinets. Power must be generator enters an overload condition.
supplied to the life safety branch The equipment branch of the EES that
Ground fault protection—per NFPA 70
from a non-delayed automatic consists of large electrical equipment
NEC Article 230.95, ground fault
transfer switch. loads needed for patient care and
protection is required on any feeder or
basic healthcare facility operation.
B. Critical Branch—supplies power for service disconnect 1000 A or larger on
Loads on the equipment system that
task illumination, fixed equipment, systems with line to ground voltages
are essential to generator operation
selected receptacles and selected of 150 V or greater and phase-to-phase
are required to be fed by a non-
power circuits for areas related to voltages of 600 V or less. For healthcare
delayed automatic transfer switch.
patient care. The purpose of the critical facilities (of any type), a second level of
branch is to provide power to a limited ground fault protection is required to be
The following equipment must be
number of receptacles and locations on the next level of feeder downstream.
arranged for delayed automatic
to reduce load and minimize the transfer to the emergency power This second level of ground fault is only
chances of fault conditions. supply: required for feeders that serve patient care
areas and equipment intended to support
The transfer switch(es) feeding the 1. Central suction systems for medical
life. 100% selective coordination of the two
critical branch must be automatic and surgical functions.
levels of ground fault protection must be
type. They are permitted to have 2. Sump pumps and other equipment achieved with a minimum six-cycle
appropriate time delays that will required for the safe operation of a separation between the upstream and
follow the restoration of the life safety major apparatus. downstream device.
branch, but should have power
restored within 10 seconds of normal 3. Compressed air systems for As of the 2011 NEC, ground fault
source power loss. medical and surgical functions. protection is allowed between the
The critical branch provides power to generator(s) and the EES transfer
circuits serving the following areas 4. Smoke control and stair switch(es). However, NEC 517.17(B)
and functions: pressurization systems. prohibits the installation of ground
5. Kitchen hood supply and exhaust fault protection on the load side of a
1. Critical care areas. transfer switch feeding EES circuits
systems, if required to operate
2. Isolated power systems in during a fire. (see Figure 76—additional level of ground
special environments. fault).

102 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Application by Facility Type

Normal Source Normal Source(s)

G
Generator Breakers are
Typically Supplied with
480/277 V  480/277 V  480/277 V  Ground Fault Alarm
1000 A Service 1000 A Service 1000 A Service Only. (NEC 700.27)
GF GF GF
or Larger Entrance or Larger Entrance or Larger Entrance
Ground Fault
is Permitted
Additional Level Between Generator
GF GF GF GF GF of Ground Fault GF GF GF GF GF GF and EES Transfer
Protection Switches.
(NEC 517.17 (B))

Non-Essential Loads Non-Essential Loads

GF = Ground Fault Protection Required Additional Level of Ground Fault is

not Permitted on Load Side of EES
Essential Electrical System Transfer Switches. (NEC 517.17(B)

Figure 76. Additional Level of Ground Fault Protection

a Ground fault protection is required for service disconnects 1000 A and larger or systems with less than 600 V phase-to-phase and greater than 150 V to ground
per NEC 230.95.

Careful consideration should be used in Wet procedure locations—A wet Electronic line isolation monitors (LIM)
applying ground fault protection on the procedure location in a healthcare facility are used to monitor and display leakage
essential electrical system to prevent a is any patient care area that is normally currents to ground. When leakage current
ground fault that causes a trip of the subject to wet conditions while patients thresholds are exceeded, visible and/or
normal source to also cause a trip on the are present. By default, operating rooms audible alarms are initiated to alert
emergency source. Such an event could are considered wet procedure locations occupants of a possible hazardous
result in complete power loss of both unless a risk assessment is performed to condition. This alarm occurs without
normal and emergency power sources show otherwise. Other examples of wet interrupting power to allow for the safe
and could not be recovered until the procedure locations might include conclusion of critical procedures.
source of the ground fault was located anesthetizing locations, dialysis locations,
and isolated from the system. To prevent etc. (patient beds, toilets and sinks are not Table 48. Wet Procedure Location
this condition, NEC 700.27 removes the considered wet locations). These wet Applicable Codes
ground fault protection requirement for procedure locations require special Description Standard Section
the emergency system source. Typically, protection to guard against electric shock.
General NFPA 99 6.3.2.2.8
the emergency system generator(s) are The ground fault current in these areas NEC 517.20
equipped with ground fault alarms that must be limited to not exceed 5 mA.
GFCI Protection NFPA 99 6.3.2.2.8.8
do not automatically disconnect power
during a ground fault. Protection to patient and staff in wet Isolated Power NFPA 99 6.3.2.2.9, 6.3.2.6
procedure locations can be provided Systems NE 517.160
Table 47. Ground Fault Protection through the use of GFCI outlets, GFCI
Applicable Codes breakers or isolated power systems. If
Description Standard Section GFCI protection is utilized, each circuit
must have a dedicated GFCI outlet or
Services NEC 230.95 GFCI breaker. It is not permissible to use
Branch-Circuits NEC (see Article 210.13 a single GFCI device to protect multiple
100 Definition
for Applicability)
outlets. This limits interruption resulting
Feeders NEC 215.10 from a ground fault to a single outlet.
Additional Level NFPA 99 6.3.2.5 Isolated power systems provide power
NEC 517.17
to an area that is isolated from ground
Alternate Source NEC 700.27 (or ungrounded). This type of system
NEC 701.26
limits the amount of current that flows
to ground in the event of a single
line-to-ground fault and maintains
circuit continuity.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 103

Typical Application by Facility Type
Maintenance and Testing Routine maintenance should be Paralleling Emergency Generators
Regular maintenance and testing of performed on circuit breakers, transfer
the electrical distribution system in a switches, switchgear, generator equip­ Without Utility Paralleling
healthcare facility is necessary to ensure ment, etc. by trained professionals to In many healthcare facilities (and other
proper operation in an emergency and, ensure the most reliable electrical system large facilities with critical loads), the
in some cases, to maintain government possible. Eaton’s Electrical Services & demand for standby emergency power
accreditation. Any healthcare facility Systems (EESS) provides engineers is large enough to require multiple
receiving Medicare or Medicaid reim- trained in development and execution generator sets to power all of the required
bursement from the government must of annual preventative maintenance essential electrical system (EES) loads.
be accredited by The Joint Commission. procedures of healthcare facility In these cases, it becomes more flexible
electrical distribution systems. and easier to operate the required
The Joint Commission has established a multiple generators from a single location
group of standards called the Environment Table 49. Maintenance and Testing Applicable
Codes using generator paral­leling switchgear.
of Care, which must be met for healthcare Figure 77 shows an example of a typical
facility accredita­tion. Included in these Description Standard Section
one-line for a paralleling switchgear
standards is the regular testing of the lineup feeding the EES.
Grounding NFPA 99 6.3.3.1
emergency (alternate) power system(s).
Diesel-powered EPS installations must be Essential NFPA 99 6.4.4.1 A typical abbreviated sequence of
Electrical Joint Commission EC.2.1.4(d)
tested monthly in accordance with NFPA operation for a multiple emergency
System Environment of Care
110 Standard for Emergency and Standby generator and ATS system follows.
Generator NFPA 110 8.4
Power Systems. Generators must be Note that other modes of operation such
tested for a minimum of 30 minutes under Transfer NFPA 110 8.3.5, 8.4.6 as generator demand priority and
Switches
the criteria defined in NFPA 110. automated testing modes are available
Breakers NFPA 99 6.4.4.1.2.1 but are not included below.
NFPA 110 8.4.7

Utility

Transformer Generators X = Number of Units

Utility G1 G2 Gx
Metering

Typical
Generator
Breaker
Service Main

Normal Bus Emergency Bus

Optional Optional Electrically

Electrically Operated Stored
Operated Energy Breakers
Stored EF1 EF2 EFx
F1 F2 Fx
Energy
Breakers

Equipment Life Safety Critical Load Shed/Load

ATS # 1 ATS # 2 ATS # X Add ATS Units
Non-Essential
Loads

Optional Closed
EP1 EP2 Typical EPX Transition
Panelboards Paralleling of
Generators and
Utility

Figure 77. Typical One-Line for a Paralleling Switchgear Lineup Feeding the Essential Electrical System (EES)

104 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Typical Application by Facility Type
1. Entering emergency mode b. As each automatic transfer switch Healthcare facilities are ideally suited
transfers back to utility power, it to take advantage of these programs
a. Upon loss of normal source, removes its run request from the because they already have significant
automatic transfer switches generator plant. on-site generation capabilities due to
send generator control system the code requirements described. Many
a run request. c. When the last automatic trans­fer
switch has retransferred to the healthcare facilities are taking advantage
b. All available generators are utility and all run requests have of these utility incentives by adding
started. The first generator up to been removed from the generator generator capacity over and above the
voltage and frequency is closed plant, all generator circuit breakers NFPA requirements. Figure 78 shows an
to the bus. are opened. example one-line of a healthcare facility
c. Unsheddable loads and load shed with complete generator backup and
d. The generators are allowed utility interconnect.
Priority 1 loads are pow­ered in less to run for their programmed
than 10 seconds. cool-down period. NFPA 110 requirements state that the
d. The remaining generators are e. The system is now back in normal and emergency sources must be
synchronized and paralleled to the automatic/standby mode. separated by a fire-rated wall.
bus as they come up to voltage
and frequency. The intent of this requirement is so that a
With Utility Paralleling fire in one location cannot take out both
e. As additional generators are Today, many utilities are offering their sources of power. To meet this require-
paralleled to the emergency bus, customers excellent financial incen­tives ment, the paralleling switchgear must be
load shed priority levels are added, to use their on-site generation capacity to split into separate sections with a tie bus
powering their associated loads. remove load from the utility grid. These through a fire-rated wall.
f. The system is now in emergency incentives are sometimes referred to as
mode. limited interruptible rates (LIP). Under
2. Exit from emergency mode these incentives, utilities will greatly
reduce or eliminate kWhr or kW demand
a. Automatic transfer switches sense charges to their customers with on-site
the utility source is within generation capabilities. In exchange,
acceptable operational toler­ances during times of peak loading of the utility
for a time duration set at the grid, the utility can ask their LIP rate
automatic transfer switch. customers to drop load from the grid by
using their on-site generation capabilities.

Utility Fire-Rated Wall

or Separation Barrier

Transformer
Generators X = Number of Units

Utility G1 G2 Gx
Metering
Utility
Closed
Protective Typical
Transition
Relay Generator
Paralleling of
Generators and Breaker
Service Main Utility, Plus
Soft Loading/
Unloading
Normal Bus Emergency Bus
TIE Optional TIE
Optional Electrically Operated
Electrically Stored Energy
Field Installed Breakers
Operated
Cable or Busway
Stored F1 F2 Fx EF1 EF2 EFx
Energy
Breakers

Equipment Life Safety Critical Load Shed/

ATS # 1 ATS # 2 ATS # X Load Add
Non-Essential ATS Units
Loads

EP1 EP2 EPX Typical

Panelboards

Figure 78. Typical One-Line Healthcare Facility with Complete Generator Backup and Utility Interconnect

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 105

Typical Application by Facility Type
Quick Connect Generator and
Load Bank Capabilities

Cam-Type Receptacle Sub-Assembly

Quick-Connect Double-Throw
Typical (1200 A) Generator Quick Connect Switchboard
Many facilities are increasing their
resiliency by including quick connect
capabilities for temporary roll-up
generators. Quick-connect sections can
be added to generator switchboards to
allow for the use of temporary roll-up
generators when permanent genera­tors
are out-of-service for maintenance and
repair. The same quick-connect device can
also be used for convenient connection
of a load bank for periodic testing of the
permanent generators.
Another common application for
generator quick-connect structures is
on the normal service. Having a quick-
connect infrastructure in place provides
the ability to restore some or all normal
system loads such as HVAC, chillers, etc.
that can become crucial if there were a
long-term utility outage. The flexibility to
quickly and safely connect a temporary
generator to these normal system loads
can help resume more normal facility
opera­tion during an extended utility
outage. See Eaton’s website for additional
information on quick-connect switch­
boards up to 4000 A and for quick-connect
safety switches up to 800 A.

106 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power Quality
Power Quality Terms Defining the Problem Power Quality Terms
Power quality problems can be resolved in Power disturbance: Any deviation from
Technical Overview three ways: by reducing the variations in the nominal value (or from some selected
the power supply (power disturbances), by thresholds based on load tolerance) of the
Introduction improving the load equipment’s tolerance input ac power characteristics.
to those variations, or by inserting some
Sensitive electronic loads deployed today interface equipment (known as power Total harmonic distortion or distortion
by users require strict require­ments for conditioning equipment) between the factor: The ratio of the root-mean-square
the quality of power delivered to loads. electrical supply and the sensitive load(s) of the harmonic content to the root-
to improve the compatibility of the two. mean-square of the fundamental
For electronic equipment, power quantity, expressed as a percentage
disturbances are defined in terms of Practicality and cost usually determine the
extent to which each option is used. of the fundamental.
amplitude and duration by the elec­tronic
equipment operating envelope. Electronic Many methods are used to define power Crest factor: Ratio between the peak
loads may be damaged and disrupted, quality problems. For example, one value (crest) and rms value of a periodic
with shortened life ­expectancy, by option is a thorough on-site investigation, waveform.
these disturbances. which includes inspecting wiring and Apparent (total) power factor: The ratio of
The proliferation of computers, variable grounding for errors, monitoring the the total power input in watts to the total
frequency motor drives, UPS systems power supply for power disturbances, volt-ampere input.
and other electronically controlled investigating equipment sensitivity to
power disturbances, and determining Sag: An rms reduction in the ac voltage,
equipment is placing a greater demand
the load disruption and consequential at the power frequency, for the duration
on power producers for a disturbance-
effects (costs), if any. In this way, the from a half-cycle to a few seconds. An
free source of power. Not only do these
power quality problem can be defined, undervoltage would have a duration
types of equipment require quality power
alternative solutions developed, and greater than several seconds.
for proper operation; many times, these
types of equipment are also the sources optimal solution chosen.
Interruption: The complete loss of voltage
of power disturbances that corrupt the Before applying power-conditioning for a time period.
quality of power in a given facility. equipment to solve power quality
Transient: A sub-cycle disturbance in
Power quality is defined according to IEEE problems, the site should be checked
the ac waveform that is evidenced by a
Standard 1100 (Recommended Practice for wiring and grounding problems.
sharp brief discontinuity of the waveform.
for Powering and Grounding Electronic Often, correcting a relatively inexpen­sive
May be of either polarity and may be
Equipment) as the concept of powering wiring error, such as a loose connection
additive to or subtractive from the
and grounding electronic equipment in a or a reversed neutral and ground wire,
nominal waveform.
manner that is suitable to the operation can avoid a more expensive power
of that equipment. IEEE Standard 1159 conditioning solution. Surge or impulse: See transient.
(Recommended Practice for Monitoring Sometimes the investigative approach is Noise: Unwanted electrical signals that
Electric Power Quality) notes that “within not viable, as the exact sensitivities of the produce undesirable effects in the circuits
the industry, alternate definitions or load equipment may be unknown and of control systems in which they occur.
interpretations of power quality have difficult to determine. In other cases,
been used, reflecting different points monitoring for power anomolies may Common-mode noise: The noise
of view.” be needed over an extended period of voltage that appears equally and in
time to capture infrequent disturbances. phase from each current-carrying
In addressing power quality problems conductor to ground.
at an existing site, or in the design stages This added time and expense can be
of a new building, engineers need to impractical in smaller installations. Normal-mode noise: Noise signals
specify different services or mitigating It is important to remember that while measurable between or among active
technologies. The lowest cost and highest the thorough on-site investigation can circuit conductors feeding the subject
value solution is to selectively apply a identify and help solve observed load, but not between the equipment
combination of different products and problems on existing installations, for grounding conductor or associated
services as follows: a power systems engineer designing a signal reference structure and the
new facility, there is no site or equip­ment active circuit conductors.
■ Power quality surveys, analysis
and studies to investigate. Consequently, as in the
prior instances cited, it is often practical
■ Power monitoring to implement power quality solutions to
■ Grounding products and services address common issues as a preemptive
■ Surge protection
measure. Using well-accepted practices,
such as tiered levels of surge protection
■ Voltage regulation or UPS systems, an engineer can avoid
■ Harmonic solutions or alleviate the potential problems that
■ Lightning protection (ground rods, poor power quality can cause on a
hardware, etc.) power system.
■ Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
or motor-generator (M-G) set

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 107

Power Quality
Methodology for Ensuring Effective 2. Surge Protection If surge protection is only provided for the
Power Quality to Electronic Loads Surge protection devices (SPDs) are building entrance feeder, the let-through
The power quality pyramid is an recommended as the next stage power voltage will be approximately 950 V in a
effective guide for addressing power quality solutions. NFPA, UL 96A, 277/480 V system exposed to induced
quality problems at an existing facility. IEEE Emerald Book and equipment lightning surges. This level of let-through
The framework is also useful for manufacturers recommend the use of voltage can cause degradation or physical
specifying engineers who are surge protectors. The SPDs are used to damage of most electronic loads.
designing a new facility. shunt short duration voltage disturbances Wherever possible, consultants,
to ground, thereby preventing the surge specifiers and application engineers
Power quality starts with grounding
from affecting electronic loads. When should ensure similar loads are fed from
(the base of the pyramid) and then moves
installed as part of the facility-wide the same source. In this way, disturbance-
upward to address the potential issues.
design, SPDs are cost-effective compared generating loads are separated from
This simple, yet proven methodology, will
to all other solutions (on a $/kVA basis). electronic circuits affected by power
provide the most cost-effective approach.
As we move higher up the pyramid, the The IEEE Emerald Book recommends the disturbances. For example, motor loads,
cost per kVA of mitigating potential use of a two-stage protection concept. HVAC systems and other linear loads
problems increase and the quality of the For large surge currents, diversion is best should be separated from the sensitive
power increases (refer to Figure 79). accomplished in two stages: the first process control and computer systems.
diversion should be performed at the The most effective and economic solution
service entrance to the building. Then, any for protecting a large number of loads
residual voltage resulting from the action is to install parallel style SPDs at the
can be dealt with by a second protective building service entrance feeder and
device at the power panel of the computer panelboard locations. These SPDs are
Cost Per kVA

room (or other critical loads). either placed in parallel with the loads
The benefit of implementing cascaded directly on the equipment bus bars or
network protection is shown in externally by means of a short cable.
Figure 80. Combined, the two This reduces the cost of protection for
stages of protection at the service multiple sensitive loads.
entrance and branch panel locations
reduce the IEEE 62.41 recommended
5. Uninterruptible Power Supply test wave (C3–20 kV, 10 kA) to less than
(UPS, Gen. Sets, etc.) 200 V voltage, a harmless disturbance
4. Harmonic Distortion level for 120 V rated sensitive loads.
3. Voltage Regulation
2. Surge Protection
1. Grounding
Input—high energy
SPD
Figure 79. Power Quality Pyramid transient disturbance; IEEE Category
CP
SPD C3 Impulse 20,000V; 10,000A
20,000V
480V 120/208V
PEAK VOLTAGE

1. Grounding Computer or Best achievable

Grounding represents the foundation Sensitive
Loads
performance with single SPD
of a reliable power distribution system. Stage 1 Protection at main panel (950V, at Stage 1)
(Service Entrance) Stage 2 Protection
Grounding and wiring problems can be (Branch Location)
the cause of up to 80% of all power quality System Test Parameters:
800V

problems. All other forms of power IEEE C62.41[10] and C62.45 [10] 400V

quality solutions are dependent upon test procedures using category; 0

25 uS 50 uS
good grounding procedures. 480V main entrance panels;
TIME (MICROSECONDS)
100 ft (30m) of three-phase wire;
The proliferation of communication and 480/208V distribution transformer; Two stage (cascade
computer network systems has increased and 208V branch panel. approach) achieves best
possible protection (less
the need for proper grounding and wiring = SPD than 200V at Stage 2)
of ac and data/communication lines. In
addition to reviewing ac grounding and
bonding practices, it is necessary to Figure 80. Cascaded System Protection
prevent ground loops from affecting
the signal reference point.

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The recommended system approach Advantages of the system approach are: By twisting the installation wires, the area
for installing SPDs is summarized in between wires is reduced and the mutual
Figure 81. ■ The lowest possible investment inductance affect minimized.
in mitigating equipment to protect
a facility Increasing the diameter of the installation
■ Building entrance SPDs protect wires is of negligible benefit. Inductance
1. is a “skin effect” phenomenon and a
Identify Critical Loads the facility against large external
transients, including lightning function of wire circumference. Because
only a marginal reduction in inductance
2. ■ SPDs are bi-directional and prevent
is achieved when the diameter of the
Identify Non-Critical Loads transient and noise disturbances installation conductors is increased, the
from feeding back within a system use of large diameter wire results in only
3. when installed at distribution or minimal improvement (see Figure 83).
Identify Noise and branch panels
Disturbance Generating Loads ■ Two levels of protection safeguard Further benefits provided by integrated
sensitive loads from physical damage surge suppression designs are the
4. or operational upset elimination of field installation costs
Review Internal Power Distribution Layout and the amount of expensive “outboard”
wall space taken up by side-mounted
Side-Mounted SPD vs. Integral SPD SPD devices.
5. Directly connecting the surge suppresser
Identify Facility Exposure to to the bus bar of electrical distribution
Expected Levels of Disturbance Building Entrance Feeder
equipment results in the best possible
Installation Considerations
level of protection. Compared to side-
6. mounted devices, connecting the SPD Installing an SPD device immediately
Apply Mitigating Equipment to: unit to the bus bar eliminates the need after the switchgear or switchboard main
a) Service Entrance Main Panels breaker is the optimal location for
b) Key Sub-Panels
for lead wires and reduces the let-through
voltage up to 50% (see Figure 82). protecting against external distur­bances
c) Critical Loads
d) Data and Communication Lines such as lightning. When placed in this
Given that surges are high frequency location, the disturbance is “intercepted”
disturbances, the inductance of the by the SPD and reduced to a minimum
Figure 81. System Approach for installation wiring increases the let- before reaching the distribution and/or
Installing SPDs through voltage of the protective device. branch panel(s).
There may be specific single-phase critical Figure 83 shows that for every inch
loads within a facility that require a higher of lead length, the let-through voltage The use of a disconnect breaker
level of protection. In these instances, is increased by an additional 15–25 V eliminates the need to de-energize the
a series style SPD is best suited for above the manufacturers stated building entrance feeder equip­ment
protecting such loads. Application of suppression performance. should the SPD fail or require isolation
the series style SPD involves wiring it for Megger testing.
in series with the load it is feeding. Lead length has the greatest effect on the
actual level of protection realized.Twisting
of the installation wires is the second most
important installation consideration.

208Y/120 Panelboard
(integrated versus side mounted SPD)

1000 Side-Mounted SPD Device

Side-Mounted SPD SPD Integrated
Let-Through Voltage at Bus Bar

(assuming 14-inch (355.6 mm) lead length to bus)

used for Retrofit into Panelboards,
Applications Switchboards, MCCs 800

600

N 400
SPD
Integrated SPD
SPD (direct bus bar connection)
200

GRO UND G RO UND

0
Surge
Event
G –200
G –2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
N
\
Microseconds

Figure 82. Performance Comparison of Side-Mounted vs. Integrated SPD

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Power Quality
3. Voltage Regulation
Additional Let-Through Voltage Using IEEE C1(6000V, 3000A)[3] Voltage regulation (i.e., sags or over­
Additional Let-Through Voltage ¿

Waveform (UL 1449 Test Wave)[12] voltage) disturbances are generally site-
900 14 AWG or load-dependent. A variety of mitigating
800 209V (23%) 10 AWG
700 solutions are available depending upon
600 4 AWG the load sensitivity, fault duration/
673V (75%)
500 magnitude and the specific problems
400 encountered. It is recommended to install
300
200 monitoring equipment on the ac power
100 lines to assess the degree and frequency
0 of occurrences of voltage regulation
3 ft (914.4 mm) 1 ft (304.8 mm) problems.The captured data will allow
Lead Length Lead Length,
Loose Wiring Twisted Wires Twisted Wires
for the proper solution selection.

Figure 83. The Effect of Installation Lead Length on Let-Through Voltage

a Additional to UL 1449 ratings.
4. Harmonics Distortion
The size or capacity of a suppressor is This increase in disturbance voltage can Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads
measured in surge current per phase. result in process disruption and downtime. In the past, most loads were primarily
Larger suppressers rated at approxi­mately linear in nature. Linear loads draw the
250 kA per phase should be installed at the Installing Dataline Surge Protection full sine wave of electric current at its
service entrance to survive high-energy 60 cycle (Hz) fundamental frequency—
Most facilities also have communica­tion Figure 84 shows balance single-phase,
surges associated with lightning.
lines that are potential sources for linear loads. As the figure shows, little or
A 250 kA per phase surge rating allows for external surges. As identified by the no current flows in the neutral conductor
over a 25-year life expectancy assuming power quality pyramid, proper grounding when the loads are linear and balanced.
an IEEE defined high exposure environ­ of communication lines is essential for
ment. Lower surge rating devices may dependable operation. NEC Article 800 The advent of nonlinear electronic loads,
be used; however, device reliability states that all data, power and cable lines where the ac voltage is converted to a
and long-term performance may be be grounded and bonded. dc voltage, altered the way power was
compromised. traditionally drawn from a normal ac sine
Power disturbances such as lightning can wave. During the ac to dc conversion,
For aerial structures, the 99.8 percentile elevate the ground potential between power electronic devices are switched on
recorded lightning stroke current is less two communicating pieces of electronic during a fraction of each 1/2 cycle causing
than 220 kA. The magnitude of surges equipment with different ground voltage and current to be drawn in pulses
conducted or induced into a facility references. The result is current flowing to obtain the required dc output. This
electrical distribution system is consider­ through the data cable, causing deviation of voltage and current from the
ably lower given the presence of multiple component failure, terminal lock-up, normal sine wave results in harmonics.
paths for the surge to travel along. It is data corruption and interference.
for this reason that IEEE C62.41 It is important to note that the current
NFPA 780 D—4.8 warns that “surge distortion caused by loads such as
recommends the C3 (20 kV, 10 kA) test
suppression devices should be installed rectifiers or switch mode power supplies
wave for testing SPDs installed at
on all wiring entering or leaving elec­ causes the voltage distortion. That voltage
building entrance feeders.
tronic equipment, usually power, data distortion is caused by distorted currents
SPDs with surge ratings greater than or communication wiring.” flowing through an impedance. The
250 kA are not required, however, higher amount of voltage distortion depends on:
Surge suppressers should be installed at
ratings are available and may provide
both ends of a data or communica­tion System impedance
longer life. ■
cable. In those situations where one end
of the cable is not connected into an ■ Amount of distorted current
Installing Panelboard Surge electronic circuit (e.g., contactor coil), Devices that can cause harmonic
Protection Devices protection on the electronic end only disturbances include rectifiers,
Smaller surge capacity SPDs (120 kA per is required. thrusters and switching power supplies,
phase) are installed at branch panel­ all of which are nonlinear. Further, the
boards where power disturbances are To prevent the coupling or inducing of
power disturbances into communication proliferation of electronic equipment
of lower energy, but occur much more such as computers, UPS systems,
frequently. This level of surge current lines, the following should be avoided:
variable speed drives, programmable
rating should result in a greater than ■ Data cables should not be run over logic controllers, and the like: nonlinear
25-year life expectancy. fluorescent lighting fixtures loads have become a significant part of
When isolated ground systems are used, ■ Data cables should not be in the vicinity many installations.
the SPD should be installed such that any of electric motors
common mode surges are shunted to the ■ The right category cable should be used
safety ground. to ensure transmission performance
The use of a disconnect breaker is ■ Data cables must be grounded at both
optional. The additional let-through ends when communicating between
voltage resulting from the increased buildings
inductance caused by the disconnect
switch is about 50–60 V.

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Other types of harmonic-producing A-phase, B-phase and C-phase are in Harmonic Issues
loads include arcing devices (such as sequence with each other. Meaning, the
arc furnaces, welders and fluorescent triplen harmonics present on the three Harmonic currents may cause system
lighting). phases add together in the neutral, as losses that over burden the distribution
shown in Figure 85, rather than cancel system. This electrical overloading may
Nonlinear load currents vary widely from each other out, as shown in Figure 84. contribute to preventing an existing
a sinusoidal wave shape; often they are Odd non-triplen harmonics are classified electrical distribution system from
discontinuous pulses. This means that as “positive sequence” or “negative serving additional future loads.
nonlinear loads are extremely high in sequence” and are the 1st, 5th, 7th, 11th,
harmonic content. In general, harmonics present on a
13th, etc. distribution system can have the
Triplen harmonics are the 3rd, 9th, 15th,... In general, as the order of a harmonic following detrimental effects:
harmonics. Further, triplen harmonics gets higher, its amplitude becomes
are the most damaging to an electrical 1. Overheating of transformers and
smaller as a percentage of the rotating equipment.
system because these harmonics on the fundamental frequency.
2. Increased hysteresis losses.
3. Decreased kVA capacity.
60 Hz Fundamental
4. Overloading of neutral.
A Phase 5. Unacceptable neutral-to-ground
voltages.
6. Distorted voltage and current
waveforms.
120º
Lagging 7. Failed capacitor banks.
B Phase
8. Breakers and fuses tripping.
9. Double sized neutrals to defy the
negative effects of triplen harmonics.
120º
Lagging In transformers, generators and
C Phase
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
systems, harmonics cause overheating
and failure at loads below their ratings
because the harmonic currents cause
Balance
Neutral greater heating than standard 60 Hz
Current current. This results from increased eddy
current losses, hysteresis losses in the
iron cores, and conductor skin effects of
Figure 84. Balanced Neutral Current Equals Zero the windings. In addition, the harmonic
currents acting on the impedance of the
source cause harmonics in the source
60 Hz Fundamental voltage, which is then applied to other
3rd Harmonic loads such as motors, causing them
A Phase
to overheat.
The harmonics also complicate the
application of capacitors for power
factor correction. If, at a given harmonic
120º frequency, the capacitive impedance
B Phase
Lagging equals the system reactive impedance,
the harmonic voltage and current can
reach dangerous magnitudes. At the
same time, the harmonics create
120º
problems in the application of power
C Phase factor correction capacitors, they lower
Lagging
the actual power factor. The rotating
meters used by the utilities for watthour
and various measurements do not detect
the distortion component caused by the
Neutral harmonics. Rectifiers with diode front
Triplen
Current ends and large dc side capacitor banks
have displacement power factor of 90%


Phase Triplen Harmonics to 95%. More recent electronic meters are

Added in the Neutral capable of metering the true kVA hours
taken by the circuit.
Figure 85. Single-Phase Loads with Triplen Harmonics

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Power Quality
Single-phase power supplies for Table 51. Low-Voltage System Classification and When evaluating current distortion, it is
computer and fixture ballasts are rich in Distortion Limits for 480 V Systems important to understand the difference
third harmonics and their odd multiples. Class C AN DF between THD (Total Harmonic Distortion)
and TDD (Total Demand Distortion). THD
Even with the phase currents perfectly Special application b 10 16,400   3% is the measured distortion on the actual
balanced, the harmonic currents in the General system   5 22,800   5% magnitude of current flowing at a given
neutral can total 173% of the phase Dedicated system   2 36,500 10% instant. This could be referred to as a
current. This has resulted in overheated b Special systems are those where the rate of “sine wave quality factor” as it is a
neutrals. The Information Technology change of voltage of the notch might mistrigger measure of the amount of distortion at
Industry Council (ITIC) formerly known an event. AN is a measurement of notch that given time, for that given magnitude
as CBEMA, recom­mends that neutrals in characteristics measured in volt-microseconds,
of current. It can be measured with a
the supply to electronic equipment be C is the impedance ratio of total impedance to
impedance at common point in system. DF is simple harmonic current metering device.
oversized to at least 173% of the ampacity Current THD is not utilized anywhere in
distortion factor.
of the phase conductors to prevent the IEEE 519 standard. Instead, the IEEE
problems. ITIC also recommends derating Table 52. Utility or Cogenerator Supply Voltage 519 standard sets limits based on TDD,
transformers, loading them to no more Harmonic Limits or Total Demand Distortion. TDD is a
than 50% to 70% of their nameplate kVA, Voltage 2.3–69 kV 69–138 kV >138 kV calculated value based on the amount
based on a rule-of-thumb calculation, to Range of harmonic distortion related to the full
compensate for harmonic heating effects. load capacity of the electrical system. The
Maximum 3.0% 1.5% 1.0%
In spite of all the concerns they cause, individual formula for calculating TDD is as follows:
nonlinear loads will continue to increase. harmonic
Therefore, the systems that supply them Total 5.0% 2.5% 1.5%
will have to be designed so that their
adverse effects are greatly reduced.
harmonic
distortion ( IL
)
TDD =  I22 + I32 + I24 + I52 + … x 100

Table 50 shows the typical harmonic

orders from a variety of harmonic Percentages are x 100 for each The numerator of the formula is the
generating sources. harmonic square root of the sum of the current
Table 50. Source and Typical Harmonics harmonics squared. This value is divided
and by IL, which is the full load capacity of
Source Typical

  6-pulse rectifier
Harmonics a

5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19…

(
VTHD % =  V22 + V32 + V42 + V25 + … x 100
V1 rms
) the system. From this, you can see that
even heavily distorted currents (i.e., high
current THD) that are only a small fraction
12-pulse rectifier 11, 13, 23, 25… of the capacity of the system will result in
18-pulse rectifier 17, 19, 35, 37… It is important for the system designer to a low TDD.
Switch-mode power supply 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13… know the harmonic content of the utility’s
Fluorescent lights 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13… supply voltage because it will affect the
Arcing devices
Transformer energization
2, 3, 4, 5, 7…
2, 3, 4
harmonic distortion of the system. Harmonic Solutions
Table 53. Current Distortion Limits for In spite of all the concerns nonlinear
a Generally, magnitude decreases as harmonic General Distribution Systems (120– 69,000 V) loads cause, these loads will continue to
order increases. increase.Therefore, the application of
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion
in Percent of IL nonlinear loads such as variable frequency
drives (VFDs) and the systems that supply
Total Harmonic Distortion Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
them will require further scrutiny by the
Revised standard IEEE 519-2014 indicates ISC/IL <11 11 17< 23< 35 TDD design profes­sional.The use of “Clean
<h h<23 h<35 < h
the limits of current distortion allowed <17 Power” multi-pulse VFDs has become a
at the PCC (Point of Common Coupling) common approach so adverse harmonic
point on the system where the current        <20 c   4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3   5.0 effects are greatly reduced. Table 54 and
distortion is calculated. The 2014 revision   20<50   7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5   8.0 depicts many harmonic solutions along
  50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
is more focused on harmonic limits on the with their advantages and disadvantages.
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
system over time. It now clearly indicates         >1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
that the PCC is the point of connection to Eaton’s Engineering Services & Systems
the utility. c All power generation equipment is limited to Group (EESS) can perform harmonic
these values of current distortion, regardless studies and recommend solutions for
The standard now primarily addresses of actual ISC/IL where: harmonic problems.
ISC = Maximum short-circuit current at PCC.
the harmonic limits of the supply volt­age IL = Maximum demand load current
from the utility or cogenerators. (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
TDD = Total Demand Distortion. Even harmonics
are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits
above. Current distortions that result in a
dc offset, e.g., half-wave converters, are
not allowed.

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Table 54. Harmonic Solutions for Given Loads
Load Type Solutions Advantages Disadvantages

Drives and rectifiers— Line reactors n Inexpensive n May require additional compensation
includes three-phase n For 6-pulse standard drive/rectifier, can reduce
UPS loads harmonic current distortion from 80% down to
about 35–40%
K-rated/drive isolation n Offers series reactance (similar to line reactors) n No advantage over reactors for reducing
transformer and provides isolation for some transients harmonics unless in pairs for shifting phases
dc choke n Slightly better than ac line reactors for 5th and n Not always an option for drives
7th harmonics n Less protection for input semiconductors
12-pulse convertor n 85% reduction versus standard 6-pulse drives n Cost difference approaches 18-pulse drive
and blocking filters, which guarantee
IEEE 519 compliance
Harmonic mitigating n Substantial (50–80%) reduction in harmonics n Harmonic cancellation highly dependent on
transformers/phase shifting when used in tandem load balance
n Must have even multiples of matched loads
Tuned filters n Bus connected—accommodates load diversity n Requires allocation analysis
n Provides PF correction n Sized only to the requirements of that system;
must be resized if system changes
Broadband filters n Makes 6-pulse into the equivalent of 18-pulse n Higher cost
n Requires one filter per drive
18-pulse converter n Excellent harmonic control for drives above 100 hp n High cost
n IEEE 519 compliant
n No issues when run from generator sources

Active filters n Handles load/harmonic diversity n High cost

n Complete solution up to 50th harmonic
Active front end n Excellent harmonic control n High cost
n Four quadrant (regen) capability n High complexity
n Can have system stability issues when run from
generator source
Computers/ Neutral blocking filter n Eliminates the 3rd harmonic from load n High cost
switch-mode n Relieves system capacity n May increase voltage distortion
power supplies n Possible energy savings
Harmonic mitigating n 3rd harmonic recalculated back to the load n Requires fully rated circuits and oversized
transformers n When used as phase-shifted transformers, reduces neutrals to the loads
other harmonics
n Reduces voltage “flat-topping”
Oversized neutral/derated n Tolerate harmonics rather than correct n Upstream and downstream equipment
transformer n Typically least expensive fully rated for harmonics
K-rated transformer n Tolerate harmonics rather than correct n Does not reduce system harmonics
Fluorescent Harmonic mitigating n 3rd harmonic recalculated back to the load n Requires fully rated circuits and
lighting transformers n When used as phase-shifted transformers, reduces oversized neutrals to the loads
other harmonics
n Reduces voltage “flat-topping”
K-rated transformer n Tolerate harmonics rather than correct them n Does not reduce system harmonics
Low distortion ballasts n Reduce harmonics at the source n Additional cost and typically more expensive
than “system” solutions
Welding/arcing Active filters n Fast response and broadband harmonic correction n High cost
loads n Reduces voltage flicker
Tuned filters n SCR controlled tuned filters simulates an active n SCR controlled units are high cost but fixed
filter response filters are reasonable
System Tuned filters n Provides PF correction n System analysis required to verify application.
solutions n Lower cost compared to other systems Must be resized if system changes
Harmonic mitigating n Excellent choice for new design or upgrade n No PF correction benefit
transformers
Active filters n Ideal solution and handles system diversity n Highest cost

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Power Quality
5. Uninterruptible Power Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) Rotary UPS Systems
systems have evolved to serve the needs
Systems (UPS) of sensitive equipment and can supply Typical Ratings
The advent and evolution of solid-state a stable source of electrical power, or 300–3 MW maximum.
semiconductors has resulted in a switch to backup to allow for an orderly
pro­liferation of electronic computational shutdown of the loads without
devices that we come in contact with on appreciable loss of data or process. In Typical Rotary Configurations
a daily basis. These machines all rely on the early days of main­frame computers, Rotary UPS systems are among the oldest
a narrow range of nominal ac power in motor-generator sets provide isolation working systems developed to protect
order to work properly. Indeed, many and clean power to the computers. They sensitive loads. Many of these systems
other types of equip­ment also require that did not have deep reserves, but provided are complicated engine-generator sets
the ac electrical power source be at or extensive ride-through capability while coupled with high inertial flywheels
close to nominal voltage and frequency. other sources of power (usually standby operated at relatively low rotational
Disturbances of the power translate into emergency engine generator sets) were speeds. These legacy types of hybrid
failed processes, lost data, decreased brought online while the normal source UPS systems are not the focus of this
efficiency and lost revenue. of power was unstable or unavailable. discussion, because only one or two
vendors continue to offer them.
The normal power source supplied by the UPS systems have evolved along the
local utility or provider is typically not lines of rotary types and static types See Figure 1.9-8 for the modern high
stable enough over time to continuously of systems, and they come in many speed Rotary UPS systems discussed
serve these loads with­out interruption. It configurations, including hybrid designs in this section of the guide. These types
is possible that a facility outside a major having characteristics of both types.The of modern rotary UPS systems are
metropolitan area served by the utility discussion that follows attempts to advanced, integrated designs using
grid will experience outages of some compare and contrast the two types of scalable configurations of high-speed
nature 15–20 times in one year. Certain UPS systems, and give basic guidance on flywheel, motor and generator in one
outages are caused by the weather, and selection criteria.This discussion will focus compact UPS package. The new rotary
others by the failure of the utility supply on the medium, large and very large UPS technologies have the potential to
system due to equipment failures or systems required by users who need more replace battery backup systems, or at
construction interruptions. Some outages than 10 kVA of clean reliable power. least reduce the battery content for
are only several cycles in duration, while certain applications. The appeal of rotary
others may be for hours at a time. systems is the avoidance of the purchase,
Power Ratings of UPS Systems maintenance and facility space required
In a broader sense, other problems exist ■ Small UPS: Typically 300 VA to 10 kVA, by dc battery based backup systems.
in the area of power quality, and many of and sometimes as high as 18 kVA
those issues also contribute to the failure
■ Medium UPS: 10–60 kVA
of the supply to provide that narrow range High-Speed Rotary Concept
of power to these sensitive loads. ■ Large UPS: 100–200 kVA units, and
higher when units are paralleled of Operation
Power quality problems take the form The modern rotary type of UPS operation
■ Very Large UPS: 200–2 MW units, and
of any of the following: power failure, is understood by reviewing the four
power sag, power surge, undervoltage, higher when units are paralleled
topics below: startup mode, normal
overvoltage, line noise, frequency Each of these categories is arbitrary operation mode, discharge mode and
variations, switching transients and because manufacturers have many recharge mode.
harmonic distortion. Regardless of the different UPS offerings for the same
reason for outages and power quality application. The choice of UPS type and
problems, the sensitive loads can not
Startup Mode
the configuration of UPS modules for a
function normally without a backup The UPS output is energized on bypass as
given application depends upon many
power source. Additionally, in many soon as power is applied from the source
factors, including:
cases, the loads must be isolated from to the system input. The UPS continues
the instabilities of the utility supply and ■ How many power quality problems the the startup procedure automatically when
power quality problems and given clean UPS is expected to solve the front panel controls are placed into
reliable power on a continuous basis, or ■ How much future capacity is to be
the “Online” position. Internal UPS
be able to switch over to reliable clean purchased now for future loads system checks are performed then the
electrical power quickly. input contactor is closed. The static
■ The nature of the sensitive loads and disconnect switch is turned on and the
load wiring conduction angle is rapidly increased
■ Which type of UPS system is favored, from zero to an angle that causes the dc
rotary or static bus voltage between the utility con­verter
■ Choices of battery or dc storage
and the flywheel converter to reach
technology considered approximately 650 V through the
rectifying action of the freewheeling
■ A host of other application issues diodes in the utility converter. As soon
as this level of dc voltage is reached,
the static disconnect turns on fully.

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Static Bypass Option

It = Input Current
Ir = Real Load Current
Ic = Charging Current
Ig = Voltage Regulation Current
Bypass Contactor

It = Ir + Ic + Ig Id = Ih + Ix + Ir
Input Static Disconnect
Output
Contactor Switch Line Inductor
Contactor
Source Load

Flywheel Converter Utility Converter Ic Inverter

Fuse Output Transformer

Ix
dc Filter Inductor Ig Id = Output Current
Field Coil ac
Ih = Harmonic Current
Driver dc ac Ix = Reactive Load Current
Ir = Real Load Current
Ih
Integrated Motor/Flywheel/
and Generator

Figure 86. Typical-High Speed Modern Rotary UPS

The next step involves the utility converter Once the flywheel reaches 60 rpm, the The second component is charging
IGBTs to start firing, which allows the flywheel inverter controls the acceleration current required by the flywheel to keep
converter to act as a rectifier, a regulating to keep currents below the maximum the rotating mass fully charged at rated
voltage source and an active harmonic charging and the maximum input settings. rpm, or to recharge the rotating mass after
filter. As the IGBTs begin to operate, the The point that the fly­wheel reaches a discharge.The power to maintain full
dc bus is increased to a normal operating 4000 rpm, the UPS is fully functional and charge is low at 2 kW and is accomplished
voltage of approximately 800 V, and the capable of support­ing the load during a by the IGBTs of the flywheel converter
output bus is transferred from bypass power quality event. Flywheel acceleration gating to provide small pulses of motoring
to the output of the power electronics continues until the Flywheel reaches current to he flywheel.This current can
module.The transfer from bypass is “full charge” at 7700 rpm.The total time be much higher if fast recharge times
completed when the output contactor is to complete startup is less than 5 minutes. are selected.
closed and the bypass contactor opened
in a make-before-break manner. The final component of input current is
Normal Operation Mode the voltage regulation current, which is
The firing of the SCRs in the static Once the UPS is started and the flywheel usually a reactive current that circulates
disconnect switch is now changed so is operating at greater than 4000 rpm, between the input and the utility
that each SCR in each phase is only turned the UPS is in the normal operating mode converter to regulate the output voltage.
on during the half-cycle, which permits where it is regulating output voltage and Leading reactive current causes a voltage
real power to flow from the utility supply supplying reactive and harmonic currents boost across the line inductor, and a
to the UPS. This firing pattern at the static required by the load. At the same time lagging current causes a bucking voltage.
disconnect switch prevents power from it cancels the effect of load current By controlling the utility converter to
the flywheel from feeding backward into harmonics on the UPS output voltage. maintain nominal output voltage, just
the utility supply and ensures that all of enough reactive current flows through
Input current consists of three
the flywheel energy is available to the line inductor to make up the
components: real load current, charging
support the load. difference between the input voltage
current, and voltage regulation current.
and the output voltage.
Immediately after the output is Real current is current that is in phase with
transferred from bypass to the power the supply voltage and supplies real power The load current consists of three
electronic module, the flywheel field is to the load. Real current flowing through components: the harmonic current
excited, which also provides magnetic the line inductor causes a slight phase required by the load, the reactive load
lift to unload the flywheel bearings. shift of the current lagging the voltage by current, and the real current, which does
The flywheel inverter is turned on and 10 degrees and ensures that the UPS can the work. The utility converter supplies
gradually increases frequency at a quickly transfer to bypass without causing both the harmonic and reactive currents.
constant rate to accelerate the flywheel unacceptable switching transients. Because these currents supply no net
to approximately 60 rpm. power to the load, the flywheel supplies
no energy for these currents. They
circulate between the utility converter
and the load.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 115

Power Quality
The power stage controls analyze the Recharge Mode High-Speed Rotary Advantages
harmonic current requirements of the When input power is restored to ■ Addresses all power quality problems
load and set the firing angle of the inverter acceptable limits, the UPS synchronizes
IGBTs to make the utility converter a very ■ Battery systems are not required
the output and input voltages, closes the or used
low impedance source to any harmonic input contactor and turns on the static
currents.Thus, nonlinear load currents are ■ No battery maintenance required
disconnect switch. The utility converter
supplied almost entirely from the utility then transfers power from the flywheel ■ Unlimited discharge cycles
converter with little effect on the quality to the input source by linearly increasing ■ 150-second recharge time available
of the UPS output voltage waveform the real input current. The transfer time
and with almost no transmission of load ■ Wide range of operating tempera­tures
is program­mable from 1 to 15 seconds.
harmonics currents to the input of As soon as the load power is completely can be accommodated (–20 ° to 40 °C)
the UPS. transferred to the input source, the utility ■ Small compact size and less floor space
converter and flywheel converter start required (500 kW systems takes 20 sq ft)
Discharge Mode to recharge the flywheel and return to ■ N+1 reliability available up to 900 kVA
The UPS senses the deviation of the normal operation mode. The flywheel maximum
voltage or frequency beyond programmed recharge power is programmable
■ No disposal issues
tolerances and quickly disconnects the between a slow and fast rate. Using the
supply source by turning off the static fast rate results in an increase of UPS
High-Speed Rotary Disadvantages
disconnect switch and opening the input input current over nominal levels.
■ Flywheel does not have deep reserve
contactor.The disconnect occurs in less Recharging the flywheel is accom­plished capacity—rides through for up to
than one-half cycle.Then the utility by controlling the utility and flywheel 13 seconds at 100% load
converter starts delivering power from converter in a similar manner as is used
the dc bus to the load, and the flywheel ■ Some enhanced flywheel systems may
to maintain full charge in the normal extend the ride through to 30 seconds
converter changes the firing point of its operation mode, however the IGBT
IGBTs to deliver power to the dc bus. at 100% load
gating points are changed to increase
The UPS maintains a clean output voltage current into the flywheel. ■ Mechanical flywheel maintenance
within 3% or nominal voltage to the load required every 2–3 years, and oil
when input power is lost. changes required every year
■ Recharge fast rates require the input to
be sized for 125% of nominal current
■ Flywheels failures in field not
understood
■ Requires vacuum pumps for
high-speed flywheels
■ Limited number of vendors and
experience

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Power Quality
Static UPS Systems Double Conversion Concept 5. The bypass circuit provides a path
of Operation for unregulated normal power to be
Typical Ratings The basic operation of the Double routed around the major electronic
20 kW to 1 MVA / 1 MW, and higher when Conversion UPS is: sub-assemblies of the UPS to the
multiple units are paralleled. load so that the load can continue to
1. Normal power is connected to the operate during maintenance, or if the
UPS input through the facility UPS electronics fails. The bypass static
Typical Static UPS Configurations electrical distribution system. This switch can switch to conducting mode
Static UPS systems modules are available usually involves two input circuits in <1 millisecond. When the UPS
in three basic types of configurations that can either come from the same recognizes a requirement to transfer
known as standby, line interactive and source or from separate sources such to the bypass mode, it simultaneously
double conversion. The lower power as utility and site generation. turns the static switch ON, the output
ratings are likely to be one of the first two breaker to OPEN, and the bypass
types of configurations, e.g., standby or 2. The Rectifier/Charger function breaker to CLOSE. The output breaker
line interactive. Most medium or large converts the normal ac power to opens and the bypass breaker
static UPS installations use the double dc power to charge the battery and closes in about 50 milliseconds. The
conversion technology in one or multiple power the inverter. The load is isolated restoration of normal conditions
module configurations, i.e., or multiple from the normal input source. at the UPS results in the automatic
UPS units in parallel. 3. The battery stores dc energy for use restoration of the UPS module
Special UPS high-efficiency operating when input power to the UPS fails. powering the load through the
modes like Eco mode or ESS can provide The amount of power available from rectifier/charger and inverter with
efficiency improvements to over 99%, the dc battery system and time to load isolation from power quality
equating to less than 1% losses through discharge voltage is a function of problems, and the opening of the
the UPS. These modes depend on the the type of battery selected and the bypass circuit.
system operating with the static switch ampere-hour sized used. Battery
closed and power conversion sections systems should be sized for no less Static Double Conversion Advantages
suspended (not off). Modern UPSs can than 5 minutes of clean power usage ■ Addresses all power quality problems
instantly revert to traditional double from a fully charged state, and, in
many cases, are sized to provide ■ Suitable for applications from 5 kVA to
conversion operation within 2 ms on over 2500 kVA
detection of any power anomaly. more time on battery power.
■ Simple battery systems are sized
Figure 87 illustrates the one-line diagram 4. The dc link connects the output of the for application
of a simple single Double Conversion rectifier/charger to the input of the
inverter and to the battery.Typically the ■ Long battery backup times and long life
UPS module. Brief explana­tions appear batteries are available
for the standby and line interactive UPS rectifier/charger is sized slightly higher
systems after the text explaining the than 100% of UPS output because it ■ Higher reliability is available using
Double Conversion static UPS type of must power the inverter and supply redundant UPS modules
system. charger power to the battery.

Bypass Breaker (Optional) UPS Module

Bypass Static Switch

Source Load
Normal Rectifier/Charger Output
Inverter
Breaker Breaker
ac dc
dc ac

Battery Breaker

Battery

Figure 87. Typical Static UPS, Double Conversion Type with Battery Backup

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 117

Power Quality
Static Double Conversion 3. The battery stores dc energy for use Static Line Interactive UPS
Disadvantages by the inverter when input power to Concept of Operation
■ Battery systems, battery maintenance the UPS fails. The amount of power The basic operation of the Line Interactive
and battery replacement are required available from the dc battery system UPS is:
and time to discharge voltage is a
■ Large space requirement for battery 1. The Line Interactive type of UPS has
function of the type of battery selected
systems (higher life takes more space, and the ampere-hour sized used. a different topology than the static
e.g., 500 kW takes 80–200 sq ft Battery systems should be sized for double conversion and standby
depending upon the type of battery the anticipated outage. systems. The normal input power is
used, VRLA 10 year, VRLA 20 year connected to the load in parallel with
or flooded) 4. The dc link connects the output of the a battery and bi-directional inverter/
■ Limited discharge cycles of rectifier/charger to the input of the charger assembly. The input source
battery system inverter and to the battery. Typically usually terminates at a line inductor
the rectifier/charger is sized only to and the output of the inductor is
■ Narrow temperature range
supply charger power to the battery, connected to the load in parallel
for application and is rated far lower than in the with the battery and inverter/charger
■ Efficiencies are in the 90–97% double conversion UPS. circuit. See Figure 89 for more details.
■ Bypass mode places load at risk unless
5. The bypass circuit provides a direct 2. The traditional rectifier circuit is
bypass has UPS backup connection of bypass source to eliminated and this results in
■ Redundancy of UPS modules results the load. The load operates from a smaller footprint and weight
in higher costs unregulated power. The bypass static reduction. However, line
■ Output faults are cleared by the switch can switch to non-conducting conditioning is compromised.
bypass circuit mode in <8 milliseconds. When the
UPS recognizes the loss of normal 3. When the input power fails, the
■ Output rating of the UPS is 150%
input power, it transfers to battery/ battery/inverter charger circuit
■ Battery disposal and safety issues exist inverter mode by simultaneously reverses power and supplies the
turning the Inverter ON and the load with regulated power.
Standby UPS Concept of Operation static switch OFF.
The basic operation of the Standby Static Line Interactive UPS Advantages
UPS is: Static Standby UPS Advantages ■ Slight improvement of power
■ Lower costs than double conversion conditioning over standby
1. The Standby UPS topology is similar UPS systems
to the double conversion type, but the ■ Rectifier and charger are
operation of the UPS is different in economically sized ■ Small footprints and weights
significant ways. Normal power is ■ Efficient design ■ Efficient design
connected to the UPS input through ■ Batteries are sized for the application ■ Batteries are sized for the application
the facility electrical distribution
system. This usually involves two Static Standby UPS Disadvantages Static Line Interactive
input circuits that can come from UPS Disadvantages
one or two sources such as utility ■ Impractical over 2 kVA
and site generation. See Figure 88 for ■ Little to no isolation of load from power ■ Impractical over 10 kVA
details. quality disturbances ■ Not as good conditioning as
■ Standby power is from battery alone double conversion
2. The rectifier/charger function converts
■ Battery systems, battery mainte­nance ■ Standby power is from battery alone
the normal ac power to dc power to
charge the battery only, and does not and battery replacement are required ■ Battery systems, battery maintenance
simultaneously power the inverter. ■ Limited discharge cycles of and battery replacement are required
The load is connected to the bypass battery system ■ Limited discharge cycles for the
source through the bypass static battery system
■ Narrow temperature range
switch. The inverter is in the standby
for application ■ Narrow temperature range
mode ready to serve the load from
battery power if the input power ■ Output faults are cleared by the for application
source fails. bypass circuit ■ Battery disposal and safety issues exist
■ Battery disposal and safety issues exist

118 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Power Quality

UPS Module

Bypass Static Switch

Source Load
Rectifier/
Normal Charger Inverter Output
Breaker Breaker
ac dc

dc ac
Battery
Breaker

Battery

Figure 88. Typical Static UPS, Standby Type with Battery Backup

UPS Module

Source Load

Inductor

Bidirectional
Inverter/Charger

dc

ac

Battery

Figure 89. Typical Static UPS, Line Interactive Type with Battery Backup

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 119

Other Application Considerations
Seismic Requirements

General
In the 1980s, Eaton embarked on a
comprehensive program centered
around designing and building electrical
distribution and control equipment
capable of meeting and exceeding the
seismic load require­ments of the Uniform
Building Code (UBC) and California
Building Code (CBC). These codes
emphasize build­ing design requirements.
Electrical equipment and distribution
system components are considered
attach­ments to the building. The entire
program has been updated to show
compliance with the 2015 International
Building Code (IBC) and the 2016 CBC
seismic requirements.
A cooperative effort with the equip­ment Figure 90. Typical Earthquake Ground Motion Map for the United States
user, the building designer and the
equipment installer ensures that the International Building Code (IBC) California Building Code
equipment is correctly anchored such On December 9, 1994, the International The 2001 CBC was based upon the 1997
that it can withstand the effects of an Code Council (ICC) was established as UBC. In August of 2006, it was repealed
earthquake. Eaton’s electrical distribution a nonprofit organization dedicated to by the California Building Standards
and control equipment has been tested developing a single set of compre­hensive Commission (CBSC) and replaced by the
and seismically proven for requirements and coordinated codes.The ICC founders 2007 CBC, California Code of Regulations
in compliance with the IBC and CBC. Over —the Building Officials and Code (CCR),Title 24, Part 2 and used the 2006
100 different assemblies representing Administrators (BOCA), the International IBC as the basis for the code.The 2016
essentially all product lines have been Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), CBC is based upon the 2015 IBC, with
successfully tested and verified to seismic and the Southern Building Code Congress amendments as deemed appropriate by
require­ments specified in the IBC and CBC. International (SBCCI)—created the ICC in the CBSC. Eaton’s seismic qualification
The equipment maintained structural response to technical disparities among program fully envelopes the requirements
integrity and demonstrated the ability to the three nationally recognized model of the 2016 CBC with many of the
function immediately after the seismic codes now in use in the U.S.The ICC offers distribution and control products having
tests. A technical paper, Earthquake a single, complete set of construction Seismic Certification Pre-approval with
Requirements and Eaton Distribution and codes without regional limitations—the the California Office of Statewide Health
Control Equipment Seismic Capabilities International Building Code. Planning and Development (OSHPD).
(SA12501SE), provides a detailed
explanation of the applicable seismic
codes and Eaton’s equipment qualification Uniform Building Code (UBC) Process
program.The paper may be found at 1997 was the final year in which the UBC According to Chapter 16 of the 2015 IBC,
www.eaton.com/seismic.Type in was published. It has since been replaced structure design, the seismic requirements
SA12501SE in the document search field. by the IBC. of electrical equipment in buildings may
be computed in two steps.The first step is
to determine the maximum ground
motion to be considered at the site.The
second step is to evaluate the equipment
mounting and attachments inside the
building or structure.These are then
evaluated to determine appropriate
seismic test requirements.The ground
motion, seismic requirements of the
equipment, and the seismic response
spectrum requirements are discussed
on Page 122, see Figure 92.

120 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Other Application Considerations
Ground Motion As a result, the adjusted maximum According to the IBC and ASCE 7, the
The first step in the process is to considered earthquake spectral response spectral acceleration (Sa) at periods less
determine the maximum considered for 0.2 second short period (SMS) and at than 1.45 seconds may be com­puted by
earthquake spectral response accelera­ 1.0 second (SM1), adjusted for site class using the following formula:
tion at short periods of 0.2 seconds (SS) effects, are determined from the
following equations: Sa = SDS (0.6 T/T0 + 0.4)
and at a period of 1.0 second (S1). These
values are determined from a set of SMS = Fa SS = 1.0 x 3.73 g = 3.73 g Where T is the period where Sa is being
spectral acceleration maps (Figure 90) calculated:
and include numerous contour lines SM1 = Fv S1 = 1.5 x 1.389 g = 2.08 g
Therefore, the acceleration at 0.0417
indicating the severity of the earthquake
ASCE 7 (American Society of Civil seconds (24 Hz), for example, is equal to:
requirements at a particular location in
Engineers) provides a plot of the final
the country. Sa = 2.49 (0.6 ((0.0417/0.112) + 0.4) = 1.55 g
shape of the design response spectra
The spectral acceleration maps indicate of the seismic ground motion. The plot The acceleration at 0.03 seconds (33 Hz)
low to moderate seismic requirements is shown in Figure 91. ASCE 7 is is equal to:
for the entire country, with the exception referenced throughout the IBC as
of two particular areas; the West Coast the source for numerous structural Sa = 2.49 (0.6 (0.3/0.112) + 0.4) = 1.40 g
and the Midwest (the New Madrid area). design criteria.
At zero period (infinite frequency), T = 0.0,
The maps indicate that the high seismic the acceleration (ZPA) is equal to:
The design spectral acceleration curve
require­ments in both regions, West
can now be computed. The peak spec­tral
Coast and Midwest, quickly decrease Sa = 2.49 (0.6 (0.0/0.112) + 0.4) = 0.996 g
acceleration (SDS) and the spectral
as one moves away from the fault area. (ZPA)
acceleration at 1.0 second (SD1) may
Therefore, the high requirements are only
now be computed from the following
limited to a relatively narrow strip along The acceleration to frequency
formulas in the code:
the fault lines. Just a few miles away from relationship in the frequency range of 1.0
this strip, only a small percentage of the SDS = 2/3 x SMS = 2/3 x 3.73 g = 2.49 g Hz to TS is stated equal to:
maximum requirements are indicated.
SD1 = 2/3 x SM1 = 2/3 x 2.08 g = 1.39 g Sa = SD1/T
Assuming the worse condition, which
is a site directly located near a fault, SDS, the peak spectral acceleration, Where Sa is the acceleration at theT period.
the maximum considered earthquake extends between the values of T0 and TS. At 1.0 Hz (T=1.0) this equation yields the
spectral response acceleration at short T0 and TS are defined in the codes as following acceleration:
periods of 0.2 seconds (SS) is equal to follows:
285% gravity and at 1.0 second period (S1) Sa = 1.39/1 = 1.39 g
is 124% gravity. These numbers are the T0 = 0.2 SD1/SDS = 0.2 x 1.39/2.49 =
maximum numbers for the entire country. 0.112 seconds (8.96 Hz)
To help understand the 2015 IBC (and
TS = SD1/SDS = 1.39/2.49 =
2016 CBC) seismic parameters for a
specific building location, the link to 5.585 seconds (1.79 Hz)
the US Geological Society is extremely
helpful: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/
research/hazmaps/design/
Spectural Response Acceleration Sa(g)

The program will allow one to enter the

latitude and longitude of a location. The SDS
IBC (CBC) seismic parameters for that SD1
location will then be displayed. Sa =
T
To determine the maximum considered
earthquake ground motion for most
SD1 SD1 TL
site classes (A through D), the code Sa =
T2
introduces site coefficients, which when
applied against the location-specific site
class, produces the adjusted maximum
considered earthquake spectral response
acceleration for the required site. The T0 TS 1.0 TL
site coefficients are defined as Fa at 0.2 Period T (sec)
seconds short period and FV at 1.0 second
period. From the tables in the code, the Figure 91. Design Response Spectrum
highest adjust­ing factor for SS is equal to
1.0 and the highest adjusting factor for S1
is 1.50.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 121

Other Application Considerations
Testing has demonstrated that the lowest
dominant natural frequency of Eaton’s 10
electrical equipment is above 3.2 Hz. This 9
8
indicates that testing at 1.39 g at 1 Hz is 7 Test Response Spectrum Zero Period

Acceleration (g peak)
not necessary. In addition, having the 6 (TRS) Acceleration = Maximum
5
low end of the spectra higher than Table Test Motion
4
realistically required forces the shake
table to move at extremely high 3

displacements to meet the spectral Spectrum Dip – Not Important

2
acceleration at the low frequencies. Because Frequency is Not an
Equipment Natural Frequency
Testing to accommodate the low end
of the spectra using this acceleration 1.0
.9
component can result in testing to a .8
.7
factor 2 to 3 times greater than that .6 Required Response Spectrum Zero Period
realistically required. .5 (RRS) Acceleration = Maximum
.4 Floor Motion
Through testing experience and data
analysis, the seismic acceleration at .3

1.0 Hz is taken equal to 0.7 g, which .2

will ensure that the seismic levels are
achieved well below 3.2 Hz. This yields
a more vigorous test over a wider range .1
4 5 6 78 9 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
of seismic intensities. 1 2 3
Frequency Hz
In developing the seismic requirements
above, it is important to recognize the Figure 92. Design Response Spectrum
following:
This completes the ground motion SDS = Ground level spectral acceleration,
T0 and TS are dependent on SMS and SD1. design response spectrum. The spectral short period.
If SD1 is small relative to SMS then T0 and TS accelerations are equal to 0.76 g at ZPA,
or 33 Hz, and increases linearly to a peak Wp = Component operating weight.
will be smaller and the associated
frequencies will shift higher. The opposite acceleration of 1.90 g at 0.09 seconds Rp = Component response modifica­tion
is also true. This must be realized in (or 11.49 Hz) and stays constant to factor that for electrical equipment varies
developing the complete required 0.653 seconds (1.53 Hz), then gradually from 2.5 to 6.0.
response spectrum (RRS). Therefore, it decreases to 1.24 g at 1 second (or 1.0 Hz).
is not adequate to stop the peak spectral This curve is shown in Figure 92. Ip = Component importance factor that is
acceleration at 8.96 Hz. There are other either 1.0 or 1.5.
contour line combinations that will Z = Highest point of equipment in a
produce higher T0. To account for this ASCE 7—Seismic Demands on
building relative to grade elevation.
variation it is almost impossible to Non-Structural Components
consider all combinations. However, a ASCE 7 provides a formula for computing h = Average roof height of building
study of the spectral acceleration maps the seismic requirements of electrical and relative to grade elevation.
indicates that all variations with high mechanical equipment inside a building
magnitude of contour lines could very The following parameters produce the
or a structure. The formula is designed for maximum required force:
well be enveloped by a factor of 1.25. evaluating the equipment attachment to
Therefore, T0 is recomputed as follows: the equip­ment foundations. The seismic ■ Z is taken equal to h (equipment on roof)
loads are defined as: Ip is taken equal to 1.5
T0 = 0.2 SD1/(SDS x 1.25) = 0.2 x 1.39/ ■
(2.49 x 1.25) = 0.089 seconds (11.20 Hz) Fp = 0.4 ap SDS Wp (1 + 2 Z/h)/(Rp/Ip) ■ ap is taken equal to 2.5

Eaton ensures maximum certification by Where: ■ Rp is taken equal to 2.5

requiring peak acceleration during testing ■ SDS is equal to 2.49 g as indicated in the
to extend to 12 Hz. Fp = Seismic design force imposed at previous section
the component’s center of gravity (C.G.)
It can be seen that Eaton has elected to and distributed relative to component The acceleration (Fp/Wp) at the C.G. of the
develop generic seismic requirements mass distribution. equipment is then computed equal to:
that envelop two criteria:
ap = Component amplification factor that Acceleration = Fp/Wp = 0.4 x 2.5 x 2.49 g
■ The highest possible spectral peak varies from 1.00 to 2.50. (1 + 2) / (2.5/1.5) = 4.482 g
accelerations and ZPA
■ The maximum frequency range
required for many different sites

122 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Other Application Considerations
For equipment on (or below) grade, the
acceleration at the equipment C.G. is then
computed equal to: Required Response Spectrum
10
Acceleration = Fp/Wp = 0.4 x 2.5 x 2.49 g
(1 + 0) / (2.5 /1.5) = 1.49 g
It is impractical to attempt to measure the

Acceleration (g)
actual acceleration of the C.G. of a piece
of equipment under seismic test. The
seismic response at the middle of base 1
mounted equipment close to its C.G. is at
least 50% higher than the floor input at
the equipment natural frequency. The
base accelerations associated with the
accelerations of FP/WP at the C.G. of the
equipment could then be computed as 0.1
4.48 /1.5 = 2.99 g. It is the equipment base 1 10 100
input acceleration that is measured and Frequency (Hz)
documented during seismic testing and is
the acceleration value shown on Eaton’s Eaton Seismic IBC 2015/CBC 2016
seismic certificates.
Figure 93. Required Response Spectrum Curve
Final Combined Requirements
To better compare all seismic levels and
determine the final envelope seismic
100% vs. 120%
requirements, the 2016 CBC and 2015 IBC
10
for California are plotted in Figure 93. All
curves are plotted at 5% damping.
An envelopment of the seismic levels in
the frequency range of 3.2 Hz to 100 Hz is
also shown. This level is taken as Eaton’s
Acceleration (g)

generic seismic test requirements for all

certifications. Eaton performed additional 1
seismic test runs on the equipment
at approximately 120% of the generic
enveloping seismic requirements
(see Figure 94). Eaton has established this
methodology to provide additional margin
to accommodate potential changes with 0.1
the spectral maps, thus eliminat­ing the 1 10 100
need for additional testing. Frequency (Hz)

Eaton 100% Seismic Envelope Eation 120% Seismic Envelope

Figure 94. Eaton Test Required Response Spectrum Curve

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 123

Other Application Considerations
Product Specific Test Summaries
Table 55. Distribution Equipment
Tested and Seismically Proven Against
Requirements within IBC 2015
Note: For most current information,
see www.eaton.com/seismic.

Eaton Equipment

MV Metal-Clad Switchgear, VacClad-W

MV Metal-Enclosed Switchgear:
MEF Front Access
MV Metal-Enclosed Switchgear; MVS, MEB
MV Motor Starters: Ampgard
MV Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)
MV Busway: Non-Segregated
Unitized Power Centers
Spot Network Equipment
LV Metal-Enclosed Drawout Switchgear:
Magnum
LV Busway
LV Motor Control Centers (MCC)
Switchboards
Panelboards
Dry-Type DistributionTransformers (DTDT)
Transfer Switch Equipment
Enclosed Molded Case Circuit Breakers
Safety Switches
Elevator Control
Enclosed Motor Starters & Contactors
Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)
CAT Generator Paralleling Switchgear
Resistance Grounding Systems
IEC Equipment
Solar Systems Interconnect Equipment
Fire Pump Controllers
Residential/Light Commercial Metering
& Distribution
Note: See www.eaton.com/seismic for
current seismic certificates.

Figure 95. Sample Seismic Certificate

124 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Other Application Considerations
Additional Design and Note: Eaton recommends that designers Energy Conservation
confirm with the manufacturer if the seismic
Installation Considerations certification supplied with the equipment is Because of the greatly increased cost of
When installing electrical distribution and based on: electrical power, designers must consider
control equipment, consideration must be the efficiency of electrical distribution
given as to how the methods employed 1. ACTUAL shaker table test as required systems, and design for energy
will affect seismic forces imposed on the by the IBC and CBC. conservation. In the past, especially in
equipment, equipment mounting surface, commercial buildings, design was for
2. The seismic certificate and test data lowest first cost, because energy was
and conduits entering the equipment. clearly state if the equipment was inexpensive.Today, even in the speculative
Eaton recommends that when specify­ing tested as free-standing—anchored at office building, operating costs are so
a brand of electrical distribution and the bottom of the equipment to the high that energy-conserving designs can
control equipment, the designer shaker table. justify their higher initial cost with a rapid
references the installation manuals of 3. Structure attached, that is, anchored payback and continuing savings.The
that manufacturer to ascertain that the at the center of gravity (C.G.) or at the leading standard for energy conservation
requirements can be met through the TOP of the equip­ment to a simulated is ASHRAE 90.1 (latest is 2016) and
design and construction process. wall on the shaker table. International Energy Conservation Code
(IECC) as adopted by the International
For Eaton electrical distribution and Building Code (IBC).
control products, the seismic installa­tion Stand-Alone or Free-Standing
guides for essentially all product lines Equipment There are four major sources of
can be found at our Web site: If stand-alone or free-standing, then this electrical energy conservation in
http://www.eaton.com/seismic. may require that additional width space a commercial building: 1) Lighting
be allowed at each end of the equipment Systems, 2) Motors and controls,
Electrical designers must work closely 3) Transformers, 4) HVAC system.
for additional seismic bracing supplied by
with the structural or civil engineers for
the manufacturer.
a seismic qualified installation. The lighting system must take advantage
Additional thought must be given to the of the newest equipment and techniques.
Consideration must be given to the type New light sources, familiar light sources
clearances around the equipment to rigid
of material providing anchorage for the with higher efficiencies, solid-state
structural edifices. Space must be
electrical equipment. ballasts with dimming controls, use of
allowed for the differing motions of the
If steel, factors such as thickness or equipment and the structure, so that they daylight, environmental design, efficient
gauge, attachment via bolts or welding, do not collide during a seis­mic event and luminaires, computerized or programmed
and the size and type of hardware must damage one another. control, and the like, are some of the
be considered. methods that can increase the efficiency
Note: If the equipment is installed as stand- of lighting systems. They add up to
If concrete, the depth, the PSI, the type alone or free-standing, with additional seismic
providing the necessary amount of light,
bracing at each end and not attached to the
of re-enforcing bars used, as well as the with the desired color rendition, from the
structure as tested, and yet, it is fitted tightly
diameter and embedment of anchorage against a structural wall, then this would be an most efficient sources, where and when it
all must be considered. incorrect installation for the application of the is needed, and not providing light where
seismic certificate. or when it is not necessary.
The designer must also give consider­
ation if the equipment will be secured to The installation of energy-efficient
Furthermore, if conduits are to be
the wall, versus stand-alone or free- lighting provides the best payback for
installed overhead into the equipment,
standing, which requires the equipment the lowest initial investment and should
does the design call for flexible conduits
to withstand the highest level of seismic be considered the first step in a facility
of sufficient length to allow for the
forces. Top cable entry should be avoided energy reduction program.
conflicting motion of the equipment and
for large enclosures, as accommodation
the structure during a seismic event so as Motors and controls are another cause
for cable/conduit flexibility will need to be
to not damage the conductors contained of wasted energy that can be reduced.
designed into the system.
therein, and the terminations points New, energy-efficient motor designs are
For a manufacturer to simply state within the equipment. available using more and better core
“Seismic Certified” or “Seismic steel, and larger windings.
Qualified” does not tell the designer Structure Attached Equipment
if the equipment is appropriate for the The designer must work closely with the
intended installation. structural engineer if the equipment is to
be attached to the structure to ascertain
that the internal wall re-enforcement of
the structure, type of anchor, and depth
of embed­ment is sufficient to secure
the equipment so that the equipment,
conduits and structure move at or near
the same frequency.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 125

Other Application Considerations
For any motor operating 10 or more hours The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has HVAC systems have traditionally been
per day, the use of energy-efficient types established energy efficiency standards very wasteful of energy, often being
is strongly recommended. These motors that manufacturers of distribution designed for lowest first cost. This, too, is
have a premium cost of about 20% more transformers must comply with since changing. For example, reheat systems
than standard motors. Depending on 2007. As of January 1, 2016, the DOE are being replaced by variable air volume
loading, hours of use and the cost of standard CFR Title 10 Chapter II Part 431 systems, resulting in equal comfort with
energy, the additional initial cost could be (in Appendix A of Subpart K 2016) substantial increases in efficiency. While
repaid in energy saved within a few requires increased minimum operat­ing the electrical engineer has little influence
months, and it rarely takes more than two efficiencies for each distribution on the design of the HVAC system,
years. Because, over the life of a motor, transformer size at a loading equal to he/she can specify that all motors
the cost of energy to operate it is many 35% of the transformer full load kVA. The with continuous or long duty cycles are
times the cost of the motor itself, any 35% loading value in the NEMA standard specified as energy-efficient types, and
motor with many hours of use should be reflects field studies conducted by the that the variable-air-volume fans do not
of the energy-efficient type. U.S. Department of Energy, which use inlet vanes or outlet dampers, but
showed that dry-type transformers are driven by variable-speed drives.
Where a motor drives a load with variable installed in commercial facilities are
output requirements such as a centrifugal typically loaded at an average of 35% of Variable speed drives can often be
pump or a large fan, customary practice their full load capacity over a 24-hour time desirable on centrifugal compressor units
has been to run the motor at constant period. Figure 96 compares losses for as well. Because some of these require-
speed, and to throttle the pump output or both low temperature rise TP-1 and DOE ments will be in HVAC specifications, it
use inlet vanes or outlet dampers on the 2016 transformers using a 75 kVA design. is important for the energy-conscious
fan. This is highly inefficient and wasteful electrical engineer to work closely with
of energy. In order to achieve maximum the HVAC engineer at the design stage to
energy efficiency in these applications, ensure that these systems are as energy
solid-state variable frequency, variable efficient as possible.
speed drives for AC induction motors
are available as a reliable and relatively
inexpensive option. Using a variable-
Former TP-1 Versus NEW DOE 2016 Transformer Loss Comparison
speed drive, the throttling valves, inlet for 75 kVA Copper Wound
vanes or output dampers can be 3500
80C, 115C and 150C Temperature Rated Designs

eliminated, saving their initial cost and

energy over the life of the system. An
2903
additional benefit of both energy-efficient 3000

motors and variable speed drives used to 2557

control the speed of variable torque 2500 2346
loads, such as centrifu­gal fans and 2146
2075
pumps, is that the motors operate at
Watts Losses

2000 1848 1837

reduced temperatures, resulting in 1753
1640
increased motor life. 1612
1519
1615
1407 1426
1500 1333
Transformers have inherent losses. 1238 1202 1508
1104 1334
Transformers, like motors, are designed 911
1040
1127
1000
for lower losses by using more and better 976
core materials, larger conductors, etc., 857
759
838

and this results in increased initial cost. 500

545 598
666
360
Because the 480 V to 208Y/120 V 300
256
stepdown transformers in an office 0
193

building are usually energized 24 hours 0% 25% 35% 50% 75% 100%
a day, savings from lower losses can be Percentage of Load
substantial, and should be consid­ered
DOE 2016 Efficient 150C TP-1 Efficient 150C DOE 2016 Efficient 115C
in all transformer specifications. One
method of obtain­ing reduced losses is to TP-1 Efficient 115C DOE 2016 Efficient 80C TP-1 Efficient 80C

specify Premium Efficiency transformers

with no more than 80 °C (or sometimes Figure 96. Former TP-1 NEW DOE 2016 Transformer Loss Comparison for 75 kVA Copper Wound
115 °C) average winding temperature rise
at full load. These transformers generate
less heat than standard 150 °C rise
transformers, resulting in lower HVAC
operating costs to remove the heat in
areas where they are located.

126 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Other Application Considerations
Building Control Systems Increasingly, advanced signaling is Prime Power
being implemented utilizing sensors that DER can be used for generating prime
In order to obtain the maximum benefit communicate wirelessly to gateways that
from these energy-saving lighting, power power or for cogeneration. Prime power
connect them back to the master control concerns a system that is electrically
and HVAC systems, they must be system.The newest systems are using
controlled to perform their functions separated from the electrical grid.
fiber optic cables as the Ethernet backbone Prime power is generated at remote
most efficiently. Constant monitoring to carry tremendous quantities of data,
would be required for manual operation sites where commercial electrical power
free from electromagnetic interference is not available.
but is impractical and not cost-effective back to the master control system and
given the skilled labor rates of facilities auxiliary building systems. While the
engineering personnel. In order to ensure
optimum energy performance, some
actual method used will depend on the Cogeneration
type, number and complexity of functions Cogeneration is another outgrowth of the
form of automatic control is required. to be performed, the commonality of high cost of energy. Cogeneration is the
The simplest of these energy-saving exchanging data at the Ethernet level is production of electric power con­currently
controls is a time clock to turn various a prime consideration in the selection of with the production of steam, hot water
systems on and off. Where flexible control equipment that will need to be integrated and similar energy uses.The electric power
is required, programmable controllers into the overall system. Eaton offers a can be the main prod­uct, and steam or
may be used. These range from simple variety of metering, protection and control hot water the byproduct, as in most
devices, similar to multi-function devices that can be used as local Web commercial installations, or the steam
time clocks, to fully programmable, servers as well as to communicate over or hot water can be the most required
microprocessor-based devices that run Ethernet LANs by BACnet/IP or Modbus product, and electric power a byproduct,
dedicated software to control specific TCP to other master control systems. as in many industrial installations. In
loads or processes. Because building design and control f some industries, cogeneration has been
or maximum energy saving is important common practice for many years, but until
For complete control of all building recently it has not been economically
systems, building management systems and complex, and frequently involves
many functions and several systems, feasible for most commercial installations.
(BMS) with specialized software can be
used. Computers can not only control it is necessary for the design engineer This has been changed by the high cost of
lighting and HVAC systems, and provide to make a thorough building and purchased energy, plus federal and state
peak demand control to minimize the cost environmental study, and to weigh the policies incentivizing public utilities to
of energy, but they can perform many costs and advantages of many systems. purchase any excess power generated
other functions. Fire detection and alarm The result of good design and planning by the cogeneration plant. In many cases,
systems that generally have their own can be economical, efficient operation. practical commercial cogeneration
dedicated control system can report back Poor design can be wasteful and systems have been built that provide some
information to the BMS System. Other extremely costly. or all of the electric power required, plus
auxiliary systems, such as elevator hot water, steam, and sometimes steam
control and various aspects of access absorption-type air conditioning. Such
and intrusion control, often have the Distributed Energy Resources cogeneration systems are now operating
capability to be integrated to share Distributed energy resources (DER) success­fully in hospitals, shopping
information with the BMS. Other building are increasingly becoming prominent centers, high-rise apartment buildings
systems, such as closed-circuit television sources of electric power. Distributed and even commercial office buildings.
monitoring, are increasingly sharing data energy resources are usually small-to-
and bandwidth over the same Ethernet medium sources of electric generation, Where a cogeneration system is being
backbone with the building manage­ment either from renewable or non-renew­able considered, the electrical distribution
computer system. sources. Sources include: system becomes more complex. The
interface with the utility company is
The time clocks, programmable controllers ■ Photovoltaic (PV) systems critical, requiring careful relaying to
and computers can obtain data from (solar systems) protect both the utility and the
external sensors and control the lighting, ■ Energy storage systems (battery) cogeneration system. Many utilities
motors and other equipment by means of ■ Wind
have stringent requirements that must
hard wiring-separate wires to and from be incorporated into the system. Proper
each piece of equipment. In the more ■ Fossil-fueled (diesel, natural gas, generator control and protection is
complex systems, this would result in a landfill gas, coal-bed methane) necessary, as well. An on-site electrical
tremendous number of control wires, so generators (reciprocating engines) generating plant tied to an electrical utility
other methods are frequently used. A ■ Gas-fired turbines (natural gas, landfill requires a sophisticated engineering
single pair of wires, with electronic digital gas, coal-bed methane) design, interconnection application and
multiplexing, can control or obtain data ■ Water-powered (hydro) system impact studies.
from many different points.
■ Fuel cells
■ Microturbines
■ Wave power
■ Coal-fired boilers

Distributed energy resources may also be

termed alternative energy resources.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 127

Other Application Considerations
Utilities require that when the protective For installation in/on/for existing Seek the solar module data sheet for a
device at their substation opens that structures and sites, it is advised that, at list of standard test condition (STC) data,
the device connecting a cogenerator the minimum, pre-design and construction temperature coefficients, and any special
to the utility open also. This is often tests be performed for existing power- module-related information to determine
accomplished by Transfer Trip Systems quality issues, water drainage and the the low-temperature open circuit voltage.
utilizing dedicated fiber optic connectivity utility feeder/transformer. The prevailing industry practice, requires
and local multiplex­ing equipment. the use of the site’s Extreme Annual Mean
Additionally, electrical distribution panel Minimum Design Dry Bulb Temperature
This can add considerable cost and ratings ampacity and short-circuit ratings data, available in the ASHRAE Handbook.
complexity to the design as well as must be sufficient for the planned solar Code requires that the resulting
reoccuring monthly charges to pay system, and the necessary arc flash maximum voltage (Voc) when added
for the use of the dedicated fiber. studies be performed. Connection to the in the “string of modules” be under
utility is always preceded by a utility maximum system voltage. Record low
One reason for these complex inter­connect agreement (application)
Transfer Trip arrangements is that most temperatures provide an indication of
process. Successful approval is typically system performance when tempera­tures
cogenerators are connected to feeders required for the available solar incentives
serving other customers. Utilities desire drop to these levels. Power Xpert Solar
and programs offered by the utility, inverters are designed to 1000 Vdc and
to reclose the feeder after a transient municipality, state, and various federal
fault is cleared. Reclosing in most cases 1500 Vdc standards.
agencies and depart­ments. State,
will damage the cogenerator if it had and IRS tax incentives require well-
remained connected to their system. documented records. High Temperature Equation
Islanding is another reason why the Once the maximum number of modules
Solar systems, while low maintenance, per string is established, the minimum
utility insists on the disconnection of the do require periodic service. The solar
cogenerator. Islanding is the event that number of modules per string needs to
modules need to be washed-clean on a be calculated. Here, more site-related
after a fault in the utility’s system is cleared regular basis and electrical termina­tions
by the operation of the protective devices, aspects come into play, as the voltage of
require initial and annual checks. Cooling solar modules decreases with increasing
a part of the system may continue to system filters are periodic maintenance
be supplied by cogeneration. Such a tempera­ture. The modules’ (photovoltaic
items, with the re-fresh rate dependent cell) temperature is influenced by the
condition is dangerous to the utility’s upon typical and unusual circumstances.
operation during restoration work. ambient temperature, reflected sun-loads
Solar systems installed near other new from nearby structures, parapet walls,
Major cogenerators are connected to construction where dust is generated roof-coatings, etc.
the subtransmission or the transmission (e.g., grading, paving) or agricultural
system of a utility. Major cogenerators Air-flow above and behind the solar
environments may require additional modules affect the cell temperature. The
have buy-sell agreements. In such cases, solar-system checks and services.
utilities will use a trip transfer scheme to accepted industry standards to add to the
Planning for such contingencies is the module heating are listed below. Unusual
trip the cogenerator breaker. business of solar-system design, mounting systems may adjust these
Guidelines that are given in IEEE 1547 construction and on-going operation. figures, and it is best to seek assistance
and IEEE P2030 are starting points, but Performance-based incentives require in establishing and planning such
the entire design should be coordinated verifiable metering, often by registered/ installations.
with the utility. approved independent third parties. Such
monitoring periods are typically for 60 or ■ 15–20 °C for ground or pole mounted
more months. solar systems
PV System Design Considerations It is generally wise to involve engineer­ing ■ 20–25 °C for roof-top solar systems
Successful photovoltaic (PV) design and design firms that specialize in complete mounted at inclined angles (offers
construction is a complex multi-discipline solar systems “turn-key” calculations, improved air-flow behind the modules)
endeavor. Proper planning includes site drawings, construction management ■ 25–30 °C for roof-top solar systems
survey and solar site assessment for and procurement. mounted flat, yet at least 6.00 inches
maximizing the sun’s energy harvesting (152.4 mm) above the roof surface
for solar module selection, and for The following equations are the basis of
updating the electrical/mechanical design all solar system layout and design. Vmp_min = Vmp + (temp-differential x
and construction to the latest code and temp-coefficient-of-Vmp)
local constraints, including fire marshal Low Temperature Equation
Voc_max = Voc + (temp-differential x The temp-differential in this case includes
and seismic regulations. Professionally
temp-coefficient-of-Voc) the above temperature “adders.” The Vmp
prepared bid, permit, construction and
and related temperature coefficients are
as-built drawings must be required
The temp-differential is the difference listed on the solar module’s data sheets.
and maintained.
between the standard module rating
at 25 °C and the low temperature. The
voltage (Voc) will rise with temperatures
under 25 °C.

128 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Other Application Considerations
While the code doesn’t indicate the high All wiring from emergency source to Where the emergency or standby source,
temperature to use (i.e., because it is emergency loads must be kept separate such as an engine generator or separate
an equipment application issue), the from all other wiring and equipment, in service, has capacity to supply the entire
industry standard is to evaluate the its own distribution and raceway system, system, the transfer scheme can be either
ASHRAE 2% high temperature figures, except in transfer equipment enclosures a full-capacity automatic transfer switch,
coupled to known location differences. and similar locations. or, less costly but equally effective,
Record high temperatures provide an normal and emergency main circuit
indication of system performance when The most common power source for breakers, electrically interlocked such
climatic condition reaches these levels. large emergency loads is an engine- that on failure of the normal supply the
generator set, but the NEC also permits emergency supply is connected to the
Beyond the damaging temperature affects the emergency supply (subject to local load. However, if the emergency or
on photovoltaic module Vmp voltage code requirements) to be storage standby source does not have capacity
levels, voltage drop in PV conductors batteries, uninterruptible power supplies, for the full load, as is usually the case,
under such conditions also need to be a separate emergency service, or a such a scheme would require automatic
calculated and evaluated, beyond normal connection to the service ahead of disconnection of the nonessential loads
temperatures.The inverter only uses the normal service discon­necting before transfer.
(knows) the Vmp voltage at the inverter, means. Unit equipment for emergency
not at the PV modules. illumination, with a rechargeable battery, A simpler and more economical approach
a charger to keep it at full capacity when is a separate emergency bus, supplied
Increasing grid voltages also puts a normal power is on, one or more lamps, through an automatic transfer switch, to
constraint on the minimum Vmp voltage and a relay to connect the battery to feed all critical loads. The transfer switch
at the DC input stage. the lamps on loss of normal power, is connects this bus to the normal supply,
To ensure the full MPPT range without also permitted. in normal operation. On failure of the
power-clipping (reduced power output), normal supply, the engine-generator is
Because of the critical nature of started, and when it is up to speed the
prudent PV system designs shall con­sider emergency power, ground fault
the PV array’s Vmp voltage drop to the automatic switch transfers the emergency
protection is not required. It is considered loads to this source. On return of the
point of the inverter connection, ambient preferable to risk arcing damage, rather
temperatures and the PV system normal source, manual or automatic
than to disconnect the emergency supply retransfer of the emergency loads can
installation type’s effects on Vmp, solar completely. For emergency power,
module miss-match and tolerance take place.
ground fault alarm is required by NEC
variations, degradation of solar modules 700.5(D) to indicate a ground fault in
over time (solar system life), etc. Typical
Vmp design values, based upon known
solidly grounded wye emergency Peak Shaving
systems of more than 150 V to ground
and expected conditions are 5–10% over and circuit-protective devices rated Many installations now have emergency
the minimum MPPT tracking voltage. 1000 A or more. or standby generators. In the past, they
Reference NEC 2017 Section 690 and 691, were required for hospitals and similar
Solar Photovoltaic Systems. Legally required standby systems, as locations, but not common in office
required by the governmental agency buildings or shopping centers. However,
having jurisdiction, are intended to many costly and unfortunate experiences
Emergency Power supply power to selected loads, other during utility blackouts in recent years
Most areas have requirements for than those classed as emergency have led to the more frequent installa­tion
emergency and standby power systems. systems, on loss of normal power. of engine generators in commer­cial and
The National Electrical Code does not These are usually loads not essential to institutional systems for safety and for
specifically call for any emergency or human safety, but loss of which could supplying important loads.
standby power, but does have require­ create hazards or hamper rescue or
ments for those systems when they fire-fighting operations. Industrial plants, especially in process
are legally mandated and classed as industries, usually have some form
emergency (Article 700), legally required NEC requirements are similar to those for of alternate power source to prevent
standby (Article 701) by municipal, emergency systems, except that wiring extremely costly shutdowns. These
state, federal or other codes, or by any may occupy the same distribu­tion and standby generating systems are critical
governmental agency having jurisdic­tion. raceway system as the normal wiring if when needed, but they are needed only
Optional standby systems, not legally desired. Optional standby systems are infrequently. They represent a large
required, are also covered in the NEC those not legally required, and are capital investment. To be sure that their
(Article 702). intended to protect private business or power will be available when required,
property where life safety does not depend they should be tested periodically
Emergency systems are intended to on performance of the system. Optional under load.
supply power and illumination essen­tial systems can be treated as part of the
for safety to human life, when the normal normal building wiring system. Both
supply fails. NEC requirements are legally required and optional standby
stringent, requiring periodic testing under systems should be installed in such a
load and automatic transfer to emergency manner that they will be fully avail­able on
power supply on loss of normal supply. loss of normal power. It is preferable to
See Figure 97. isolate these systems as much as possible,
even though not required by code.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 129

Other Application Considerations

Utility
Source
Typical Application: Three engine generator sets serve the load, plus one additional engine
generator set for redundancy to achieve N+1 level of performance. Open or Closed transition is available.

G1 G2 G3 G4
Paralleling Switchgear
with Distribution
Revenue
Metering
HMI
Touchscreen
52G1 52G2 52G3 52G4

Main D1 D2 D3 D4
Service

ATS1 N E ATS2 N E ATS3 N E ATS4 N E

To Normal To Emergency
Distribution Circuits
Circuits

EDP1 EDP2 EDP3 EDP4

Optional Remote PC
with Software
LP1 BP1 LP2 BP2 LP3 BP3 LP4 BP4

Figure 97. Typical Emergency Power System

The cost of electric energy has risen to The engine-generator must be selected It is important that the electrical sys­tem
new high levels in recent years, and to withstand the required duty cycle. designer providing a substantial source
utilities bill on the basis not only of power The simplest of these schemes transfer of emergency and standby power
consumed, but also on the basis of peak specific loads to the generator. More investigate the possibility of using it
demand over a small interval. As a result, complex schemes operate the generator for peak shaving, and even of partial
a new use for in-house generating in parallel with the normal utility supply. utility company financing. Frequently,
capacity has developed. Utilities measure The savings in demand charges can substantial savings in power costs can
demand charges on the basis of the reduce the cost of owning the emergency be realized for a small additional outlay
maximum demand for electricity in any generator equipment. in distribution and control equipment.
given specific period (typically 15 or
30 minutes) during the month. Some In some instances, utilities with little Peak shaving equipment operating in
utilities have a demand “ratchet clause” reserve capacity have helped finance the parallel with the utility are subject to
that will continue demand charges on a cost of some larger customer-owned the comments made under cogeneration
given peak demand for a full year, unless generating equipment. In return, the as to separation from the utility under
a higher peak results in even higher customer agrees to take some or all of his fault conditions.
charges. One large load, coming on at load off the utility system and on to his
a peak time, can create higher electric own generator at the request of the utility
demand charges for a year. (with varying limitations) when the utility
load approaches capacity.
Obviously, reducing the peak demand can
result in considerable savings in the cost of In some cases, the customer’s generator
electrical energy. For those installations is paralleled with the utility to help supply
with engine generators for emergency the peak utility loads, with the utility
use, modern control systems (computers buying the supplied power. Some utilities
or programmable controllers) can monitor have been able to delay large capital
the peak demand, and start the engine- expenditures for additional generating
generator to supply part of the demand as capacity by such arrangements.
it approaches a preset peak value.

130 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
Codes and Standards UL is by far the most widely accepted
national laboratory, although Factory
International Association of Electrical
Inspectors (IAEI)
The National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA Mutual Insurance Company lists some 901 Waterfall Way
Standard No. 70, is the most prevalent equipment, and a number of other testing Suite 602
electrical code in the United States. The laboratories have been recognized and Richardson, TX 75080-7702
NEC, which is revised every three years, accepted. The Institute of Electrical and 972-235-1455
has no legal standing of its own, until it is Electronic Engineers (IEEE) publishes a
adopted as law by a jurisdiction, which number of books (the “color book” series) www.iaei.org
may be a city, county or state. Most on recommended practices for the design
jurisdictions adopt the NEC in its entirety; of industrial buildings, commercial National Electrical Manufacturers
some adopt it with variations, usually buildings, emergency power systems, Association (NEMA)
more rigid, to suit local conditions and grounding, and the like. Most of these
requirements. A few large cities, such as 1300 North 17th Street
IEEE standards have been adopted as
New York and Chicago, have their own Suite 900
ANSI standards. They are excellent
electrical codes, basically similar to Arlington, VA 22209
guides, although they are not in any
the NEC. The designer must deter­mine 703-841-3200
way mandatory.
which code applies in the area of a www.nema.org
specific project. A design engineer should conform to all
applicable codes, and require equipment
The Occupational Safety and Health to be listed by UL or another recognized National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Act (OSHA) of 1970 sets uniform testing laboratory wherever possible, and 1 Batterymarch Park
national requirements for safety in the to meet ANSI or NEMA standards. ANSI/ Quincy, MA 02169-7471
workplace—anywhere that people are IEEE recommended practices should be 617-770-3000
employed. Originally OSHA adopted the followed to a great extent. In many cases,
1971 NEC as rules for electrical safety. standards should be exceeded to get a www.nfpa.org
As the NEC was amended every three system of the quality required. The design
years, the involved process for modifying goal should be a safe, efficient, long- Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
a federal law such as OSHA made it lasting, flexible and economical electrical 333 Pfingsten Road
impossible for the act to adopt each new distribution system. Northbrook, IL 60062-2096
code revision. To avoid this problem, the 847-272-8800
OSHA administration in 1981 adopted its Professional Organizations
own code, a con­densed version of the www.ul.com
NEC containing only those provisions American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
considered related to occupational safety. International Code Council (ICC)
OSHA was amended to adopt this code, Headquarters: 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW
based on NFPA Standard 70E, Part 1, 1899 L Street, NW 6th Floor
which is now federal law. 11th Floor Washington, DC 20001
The NEC is a minimum safety standard. Washington, DC 20036 1-888-422-7233
Efficient and adequate design usually 202-293-8020
www.iccsafe.org
requires not just meeting, but often
exceeding NEC requirements to provide Operations:
an effective, reliable, economical The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
25 West 43rd Street
electrical system. 4th Floor 1735 New York Avenue, NW
New York, NY 10036 Washington, DC 20006-5292
Many equipment standards have been 1-800 242-3837
established by the National Electrical 212-642-4900
Manufacturers’ Association (NEMA) and www.ansi.org www.aia.org
the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
has standards that equipment must meet Institute of Electrical and Electronic
before UL will list or label it. Most Engineers (IEEE)
jurisdictions and OSHA require that
Headquarters:
where equipment listed as safe by a
recognized labora­tory is available, 3 Park Avenue
unlisted equipment may not be used. 17th Floor
New York, NY 10016-5997
212-419-7900

Operations:
445 and 501 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854-4141
732-981-0060
www.ieee.org

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 131

Reference Data
Table 56. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses

2 Time-delay starting or closing relay A device that functions to give a desired amount of Used for providing a time-delay for re-transfer
time delay before or after any point of operation in a back to the normal source in an automatic
switching sequence or protective relay system, except transfer scheme.
as specifically provided by device functions 48, 62
and 79 described later.
6 Starting circuit breaker A device whose principal function is to connect —
a machine to its source of starting voltage.
19 Starting to running transition timer A device that operates to initiate or cause the Used to transfer a reduced voltage starter from
automatic transfer of a machine from the starting starting to running.
to the running power connection.
21 Distance relay A device that functions when the circuit admittance, —
impedance or reactance increases or decreases
beyond predetermined limits.
23 Temperature control device A device that functions to raise or to lower the Used as a thermostat to control space heaters in
temperature of a machine or other apparatus, or outdoor equipment.
of any medium, when its temperature falls below
or rises above, a predetermined level.
24 Volts per hertz relay A device that operates when the ratio of voltage ETR-5000 transformer protective relays,
to frequency is above a preset value or is below EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
a different preset value.The relay may have
any combination of instantaneous or time
delayed characteristics.
25 Synchronizing or synchronism A device that operates when two AC circuits are within In a closed transition breaker transfer, a
check device the desired limits of frequency, phase angle or voltage, 25 relay is used to ensure two-sources are
to permit or cause the paralleling of these two circuits. synchronized before paralleling. Eaton
EDR-5000 feeder protective relays, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
27 Undervoltage relay A device which functions on a given value Used to protect a motor or other devices from
of undervoltage. a sustained under-voltage and/or initiate an
automatic transfer when a primary source of
power is lost. Eaton EDR feeder protective relay,
EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective relays,
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
30 Annunciator relay A non-automatically reset device that gives a number Used to remotely indicate that a protective relay
of separate visual indications upon the functioning of has functioned, or that a circuit breaker has
protective devices, and which may also be arranged to tripped.Typically, a mechanical “drop” type
perform a lockout function. annunciator panel is used.
32 Directional power relay A relay that functions on a desired value of power Used to prevent reverse power from feeding
flow in a given direction, or upon reverse power an upstream fault. Often used when primary
resulting from arc back in the anode or cathode backup generation is used in a facility. Eaton
circuits of a power rectifier. EDR-5000 feeder protective relay, EMR-4000/
EMR-5000 motor protective relays, ETR-5000
transformer protective relay, EGR-5000 generator
protective relay.
33 Position switch A device that makes or breaks contact when the main Used to indicate the position of a drawout circuit
device or piece of apparatus, which has no device breaker (TOC switch).
function number, reaches a given point.
34 Master sequence device A device such as a motor-operated multi-contact —
switch, or the equivalent, or a programmable device,
that establishes or determines the operating sequence
of the major devices in equipment during starting and
stopping, or during sequential switching operations.
37 Undercurrent or underpower relay A relay that functions when the current or power Eaton EMR-3000, EMR-4000, EMR-5000 motor
flow decreases below a predetermined value. protective relays.
38 Bearing protective device A device that functions on excessive bearing —
temperature, or on other abnormal mechanical
conditions, such as undue wear, which may
eventually result in excessive bearing temperature.
40 Field relay A device that functions on a given or abnormally EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
high or low value or failure of machine field current,
or on an excessive value of the reactive component
of armature current in an AC machine indicating
abnormally high or low field excitation.
41 Field circuit breaker A device that functions to apply, or to remove, —
the field excitation of a machine.

132 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
Table 56. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses

42 Running circuit breaker A device whose function is to connect a machine to its —

source of running or operating voltage.This function
may also be used for a device, such as a contactor,
that is used in series with a circuit breaker or other
fault-protecting means, primarily for frequent opening
and closing of the circuit.
43 Manual transfer or selector device A manually operated device that transfers control —
or potential circuits in order to modify the plan of
operation of the associated equipment or of some
of the associated devices.
44 Unit sequence starting relay A device that functions to start the next available —
unit in multiple-unit equipment upon the failure or
non-availability of the normally preceding unit.
46 Reverse-phase, or phase balance, A relay that functions when the polyphase currents are Eaton EDR-3000/EDR-5000 feeder protective
current relay of reverse-phase sequence, or when the polyphase relay, EMR-3000/EMR-4000/EMR-5000
currents are unbalanced or contain the negative motor protective relays, ETR-5000
phase-sequence components above a given amount. transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
47 Phase-sequence voltage relay A relay that functions upon a predetermined value of Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective relay,
polyphase voltage in the desired phase sequence. EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective relays,
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
48 Incomplete sequence relay A relay that generally returns the equipment to the EMR-3000/EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor
normal, or off, position and locks it out of the normal protective relays.
starting, or operating or stopping sequence is not
properly completed within a predetermined amount of
time. If the device is used for alarm purposes only, it
should preferably be designated as 48 A (alarm).
49 Machine, or transformer, thermal relay A relay that functions when the temperature of a Eaton EMR-3000/EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor
machine armature, or other load carrying winding or protective relays, ETR-4000/ETR-5000
element of a machine, or the temperature of a power transformer protective relay, EGR-5000 generator
rectifier or power transformer (including a power protective relay. (Note: When used with external
rectifier transformer) exceeds a predetermined value. RTD module.)
50 Instantaneous overcurrent, A relay that functions instantaneously on an excessive Used for tripping a circuit breaker
or rate-of-rise relay value of current, or an excessive rate of current rise, instantaneously during a high-level short
thus indicating a fault in the apparatus of the circuit circuit. Can trip on phase-phase (50), phase-
being protected. neutral (50N), phase-ground (50G) faults. Eaton
EDR-3000/EDR-5000 protective relays, MP-3000/
MP-4000/EMR-3000/EMR-4000/EMR-5000
motor protective relays, ETR-4000/ETR-5000
transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
51 AC time overcurrent relay A relay with either a definite or inverse time Used for tripping a circuit breaker after a time
characteristic that functions when the current in delay during a sustained overcurrent. Used for
an AC circuit exceeds a predetermined value. tripping a circuit breaker instantaneously during
a high-level short circuit. Can trip on phase (51),
neutral (51N) or ground (51G) overcurrents.
Eaton EDR-3000/EDR-5000 protective relays,
MP-3000/MP-4000/EMR-3000/EMR-4000/
EMR-5000 motor protective relays, ETR-4000/
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
52 AC circuit breaker A device that is used to close and interrupt an AC A term applied typically to medium voltage
power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt circuit breakers, or low voltage power circuit
this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. breakers. Eaton VCP vacuum circuit breaker,
magnum DS low voltage power circuit breaker.
53 Exciter or DC generator relay A device that forces the DC machine field excitation to —
build up during starting or that functions when the
machine voltage has built up to a given value.
55 Power factor relay A relay that operates when the power factor in an AC Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective relay and
circuit rises above or below a predetermined value. EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective relays,
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
56 Field application relay A device that automatically controls the application —
of the field excitation to an AC motor at some
predetermined point in the slip cycle.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 133

Reference Data
Table 56. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses

59 Overvoltage relay A relay that functions on a given value of overvoltage. Used to trip a circuit breaker, protecting
downstream equipment from sustained
overvoltages. Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective
relay and EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective
relays, ETR-5000 transformer protective relay,
EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
60 Voltage or current balance relay A relay that operates on a given difference in voltage, —
or current input or output of two circuits.
62 Time-delay stopping or opening relay A time-delay relay that serves in conjunction with the Used in conjunction with a 27 device to delay
device that initiates the shutdown, stopping or opening tripping of a circuit breaker during a brief loss of
operation in an automatic sequence. primary voltage, to prevent nuisance tripping.
63 Pressure switch A switch that operates on given values or on a given Used to protect a transformer during a rapid
rate of change of pressure. pressure rise during a short circuit.This device
will typically act to open the protective devices
above and below the transformer.Typically
used with a 63-X auxiliary relay to trip the
circuit breaker.
64 Ground protective relay A relay that functions on a failure of the insulation of a Used to detect and act on a ground-fault
machine, transformer or of other apparatus to ground, condition. In a pulsing high resistance grounding
or on flashover of a DC machine to ground. system, a 64 device will initiate the alarm.
65 Governor A device consisting of an assembly of fluid, electrical or —
mechanical control equipment used for regulating the
flow of water, steam or other media to the prime mover
for such purposes as starting, holding speed or load,
or stopping.
66 Notching or jogging device A device that functions to allow only a specified Eaton EMR-3000/EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor
number of operations of a given device, or equipment, protective relays.
or a specified number of successive operations within
a given time of each other. It also functions to energize
a circuit periodically or for fractions of specified time
intervals, or that is used to permit intermittent
acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds
for mechanical positioning.
67 AC directional overcurrent relay A relay that functions on a desired value of AC Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective relay,
overcurrent flowing in a predetermined direction. EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective relays,
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
69 Permissive control device A device that is generally a two-position manually Used as a remote-local switch for circuit
operated switch that in one position permits the closing breaker control.
of a circuit breaker, or the placing of equipment into
operation, and in the other position prevents the circuit
breaker to the equipment from being operated.
71 Level switch A switch that operates on given values, or on a given Used to indicate a low liquid level within a
rate of change of level. transformer tank in order to save transformers
from loss-of-insulation failure. An alarm contact
is available as a standard option on a liquid level
gauge. It is set to close before an unsafe
condition actually occurs.
72 DC circuit breaker A device that is used to close and interrupt a DC power —
circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this
circuit under fault or emergency conditions.
73 Load-resistor contactor A device that is used to shunt or insert a step of load —
limiting, shifting or indicating resistance in a power
circuit; to switch a space heater in circuit; or to switch
a light or regenerative load resistor of a power rectifier
or other machine in and out of circuit.
74 Alarm relay A device other than an annunciator, as covered under —
device number 30, which is used to operate, or to
operate in connection with, a visible or audible alarm.
78 Phase-angle measuring relay A device that functions at a predetermined phase angle EDR-5000 feeder protective relay, EMR-4000/
between two voltages, between two currents, EMR-5000 motor protective relays, ETR-5000
or between voltage and current. transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay. (Note: For Voltage
Only—78 V.)

134 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
Table 56 Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses

79 AC reclosing relay A relay that controls the automatic closing and locking Used to automatically reclose a circuit breaker
out of an AC circuit interrupter. after a trip, assuming the fault has been cleared
after the power was removed from the circuit.
The recloser will lock-out after a predetermined
amount of failed attempts to reclose. EDR-5000
feeder protective relay, ETR-5000 transformer
protective relay, EGR-5000 generator protective
relay.
81 Frequency relay A relay that functions on a predetermined value of Used to trip a generator circuit breaker in the
frequency—either under or over, or on normal system event the frequency drifts above or below a given
frequency—or rate of change frequency. value. Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective relay
and EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective
relays, ETR-5000 transformer protective relay,
EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
83 Automatic selective control or A relay that operates to select automatically between Used to transfer control power sources in a
transfer relay certain sources or conditions in equipment, or double-ended switchgear lineup.
performs a transfer operation automatically.
85 Carrier or pilot-wire relay A device that is operated or restrained by a signal —
transmitted or received via any communications
media used for relaying.
86 Locking-out relay An electrically operated hand, or electrically, reset Used in conjunction with protective relays to
relay that functions to shut down and hold an lock-out a circuit breaker (or multiple circuit
equipment out of service on the occurrence of breakers) after a trip.Typically required to be
abnormal conditions. manually reset by an operator before the breaker
can be reclosed.
87 Differential protective relay A protective relay that functions on a percentage or Used to protect static equipment, such as cable,
phase angle or other quantitative difference of two bus or transformers, by measuring the current
currents or of some other electrical quantities. differential between two points.Typically the
upstream and/or downstream circuit breaker will
be incorporated into the “zone of protection.”
Eaton EBR-3000 bus differential relay, ETR-4000/
ETR-5000 transformer protective relays,
EMR-5000 motor protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
90 Regulating device A device that functions to regulate a quantity or —
quantities, such as voltage, current, power, speed,
frequency, temperature and load, at a certain value or
between certain (generally close) limits for machines,
tie lines or other apparatus.
91 Voltage directional relay A device that operates when the voltage across an —
open circuit breaker or contactor exceeds a given
value in a given direction.
94 Tripping or trip-free relay A relay that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor —
or equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by
other devices, or to prevent immediate reclosure of a
circuit interrupter, in case it should open automatically
even though its closing circuit is maintained closed.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 135

Reference Data
Suggested IEEE Designations Main Device Other Suffix Letters
for Suffix Letters The following letters denote the main
device to which the numbered device is
The following letters cover all other
distinguishing features, characteristics or
applied or is related: conditions not specifically described in
Auxiliary Devices A Alarm/auxiliary power
Auxiliary Devices through Main Device
Parts, which serve to describe the use of
These letters denote separate auxiliary
AC Alternating current the device in the equipment, such as:
devices, such as the following:
BP Bypass A Automatic
C Closing relay/contactor
BT Bus tie BF Breaker failure
CL Auxiliary relay, closed
(energized when main C Capacitor C Close
device is in closed position)
DC Direct current D Decelerating/down
CS Control switch
E Exciter E Emergency
D “Down” position switch relay
F Feeder/field F Failure/forward
L Lowering relay
G Generator/ground HS High speed
O Opening relay/contactor
M Motor/metering L Local/lower
OP Auxiliary relay, open
(energized when main MOC Mechanism operated contact M Manual
device is in open position) O Open
S Synchronizing/secondary
PB Push button OFF Off
T Transformer
R Raising relay ON On
TOC Truck-operated contacts
U “UP” position switch relay R Raise/reclosing/remote/reverse
X Auxiliary relay Main Device Parts T Test/trip
Y Auxiliary relay These letters denote parts of the
main device, except auxiliary con­tacts, TDC Time-delay closing contact
Z Auxiliary relay position switches, limit switches and TDDO Time delayed relay coil drop-out
torque limit switches:
TDO Time-delay opening contact
Actuating Quantities C Coil/condenser/capacitor
These letters indicate the condition or TDPU Time delayed relay coil pickup
CC Closing coil/closing contactor
electrical quantity to which the device THD Total harmonic distortion
responds, or the medium in which it is HC Holding coil
located, such as the following:
M Operating motor
A Amperes/alternating
OC Opening contactor
C Current
S Solenoid
F Frequency/fault
SI Seal-in
I0 Zero sequence current
T Target
I-, I2 Negative sequence current
TC Trip coil
I+, I1 Positive sequence current
P Power/pressure
PF Power factor
S Speed
T Temperature
V Voltage/volts/vacuum
VAR Reactive power
VB Vibration
W Watts

136 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
Enclosures
The following are reproduced from NEMA 250.
Table 57. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 1a 2a 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13

Incidental contact with the enclosed equipment n n n n n n n n n n

Falling dirt n n n n n n n n n n
Falling liquids and light splashing n n n n n n n n n
Circulating dust, lint, fibers and flyings b n n n n n n n
Settling airborne dust, lint, fibers and flyings b n n n n n n n n
Hosedown and splashing water n n n n
Oil and coolant seepage n n n
Oil or coolant spraying and splashing n
Corrosive agents n n
Occasional temporary submersion n n
Occasional prolonged submersion n
a These enclosures may be ventilated.
b These fibers and flying are nonhazardous materials and are not considered the Class III type ignitable
fibers or combustible flyings. For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings, see the National
Electrical Code, Article 500.

Table 58. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 3 3R c 3S 4 4X 6 6P

Incidental contact with the enclosed equipment n n n n n n n

Rain, snow and sleet d n n n n n n n
Sleet e n
Windblown dust n n n n n n
Hosedown n n n n
Corrosive agents n n
Occasional temporary submersion n n
Occasional prolonged submersion n
c These enclosures may be ventilated.
d External operating mechanisms are not required to be operable when the enclosure is ice covered.
e External operating mechanisms are operable when the enclosure is ice covered.

Table 59. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against Class Enclosure Types Enclosure Type
Atmospheres Typically Containing 7 and 8, Class I Groups f 9, Class II Groups f
(For Complete Listing, See NFPA 497M) A B C D E F G 10

Acetylene I n
Hydrogen, manufactured gas I n
diethyl ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I n
Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane,
  acetone, toluene, isoprene I n
Metal dust II n
Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II n
Flour, starch, grain dust II n
Fibers, flyings g III n
Methane with or without coal dust MSHA n
f For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings, see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
g Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust, a product suitable for one class or group may not be
suitable for another class or group unless so marked on the product.
Note: If the installation is outdoors and/or additional protection is required by Table 57 and
Table 58, a combination-type enclosure is required.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 137

Reference Data
Table 60. Conversion of NEMA Enclosure Type Ratings to IEC 60529 Enclosure Classification Designations (IP)
(Cannot be Used to Convert IEC Classification Designations to NEMA Type Ratings)

IP NEMA Enclosure Type IP

First 1 2 3 3R 3S 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13 Second
Character Character
IP0– IP–0
IP1– IP–1
IP2– IP–2
IP3– IP–3
IP4– IP–4
IP5– IP–5
IP6– IP–6
IP–7
IP–8
A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
A = A shaded block in the “A” column indicates that the NEMA Enclosure Type exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529
IP First Character Designation. The IP First Character Designation is the protection against access to hazardous parts and solid
foreign objects.
B = A shaded block in the “B” column indicates that the NEMA Enclosure Type exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529
IP Second Character Designation. The IP Second Character Designation is the protection against the ingress of water.

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USE

An IEC IP45 Enclosure Rating is specified. What NEMA Type Enclosures meet and exceed the IP45 rating?

Referencing the first character, 4, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP4–” in the leftmost column in the
table; the blocks in Column “A” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 5, 6, 6P, 12, 12K and 13 are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC protection requirements against access to hazardous parts and solid foreign
objects. Referencing the second character, 5, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP–5” in the rightmost
column in the table; the blocks in Column “B” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC requirements for protection against the ingress of water. The absence of shading
in Column “B” beneath the “NEMA Enclosure Type 5” indicates that Type 5 does not meet the IP45 protection
requirements against the ingress of water. Likewise, the absence of shading in Column “B” for NEMA Type 12,
12K and 13 enclosures indicates that these enclosures do not meet the IP45 requirements for protection against
the ingressof water. Only Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P have both Column “A” in the “IP4–” row and Column “B”
in the “IP–5” row shaded and could be used in an IP45 application.

The NEMA Enclosure Type 3 not only meets the IP45 Enclosure Rating, but also exceeds the IEC requirements
because the NEMA Type requires an outdoor corrosion test; a gasket aging test; a dust test; an external icing
test; and no water penetration in the rain test. Slight differences exist between the IEC and NEMA test methods,
but the IEC rating permits the penetration of water if “it does not deposit on insulation parts, or reach live parts.”
The IEC rating does not require a corrosion test; gasket aging test; dust test or external icing test. Because the
NEMA ratings include additional test requirements, this table cannot be used to select IP Designations for NEMA
rated enclosure specifications.

IEC 60529 specifies that an enclosure shall only be designated with a stated degree of protection indicated by
the first characteristic numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection. Furthermore, IEC 60529
states that an enclosure shall only be designated with a degreeof protection indicated by the second characteristic
numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection up to and including the secondcharacteristic
numeral 6. An enclosure designated with a second characteristic numeral 7 or 8 only is considered unsuitable
for exposure to water jets (designated by second characteristic numeral 5 or 6) and need not comply with
requirements for numeral 5 or 6 unless it is dual coded. Because the IEC protection requirements become more
stringent with increasing IP character value up through 6, once a NEMA Type rating meets the requirements for
an IP designation up through 6, it will also meet the requirements for all lower IP designations. This is apparent
from the shaded areas shown in the table.

138 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
Average Characteristics of 600 V Application Notes
Conductors—Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) ■ Resistance and reactance are phase- ■
The tables below are average to-neutral values, based on 60 Hz AC, ■ For busway impedance data,
characteristics based on data from IEEE three-phase, four-wire distribution, in see Eaton’s Low-Voltage Busway
Standard 141-1993. Values from different ohms per 100 ft (30 m) of circuit length Design Guide
sources vary because of operating (not total conductor lengths)
■ For PF (power factor) values less
temperatures, wire stranding, insulation ■ Based upon conductivity of 100% for
materials and thicknesses, overall than 1.0, the effective impedance
copper, 61% for aluminum Ze is calculated from
diameters, random lay of multiple
■ Based on conductor temperatures Ze = R x PF + X sin (arc cos PF)
conductors in conduit, conductor spacing,
of 75 °C. Reactance values will have
and other divergences in materials, test ■ For copper cable data, resistance based
negligible variation with temperature.
conditions and calculation methods. on tinned copper at 60 Hz; 600 V and
Resistance of both copper and
These tables are for 600 V 5 kV and 15 kV 5 kV nonshielded cable based on
aluminum conductors will be
conductors, at an average temperature varnished cambric insula­tion; 5 kV
approximately 5% lower at 60 °C
of 75 °C. Other parame­ters are listed in shielded and 15 kV cable based on
or 5% higher at 90 °C. Data shown in
the notes. For medium voltage cables, neoprene insulation
tables may be used without significant
differences among manufacturers are
error between 60 ° and 90 °C ■ For aluminum cable data, cable is
consider­ably greater because of the wider
■ For interlocked armored cable, use cross-linked polyethylene insulated
vari­ations in insulation materials and
thicknesses, shielding, jacketing, over­all magnetic conduit data for steel armor
diameters, and the like. Therefore, data and non-magnetic conduit data for
for medium voltage cables should be aluminum armor
obtained from the manufacturer of the
cable to be used.

Table 61. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Copper Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) at 75 °C (a) Three Single Conductors
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct In Non-Magnetic Duct
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z

    8 0.811 0.0754 0.814 0.811 0.0860 0.816 0.811 0.0603 0.813 0.811 0.0688 0.814
    8 (solid) 0.786 0.0754 0.790 0.786 0.0860 0.791 0.786 0.0603 0.788 0.786 0.0688 0.789
    6 0.510 0.0685 0.515 0.510 0.0796 0.516 0.510 0.0548 0.513 0.510 0.0636 0.514
    6 (solid) 0.496 0.0685 0.501 0.496 0.0796 0.502 0.496 0.0548 0.499 0.496 0.0636 0.500
    4 0.321 0.0632 0.327 0.321 0.0742 0.329 0.321 0.0506 0.325 0.321 0.0594 0.326
    4 (solid) 0.312 0.0632 0.318 0.312 0.0742 0.321 0.312 0.0506 0.316 0.312 0.0594 0.318
    2 0.202 0.0585 0.210 0.202 0.0685 0.214 0.202 0.0467 0.207 0.202 0.0547 0.209
    1 0.160 0.0570 0.170 0.160 0.0675 0.174 0.160 0.0456 0.166 0.160 0.0540 0.169
    1/0 0.128 0.0540 0.139 0.128 0.0635 0.143 0.127 0.0432 0.134 0.128 0.0507 0.138
    2/0 0.102 0.0533 0.115 0.103 0.0630 0.121 0.101 0.0426 0.110 0.102 0.0504 0.114
    3/0 0.0805 0.0519 0.0958 0.0814 0.0605 0.101 0.0766 0.0415 0.0871 0.0805 0.0484 0.0939
    4/0 0.0640 0.0497 0.0810 0.0650 0.0583 0.0929 0.0633 0.0398 0.0748 0.0640 0.0466 0.0792
250 0.0552 0.0495 0.0742 0.0557 0.0570 0.0797 0.0541 0.0396 0.0670 0.0547 0.0456 0.0712
300 0.0464 0.0493 0.0677 0.0473 0.0564 0.0736 0.0451 0.0394 0.0599 0.0460 0.0451 0.0644
350 0.0378 0.0491 0.0617 0.0386 0.0562 0.0681 0.0368 0.0393 0.0536 0.0375 0.0450 0.0586
400 0.0356 0.0490 0.0606 0.0362 0.0548 0.0657 0.0342 0.0392 0.0520 0.0348 0.0438 0.0559
450 0.0322 0.0480 0.0578 0.0328 0.0538 0.0630 0.0304 0.0384 0.0490 0.0312 0.0430 0.0531
500 0.0294 0.0466 0.0551 0.0300 0.0526 0.0505 0.0276 0.0373 0.0464 0.0284 0.0421 0.0508
600 0.0257 0.0463 0.0530 0.0264 0.0516 0.0580 0.0237 0.0371 0.0440 0.0246 0.0412 0.0479
750 0.0216 0.0495 0.0495 0.0223 0.0497 0.0545 0.0194 0.0356 0.0405 0.0203 0.0396 0.0445
Note: More tables on Page 140.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 139

Reference Data
Table 62. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Copper Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) at 75 °C (b) Three Conductor Cable
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct and Steel Interlocked Armor In Non-Magnetic Duct and Aluminum Interlocked Armor
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z

      8 0.811 0.0577 0.813 0.811 0.0658 0.814 0.811 0.0503 0.812 0.811 0.0574 0.813
      8 (solid) 0.786 0.0577 0.788 0.786 0.0658 0.789 0.786 0.0503 0.787 0.786 0.0574 0.788
      6 0.510 0.0525 0.513 0.510 0.0610 0.514 0.510 0.0457 0.512 0.510 0.0531 0.513
      6 (solid) 0.496 0.0525 0.499 0.496 0.0610 0.500 0.496 0.0457 0.498 0.496 0.0531 0.499
      4 0.321 0.0483 0.325 0.321 0.0568 0.326 0.321 0.0422 0.324 0.321 0.0495 0.325
      4 (solid) 0.312 0.0483 0.316 0.312 0.0508 0.317 0.312 0.0422 0.315 0.312 0.0495 0.316
      2 0.202 0.0448 0.207 0.202 0.0524 0.209 0.202 0.0390 0.206 0.202 0.0457 0.207
      1 0.160 0.0436 0.166 0.160 0.0516 0.168 0.160 0.0380 0.164 0.160 0.0450 0.166
      1/0 0.128 0.0414 0.135 0.128 0.0486 0.137 0.127 0.0360 0.132 0.128 0.0423 0.135
      2/0 0.102 0.0407 0.110 0.103 0.0482 0.114 0.101 0.0355 0.107 0.102 0.0420 0.110
      3/0 0.0805 0.0397 0.0898 0.0814 0.0463 0.0936 0.0766 0.0346 0.0841 0.0805 0.0403 0.090
      4/0 0.0640 0.0381 0.0745 0.0650 0.0446 0.0788 0.0633 0.0332 0.0715 0.0640 0.0389 0.0749
  250 0.0552 0.0379 0.0670 0.0557 0.0436 0.0707 0.0541 0.0330 0.0634 0.0547 0.0380 0.0666
  300 0.0464 0.0377 0.0598 0.0473 0.0431 0.0640 0.0451 0.0329 0.0559 0.0460 0.0376 0.0596
  350 0.0378 0.0373 0.0539 0.0386 0.0427 0.0576 0.0368 0.0328 0.0492 0.0375 0.0375 0.0530
  400 0.0356 0.0371 0.0514 0.0362 0.0415 0.0551 0.0342 0.0327 0.0475 0.0348 0.0366 0.0505
  450 0.0322 0.0361 0.0484 0.0328 0.0404 0.0520 0.0304 0.0320 0.0441 0.0312 0.0359 0.0476
  500 0.0294 0.0349 0.0456 0.0300 0.0394 0.0495 0.0276 0.0311 0.0416 0.0284 0.0351 0.0453
  600 0.0257 0.0343 0.0429 0.0264 0.0382 0.0464 0.0237 0.0309 0.0389 0.0246 0.0344 0.0422
  750 0.0216 0.0326 0.0391 0.0223 0.0364 0.0427 0.0197 0.0297 0.0355 0.0203 0.0332 0.0389

Table 63. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Aluminum Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 Ft (305 m) at 90 °C (a) Three Single Conductors
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct In Non-Magnetic Duct
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z

      6 0.847 0.053 0.849 — — — 0.847 0.042 0.848 — — —

      4 0.532 0.050 0.534 0.532 0.068 0.536 0.532 0.040 0.534 0.532 0.054 0.535
      2 0.335 0.046 0.338 0.335 0.063 0.341 0.335 0.037 0.337 0.335 0.050 0.339
      1 0.265 0.048 0.269 0.265 0.059 0.271 0.265 0.035 0.267 0.265 0.047 0.269
      1/0 0.210 0.043 0.214 0.210 0.056 0.217 0.210 0.034 0.213 0.210 0.045 0.215
      2/0 0.167 0.041 0.172 0.167 0.055 0.176 0.167 0.033 0.170 0.167 0.044 0.173
      3/0 0.133 0.040 0.139 0.132 0.053 0.142 0.133 0.037 0.137 0.132 0.042 0.139
      4/0 0.106 0.039 0.113 0.105 0.051 0.117 0.105 0.031 0.109 0.105 0.041 0.113
  250 0.0896 0.0384 0.0975 0.0892 0.0495 0.102 0.0894 0.0307 0.0945 0.0891 0.0396 0.0975
  300 0.0750 0.0375 0.0839 0.0746 0.0479 0.0887 0.0746 0.0300 0.0804 0.0744 0.0383 0.0837
  350 0.0644 0.0369 0.0742 0.0640 0.0468 0.0793 0.0640 0.0245 0.0705 0.0638 0.0374 0.0740
  400 0.0568 0.0364 0.0675 0.0563 0.0459 0.0726 0.0563 0.0291 0.0634 0.0560 0.0367 0.0700
  500 0.0459 0.0355 0.0580 0.0453 0.0444 0.0634 0.0453 0.0284 0.0535 0.0450 0.0355 0.0573
  600 0.0388 0.0359 0.0529 0.0381 0.0431 0.0575 0.0381 0.0287 0.0477 0.0377 0.0345 0.0511
  700 0.0338 0.0350 0.0487 0.0332 0.0423 0.0538 0.0330 0.0280 0.0433 0.0326 0.0338 0.0470
  750 0.0318 0.0341 0.0466 0.0310 0.0419 0.0521 0.0309 0.0273 0.0412 0.0304 0.0335 0.0452
1000 0.0252 0.0341 0.0424 0.0243 0.0414 0.0480 0.0239 0.0273 0.0363 0.0234 0.0331 0.0405

Table 64. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Aluminum Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (30 m) at 90 °C (b) Three Conductor Cable
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct and Steel Interlocked Armor In Non-Magnetic Duct and Aluminum Interlocked Armor
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z

      6 0.847 0.053 0.849 — — — 0.847 0.042 0.848 — — —

      4 0.532 0.050 0.534 — — — 0.532 0.040 0.534 — — —
      2 0.335 0.046 0.338 0.335 0.056 0.340 0.335 0.037 0.337 0.335 0.045 0.338
      1 0.265 0.048 0.269 0.265 0.053 0.270 0.265 0.035 0.267 0.265 0.042 0.268
      1/0 0.210 0.043 0.214 0.210 0.050 0.216 0.210 0.034 0.213 0.210 0.040 0.214
      2/0 0.167 0.041 0.172 0.167 0.049 0.174 0.167 0.033 0.170 0.167 0.039 0.171
      3/0 0.133 0.040 0.139 0.133 0.048 0.141 0.133 0.037 0.137 0.132 0.038 0.138
      4/0 0.106 0.039 0.113 0.105 0.045 0.114 0.105 0.031 0.109 0.105 0.036 0.111
  250 0.0896 0.0384 0.0975 0.0895 0.0436 0.100 0.0894 0.0307 0.0945 0.0893 0.0349 0.0959
  300 0.0750 0.0375 0.0839 0.0748 0.0424 0.0860 0.0746 0.0300 0.0804 0.0745 0.0340 0.0819
  350 0.0644 0.0369 0.0742 0.0643 0.0418 0.0767 0.0640 0.0245 0.0705 0.0640 0.0334 0.0722
  400 0.0568 0.0364 0.0675 0.0564 0.0411 0.0700 0.0563 0.0291 0.0634 0.0561 0.0329 0.0650
  500 0.0459 0.0355 0.0580 0.0457 0.0399 0.0607 0.0453 0.0284 0.0535 0.0452 0.0319 0.0553
  600 0.0388 0.0359 0.0529 0.0386 0.0390 0.0549 0.0381 0.0287 0.0477 0.0380 0.0312 0.0492
  700 0.0338 0.0350 0.0487 0.0335 0.0381 0.0507 0.0330 0.0280 0.0433 0.0328 0.0305 0.0448
  750 0.0318 0.0341 0.0466 0.0315 0.0379 0.0493 0.0309 0.0273 0.0412 0.0307 0.0303 0.0431
1000 0.0252 0.0341 0.0424 0.0248 0.0368 0.0444 0.0239 0.0273 0.0363 0.0237 0.0294 0.0378

140 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
Current Carrying Capacities of Copper and Aluminum and Copper-Clad Aluminum Conductors
From National Electrical Code (NEC), 2014 Edition (NFPA 70-2014)
Table 65. Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 0–2000 V, 60 ° to 90 °C (140° to 194 °F).
Not more than three current-carrying conductors in raceway, cable or earth (directly buried), based on ambient temperature of 30 °C (86 °F).
Size Temperature Rating of Conductor (See Table 310.15 [B][16]) Size
AWG or kcmil 60 °C (140 °F) 75 °C (167 °F) 90 °C (194 °F) 60 °C (140 °F) 75 °C (167 °F) 90 °C (194 °F) AWG or kcmil
Types Types
TW, UF RHW, THHW, TBS, SA, SIS, FEP, TW, UF RHW, THHW, TBS, SA, SIS,
THW, THWN, FEPB, MI, THW, THWN, THHN, THHW,
XHHW, USE, ZW RHH, RHW-2, XHHW, USE THW-2, THWN-2,
THHN, THHW, RHH, RHW-2,
THW-2, THWN-2, USE-2, XHH,
USE-2, XHH, XHHW, XHHW-2,
XHHW, XHHW-2, ZW-2
ZW-2
Copper Aluminum or Copper-Clad Aluminum

    18 — —   14 — — — —
    16 — —   18 — — — —
    14 a   15   20   25 — — — —
    12 a   20   25   30   20   20   25     12 a
    10 a   30   35   40   25   30   35     10 a
      8   40   50   55   30   40   45       8
      6   55   65   75   40   50   60       6
      4   70   85   95   55   65   75       4
      3   85 100 110   65   75   85       3
      2   95 115 130   75   90 100       2
      1 110 130 150   85 100 115       1
      1/0 125 150 170 100 120 135       1/0
      2/0 145 175 195 115 135 150       2/0
      3/0 165 200 225 130 155 175       3/0
      4/0 195 230 260 150 180 205       4/0
  250 215 255 290 170 205 230   250
  300 240 285 320 190 230 255   300
  350 260 310 350 210 250 280   350
  400 280 335 380 225 270 305   400
  500 320 380 430 260 310 350   500
  600 355 420 475 285 340 385   600
  700 385 460 520 310 375 420   700
  750 400 475 535 320 385 435   750
  800 410 490 555 330 395 450   800
  900 435 520 585 355 425 480   900
1000 455 545 615 375 445 500 1000
1250 495 590 665 405 485 545 1250
1500 520 625 705 435 520 585 1500
1750 545 650 735 455 545 615 1750
2000 560 665 750 470 560 630 2000
a See NEC Section 240.4 (D).
Note: For complete details of using Table 65, see NEC Article 310 in its entirety.

Table 66. Correction Factors From NFPA 70-2014 (See Table 310.15 [B][2][a])
Ambient For ambient temperatures other than 30 °C (86 °F), multiply the allowable ampacities shown Ambient
Temperature °C above by the appropriate factor shown below. Temperature °F

21–25 1.08 1.05 1.04 1.08 1.05 1.04 070–77

26–30 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 078–86
31–35 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.91 0.94 0.96 087–95
36–40 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.82 0.88 0.91 096–104
41–45 0.71 0.82 0.87 0.71 0.82 0.87 105–113
46–50 0.58 0.75 0.82 0.58 0.75 0.82 114–122
51–55 0.41 0.67 0.76 0.41 0.67 0.76 123–131
56–60 — 0.58 0.71 — 0.58 0.71 132–140
61–70 — 0.33 0.58 — 0.33 0.58 141–158
71–80 — — 0.41 — — 0.41 159–176

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 141

Reference Data
Ampacities for Conductors (B) Tables. Ampacities for conductors
rated 0–2000 V shall be as specified
(3) Adjustment Factors.

Rated 0–2000 V (Excerpted from in the Allowable Ampacity (a) More Than Three Current-Carrying
Conductors in a Raceway or Cable.
NFPA 70-2014, 310.15) Table 310.15(B)(16) through Table
Where the number of current-carrying
310.15(B)(19), and Ampacity Table
Note: Fine Print Note (FPN) was changed 310.15(B)(20) and Table 310.15(B)(21) conductors in a raceway or cable
to Informational Note in the 2011 NEC. as modified by 310.15(B)(1) through exceeds three, or where single
(B)(7). conductors or multi­conductor cables
are installed without maintaining
(A) General. Note: Table 310.15(B)(16) through spacing for a continuous length longer
(1) Tables or Engineering Supervision. Table 310.15(B)(19) are application tables for than 24.00-inch (600 mm) and are not
Ampacities for conductors shall be use in determining conductor sizes on loads installed in raceways, the allowable
permitted to be determined by tables calculated in accordance with Article 220.
ampacity of each conductor shall be
Allowable ampacities result from consideration
as provided in 310.15(B) or under reduced as shown in Table 310.15(B)(3)
of one or more of the following:
engineering supervision, as provided (a). Each current-carry­ing conductor
in 310.15(C). (1) Temperature compatibility with of a paralleled set of conductors
connected equipment, especially the shall be counted as a current-
Note: Informational Note No. 1: Ampacities
provided by this section do not take voltage connection points. carrying conductor.
drop into consideration. See 210.19(A), Note: Informational Note No. 1: See Annex B,
Informational Note No. 4, for branch circuits (2) Coordination with circuit and
Table B.310.15(B)(2)(11), for adjustment factors
and 215.2(A), Informational No. 2, for feeders. system overcurrent protection. for more than three current-carrying conductors
Note: Informational Note No. 2: For the (3) Compliance with the requirements of in a raceway or cable with load diversity.
allowable ampacities of Type MTW wire, see
product listings or certifications. See
Table 13.5.1 in NFPA 79-2007, Electrical Note: Informational Note No. 2: See 366.23(A)
Standard for Industrial Machinery. 110.3(B). for adjustment factors for conductors in
(4) Preservation of the safety benefits of sheet metal auxiliary gutters and 376.22(B)
(2) Selection of Ampacity. Where more for adjustment factors for conductors in
established industry practices and metal wireways.
than one ampacity applies for a given standardized procedures.
circuit length, the lowest value shall be
used. Exception: Where two different (1) General. For explanation of type (1) Where conductors are installed in
ampacities apply to adjacent portions let­ters used in tables and for cable trays, the provisions of 392.80
of a circuit, the higher ampacity shall recognized sizes of conductors for the shall apply.
be permitted to be used beyond the various conductor insulations, see (2) Adjustment factors shall not apply
point of transition, a distance equal to Table 310.104(A) and Table 310.104(B). to conductors in raceways having
10 ft (3.0 m) or 10 percent of the circuit For installation requirements, see a length not exceeding 24.00-inch
length figured at the higher ampacity, 310.1 through 310.15(A)(3) and the (600 mm).
whichever is less. various articles of this Code. For
flexible cords, see Table 400.4, Table (3) Adjustment factors shall not apply to
Note: See 110.14(C) for conductor temperature underground conductors enter­ing or
400.5(A)(1) and Table 400.5(A)(2).
limitations due to termination provisions.
leaving an outdoor trench if those
conductors have physical protection
in the form of rigid metal conduit,
intermediate metal conduit, rigid
polyvinyl chloride conduit (PVC), or
reinforced thermosetting resin conduit
(RTRC) having a length not exceeding
10 ft (3.05 m), and if the number of
conductors does not exceed four.

142 EATON Basics of power system design Eaton.com/consultants

Reference Data
(4) Adjustment factors shall not apply to Where conductors or cables are installed (5) Neutral Conductor.
Type AC cable or to Type MC cable in circular raceways exposed to direct
under the following conditions: sunlight on or above rooftops, the (a) A neutral conductor that carries only
adjustments shown in Table 67 the unbalanced current from other
a. The cables do not have an overall shall be added to the outdoor conductors of the same circuit shall
outer jacket. temperature to determine the applicable not be required to be counted when
ambient temperature for application of apply­ing the provisions of 310.15(B)
b. Each cable has not more than three (3)(a).
current-carrying conductors. the correction factors in Table 310.15(B)(2)
(a) or Table 310.15(B)(2)(b). (b) In a three-wire circuit consisting of
c. The conductors are 12 AWG copper. two phase conductors and the neutral
Note: Informational Note: One source for the
d. Not more than 20 current-carrying average ambient temperatures in various conductor of a four-wire, three-phase,
conductors are installed without locations is the ASHRAE Handbook wye-connected system, a common
maintaining spacing, are stacked, —Fundamentals. conductor carries approximately the
or are supported on”bridle rings.” same current as the line-to-neutral
Table 67. NEC (2014) Table 310.15(B)(3)(c) load currents of the other conductors
(5) An adjustment factor of 60 percent Ambient Temperature Adjustment for Circular and shall be counted when applying
shall be applied to Type AC cable or Raceways or Cables Exposed to Sunlight On or the provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
Type MC cable under the following Above Rooftops
conditions: (c) On a four-wire, three-phase wye circuit
Distance Above Roof Temperature
to Bottom of Conduit Adder ºF (ºC)
where the major portion of the load
a. The cables do not have an overall consists of nonlinear loads, harmonic
outer jacket. 0–0.51-inch (0–13.0 mm) 60 (33) currents are present in the neutral
Above 0.51-inch (13.0 mm)– 40 (22) conductor; the neutral conductor shall
b. The number of current carrying
3.54-inch (90.0 mm) therefore be con­sidered a current-
conductors exceeds 20.
Above 3.54-inch (90.0 mm)– 30 (17) carrying conductor.
c. The cables are stacked or bundled 11.81-inch (300.0 mm)
(6) Grounding or Bonding Conductor.
longer that 24.00-inch (600 mm) Above 12.00-inch (300.0 mm)– 25 (14)
36.00-inch (900.0 mm) A grounding or bonding conductor
without spacing being maintained.
shall not be counted when applying
(b) More Than One Conduit, Tube, the provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
or Raceway. Spacing between (4) Bare or Covered Conductors. Where
conduits, tubing, or raceways bare or covered conductors are
shall be maintained. installed with insulated conductors,
the temperature rating of the bare or
(c) Circular Raceways Exposed to covered conductor shall be equal to
Sunlight on Rooftops. the lowest temperature rating of the
insulated conductors for the purpose
of determining ampacity.

Eaton.com/consultants EATON Basics of power system design 143

Reference Data
Table 68. Formulas for Determining Amperes, hp, kW and kVA
To Direct Alternating Current
Find Current Single-Phase Two-Phase—Four-Wire 1 Three-Phase

Amperes (l) when

horsepower is known

Amperes (l) when

kilowatts is known

Amperes (l) when —

kVA is known

Kilowatts

kVA —

Horsepower (output)

a For two-phase, three-wire circuits, the current in the common conductor is times that in either of the two other conductors.
Note: Units of measurement and definitions for E (volts), I (amperes), and other abbreviations are given below under Common Electrical Terms.

Common Electrical Terms How to Compute Power Factor

Ampere (l) = unit of current or rate of flow of electricity
Volt (E) = unit of electromotive force
Ohm (R) = unit of resistance 1. From watthour meter.
Watts = rpm of disc x 60 x Kh
Ohms law: I = (DC or 100% pf)
Where Kh is meter constant printed
Megohm = 1,000,000 ohms on face or nameplate
Volt Amperes (VA) = unit of apparent power of meter.
= E x I (single-phase) If metering transformers are used,
= above must be multiplied by the
transformer ratios.
Kilovolt Amperes (kVA) = 1000 volt-amperes
2. Directly from wattmeter reading.
Watt (W) = unit of true power Where:
= VA x pf
Volts = line-to-line voltage as
= 0.00134 hp
measured by voltmeter.
Kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watts
Amperes = current measured in line
Power Factor (pf) = ratio of true to apparent power wire (not neutral) by ammeter.
= Table 69. Temperature Conversion
(F° to C°) C° = 5/9 (F°–32°)
Watthour (Wh) = unit of electrical work (C° to F°) F° = 9/5(C°)+32°
= 1 watt for 1 hour
C° –15 –10 –5  0  5 10 15 20
= 3.413 Btu F° 5 14 23 32 41 50 59 68
= 2655 ft-lbs Cº 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
F° 77 86 95 104 113 122 131 140
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000 watthours C° 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
F°
149 158 167 176 185 194 203 212
Horsepower (hp) = measure of time rate of doing work
= equivalent of raising 33,000 lbs 1 ft in 1 minute 1 Inch = 2.54 centimeters
= 746 watts 1 Kilogram = 2.20 lb
Demand Factor = ratio of maximum demand to the total connected load 1 Square Inch = 1,273,200 circular mills
1 Circular Mill = 0.785 square mil
Diversity Factor = ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands of
the various subdivisions of a system to the maximum 1 Btu = 778 ft lb
demand of the whole system = 252 calories
1 Year = 8760 hours
Load Factor = ratio of the average load over a designated period
of time to the peak load occurring in that period

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