OSI MODEL

Introduction :
OSI(Open System Interconnection) model is the reference model that describes how different model
layer communicate over the network. Open system interconnection mainly defines the relationship
between different layers over the internet. The main purpose of this reference model is to transfer
digital data among the seven layers. The transmission among different layer is done between two
endpoints. ISO (International Organization for Standardization): ISO is the organization and OSI is
the reference model.

This model is called the ISO OSI reference model because it deals with systems that open for
communication to the other system. So, An OSI (open system interconnection )reference model is a
set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underline
architecture over the network. The purpose of the OSI reference model is to show how to facilitates
communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of underlying
hardware and software.

Description of OSI Model :

The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lower layer in this
model. The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lower layer in
this model.
At each level (N), two entities (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer-N
protocol. A service data unit (SDU) is the payload of a PDU, transmitted unchanged to a peer.
The SDU is a unit of data that is passed down from one OSI layer to the next-lower layer, and which the
lower layer encapsulates into a PDU. Layer N-1 adds a header or footer, or both, to the SDU, composing
a PDU of layer N-1.

Layer 1: Physical Layer :

The physical layer has the following major functions:
 it defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the relationship
between a device
and a physical transmission medium (e.g., a copper or fiber optical cable). This includes the layout of
pins, voltages, line
impedance, cable specifications, signal timing, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters
(HBA used in storage)
and more.
 It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two directly connected nodes
over a
communications medium.
 it may define the protocol for flow control.
 it defines a protocol for the provision of a (not necessarily reliable) connection between two directly
connected nodes,
and the modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the
corresponding
signals transmitted over the physical communications channel. This channel can involve physical cabling
(such as copper
and optical fiber) or a wireless radio link.
The physical layer of Parallel SCSI operates in this layer, as do the physical layers of Ethernet and other
local-area
networks, such as Token Ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn, and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such
as Bluetooth
and IEEE 802.15.4.

Physical Layer Physical Layer

Tras
Transmission Medium

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

The data link layer provides reliable transmission of data (frames) between adjacent nodes, built on top
of a raw and unreliable bit transmission service provided by the physical layer. To achieve this, the data
link layer performs error detection and control, usually implemented with a Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC). Note that the data link layer provides reliable transmission service over a single link connecting
two systems. If the two end systems that communicate are not directly connected, then their
communication will go through multiple data links, each operating independently. In
this case, it is the responsibility of higher layers to provide reliable end-to-end transmission. Bridges,
which connect two similar or dissimilar local area network segments, operate at this layer. Some well-
known protocols for the data link layer include High-level Data Link Control (HDLC), LAN drivers and
access methods such as Ethernet and Token Ring, and the LAP-D protocol in ISDN networks.

Layer 3: Network Layer :

While the data link layer deals with the method in which the physical layer is used to transfer data, the
network layer deals with organizing that data for transfer and reassembly. In short, the main function of
this layer is Path determination and logical Addressing. This layer provides logical addresses to the
packets received which in turn helps them to find their path.
“The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data
sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected to the same network. A network is a
medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which
permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing
the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way
to deliver ("route") the message to the destination node. In addition to message routing, the network
may (or may not) implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments,
delivering each fragment by a separate route and reassembling the fragments, report delivery errors,
etc.”

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

The transport level provides end-to-end communication between processes executing on different
machines. Although the services provided by a transport protocol are similar to those provided by a data
link layer protocol, there are several important differences between the transport and lower layers:
1. User Oriented: Application programmers interact directly with the transport layer, and from the
programmers perspective, the transport layer is the ``network''. Thus, the transport layer should be
oriented more towards user services than simply reflect what the underlying layers happen to provide.
(Similar to the beautification principle in operating systems.)
2. Negotiation of Quality and Type of Services: The user and transport protocol may need to negotiate
as to the quality or type of service to be provided. Examples? A user may want to negotiate such options
as: throughput, delay, protection, priority, reliability, etc.
3. Guarantee Service: The transport layer may have to overcome service deficiencies of the lower layers
(e.g. providing reliable service over an unreliable network layer).
4. Addressing becomes a significant issue: That is, now the user must deal with it; before it was buried
in lower levels.
Two solutions:
Use well-known addresses that rarely if ever change, allowing programs to ``wire in'' addresses. For
what types of service does this work? While this works for services that are well established (e.g., mail,
or telnet), it doesn't allow a user to easily experiment with new services.
Use a name server. Servers register services with the name server, which clients contact to find the
transport address of a
given service.
In both cases, we need a mechanism for mapping high-level service names into low-level encoding that
can be used
within packet headers of the network protocols. In its general
Form, the problem is quite complex. One simplification is to break the problem into two parts: have
transport addresses be a combination of machine address and local process on that machine.
5. Storage capacity of the subne: Assumptions valid at the data link layer do not necessarily hold at the
transport Layer. Specifically, the subnet may buffer messages for a potentially long time, and an ``old''
packet may arrive at a destination at unexpected times.
6. We need a dynamic flow control mechanism: The data link layer solution of reallocating buffers is
inappropriate because a machine may have hundreds of connections sharing a single physical link. In
addition, appropriate settings for the flow control parameters depend on the communicating end points
(e.g., Cray supercomputers vs. PCs), not on the protocol used.
7. Don't send data unless there is room: Also, the network layer/data link layer solution of simply not
acknowledging frames for which the receiver has no space is unacceptable. Why? In the data link case,
the line is not being used for anything else; thus retransmissions are inexpensive. At the transport level,
end-to-end retransmissions are needed, which wastes resources by sending the same packet over the
same links multiple times. If the receiver has no buffer space, the sender should be prevented from
sending data.
8. Deal with congestion control: In connectionless Internets, transport protocols must exercise
congestion control. When the network becomes congested, they must reduce rate at which they insert
packets into the subnet, because the subnet has no way to prevent itself from becoming overloaded.
9. Connection establishment: Transport level protocols go through three phases: establishing, using, and
terminating a connection. For data gram-oriented protocols, opening a connection simply allocates and
initializes data structures in the operating system kernel.
Connection oriented protocols often exchanges messages that negotiate options with the remote peer
at the time a connection are opened. Establishing a connection may be tricky because of the possibility
of old or duplicate packets.

Layer 5:Session Layer :

The session layer permits two parties to hold ongoing communications called a session across a network.
The applications on either end of the session can exchange data or send packets to another for as long
as the session lasts. The session layer handles session setup, data or message exchanges, and tears
down when the session ends. It also monitors session identification so only designated parties can
participate and security services to control access to session information. A session can be used to allow
a user to log into a remote time-sharing system or transfer a file between two machines.
The session layer has the option of providing one-or-two-way communication called dialogue control.
Sessions can allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time.
Token management may be used to prevent both sides from attempting the same operation at the same
time. It accepts the data from presentation layer and provides services to it and accepts the services of
the transport layer. The name of data unit in the session layer is SPDU (Session Protocol Data Unit) or
sessions.
Therefore session layer functionality includes:
a) Virtual connection between application entities
b) Synchronization of data flow
c) Creation of dialog units
d) Connection parameter negotiations
e) Partitioning of services into functional groups.
f) Acknowledgments of data received during a session
g) Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

Layer 6:Presentation Layer :

The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed as the
translator for the network. This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into
a common format at the sending station, and then translate the common format to a format known to
the application layer at the receiving station.
The presentation layer provides:
 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

Layer 7:Application Layer :

This is the level that the user often interacts with. This is where data turns into websites, chat programs
and so on. Many protocols run at this layer, such as DNS, FTP, HTTP, HTTPS, NFS, POP3, SMTP, and SSH.
“This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality
of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data
syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application
services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services.”