Extension and Advisory Services - Terminology and Glossary

“Rural advisory services, also called extension, are all the different activities that provide the information and
services needed and demanded by farmers and other actors in rural settings to assist them in developing their
own technical, organisational, and management skills and practices so as to improve their livelihoods and well-
being.” (Christoplos, 2010)

Agricultural Extension was once known as the to the authoritarian and often repressive nature of
application of scientific research, knowledge, and intervention before independence in francophone
technologies to improve agricultural practices countries such as Senegal and Ivory Coast (De Wilde,
through farmer education. The field of extension now 1967; Swanson, Bentz, & Sofranko, 1997). Key to this
encompasses a wider range of communication and approach is that an indigenous change agent (an
learning theories and activities (organized for the “animator”) works closely in rural communities to
benefit of rural people) by professionals from spur collective action for community improvement
different disciplines. There is no generally accepted using methods similar to those pioneered by Paolo
definition of agricultural extension, but the one Freire.
provided above is widely used and is the one
Advisory Service(s) is a term commonly used as an
promoted by the Global Forum for Rural Advisory
alternate for “extension services”. These systems
Services, GFRAS. There are different schools of
involve a broad spectrum of market and non-market
thought about how agricultural extension systems
entities, and agents are expected to provide useful
should be organized and function.
technical information about new technologies that
Agricultural extension uses a number of different can improve the income and welfare of farmers and
terms to describe specific concepts and approaches, other rural people. Apart from their conventional
a selection of which are described in this glossary. function of providing knowledge and technology to
improve agricultural productivity, agricultural
Agricultural Innovation System “is a network of
advisory services are also expected to fulfill a variety
organisations, enterprises, and individuals focused on
of new functions, such as linking smallholder farmers
bringing new products, processes, and new forms of
to high-value and export markets, promoting
organisations into social or economic use, together
environmentally sustainable production techniques,
with the institutions and policies that affect their
adapting to climate change, and coping with the
behaviour and performance.” (GFRAS 2012).
effects of HIV/AIDS and other health challenges that
Important actors within such a system are innovative
affect rural people.
farmers who successfully determine, through trial
and error, which crops/products, as well as the Climate smart agriculture is an approach developed
necessary technologies, are most profitable in by FAO in 2010 to developing the technical, policy and
supplying different and emerging markets. investment conditions to achieve sustainable
Animation Rurale is an approach developed originally agricultural development for food security under
by the French Institut de Recherches et d'Application climate change. The approach is composed of three
des Méthodes de Développement as a counter point pillars: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
This publication is made possible by the support of the American people through the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID). The views expressed in this publication
do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.
and incomes; adapting and building resilience to over selected financial planning and accountability
climate change; and reducing and/or removing functions; and (3) expanding local involvement in
greenhouse gases emissions, where possible (FAO organizing and delivering extension services, be it
2013). through local government actors, private firms or
non-governmental organizations.
Commodity-Based Advisory Services: Commodity-
Demand-Driven Extension is viewed differently by
based advisory services are similar to value-chain
economists and other social scientists. As Birner and
extension systems (defined later in this glossary), in
Anderson (2007) point out, “demand-driven refers to
which an economically important crop or product,
the economic concepts of supply and demand” (p. 4).
generally for export (e.g., cotton, coffee, other high-
However, most people view technology systems as
value crops or products), requires that producers use
being “supply-driven” by research institutions;
specified genetic materials or varieties and follow
therefore, extension scholars relate “demand-driven”
strict quality-control standards in producing and
to the technology system itself and are aware that
harvesting the crop or product.
research and development (R&D) is seldom farmer-
Cooperative Extension Service: This organizational led. Demand-driven extension is a concept in which
and funding model for extension is unique to the the farm household is the central focus of a farmer-
United States of America. It is a joint effort of led or participatory extension system. As Wennink,
national, state, and county governments within each Heemskerk, and Nederlof (2006) indicate, “Farmer-
specific state to advance the practical application of oriented knowledge services are a prerequisite for
knowledge through a wide variety of extension and innovation” (p. 1).
outreach activities. The main program areas are:
Diffusion of Innovation is the process by which new
youth development (especially through 4-H),
ideas and technologies spread through different
agricultural and rural development, natural resource
farming systems, countries, and cultures. Everett
management, family and consumer sciences, and
Roger’s innovation theory (2003) states that
community and economic development (i.e., helping
innovation diffusion is a process that occurs over time
local governments investigate and create viable
through five stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision,
economic options for community development). This
implementation, and confirmation. Accordingly, the
extension system has traditionally focused on a wide
innovation–decision process is the process through
range aspects of rural development at the household
which an individual or other decision-making unit
and community levels and is not limited to
passes through the stages of (1) having awareness
agricultural extension and advisory services.
and knowledge of an innovation, (2) forming an
Coverage: Extension coverage pertains to the degree attitude toward the innovation, (3) making a decision
that extension services are present and available to adopt (or reject) the innovation, (4) implementing
across geographic areas and demographic groups. the new innovation, and (5) confirming the decision.
Coverage does imply that all farmers receive services
Extension Education: During the past century,
but rather that extension services are active and
extension education developed into a discipline or
could potentially be accessed.
field of study with its own philosophy, objectives,
Decentralized Extension: This concept is based on methods, and techniques that should be understood
three major elements: (1) transferring specific and used by most extension workers if they are to be
decision-making functions to local levels, starting effective in serving the needs of all farmers, especially
with simple managerial functions, then setting small-scale and women farmers. The basic principles,
priorities and allocating funds and providing other methods, and techniques of extension education are
administrative functions, including accountability and applicable to all fields within agricultural and rural
financing/co-financing; (2) encouraging public development, including crop, livestock, fisheries, and
participation, reflecting the degree of authority that other rural enterprises, as well as rural youth
is formally transferred to rural people, starting in an programs and home economics, including family
advisory capacity for program planning and health, hygiene, and nutrition. Extension education
implementation, and eventually assuming control primarily focuses on the teaching-learning methods

2|Pa g e
needed to train and provide small-scale and women understaffing and perhaps a high degree of unserved
farmers with the necessary skills, knowledge and potential extension clients, recommendations for an
information they will need to increase their farm ideal ratio are mixed and depend largely on the
income and, thereby, improve the livelihoods of these context and services provided (Swanson, Bentz, and
rural families. Sofranko, 1997).
Extension is a term first used to describe adult Gender equality means ensuring that both women
education programs in England during the second half and men have equal access to the opportunities,
of the 19th century. These programs helped extend rights, resources and voice that allow people to pur-
the work of universities beyond the campus and into sue a life of their own choosing and to avoid extreme
neighboring communities. In the early 20th century deprivations in outcomes. (World Bank, 2009)
this extension function was transferred to the
Ministry of Agriculture and renamed as “advisory 4-H Clubs are youth organizations with the mission of
services”. The term “extension” was adopted in the “engaging youth to reach their fullest potential while
United States during the late 19th century and advancing the field of youth development.” The 4 H’s
integrated into the Land Grant Universities as a stand for “head, heart, hands, and health”. These
central function of these institutions and in their role clubs serve over 6.5 million members in the United
as partners in the cooperative extension system. States, and 4-H clubs or similar organizations now
exist in many other countries. The goal of 4-H is to
Farmer Field School is a group-based experiential
develop citizenship, leadership, and life skills of
learning approach which seeks to empower farmers
youth, primarily through experiential learning
to learn, understand and make informed decisions. In
programs. Though typically thought of as an
a farmer field school, groups of farmers meet
agriculturally focused organization, 4-H today
regularly in the field with a facilitator to observe, talk,
encourages both rural and urban members to learn
ask questions and learn together. Farmer field
about many topics, such as youth leadership, youth–
schools, were first conceived by FAO in the late 1980s
adult partnership, working together to achieve
as a way of training farmers on integrated pest
common objectives, practice parliamentary
management (IPM). The approach is now used for a
procedures, public speaking, and entrepreneurship.
wide range of technical and social topics such as
water and sanitation, household livelihood security, Fee-for-Service Extension: Under fee-for-service
marketing, child labor, to name a few. extension programs (FSE), the provider may be a
public entity, a non-governmental organization, a
Farmer-to-farmer extension is the provision of
private-sector firm, or even a consultant. In
training by farmers to farmers, often through the
developing or newly developed countries, FSEs
creation of a structure of farmer-trainers. Different
normally require considerable public funding on a
organizations use different terms for the farmers they
long-term basis even if the provider is private (as in
engage to be trainers, (e.g., lead farmer, farmer-
Chile). Under such an arrangement (e.g., using
promoter, community knowledge worker) and the
government-funded vouchers), groups of farmers
different names often imply different roles. There is
typically contract for specific extension services to
also much variation in the way farmer trainers are
address their needs. When it is the intension of
selected, how they are trained and supervised and
government to shift most extension costs to
how, if at all, they are compensated for their time and
commercial farmers, such as in Europe, the results are
expenses.
mixed. Generally, shifting the cost of extension
Farmer-to-Officer Ratio is a commonly used measure services directly to commercial farmers must be done
designed to illustrate the number of clientele each incrementally over a number of years (as in Ireland).
officer/extensionist is expected to serve. The ratio is
Human Resource Development is a term commonly
calculated by determining the total potential clients
used in formal organizations and is generally
within a geographic area (district, region, nation) and
associated with improving the skills and knowledge of
dividing this figure by the total number of
employees so that they can become more effective
extensionists responsible for this area, scaled to a
on the job and can advance within the organization.
denominator of one. While high ratios suggest

3|Pa g e
In agricultural extension it is also used frequently to improve rural values; through the redistribution of
non-formal, adult education on a broad range of skills central resources, reducing comparative disadvanta-
and knowledge beyond agricultural production, such ges for competition and finding new ways to reinforce
as managerial, organizational, problem solving and utilize rural resources” (Nemes 2005, p. 23).
abilities, and even literacy and numeracy skills.
Market-Driven Extension: is a relatively new concept
Information and Communication Technologies in which the focus of formerly technology transfer-
refers to the integration of telecommunications and driven agricultural extension shifts from production
computer networks with communication methods. to profitability and market orientation, and this focus
The range of technologies used by and for extension tends to be more prevalent for high-value crops,
includes but is not limited to websites and online livestock, fisheries, or valuate added products. This
information portals, radio, television, cell/mobile change in focus is consistent with the concept of a
phone applications (person to person calls, market-driven agricultural innovation system,
interactive voice response, text, images, video, apps, because market opportunities and access depend in
internet). Some applications utilize geographic part on the location of each farm (or groups of
information systems, provide access to market farmers), farm size (to produce specific products), and
information or weather information. Communication many other factors, such as agro-ecological
can be one way, i.e., from sender to receiver, or conditions, transportation infrastructure, available
interactive (through user interfaces) and even labor, and, possibly, access to other production
participatory (e.g., participatory radio campaigns). resources, such as irrigation, greenhouses, etc.
Therefore, the decision by groups of farmers to
Innovation can be defined as a new way of doing
supply specific markets with different high-value
something, ranging from changes in the way people
crops or products will depend in large part on the
think about something to the way new products are
relative size of accessible markets for particular
made or use new processes or procedures. It also
products and the strategic advantage of producer
includes institutional innovations that change the
groups to supply these markets with high-value crops
way an organization carries out new or different
or products.
functions. For example, shifting toward a bottom-up,
rather than a top-down extension system; or moving Nutrition sensitive agriculture is an approach that
toward a more market-driven, rather than a tech- seeks to maximize agriculture’s contribution to
nology-driven, extension system. Innovative farmers nutrition. This approach emphasizes the multiple
are frequently the source of new production techno- benefits derived from enjoying a variety of foods,
logies and marketing approaches for market-driven recognizing the nutritional value of food for good
innovations. Innovation is a major driver to economic nutrition, health and productivity, and the social
change, especially in the agricultural sector.
significance of the food and agricultural sector for
Input Supply Advisory Services are one-on-one supporting rural livelihoods. Nutrition-sensitive
advisory services provided by private-sector input agriculture also entails targeting poor households,
supply firms (and input-supply cooperatives) to promoting gender equity, and providing nutrition
farmers who purchase production inputs from these education so that household resources are used to
firms. This is the dominant model in most industrially
improve household members’ nutrition, especially
developed countries because it has become a “win–
that of women and young children. The approach also
win” arrangement. Farmers get sound technical
calls for linking agriculture to sectors that address
advice from certified crop advisors, and the input
supply firms are able to recover the cost of advisory other causes of malnutrition, namely education,
services through profits generated from the sale of health and social protection. (FAO 2014)
inputs, especially to commercial farmers.
Participatory Extension is essentially a combination
Integrated Rural Development is “an ongoing of technology transfer, advisory services, and human
process involving outside intervention and local resources development and involves two key
aspirations; aiming to attain the betterment of groups elements. The first element addresses how extension
of people living in rural areas and to sustain and systems are organized and emphasizes the fact that

4|Pa g e
all types of farmers, especially small-scale and women workers, or other actors (World Bank, 2012).
farmers, must play an important role in setting Governments or public extension systems often serve
extension priorities and shaping extension programs. as facilitators and help coordinate extension actors to
By so doing, farmers will take more “ownership” over deliver services that utilize the relative strengths of
these ongoing extension programs and operations. each entity. When pluralistic systems work well, they
The second key element of the participatory are well equipped to deal with the diversity of
extension approach generally encompasses more conditions, needs, audiences, and farming systems
participatory extension methods, such as experiential that make up the agricultural landscape by providing
learning and farmer-to-farmer exchanges. It an equally diverse array of services and service
emphasizes that knowledge is gained through providers (Feder, Willett and Zijp, 1999).
interactive processes that include extension field
Pre-Service Training of agricultural extension
staff, private-sector firms, non-governmental
workers has been given limited attention and
organizations, and/or innovative and progressive
resources in most developing countries since the
farmers within local or nearby communities.
1990s. In most countries, field extension workers
Participants are expected to make their own
obtain a two- or three-year diploma from a school of
decisions, especially about how they will intensify
agriculture, which is normally a terminal educational
and/or diversify their farming systems.
qualification. These diploma-level programs typically
Participatory Farm Management is an extension teach a cross-section of agricultural courses, including
approach that uses simple methods to enable crop and livestock production, plus basic skills in
farmers, working on their own or with a facilitator, to extension methods using the “diffusion of
quantify and analyze their use of farm or household innovations” framework, which primarily focuses on
resources in order to assess the potential impact of technology transfer to larger, commercially oriented
different decisions on farm income. The methods can farmers. In most cases, the educational content of
be used to assess the resource implications of both agricultural and extension courses is grossly out
modifying the current farming system by diversifying of date if these agricultural extension systems are
into one or more new enterprises and comparing the expected to become more decentralized,
impact of these potential new enterprises, in participatory (farmer-led), and market-driven in
comparison with current enterprises, on both farm improving rural livelihoods. To improve pre-service
resources and incomes. training, the skills and knowledge of faculty and staff
at schools of agriculture and agricultural universities
Participatory Rural Appraisal is a label given to a
will need to be updated in course content and
range of participatory methods that emphasize local
teaching methods, as well as being provided with up-
knowledge and enable local people to conduct their
to-date, relevant teaching materials (see Zinnah,
own appraisals and analyses, and make plans for
Steele, and Mattocks 1998).
themselves. The key tenets of a PRA are participation,
teamwork, flexibility, and triangulation to ensure that Private Advisory Services: Under a system of private
information is valid and reliable. For more advisory services (PAS), a private for-profit sector
information on PRA, see The World Bank Participation advisor or advisory firm (or non-governmental
Sourcebook (World Bank 1996). organization) is contracted by a government entity,
donor, or a farmer organization to provide specified
Pluralistic Extension systems encompass a range of
types of advisory services to farmers. Private advisors
service providers, approaches, funding streams, and
often use the same basic tools and methods as public
sources of information available to farmers and
extension staff, but the management of a private firm
clients. This model can allow farmers the opportunity
has more flexibility in hiring or laying off employees
to choose the most appropriate extension services
and to provide incentives based on performance, as
and providers for their needs. Collaborating
well as to more adequately allocate program and
extension service providers could include
operating funds. Therefore, the short-term perfor-
governments/public systems, private companies,
mance of PASs can be efficient and effective.
international or domestic non-governmental
However, this approach appears less sustainable over
organizations, non-affiliated community extension

5|Pa g e
the long-term, because policy changes (e.g., when a agro-ecological zones within a region (e.g., soil
different political party takes over government type/conditions; rainfall patterns; irrigation water,
leadership) may directly affect the availability of including availability and cost), (2) transportation
government funding for these PAS. Also, donor infrastructure, and (3) available markets for all types
funding is generally not long-term, and donor of staple and high-value food crops/products. The
priorities may change, as evidenced by World Bank analysis must consider all of this information in
investments in Training & Visit extension. For a determining the most feasible economic
general review of privatized extension services, see opportunities for different categories of farm
Rivera and Alex 2004a and 2004b. households within each agro-ecological zone of a
region. The output of the SWOT analysis will be a
Producer Organizations is an overarching term for a
preliminary SREP that is reviewed, modified, and
range of organizations, such as farmer cooperatives,
eventually approved by a cross-section of agricultural
farmer interest groups, producer groups, farmer
community representatives, consisting of all types of
associations or self-help groups. Being organized as a
farmers (including women farmers), rural banks,
group has the potential to strengthen the bargaining
input supply firms, and agricultural product buyers.
power of farmers in the marketplace (for procuring
inputs as well as services, and in supplying markets). Technology Transfer: Technology transfer is the
In addition, when farmers are organized into groups, process of disseminating new technologies and
supplying needed extension and advisory services can practices that largely result from research and
be done more effectively and efficiently Specifically, development efforts in different fields of agriculture.
group formation can facilitate the dissemination of In general, these technologies include (1) genetic
agricultural technologies, help transform farming improvement in the form of improved crop
systems among different farm households, and varieties/hybrids and livestock breeds; (2) improved
encouraging farmers to use environmentally friendly production practices, including soil fertility and
farming practices. Well organized farmers can animal nutrition; (3) improved plant protection and
influence government policies to be more favorable animal health practices; (4) mechanical technologies
to increasing farm income improving rural livelihoods. that will improve labor efficiency and other
management practices; and (5) sustainable natural
Social Capital Development essentially concerns
resource management practices, such as drip
people organizing themselves and then mobilizing
irrigation, water harvesting, integrated pest
their resources to solve problems of common
management, and so forth—in other words,
interest. The effectiveness of these groups and/or
technologies that all types of agricultural producers
networks depends on the extent to which the group
will need in order to increase agricultural productivity
can facilitate collective decision-making, help disse-
and farm incomes. In recent years, the term has fallen
minate information, and reduce opportunistic
out of favor among some development practitioners
behavior. These factors depend on different aspects,
because the word “transfer” implies a one-way, linear
including organizational structure, membership, and
path from research to extension to farmers, and
the way these groups function.
because it appears to preclude feedback mechanisms
Strategic Research and Extension Plan: Formulating and the modification of technology by users.
a strategic research and extension plan (SREP)
Training and Visit Extension is based on the
involves identifying the farming systems and the
principles that (1) extension agents should have
resource base of farmers within a target area, as well
primary responsibility for carrying out extension
as identifying the successes and failures of innovative
functions, (2) extension should be closely linked with
farmers. It also involves the identification of problems
research, (3) training should be carried out on a
and needs of farmers by using PRA techniques and
regular and continuous timetable, (4) work should be
then analyzing all of this information using a SWOT
time-bound, and (5) a field and farmer orientation
(strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats)
should be maintained. This technology-driven
analysis. In addition to farmer information, the SWOT
approach was initially successful during the late 1970s
analysis examines other important types of
and 1980s in disseminating the production
agricultural information, including (1) the different

6|Pa g e
management practices associated with growing messages to disseminate to these farmers. The
Green Revolution wheat and rice varieties. However, agents had not been trained nor equipped to assess
in rain-fed and other production areas where these the needs of farmers and then identify alternative
new technologies were not a good fit, the training and technologies or production systems that might better
visit approach had limited success because here the address the needs of farmers in these areas.
extension agents did not have economically useful

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