Unit 8 notes: Covalent Bonds

Objectives:
 Compare and contrast ionic, covalent (polar and non-polar) and metallic bonds and compounds.
 Describe how a polar molecule is different from a non-polar molecule.
 Name molecular (covalently bonded) compounds given a formula.
 Write the formula for a molecular compound given the name.

Review Ionic Bonds:

 In an ionic bond, a transfer of electrons occurs. (give and take)
 Ionic bonds are classified as having an electronegativity difference greater than or equal to 1.5.
 Ionic bonds are formed when ions bond. The force holding the bond together is the electrostatic
attraction between the cation (+) and the anion (-).
 Ionic bonds usually involve the bonding of a metal and a non-metal (or polyatomic).

Metallic Bonds:
 From the information on your table of bonds, is a metallic bond closer to an ionic or covalent
bond? Why?
Ionic – movement of charged particles allows heat and electricity to be conducted
Covalent – electrons are shared

 The force holding a metallic bond together is the delocalized electrons.

 How do the delocalized electrons explain the properties of metallic bonds?

Movement of electrons, reflectivity, malleability, ductility, conductivity.

Covalent Bonds:
 In a covalent bond a sharing of electrons occurs. An unequal sharing is considered a polar
covalent bond and an equal sharing is considered a non-polar covalent bond.
 Covalent bonds are classified as having an electronegativity difference less than 1.67.
polar covalent: between 0.2 and 1.67.
non-polar covalent: less than or equal to 0.2.
 Covalent bonds are formed when neutral atoms bond. The force holding the bond together is the
overlap of electron clouds.
 Covalent Bonds usually involve the bonding of two non-metals.
 Covalently bonded compounds are referred to as a molecular compounds, because a molecule is
formed.

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Electronegativity: attraction to electron within a BOND

Electronegativity difference:
small electronegativity difference: between 0 and 0.2 = non-polar covalent bond
between 0.2 and 1.67 = polar covalent bond
large electronegativity difference: greater than or equal to 1.67

0 0.2 1.67

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 Type of Bond Force holding electronegativity properties
atoms or ions difference
together

particles involved in
bonding: Ions  stronger than covalent
 high melting points
 usually soluble in H2O
electrostatic ≥ 1.67  only conduct molten or
Ionic attraction dissolved in H2O
 solids: form crystals

Transfer of e- (give/take)

particles: Polar
neutral Covalent 0.2 to 1.67  weaker than ionic
atoms unequal  low melting points
sharing overlap of e-  poor conductors
clouds  brittle
Covalent Non-polar
Covalent ≤ 0.2
equal
Sharing e- sharing

 luster (shiny)
 malleable/ductile
delocalized N/A  good conductors in all
Metallic electrons states
 don’t form normal
covalent bonds
 group 1: soft
 group2: in between
 transition: hard

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 Type of Bond Force holding electronegativity properties
atoms or ions difference
together

particles involved in
bonding: Ions  stronger than covalent
 high melting points
 usually soluble in H2O
electrostatic ≥ 1.67  only conduct molten or
Ionic attraction dissolved in H2O
 solids: form crystals

Transfer of e- (give/take)

particles: Polar
neutral Covalent 0.2 to 1.67  weaker than ionic
atoms unequal  low melting points
sharing overlap of e-  poor conductors
clouds  brittle
Covalent Non-polar
Covalent ≤ 0.2
equal
Sharing e- sharing

 luster (shiny)
 malleable/ductile
delocalized N/A  good conductors in all
Metallic electrons states
 don’t form normal
covalent bonds
 group 1: soft
 group2: in between
 transition: hard

Writing and Naming Molecular Compounds:

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 The way we name molecular (covalently bonded) compounds is different (and easier!)
than ionic compounds.
 The first atom keeps its name and the second atom’s ending is changed to “-ide”
 Prefixes will be added depending on how many of each atom there is. If there is only one
of the first atom, the prefix “mono-“ is dropped.
 Because molecular compounds involve the bonding of neutral atoms, you do not have to
balance the charge like you did in writing ionic formulas.

Prefixes:
1 – mono-
2 – di-
3 – tri-
4 – tetra-
5 – penta-
6 – hexa-
7 – hepta-
8 – octa-
9 – nona-
10 – deca-

Examples:
Name:
BF3 boron trifluoride
H2O dihydrogen monoxide
S2O5 disulfur pentoxide
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
XeF6 xenon hexafluoride

Write the Formula:

carbon monoxide CO
carbon dioxide CO2
disulfur heptachloride S2Cl7
pentoxide tetraiodide O5I4

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*********************************************************************************
ionic compounds: usually a metal + non-metal or metal + polyatomic
molecular compounds: usually 2 non-metals
*********************************************************************************

Classify the following bonds as polar covalent or non-polar covalent. Draw the space filling model
and label which end will be δ+ (partially positive) and which end will be δ- (partially negative).
C-O

N-N

H2O

BrCl

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Drawing Lewis Dot Structures:

1. Determine the central atom.

 Most compounds are symmetrical. For example, if there is one “C” and two “O” like
in carbon dioxide, C will be the central atom.
 If there is one of each, like in NOCl, the atom that can “make the most bonds”
should be placed in the center.
C: has 4 valence electrons – can make 4 bonds (to fill its octet) 4+4=8
N: has 5 valence electrons – can make 3 bonds, 5+3=8
O: has 6 valence electrons – can make 2 bonds, 6+2 =8
H and the halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) – can make 1 bond
 H has one valence electron and is full with 2 (like He)
 the halogens have seven valence electrons, 7+1=8

What would be the central atom in NOCl? N

2. To determine the number of “dots”, add the number of valence electrons in each atom. Add
for each negative charge and subtract one for each positive charge. Lewis dot structures
for ions will have to be in brackets with the charge on the outside.
 Examples: Determine how many valence electrons there are in each of the following:
a. water (H2O) H + O + H = 1 + 6 + 1 = 8

b. ammonia (NH3) N + H + H + H = 5 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 8

c. ammonium ion (NH4+) N + H + H + H + H = 5 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 - 1 = 8

d. sulfate ion (SO42-) S + O + O + O = 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 2 = 32

3. Place them around to central atom to give it an octet, then fill in the octet for the
surrounding atoms. If there are not enough electrons for each atom to have an octet, make
a double or triple bond. (see e and f below)
 Example: methane (CH4)
 Calculate valence electrons: 4 from C, 1 from each H: 4+1+1+1+1 = 8
 Draw Lewis Dot Diagram for CH4 (see next page)

4. Practice: Draw Lewis Dot structures for (see next page for answers)

a. NH3 f. N2
b. NH 4
+

c. SO42-
d. F2
e. NOCl

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3.

4a.

4b.

4c.

4d.

4e.

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Chemistry Name:____________________
Lewis Dot Structures Date:______________
Formula Name # Lewis Electron Dot Structure
valence
e-

1. CH4 methane 8
(natural gas)

2. CH2Cl2 ____________ 20

3. Cl2 chlorine 14

4. HOCl ____________ 14

5. O2 oxygen 12

6. OH- hydroxide ion 8

7. H3O+ hydronium ion 8

(water
molecule +
H+)

8. CHCl3 ____________ 26

9. CO2 carbon dioxide 16

10. SO2 sulfur dioxide 18

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 VSEPR Theory
VSEPR: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
valence electron pairs surrounding an atom tend to repel each other and will, therefore,
adopt an arrangement that minimizes this repulsion (get as far away as possible), thus
determining the molecule's geometry. 
3D shapes:
1. linear: example: beryllium chloride (Be is stable with 4 valence e-)
2 bonding pairs, 0 lone pair
180° bond angle

2. trigonal planar: example: boron trifluoride (B is stable with 6 valence electrons)

3 bonding pairs, 0 lone pair
120° bond angle

3. tetrahedral: example: methane (CH4) 4 bonding pairs, 0 lone pair, 109.5° bond angle

4. trigonal pyramidal: example: ammonia (NH3)

3 bonding pairs, 1 lone pair, <109.5° bond angle

5. bent: examples: water (2 lone pair), sulfur dioxide (1 lone pair)

2 bonding pairs 2 bonding pairs

2 lone pair 1 lone pair
<109.5° bond angle <120° bond angle

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Chemistry Name: _______________________
Unit 8 – Bonding Date: __________________

The VSEPR Model and Molecular Structure

The VSEPR Model for predicting molecular structure is based on the assumption
that electrons in molecules repel one another. The letters VSEPR stand for valence shell
electron pair repulsion between pairs of bonding valence electrons in the atoms involved.
In general, this repulsion causes the electron pairs to be oriented as far apart as possible.
To use this model in predicting molecular structure, one need only apply the
general “ABE” formula.
A represents the central atom
B represents the number of atoms bonded to the central atom
E represents the number of lone electron pairs on the central atom

Practice:
Molecule Dot structure ABE Molecular shape
model

F2 A2 linear

SF2 AB2E2 bent

PBr3 AB3E trigonal pyramid

I2O AB2E2 bent

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SiCl3I AB4 tetrahedral

NOCl AB2E bent

Ion Dot structure ABE Molecular shape

model

NH4+ AB4 tetrahedral

ClO2- AB2E2 bent

SO42- AB4 tetrahedral

NO3- AB3 trigonal planar

The Forces between Molecules

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All matter is held together by force. The force between atoms within a molecule is
a chemical or intramolecular force (the bond). The force between molecules is a
physical or intermolecular force.

The Nature of Intermolecular Forces:

The Intermolecular Forces (forces between molecules) are weaker than

Intramolecular Forces (The Chemical Bonds within an Individual Molecule). This
distinction is the reason we define the molecule in the first place.
The properties of matter result from the properties of the individual molecule
(resulting from chemical bonding) and how the molecules act collectively
(resulting from intermolecular forces).

1. Dipole-Dipole forces: exist between neutral polar molecules.

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 2. Dispersion Forces
London Dispersion forces result from fluctuations of charge. These forces are
ubiquitous but are most important in systems that have no other types of molecular
stickiness, like the noble gases. The noble gases may be liquified, and it is
dispersion forces that hold the atoms together.

The movement of the electrons, even in the He atom, cause an instantaneous

dipole to be formed. This dipole, however fleeting, can induce a dipole in a
neighboring atom, causing a force. This force is always attractive, but short range.

3. Hydrogen Bonding

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Hydrogen bonding is not a bond. It is an exceptionally strong kind of dipole-
dipole intermolecular force. Water molecules exhibit hydrogen bonding.

Comparison of Compounds in Groups 14 and 16

Boiling point vs. Molecular Mass

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The figure above shows the normal boiling point temperatures for several related
substances. This boiling point diagram tells us about the intermolecular forces
between a series of small hydrogen containing molecules.
Look first at the Group 14 hydrides (bottom, black line), from CH4 through SnH4.
The boiling points of these molecules increase with increasing mass, as one would
expect.
The group 16 hydrides (top, red line) do the same thing, with the notable exception
of WATER! A special type of intermolecular force exists between water molecules
called hydrogen bonding, which raises its boiling point significantly.
Hydrogen is unique among the elements because it has a single electron which is
also a valence electron. When this electron is “hogged” by another atom in a polar
covalent bond, a significant fraction of the hydrogen nucleus (a proton) becomes
uncovered and the bare nucleus, just one proton desperately seeks to be covered by
electrons from other atoms (modesty?).
Normally, hydrogen bonds only exist when bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen and
Fluorine.
Hydrogen bonding is very important in the function of proteins, as these
interactions determine the way they fold (their shape), and this determines how
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they react in the cell. Fluorine hydrogen bonds are not found too often in
biochemistry, but can be important in certain synthetic materials properties.

Studyguide Name:___________________________
Covalent Bonding Date:_____________________

1. Pairs of electrons that bond two atoms in a molecule are called a shared pair.

2. Pair of electrons that are unshared are called a lone pair.

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 3. Because each of the bond angles of methane equals 109.5⁰, its molecular shape is
perfectly tetrahedral.

4. Fill out the table for CH2O:

number lewis dot structure number number type of molecular shape polarity of
of (total) of of lone molecule molecule
valence bonded pair (E) (A B E) (P or NP)
e- atoms
(B)

12 3 0 AB3 trigonal planar P

(diff
outer
atoms)

5. Define “dipole” in your own words! Polar molecule

6. Are the bonds in a polar molecule arranged symmetrically or asymmetrically?

7. Complete the table:
molecular number lewis dot structure number number type of molecular polarity of
formula of (total) of of lone molecule shape molecule
valence bonded pair (E) (A B E) (P or NP)
e- atoms
(B)

BeF2 16 2 0 AB2 linear NP

H2O 8 2 2 AB2E2 bent P

CHCl3 26 4 0 AB4 tetrahedral P

8. Matching (write the roman numeral in the margin beside the letter it matches)

a. a non-polar molecule in which i. dispersion forces

the charge distribution is very briefly
asymmetrical iv

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b. attractive forces between dipoles and non-polar ii. dipole-dipole
forces
molecules

c. forces generated by instantaneous dipoles i iii. induced dipole forces

d. forces between molecules vi iv. instantaneous dipole

e. forces within a molecule v v. intramolecular forces

f. attractive forces between two molecules vi. intermolecular forces

of the same or different substance that
are both “permanent” dipoles ii

9. In the margin, write T for true and F for false. If a statement is false, replace the
underlined word or phrase with one that will make the statement true, and write your
correction in.

a. T Dispersion forces are the only attractive forces that attract between non-polar
molecules.

b. F, can Molecules cannot exhibit both dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding.

c. T A non-polar molecule can have polar bonds. If true, then when? When its
symmetric.

d. F, polar Water is a non-polar molecule that has polar bonds.

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