TOPIC 3.

Hydrodynamics – Fluid
Flow

Week 8
 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Concepts of fluid flow
3.1.3 Flow classification
3.1.4 Velocity and discharge
3.1.5 Conservation of mass and the Continuity Equation
3.1.6 Conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s Equation
3.1.7 Flow measurement
3.1.8 Application of Momentum Equation in fluid flow

2
 Learning Outcomes
• Explain the concept of fluid flow, average
velocity and flowrate.
• Categorize steady and unsteady flows,
uniform and non-uniform flows, laminar and
turbulent flows.
• Discuss the principle of mass conservation.
• Solve problems related to mass
conservation.

3
 3.1.1 Introduction
• Hydrodynamics is the study of how fluids flow
and how to describe fluid motion.
• The study of fluid in motion becomes
complicated due to the presence of shear
stresses and the existence of velocity gradient,
which means the fluid particles at different
locations will have different velocities.
• This chapter will lay the foundations of later
analysis in the study of mechanics of fluids.

4
 3.1.2 Concepts of Fluid
Flow
• Flow visualization: The
visual examination of flow
field features.
• While quantitative study of
fluid dynamics requires
advanced mathematics, much
can be learned from flow
visualization.
• Flow visualization is useful
not only in physical
experiments but in numerical
solutions as well
[computational fluid
dynamics (CFD)]. Spinning baseball. The late F. N. M.
Brown devoted many years to developing
• In fact, the very first thing an
and using smoke visualization in wind
engineer using CFD does
tunnels at the University of Notre Dame.
after obtaining a numerical
Here the flow speed is about 23 m/s and
solution is simulate some
the ball is rotated at 630 rpm.
form of flow visualization.
5
• Pathline: an imaginary line which
traces the path of an individual
fluid particle i.e. it gives the
position of a particle at successive
time intervals.
• Streakline: gives the paths taken
by all fluid particles which pass
through a predetermined point. If
a dye or tracer is injected into a
flow at a given point, then the
path of the dye will represent the
streakline.
• Streamline: an imaginary line
which is drawn tangentially to the
velocity of fluid particles.
• Streamtube: imaginary conduit
consisting a collection of
streamlines.
6
 3.1.2.1 One, Two and Three –
Dimensional Flow
• Fluid flow is classified based on their direction of
motion with respect to the three mutually
perpendicular axes.
• Most flow in engineering problems are 3D (where flow
parameters may be resolved into respective
directions), hence, it is desirable to simplify flows into
simpler dimensions i.e. 1D or 2D.
• 1D flow: Flow vary only in the direction of the flow.
• 2D flow: Flow vary only in two direction i.e. along the
direction of the flow and in the direction perpendicular
to the flow.

7
 3.1.2.2 Frames of references

• Study of moving fluid can be done using

frames of references.
• Choice of frame of references will determine
whether the flow is steady or unsteady.
1) Fixed frame: observer is stationary -
unsteady
2) Moving frame: observer moves with the
waves - steady

8
3.1.2.3 Concept of closed and open
system
• Closed and open system helps to decide which part of the
flow that needs to be studied and how fluid which is not
included in this part should be treated.
1) A closed system: An element of fluid with fixed mass
enclosed in boundaries which vary with time. A free body
boundary with all forces exerted by surrounded fluid and
solid boundary can then be analysed at any given time.
2) An open system: A volume known as the control volume
is fixed within or enclosing the flow system. The surfaces
making up the control volume may be arbitrarily selected.
It is common practice to take solid boundaries confining
the flow as the control volume surface. Whenever the
control surface cuts the flow it should be drawn normal to
the direction of the flow.
9
 3.1.3 Flow classification
• Flow classification can be classified based on:
1) the motion of the fluid particles
2) the average values of flow parameters e.g.
velocity, discharge and pressure
3) the direction of fluid motion

10
3.1.3.1 Flow classification based on the
average values of flow parameters

Steady uniform flow: Flow parameters remain constant wrt space and
time.

Steady non-uniform flow: Flow parameters change wrt space. However,

at any given point in the flow, parameters are constant wrt time.

Unsteady uniform flow: Flow parameters remain constant wrt space at

any given instant (@t1, velocities at any point is equal to v1) but change
wrt time (@t2, velocities at any point is equal to v2).

Unsteady non-uniform flow: Flow parameters change wrt both time and
space.

11
3.1.3.2 Flow classification based on the
motion of the fluid particles

1) Turbulent flow: random and irregular

movement of fluid particles accompanied by
small fluctuations in pressure.
2) Laminar flow: orderly movement of fluid
particles in well defined path and flow tends
to move in layers.

12
 Reynolds Number, Re
• Re formula,
vd 𝜌 = Density of fluid
Re = v = Average velocity
 d = Diameter of pipe
𝜇 = Absolute viscosity

• Unit : unitless
• Laminar : Re < 2000
• Transition : 2000 < Re < 2300
• Turbulent : Re > 2300

13
 Example
A pipe of 20 mm diameter carries water at an average
velocity of 1.5 m/s. Calculate the Reynolds number for the
flow and determine the flow regime. The absolute viscosity
of water at room temperature is about 0.001 Pa s.
𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
1000×1.5×0.02
=
0.001
= 30,000
Since Re > 2300, the flow is turbulent
14
 3.1.4 Velocity & Discharge

• Velocity is a parameter that tells how fast

and in what direction the fluid flows.
• Discharge (flowrate): total quantity of fluid
flowing in a unit time past any particular
cross-section of a stream.

15
 Flowrate may be expressed as:
1) Volumetric flowrate, Q (m3/s)
𝑸=𝑨×𝒗

2) Mass flowrate, M (kg/s)

𝑀 = 𝜌𝑄

3) Weight flowrate, W (N/s)

W = 𝜌𝑔𝑄
16
 Example
Benzene flows through a 100 mm diameter pipe. The
mean velocity of flow is 3 m/s. Find the volumetric
rate, weight of flow rate and mass flow rate. Mass
density of benzene is 879 kg/m3.
  0.12
A= = 0.007854m 2
4
3
Q = 0.007854  3.0 = 0.0236 m
s
W = 879  9.81 0.0236 = 0.203 kN
s
M = 879  0.0236 = 20.7 kg
s 17
 Determination of average velocity
for a full flow in a closed conduit.

Consider a small elemental area of the flow.

dA = 2rdr
dQ = vdA
= v(2rdr )
R
Q = 2  vrdr
0

Q
vave =
A
𝑸=𝑨×𝒗
A = Cross-sectional area of the fluid flow
v = Average velocity
18
 3.1.5 Conservation of mass and the
Continuity Equation
• In steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control
volume remains constant , therefore:
Mass of fluid entering per = Mass of fluid leaving per
unit time at section 1 unit time at section 2

19
 Mass flowrate entering at point (1) = 𝜌𝐴𝑢 1
Mass flowrate leaving at point (2) = 𝜌𝐴𝑢 2

For steady flow, 𝜌𝐴𝑢 1 = 𝜌𝐴𝑢 2

Using average velocity (v1, v2) & considering

incompressible fluid (𝜌1 = 𝜌2 )
𝜌𝐴𝑣 1 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
𝐴𝑣 1 = 𝐴𝑣 2

Continuity Equation 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

20
Continuity equation can also be applied to determine the
relation between the flows into and out of a junction.

Total inflow to junction = Total outflow from junction

1Q1 =  2Q2
Q1 = Q2 ( 1 =  2 incompressible fluid)
A1v1 = A2 v2

21
 Example
Water flows through a pipeline in which the diameter reduces
from 500 mm at A to 300 mm at B as shown in Figure. The pipe
then forks, one branch has a diameter of 150 mm discharging
at C, while the other branch with diameter of 200 mm
discharges at D. Given that the velocity at A is 2.0 m/s and the
velocity at D is 3.6 m/s, find discharges at C and D and the
velocities at B and C.

22
𝑄𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝐴 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐶 + 𝑄𝐷
𝜋 × 0. 52
= ×2 3
4
3
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐷 = 0.28 𝑚 ൗ𝑠
𝑚
= 0.392 ൗ𝑠
0.392
𝑄𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷 𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝐵 = 2 = 5.56 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝜋 × 0. 3 ൗ
𝜋 × 0. 22 4
= × 3.6 0.28 𝑚Τ
4 𝑣𝐶 = = 15.84 𝑠
3 𝜋 × 0.152ൗ
= 0.113 𝑚 ൗ𝑠 4

23
 Try yourself
Three pipes discharge water into a large exit pipe as shown in
Figure Q10. The diameters D1, D2, D3 and D4 for pipes 1, 2, 3 and
4 are as given in the Figure Q10. Under steady condition the
velocity in pipe 2, v2 is 5 m/s, and the exit flowrate in pipe 4, Q4
is 200 L/s. Find the velocity in pipe 3, if increasing the flowrate
Q3 by 30% will increase Q4 by 15%.

24
 TOPIC 3.1

Hydrodynamics – Fluid
Flow

Week 9
 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Concepts of fluid flow
3.1.3 Flow classification
3.1.4 Velocity and discharge
3.1.5 Conservation of mass and the Continuity Equation
3.1.6 Conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s Equation
3.1.7 Flow measurement
3.1.8 Application of Momentum Equation in fluid flow

26
 Learning Outcomes
• Explain Bernoulli’s principle and energy
equation.
• Evaluate engineering fluid problems by
applying Bernoulli’s equation and continuity
equation.

27
 3.1.6 Conservation of energy
and Bernoulli’s Equation
An element of fluid (in
the figure) will posses:
1) Potential energy
due to its height z
above the datum
2) Kinetic energy due
to its velocity v
3) Pressure energy as
the fluid flow
energy

28
Potential energy due to its Pressure energy as the
elevation, amount of work needed to
move,
PE = Wz
FE = pAd
Kinetic energy due to its
velocity, W
But, Ad = V =

mv 2
KE =
2 Therefore,
W
But, m = W pW
g FE = p  =
 g
Therefore,

Wv 2
KE =
2g

29
Total energy E,

E = PE + KE + FE
Wv 2 pW
E = Wz + +
2g g
E v2 p
=z+ +
W 2g g

p v2 H = Total energy expressed as head

H= + +z
g 2g (unit: m)
p
= Pressure head (unit: m)
g
v2
= Velocity head (unit: m)
2g

z = Elevation head (unit: m)

30
3.1.6.1 Bernoulli’s equation
• Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
• Energy can only be transformed from one form to
another.
• In an ideal fluid, where there is no viscosity, the
total energy within a moving fluid must remain
constant.
• The total energy at a point in a steady flow, must
be equal to the total energy at any other point in
the path of flow provided no energy is added to
the fluid or taken from it.
31
Bernoulli’s equation between 2 points
H1 = H 2
2 2
p1 v 1 p2 v 2
+ + z1 = + + z2
g 2g g 2g

32
• Assumptions:
– Velocity on the flow cross section is uniform, i.e.
average velocity is used.
– Effect of viscous forces are very small compared to
the gravitational forces, therefore, there are no
losses of energy due to friction
– Energy of flow is not converted into any other
form apart from kinetic, potential and pressure
energies.

33
3.1.6.2 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
Consider a small elemental fluid mass Considering average velocity,
dm moving with velocity v.
True kinetic energy is given by, 1 1
KE = Qv ave 2 = Av ave 3
1 2 2
KE = dmv 2
2
True KE is equal to the average KE
But the KE across the section per unit multiplied by KE correction factor,
time,
1
KE = dMv 2   1

v 3 dA =    Av ave
3
2 2 2
where M is the mass flow rate.  v3 
1
Integrating over the flow cross-
section to calculate for total KE,
=
A  
v 3 
dA
 ave 

1 1
𝐾𝐸 = න 𝑑𝑀 𝑣 2 = න𝜌𝑑𝑄 𝑣 2
2 2 Uniform flow: α = 1.0
𝜌 Turbulent flow: 1.02 < α < 1.15
= න𝑣𝑑𝐴 𝑣 2 Laminar flow: α = 2.0
2
𝜌
= න𝑣 3 𝑑𝐴
2 34
 3.1.6.3 Energy loss and gain

• In practice, a real fluid has no viscosity, so

there will be friction within the flow which
causes energy losses. Energy losses can be
incorporated as,
2 2
p1 v 1 p2 v 2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL + ht − hp
g 2g g 2g

Head loss Pump (energy gain)

(energy loss)
Turbine
(energy loss)
35
 Example
A pipe conveying water tapers from a cross-sectional
area of 0.5 m2 at A and 0.2 m2 at B. The pressure at A is
120 kPa and the velocity is 2 m/s. Assuming no energy
losses, determine the pressure at B, which is 4 m above
the level of A.

36
 Example
A siphon has a uniform circular
section of 70 mm diameter and
consists of a bent pipe with its B
crest 1.6 m above the water level
as shown in figure. The siphon 1.6 m
discharges into the atmosphere A
at a level 3.0 m below the water
level. 3m
i) Calculate the velocity and
the discharge.
C
ii) Given the absolute pressure
head at the end of the
siphon is equivalent to 10 m
head of water. Calculate the
absolute pressure at the
crest. Neglect all losses.

37
 3.1.6.4 Representation of energy
changes in a fluid system
• The changes of energy, and its transformation
from one form to another which occurs in a fluid
system, can be represented graphically.
• In a real fluid system, the total energy per unit
weight will not remain constant. Unless energy is
supplied to the system at some point by means of
a pump, it will gradually decrease in the direction
of motion due to losses resulting from friction
and from the disturbance of flow at changes of
pipe section or as a result of changes of direction.

38
 Velocity negligible, Patm
– total energy = HA/HD Contraction loss - hC
Exit loss - hL

Change of energy
from one form to
another can be
represented by:
1) Total Energy Line
(TEL) : total head

2) Hydraulic Grade
Line (HGL):
elevation +
pressure head

Entry loss - hL Friction loss - hf

Pump adds energy - hp
39
• A graphical representation is useful to identify sections of
pipeline which are under negative pressure (below
atmospheric pressure).
• This can be detected if the HGL is located lower than the
pipeline as in Figure below – section PQ. Flow of water
under negative pressure may lead to cavitation and flow
separation. Water will boil and turn to gas, leading to
discontinuous flow in the pipeline.

40
 Try yourself
When 0.3 m3/s of water flows through a 175
mm constriction in a 350 mm horizontal
pipeline, the pressure at a point in the pipe is
300 kPa, and the head loss between this point
and the constriction is 2 m. Calculate the
pressure in the constriction.

41
 TOPIC 3.1

Hydrodynamics – Fluid
Flow

Week 10-11
 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Concepts of fluid flow
3.1.3 Flow classification
3.1.4 Velocity and discharge
3.1.5 Conservation of mass and the Continuity Equation
3.1.6 Conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s Equation
3.1.7 Flow measurement
3.1.8 Application of Momentum Equation in fluid flow

43
 Learning Outcomes
• Identify flow measurements for open and
close channel.
• Solve engineering problems related to open
or close channel flow measurements.

44
 3.1.7 Flow measurement
• Flow measurements are required for many reasons e.g.
monitoring fluid systems, ensure adequacy of water
distribution network. Some instrument gives direct
reading while others measure other parameters which
then converted to flow parameters using formulae or
empirical correlation curves.
• Factors in selecting flow measurement instruments:
– Range: Amount of fluid flow
– Accuracy required: Required level of accuracy
– Energy losses: Needs proper factor adjustment
– for correction
– Costs: Normally the deciding factor

45
 Pitot tube

Notches Venturi-
& weirs meter

Flow
measure
ment

Large Pipe
orifice orifices

Small
orifice

46
 Pitot tube

• Used to measure velocity.

• Consists of simple L-shaped
tube facing the oncoming
flow.
• If the velocity of stream at A is
u, a particle moving from A to
B will be brought to rest, so
that u0 at B is zero.

47
 HA = HB
2
p u2 p uO
+ +z= + +z
g 2 g g 2 g
2
p u 2 pO uO
+ = +
g 2 g g 2 g
Since u0 = 0 Substituting,
 p0  p u 2 (pO − p )
= =h
2g g
And, Velocity at A, u = v theory
p p
= z, O = h + z v theory = 2gh
g g
v real = C  v theory
v real = C  2gh

48
Venturimeter

49
• Consists of a short converging conical tube leading to a
cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller diameter than
that of that pipeline, which is followed by a diverging section
in which the diameter increases again to that of the main
pipeline.
• The pressure difference (to determine the volume
flowrate/velocity) can be determined by U-tube manometer.
• Obtain pressure difference by applying Bernoulli’s equation
between entry section 1 and the throat section 2.

50
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to 1 & 2:
H1 = H 2
p1 v1
2
p 2 v2
2 Pressure difference
+ + z1 = + + z2
g 2 g g 2 g
 ( p − p2 ) 
v2 − v1 = 2 g  1 + ( z1 − z 2 )
2 2

 g 
For continuous flow,

Q1 = Q2
A1v1 = A2 v2
 A1 
 v1 = v2
 A2 

51
Pressure difference between 1 and 2, considering pressures
are level XX must be the same in both limbs,
px = px
p1 + g ( z1 − z ) = p2 + g ( z 2 − z − h ) +  man gh
p1 − p2 = − gh +  man gh

Substituting,
ρman = Manometer density
  man  g = Gravitational acceleration
 − 1

v1 = 2 gh  2 
 A1 − a2 2  h = Manometer level
 
 2 
 a2 
Ρ = Density
A1 = Pipe cross-sectional area
a2 = Throat cross-sectional area
52
 Example
A venturi meter having a throat of 120 mm is
fitted horizontally in a pipeline with a diameter
of 250 mm as shown in figure. Oil of specific
gravity 0.85 flows at a rate of 0.15 m3/s. Tapping
at the inlet and the throat of the venturi meter
is connected to a U-tube manometer with
mercury (specific gravity 13.6) as the
manometer fluid. If the difference in mercury
levels is 0.63 m, calculate the coefficient of
discharge for the venturi meter.
53
   0.252
A1 = = 0.0491m 2
4

  0.12 2
a2 = = 0.0113m 2
4

 13600 
 − 1
v1 = 2  9.81 0.63   850 
 0.04912 − 0.01132 
 2

 0 .0113 
= 3.22 m
s

Qact = Qtheory  Cd

0.15
Cd =
0.0491  3.22
= 0.95

54
 Example
A pipe inclined at 450 to the horizontal converges
over a length l of 2 m from a diameter d1 of 200 mm
to a diameter d2 of 100 mm at the upper end. Oil of
relative density 0.9 flows through the pipe at a
mean velocity v1 at the lower end of 2 m/s. Find the
pressure difference across the 2 m length ignoring
any loss of energy, and the difference in level that
would be shown on a mercury manometer
connected across this length. The relative density of
mercury is 13.6 and the leads to the manometer
are filled with the oil.

55
56
 Pipe orifices
• A similar effect with venturi meter
can be achieved by inserting an
orifice plate which has an opening
in it smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipeline.
• The orifice plate produces constriction of the flow at A2.
• The flow immediately downstream of the plate will be same as
the orifice.
• Cheaper than venturi meter but there are substantial energy
loss.
• vtheory : same as venturimeter
• Qactual: ~ two-third of this value.
• Introduce Cd: typical value for sharp edged orifice – 0.65
57
 Small orifices
• Orifice is an opening, usually circular, in
the side or base of a tank or reservoir,
through which fluid is discharged in the
form of a jet, usually into the
atmosphere.
• The volume flow rate depends on the
head of the fluid above the level of an
orifice.
• Small orifice: has diameter or vertical dimension smaller compared
to the head producing flow. Hence assumed that the head does not
vary much from point to point across the orifice.
• Referring to the figure, at point A on the free surface, the pressure
pA is atmospheric and if the tank is large, vA is negligible.
• At point B in the jet, just outside of the orifice, pB again will be
atmospheric but velocity vB is equal to v (jet velocity).
58
 Taking datum at the centre of Hence,
orifice and applying Bernoulli’s
equation to A and B and
assuming no loss of energy, Qtheory = A (2gH )
HA = HB Qact = Cd Qtheory
2 2
zA +
vA
+
pA
= zB +
vB
+
pB
= Cd A (2 gH )
2 g g 2 g g
z A − zB = H
vA = 0
vB = v
p A = pB
vtheory = (2 gH )

59
Actual velocity (velocity of jet) will Comparing,
be less than vtheory because of
energy loss between A and B. Qact
Cd =
Qtheory
Actual velocity at B = CV  vtheory Aj
C d = Cc  Cv Cc =
= CV (2 gH ) Ao
vj
Cv =
The jet area B is less than the area vtheory
of the orifice A at C and the
pressure at C is greater than the
atmospheric pressure. The section 𝐶𝑑 = Coefficient of discharge
through is called as vena 𝐶𝑐 = Coefficient of contraction
contracta. 𝐶𝑣 = Coefficient of velocity
Actual area at B = Cc  A
Qactual = Cc A  Cv (2 gH )
= Cc  Cv A (2 gH )
60
• The theory of small
orifice can be extended
to calculate the times
required to empty a
tank.

T=
(
2 A H1 − H 2
0 .5 0 .5
)
Cd a 2 g

61
 Example
A sharp-edged orifice 4 cm in diameter,
at the base of the storage tank
discharges water under the head of 6 m
as shown in figure. If Cv = 0.97 and Cc =
0.62, determine:
a. The diameter of the jet at the vena
contracta
b. Velocity of the jet at the vena
contracta
c. Discharge in m3/s.

62
   0.04 2 v j = vact = CV 2 gh
a= = 1.257 10 −3 m 2
4
= 0.97  2  9.81 6 = 10.52 m
aj −3 −4 2
s
CC =  a j = 1.257 10  0.62 = 7.8 10 m
a
Qact = CV CC a 2 gh
d j 2

aj = = 0.97  0.62 1.257 10 −3  2  9.81 6

4
−3 = 0 . 0082 m3
4 1.257 10 s
dj = = 0.0315m


63
 Example
Water discharges from an
orifice under a head of h =
1.2 m as shown in Fig.
Determine the coefficient
of velocity Cv, if the jet falls
vertically to a distance of y
= 0.5 m and horizontally to
a distance of x = 1.5 m from
the vena contracta.

64
Rewriting x = vt and y = 1 gt 2 vtheory = 2  9.81 1.2 = 4.852 m
2 s
x 2y
v= , t=
t g 4.7
CV = = 0.968
4.852
Substituti ng to velocity jet,
gx 2 9.81 1.52
vact = = = 4.70 m
2y 2  0.5 s

65
 Large orifices
• If the vertical height of an
orifice is larger, that the
head producing flow is
substantially less at the
top of the opening than at
the bottom, formulas used
for small orifices are no
longer applicable. Consider water leaving through the strip,
• Method used: integrate v = 2gh
from top to bottom of the dQ = vdA = vBdh
opening to get Qtheory,
hence, Qactual if Cd is Integratin g,
known.
(
Qtheory = 2 B 2g H 21.5 − H11.5
3
)

66
 Example
Water flows from a
storage tank through a
rectangular orifice 2 m
high and 1.2 m wide as
shown in Fig. Calculate the
discharge when the free (
Qact = Cd  2 B 2 g H 21.5 − H11.5
3
)
surface in the tank is 0.5 (
= 0.64  2 1.2  2  9.81 2.512.5 − 1.511.5
3
)
m above the opening. = 8.16 m
3

s
Assume Cd = 0.64.

67
 Example
• A notch is an opening
in the side of a
measuring tank or
reservoir extending
above the free
surface.
Area of strip = bh
• A weir is a notch in a
large scale. Velocity through strip = (2 gh )
• Same method applied Discharge through strip, Q = Av = bh  (2 gh )
H
for large orifice. 1
Qtheory = 2 g  bh 2 dh
0

68
For rectangular notch, Vee notch, b = 2(H − h ) tan  ( 2)
2g tan( ) (H − h )h
b = constant = B H
1
Q= 2 dh
H
1
2
Q = B 2g  2 dh 0
h
0 ( )
2
Q = 2 2g tan   Hh
23
3
2
2 52 
− h 
5 
2 3
Q = B 2g H 2
3
Q=
8
15
2g tan 
2
( )
5
H 2

69
 Example
The discharge over a rectangular notch is 0.15
m3/s when water level is 25 cm above the sill.
Taking Cd = 0.6, calculate the width of the
notch.
2 3
Qact = Cd B 2 g H 2
3
2 3
0.15 = 0.6  B 2  9.81  0.25 2
3
B = 0.677 m

70
 Example
A 900 triangular notch is used to measure flow
rate in the laboratory flume. Calculate the flow
rate of the flume if the water level above the
notch is 150 mm. Assume Cd = 0.63.

Qact = Cd
8
15
( )
2 g tan  H 2
2
5

Qact
8
= 0.63   2  9.81  tan
15
(
90 
2
) 5
 0.15 2
3
= 0.013 m
s

71
 Try yourself
A vertical circular tank of diameter 1.25 m is
fitted with a sharp edged orifice at its base. The
orifice has a diameter of 50 mm. when the flow
of water into the tank was stopped, the time
taken to lower the head from 2 m to 0.75 m was
240 seconds. Estimate the flow rate through the
orifice under a steady head of 2.0 m.

72
 Try yourself
A pitot tube is used to measure flow rate in a
250-mm diameter pipe. The stagnation pressure
at the centre of the pipe is 225 mm of water
more than the static pressure. Given that the
mean velocity is 0.78 times the centre line
velocity and the coefficient of the pitot tube is
0.98, calculate the flow rate.

73
 Try yourself
• A venture meter having a throat of 100 mm is
fitted vertically in a pipeline with a diameter
of 250 mm. Oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows at
a rate of 0.095 m3/s. Tapings at the inlet and
the throat of the venture meter is connected
to a U-tube manometer with mercury as the
manometer fluid. If the difference in mercury
levels is 0.63, calculate the coefficient of
discharge of the venture meter. Vertical
distance between the two tapings is 30 cm.
74
 TOPIC 3.1

Hydrodynamics – Fluid
Flow

Week 12 - 13
 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Concepts of fluid flow
3.1.3 Flow classification
3.1.4 Velocity and discharge
3.1.5 Conservation of mass and the Continuity Equation
3.1.6 Conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s Equation
3.1.7 Flow measurement
3.1.8 Application of Momentum Equation in fluid flow

76
 Learning Outcomes
• Correlate the principle of conservation of
momentum and momentum equation on
stationary object.
• Evaluate and solve jet impacts problems on
stationary flat and curve object by applying
the momentum equation and propose
suitable solution.

77
 3.1.8 Application of Momentum
Equation in fluid flow

• In fluid mechanics, the analysis of motion is

performed by using Newton’s laws of motion.
• Newton’s Second Law: the rate of change of
momentum of a body is equal to the resultant
force acting on the body and takes place in the
direction of the force.

78
 Consider a control volume in the figure and assuming steady
non-uniform flow.

Mass entering stream tube, Mass leaving stream tube,

= volume × density = volume × density
= 𝜌1 × 𝐴1 × 𝑣1 × 𝛿𝑡 = 𝜌2 × 𝐴2 × 𝑣2 × 𝛿𝑡

Momentum of fluid entering stream tube, Momentum of fluid leaving stream tube,
= mass × velocity = mass × velocity
= 𝜌1 × 𝐴1 × 𝑣1 × 𝛿𝑡 × 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 × 𝐴2 × 𝑣2 × 𝛿𝑡 × 𝑣2

79
• Applying Newton’s Second Law to determine the force
exerted by the fluid: force is equal to the rate of change
of momentum.
Force = rate of change of momentum

F= 2
(  A2  v2  t  v2 − 1  A1  v1  t  v1 )
t
• Applying continuity equation and assuming constant
density:
Q1 = Q2 = Q
1 =  2 =  Assuming the inlet and outlet
velocities are in the same
direction – one dimensional
• Therefore, system
F = Q (v2 − v1 )
F = M (v2 − v1 )
80
 3.1.8.1 Momentum equation for 2D
flow
y
v2

x 2 • Consider 2-D flow

where v1 makes an
angle θ1 with x-axis
v1 while v2 makes an
1
angle θ2. The
momentum and force
can be resolved into
components in x and y
direction.

81
𝐹𝑥 = Rate of ∆ of momentum of fluid in x−direction
= Rate of change of mass × velocity in x−direction
= 𝑀 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 y
v2
= 𝑀 𝑣2 cos θ2 − 𝑣1 cos θ1 2
x
= 𝜌𝑄 𝑣2 cos θ2 − 𝑣1 cos θ1
= 𝜌𝑄 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
v1

𝐹𝑦 = Rate of ∆ of momentum of fluid in y−direction 1

= Rate of change of mass × velocity in y−direction

= 𝑀 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦
= 𝑀 𝑣2 sin θ2 − 𝑣1 sin θ1
= 𝜌𝑄 𝑣2 sin θ2 − 𝑣1 sin θ1
= 𝜌𝑄 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 Fy FR
𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2

−1
𝐹𝑦
𝜑= tan
𝐹𝑥
 Fx
82
 To summarize,
The total force exerted on the fluid = rate of ∆ of momentum through the control volume
𝐹𝑇 = 𝑀 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑇 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
Force F is made up of 3 components:

F1 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in

the control volume by any solid body within the ∴ 𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
control volume or coinciding with the boundaries
of the control volume.
F2 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in
the control volume by body forces such as gravity.
F3 = Force exerted in the given direction on the fluid in
the control volume by fluid outside the control
volume.
The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume is
opposite of F1. So the reaction force R is given by,
𝑅 = −𝐹1
83
 Example
• Water flows at a
constant rate in a
tapering pipe which
converges from a 50
cm diameter as shown
in figure. If the water
accelerates from an
initial velocity of 2 m/s 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄
to a final velocity of 4.5 𝜋 × 0. 52 3
𝑄= × 2.0 = 0.4 𝑚 ൗ𝑠
m/s, determine the 4
flow rate and the
accelerating force. 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
= 1000 × 0.4 × 4.5 − 2.0
= 1000𝑁

84
 3.1.8.2 Forces on stationary flat
objects
• Fluid forces on v2
stationary flat objects at
right angles to the
direction of flow that is
solved directly using v1
equation.

v2

85
 y
Example +ve
v2

A hose and a nozzle v1

discharge a horizontal
jet of water against a
vertical plate as shown
in figure. Given that v2
the diameter of the
nozzle is 25 mm and 𝜋 × 0.0252
the discharge is 0.025 𝐴= = 4.91 × 10−4 𝑚2
4
m3/s, calculate the 0.025
force necessary to hold 𝑣1 = = 50.93 𝑚Τ
4.91 × 10−4 𝑠
the plate in place. 𝑣2 = 0
𝑅 = 1000 × 0.025 × 50.93 = 1.273𝑘𝑁

86
 3.1.8.3 Force on a stationary
curved vane
2D flow where pressures are equal i.e. atmospheric, and
both the cross-section and velocities (in the direction of
flow) remain constant. v
2

v1
θ

87
 Example
y
v2
• A jet of water which is
flowing freely in the x
atmosphere is deflected
horizontally by a 900
curved vane as shown in
figure. The water jet has
a diameter of 20 mm v1=5m/s
and velocity of 5 m/s.
Find the force required
to hold the vane.

88
𝐹2 = 0, 𝐹3 = 0
y
𝜋 × 0.022 v2
𝐴= = 3.1416 × 10−4 𝑚4
4
x
𝑄 = 3.1416 × 10−4 × 5
3
𝑄 = 1.57 × 10−4 𝑚 ൗ𝑠

𝑣1𝑥 = 5 𝑚Τ𝑠 , 𝑣2𝑥 = 0 v1=5m/s

Rx
𝐹1𝑥 = −𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑥 = 1000 × 1.57 × 10−4 × 5 = 7.855𝑁

𝑣1𝑦 = 0, 𝑣2𝑦 = 5 𝑚Τ𝑠 R

𝐹1𝑦 = −𝑅𝑦
𝑅𝑦 = 1000 × 1.57 × 10−4 × 5 = 7.855𝑁 Ry

𝑅= 7.8552 + 7.8552 = 11.11𝑁

−1
7.855
𝜃 = tan = 45°
7.855 89
3.1.8.4 Forces on an inclined
plane

v2

v1 θ

v3

90
• For easier analysis, the previous diagram is
rotated as such,
v2

+ve
x θ

v1

v3

91
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2 𝑝3 𝑣3 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 = + + 𝑧3
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

• Considering negligible height differences & atmospheric

pressure,
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 = 𝑣

• By continuity equation,

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 + 𝐴3 𝑣3

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑣
𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑣
𝑄3 = 𝐴1 − 𝐴2 𝑣

92
Step 1: Draw CV & decide co-ordinate
axis
v2

+ve
x θ

v1

v3

93
 Step 2: Calculate F1
𝐹1𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑥 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛−𝑥 • F1y = 0 in order for the
= 𝜌ሾ 𝑄2 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑄3 𝑣3𝑥 plane to stay stationary
𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣3𝑥 = 0
𝑣1𝑥 = 𝑣1 cos 𝜃

𝐹1𝑥 = −𝜌𝑄𝑣1 cos 𝜃

94
Step 3: Calculate F2 Step 4: Calculate F3
• As the control volume is • The pressure force is zero as
small, the body force due to the pressure at both inlet
the weight of gravity can be and outlets to the control
ignored. F2 = 0 volume are atmospheric. F3
=0

95
Step 5: Calculate the resultant
force, FR Step 6: Calculate the reaction, R

𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 + 𝐹3𝑥 𝑅 = −𝐹𝑅𝑥

= −𝜌𝑄𝑣1 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄𝑣1 cos 𝜃

96
To find discharge in all direction,
𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣2
0 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴3 − ሺ𝐴2
𝑣3𝑦 = −𝑣3 1 + sin 𝜃
𝑣1𝑦 = 𝑣1 sin 𝜃 𝐴2 = 𝐴3
1 − sin 𝜃

𝐹1𝑦 = 0
1 + sin 𝜃
𝐹1𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝑦 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛−𝑦 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
1 − sin 𝜃
0 = 𝜌 𝑄2 𝑣2𝑦 + 𝑄3 𝑣3𝑦 − 𝑄1 𝑣1𝑦 1 + sin 𝜃
0 = 𝜌 𝑄2 𝑣2 − 𝑄3 𝑣3 − 𝑄1 𝑣1 sin 𝜃 𝑄1 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄3
1 − sin 𝜃
0 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴3 − 𝐴1 sin 𝜃
1 + sin 𝜃
= 𝑄3 1+
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 1 − sin 𝜃

97
 Example
• A jet of water 50 mm in diameter with a
velocity of 18 m/s strikes a flat plate inclined
at an angle 250 to the axis of the jet.
Determine the normal force exerted on the
plate when the plate is stationary. (269 N)

98
End of Topic 3.1

99