Solutions Manual for

Thermodynamics and Chemistry

Second Edition

by

Howard DeVoe
Associate Professor of Chemistry Emeritus
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
[email protected]

Copyright 2020 by Howard DeVoe

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Contents

Preface 3
1 Introduction 4
2 Systems and Their Properties 5
3 The First Law 8
4 The Second Law 16
5 Thermodynamic Potentials 19
6 The Third Law and Cryogenics 24
7 Pure Substances in Single Phases 26
8 Phase Transitions and Equilibria of Pure Substances 36
9 Mixtures 41
10 Electrolyte Solutions 55
11 Reactions and Other Chemical Processes 58
12 Equilibrium Conditions in Multicomponent Systems 77
13 The Phase Rule and Phase Diagrams 94
14 Galvanic Cells 104
Preface

This manual contains detailed solutions to the problems appearing at the end of each chapter
of the text Thermodynamics and Chemistry.
Each problem printed in the text is reproduced in this manual, followed by a worked-out
solution. If a figure or table accompanies a problem in the text, it is also reproduced here.
Included within a solution may be an additional figure or table that does not appear in the
text. All figures, tables, and footnotes in this manual are numbered consecutively (Figure 1,
Figure 2, etc.) and so do not agree with the numbering in the text.
In most cases of a numerical calculation involving physical quantities, the setup in this
manual shows the values of given individual physical quantities expressed in SI base units
and SI derived units, without prefixes. The result of the calculation is then expressed in SI
base units and SI derived units appropriate to the physical quantity being evaluated. Since
the factors needed to convert the units of the given quantities to the units of the calculated
quantity all have numerical values of unity when this procedure is followed, the conversion
factors are not shown.
Of course, the solution given in this manual for any particular problem is probably not
the only way the problem can be solved; other solutions may be equally valid.
 4

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Consider the following equations for the pressure of a real gas. For each equation, find the
dimensions of the constants a and b and express these dimensions in SI units.
(a) The Dieterici equation:
RT e .an=VRT /
pD
.V =n/ b
Solution:
Since an=VRT is a power, it is dimensionless and a has the same dimensions as
VRT =n. These dimensions are volume
energy/amount2 , expressed in m3 J mol 2 . b has
the same dimensions as V =n, which are volume/amount expressed in m3 mol 1 .
(b) The Redlich–Kwong equation:

RT an2
pD
.V =n/ b T 1=2 V .V C nb/

Solution:
The term an2 =T 1=2 V .V C nb/ has the same dimensions as p, so a has the same
dimensions as T 1=2 V 2 pn 2 . The SI units are K1=2 m6 Pa mol 2 . b has the same
dimensions as V =n, which are volume/amount expressed in m3 mol 1 .
 5

Chapter 2 Systems and Their Properties

2.1 Let X represent the quantity V 2 with dimensions .length/6 . Give a reason that X is or is not
an extensive property. Give a reason that X is or is not an intensive property.
Solution:
X is not an extensive property because it is not additive: .V ’ /2 C .V “ /2 ¤ .V ’ C V “ /2 (e.g.,
12 C 12 ¤ 22 ).
X is not an intensive property because it is dependent on volume.
2.2 Calculate the relative uncertainty (the uncertainty divided by the value) for each of the mea-
surement methods listed in Table 2.2 on page 38, using the typical values shown. For each of
the five physical quantities listed, which measurement method has the smallest relative uncer-
tainty?
Solution:
Mass:
analytical balance, 0:1  10 3 g=100 g D 1  10 6
micro balance, 0:1  10 6 g=20  10 3 g D 5  10 6
Volume:
pipet, 0:02 ml=10 mL D 2  10 3
volumetric flask, 0:3  10 3 L=1 L D 3  10 4
Density:
pycnometer, 2  10 3 g mL 1 =1 g mL 1 D 2  10 3
magnetic float densimeter, 0:1  10 3 g mL 1 =1 g mL 1 D 1  10 4
Pressure:
manometer or barometer, 0:001 Torr=760 Torr D 1  10 6
diaphragm gauge, 1 Torr=100 Torr D 1  10 2
Temperature:
gas thermometer, 0:001 K=10 K D 1  10 4
mercury thermometer, 0:01 K=300 K D 3  10 5
platinum resistance thermometer, 0:0001 K=300 K D 3  10 7
optical pyrometer, 0:03 K=1300 K D 2  10 5
The measurement of temperature with a platinum resistance thermometer has the least relative
uncertainty, and the measurement of pressure with a diaphragm gauge has the greatest. For
each physical quantity, the measurement method with smallest relative uncertainty is
underlined in the preceding list.
2.3 Table 1 on the next page lists data obtained from a constant-volume gas thermometer containing
samples of varying amounts of helium maintained at a certain fixed temperature T2 in the gas
bulb.1 The molar volume Vm of each sample was evaluated from its pressure in the bulb at a
reference temperature of T1 D 7:1992 K, corrected for gas nonideality with the known value
of the second virial coefficient at that temperature.
Use these data and Eq. 2.2.2 on page 34 to evaluate T2 and the second virial coefficient of he-
lium at temperature T2 . (You can assume the third and higher virial coefficients are negligible.)
Solution:
With the third and higher virial coefficients set equal to zero, Eq. 2.2.2 becomes
 
B
pVm D RT 1 C
Vm
1 Ref. [13].
 6

Table 1 Helium at a fixed temperature

.1=Vm / =102 mol m 3

.p2 Vm =R/ =K
1.0225 2.7106
1.3202 2.6994
1.5829 2.6898
1.9042 2.6781
2.4572 2.6580
2.8180 2.6447
3.4160 2.6228
3.6016 2.6162
4.1375 2.5965
4.6115 2.5790
5.1717 2.5586

2.8

bc
bc
2:7 bc
.p2 Vm =R/ =K

bc

bc
bc

bc
bc

2:6 bc

bc

bc

2:5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
.1=Vm / =102 mol m 3

Figure 1

According to this equation, a plot of p2 Vm =R versus 1=Vm should be linear with an intercept
at 1=Vm D0 equal to T2 and a slope equal to BT2 . The plot is shown in Fig. 1. A least-squares
fit of the data to a first-order polynomial yields an intercept of 2:7478 K and a slope of
3:659  10 4 K m3 mol 1 . The temperature and second virial coefficient therefore have the
values
T2 D 2:7478 K
3:659  10 4 K m3 mol 1
4
BD D 1:332  10 m3 mol 1
2:7478 K
2.4 Discuss the proposition that, to a certain degree of approximation, a living organism is a steady-
state system.

Solution:
The organism can be treated as being in a steady state if we assume that its mass is constant
 7

and if we neglect internal motion. Matter enters the organism in the form of food, water, and
oxygen; waste matter and heat leave the system.

2.5 The value of U for the formation of one mole of crystalline potassium iodide from its el-
ements at 25 ı C and 1 bar is 327:9 kJ. Calculate m for this process. Comment on the
feasibility of measuring this mass change.

Solution:
m D U=c 2 D 327:9  103 J=.2:998  108 m s 1 2
/ D 3:648  10 12
kg
This mass change is much less than the uncertainty of a microbalance (Table 2.2), which does
not even have the capacity to weigh one mole of KI—so it is hopeless to try to measure this
mass change.
 8

Chapter 3 The First Law

3.1 Assume you have a metal spring that obeys Hooke’s law: F D c.l l0 /, where F is the force
exerted on the spring of length l, l0 is the length of the unstressed spring, and c is the spring
constant. Find an expression for the work done on the spring when you reversibly compress it
from length l0 to a shorter length l 0 .

Solution:
Z l0 Z l0 ˇl 0
wD F dl D c .l l0 / dl D 1
2
c.l l0 /2 ˇl D 12 c.l 0 l0 /2
0
l0 l0

air

water

Figure 2

3.2 The apparatus shown in Fig. 2 consists of fixed amounts of water and air and an incompressible
solid glass sphere (a marble), all enclosed in a rigid vessel resting on a lab bench. Assume the
marble has an adiabatic outer layer so that its temperature cannot change, and that the walls of
the vessel are also adiabatic.
Initially the marble is suspended above the water. When released, it falls through the air into
the water and comes to rest at the bottom of the vessel, causing the water and air (but not
the marble) to become slightly warmer. The process is complete when the system returns to
an equilibrium state. The system energy change during this process depends on the frame of
reference and on how the system is defined. Esys is the energy change in a lab frame, and
U is the energy change in a specified local frame.
For each of the following definitions of the system, give the sign (positive, negative, or zero)
of both Esys and U , and state your reasoning. Take the local frame for each system to be a
center-of-mass frame.

Solution:
Because q is zero in each part of this problem, Esys is equal to wlab and U is equal to w.
2


We can use Eq. 3.1.4 with  vcm set equal to zero: U Esys D wlab w D mgzcm
or Esys D U C mgzcm .
(a) The system is the marble.
Solution:
U is zero, because the state of the system is unchanged.
Esys is negative, because in the lab frame the marble does work on the water (page 83).
This can also be deduced using Esys D U C mgzcm and the fact that U is zero
and zcm is negative.
 9

(b) The system is the combination of water and air.

Solution:
U is positive, because the system’s temperature increases at constant volume.
Esys is positive, because both U and zcm are positive (the center of gravity of the
water rises when the marble enters the water). This can also be deduced by considering
that the net force exerted by the sinking marble on the water and the displacement of the
boundary at the marble are in the same direction (downward).
(c) The system is the combination of water, air, and marble.
Solution:
Esys is zero, because wlab is zero (there is no displacement of the system boundary in
the lab frame).
U is positive, because Esys is zero and zcm is negative. This can also be deduced
from the fact that U is an extensive property, so that U for this system is equal to the
sum of the internal energy change of the marble and the internal energy change of the
water and air. In parts (a) and (b) these changes were found to be zero and positive,
respectively.

p D 3:00 bar porous

V D 0:500 m3 plug
piston
T D 300:0 K

gas

Text D 300:0 K
pext D 1:00 bar

Figure 3

3.3 Figure 3 shows the initial state of an apparatus consisting of an ideal gas in a bulb, a stopcock,
a porous plug, and a cylinder containing a frictionless piston. The walls are diathermal, and
the surroundings are at a constant temperature of 300:0 K and a constant pressure of 1:00 bar.
When the stopcock is opened, the gas diffuses slowly through the porous plug, and the piston
moves slowly to the right. The process ends when the pressures are equalized and the piston
stops moving. The system is the gas. Assume that during the process the temperature through-
out the system differs only infinitesimally from 300:0 K and the pressure on both sides of the
piston differs only infinitesimally from 1:00 bar.
(a) Which of these terms correctly describes the process: isothermal, isobaric, isochoric,
reversible, irreversible?
Solution:
The process is isothermal and irreversible, but not isobaric, isochoric, or reversible. Note
that the pressure gradient across the porous plug prevents intermediate states of the
process from being equilibrium states, and keeps the process from being reversible; there
is no infinitesimal change that can reverse the motion of the piston.
(b) Calculate q and w.
Solution:
Because T is constant and the gas is ideal, the relation p1 V1 D p2 V2 holds, and the final
volume is found from
 10

p 1 V1 .3:00 bar/.0:500 m3 /
V2 D D D 1:50 m3
p2 1:00 bar
The work must be calculated from the pressure at the moving portion of the boundary
(the inner surface of the piston); this is a constant pressure of 1:00 bar:
Z V2
wD p dV D p.V2 V1 / D .1:00  105 Pa/.1:50 0:500/m3
V1

D 1:00  105 J
q D U wD0 w D 1:00  105 J
3.4 Consider a horizontal cylinder-and-piston device similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.5 on
page 72. The piston has mass m. The cylinder wall is diathermal and is in thermal contact
with a heat reservoir of temperature Text . The system is an amount n of an ideal gas confined
in the cylinder by the piston.
The initial state of the system is an equilibrium state described by p1 and T D Text . There
is a constant external pressure pext , equal to twice p1 , that supplies a constant external force
on the piston. When the piston is released, it begins to move to the left to compress the gas.
Make the idealized assumptions that (1) the piston moves with negligible friction; and (2) the
gas remains practically uniform (because the piston is massive and its motion is slow) and has
a practically constant temperature T D Text (because temperature equilibration is rapid).
(a) Describe the resulting process.
Solution:
The piston will oscillate; the gas volume will change back and forth between the initial
value V1 and a minimum value V2 .
(b) Describe how you could calculate w and q during the period needed for the piston velocity
to become zero again.
Solution:
The relation between V1 and V2 is found by equating the work done on the gas by the
piston, nRT ln.V2 =V1 /, to the work done on the piston by the external pressure,
pext .V2 V1 /, where pext is given by pext D 2p1 D 2nRT =V1 . The result is
V2 D 0:2032V1 , w D 1:5936nRT , q D w D 1:5936nRT .
(c) Calculate w and q during this period for 0:500 mol gas at 300 K.
Solution:
1 1
w D .1:5936/.0:500 mol/.8:3145 J K mol /.300 K/ D 1:99  103 J,
q D w D 1:99  103 J.

3.5 This problem is designed to test the assertion on page 60 that for typical thermodynamic pro-
cesses in which the elevation of the center of mass changes, it is usually a good approximation
to set w equal to wlab . The cylinder shown in Fig. 4 on the next page has a vertical orientation,
so the elevation of the center of mass of the gas confined by the piston changes as the piston
slides up or down. The system is the gas. Assume the gas is nitrogen (M D 28:0 g mol 1 ) at
300 K, and initially the vertical length l of the gas column is one meter. Treat the nitrogen as
an ideal gas, use a center-of-mass local frame, and take the center of mass to be at the mid-
point of the gas column. Find the difference between the values of w and wlab , expressed as
a percentage of w, when the gas is expanded reversibly and isothermally to twice its initial
volume.
Solution:
1 2


Use Eq. 3.1.4: w wlab D 2
m vcm mgzcm .
 11

gas l

Figure 4

l2 l1 2l1 l1
2
 vcm is zero, and zcm is 2 2
D 2 2
D 21 l1 ; therefore w wlab D 1
2
mgl1 .
From Eq. 3.5.1, which assumes the local frame is a lab frame:
V
wlab D nRT ln 2 D nRT ln 2.
V1
1 1
Use these relations to obtain w D wlab 2
mgl1 D nRT ln 2 2
mgl1 .
1
w wlab 2
mgl1 1 1
D D D
w nRT ln 2 12 mgl1 2nRT ln 2 2RT ln 2
C1 C1
mgl1 Mgl1
1 5
D D 7:9  10
.2/.8:3145 J K mol 1 /.300 K/.ln 2/
1
C 1
.28:0  10 3 kg mol 1 )(9.81 m s 2 )(1 m)
which is 0:0079%.

vacuum weight

ideal
gas h

Figure 5

3.6 Figure 5 shows an ideal gas confined by a frictionless piston in a vertical cylinder. The system
is the gas, and the boundary is adiabatic. The downward force on the piston can be varied by
changing the weight on top of it.
 12

(a) Show that when the system is in an equilibrium state, the gas pressure is given by p D
mgh=V where m is the combined mass of the piston and weight, g is the acceleration of
free fall, and h is the elevation of the piston shown in the figure.
Solution:
The piston must be stationary in order for the system to be in an equilibrium state.
Therefore the net force on the piston is zero: pAs mg D 0 (where As is the
cross-section area of the cylinder). This gives p D mg=As D mg=.V = h/ D mgh=V .
(b) Initially the combined mass of the piston and weight is m1 , the piston is at height h1 , and
the system is in an equilibrium state with conditions p1 and V1 . The initial temperature
is T1 D p1 V1 =nR. Suppose that an additional weight is suddenly placed on the piston,
so that m increases from m1 to m2 , causing the piston to sink and the gas to be com-
pressed adiabatically and spontaneously. Pressure gradients in the gas, a form of friction,
eventually cause the piston to come to rest at a final position h2 . Find the final volume,
V2 , as a function of p1 , p2 , V1 , and CV . (Assume that the heat capacity of the gas, CV ,
is independent of temperature.) Hint: The potential energy of the surroundings changes
by m2 gh; since the kinetic energy of the piston and weights is zero at the beginning
and end of the process, and the boundary is adiabatic, the internal energy of the gas must
change by m2 gh D m2 gV =As D p2 V .
Solution:
There are two expressions for U :
U D CV .T2 T1 / and U D p2 .V2 V1 /
Equate the two expressions and substitute T1 D p1 V1 =nR and T2 D p2 V2 =nR:
.CV =nR/.p2 V2 p 1 V1 / D p2 .V2 V1 /
CV p1 C nRp2
Solve for V2 : V2 D V
p2 .CV C nR/ 1
(c) It might seem that by making the weight placed on the piston sufficiently large, V2 could
be made as close to zero as desired. Actually, however, this is not the case. Find ex-
pressions for V2 and T2 in the limit as m2 approaches infinity, and evaluate V2 =V1 in this
limit if the heat capacity is CV D .3=2/nR (the value for an ideal monatomic gas at room
temperature).
Solution:
Since p2 is equal to m2 g=As , p2 must approach 1 as m2 approaches 1. In the
expression for V2 , the term CV p1 becomes negligible as p2 approaches 1; then p2
cancels from the numerator and denominator giving
nR
V2 ! V
CV C nR 1
The relation T2 D p2 V2 =nR shows that with a finite limiting value of V2 , T2 must
approach 1 as p2 does. If CV equals .3=2/nR, then V2 =V1 approaches 2=5 D 0:4.
3.7 The solid curve in Fig. 3.7 on page 80 shows the path of a reversible adiabatic expansion or
compression of a fixed amount of an ideal gas. Information about the gas is given in the figure
caption. For compression along this path, starting at V D 0:3000 dm3 and T D 300:0 K and
ending at V D 0:1000 dm3 , find the final temperature to 0:1 K and the work.

Solution:
1 1 1
CV D nCV;m D n.1:500R/ D .0:0120 mol/.1:500/.8:3145 J K mol / D 0:1497 J K
 13

 nR=CV
V1
T2 D T1 D .300:0 K/.3:000/.1=1:500/ D 624:0 K
V2
1
w D CV .T2 T1 / D .0:1497 J K /.624:0 K 300:0 K/ D 48:5 J

p D 3:00 bar pD0

V D 0:500 m3 V D 1:00 m3
T D 300:0 K

gas vacuum

Text D 300:0 K

Figure 6

3.8 Figure 6 shows the initial state of an apparatus containing an ideal gas. When the stopcock is
opened, gas passes into the evacuated vessel. The system is the gas. Find q, w, and U under
the following conditions.
(a) The vessels have adiabatic walls.
Solution:
q D 0 because the process is adiabatic; w D 0 because it is a free expansion; therefore,
U D q C w D 0.
(b) The vessels have diathermal walls in thermal contact with a water bath maintained at
300: K, and the final temperature in both vessels is T D 300: K.
Solution:
U D 0 because the gas is ideal and the final and initial temperatures are the same;
w D 0 because it is a free expansion; therefore q D U w D 0.
3.9 Consider a reversible process in which the shaft of system A in Fig. 3.11 makes one revolution
in the direction of increasing #. Show that the gravitational work of the weight is the same as
the shaft work given by w D mgr#.

Solution:
The circumference of the shaft at the point where the cord is attached is 2 r. When the shaft
makes one revolution in the direction of increasing #, a length of cord equal to 2 r becomes
wrapped around the shaft, and the weight rises by a distance z D 2 r. The gravitational
work, ignoring the buoyant force of the air, is w D mgz D mgr.2/, which is the same as
the shaft work mgr# with # D 2.

3.10 This problem guides you through a calculation of the mechanical equivalent of heat using data
from one of James Joule’s experiments with a paddle wheel apparatus (see Sec. 3.7.2). The
experimental data are collected in Table 2 on the next page.
In each of his experiments, Joule allowed the weights of the apparatus to sink to the floor
twenty times from a height of about 1:6 m, using a crank to raise the weights before each
descent (see Fig. 3.14 on page 89). The paddle wheel was engaged to the weights through the
roller and strings only while the weights descended. Each descent took about 26 seconds, and
the entire experiment lasted 35 minutes. Joule measured the water temperature with a sensitive
mercury-in-glass thermometer at both the start and finish of the experiment.
 14

Table 2 Data for Problem 3.10. The values are from Joule’s 1850 paper a and
have been converted to SI units.

Properties of the paddle wheel apparatus:

combined mass of the two lead weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26:3182 kg
mass of water in vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6:04118 kg
mass of water with same heat capacity
as paddle wheel, vessel, and lidb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0:27478 kg
Measurements during the experiment:
number of times weights were wound up and released . . . 20
change of elevation of weights during each descent . . . . . 1:5898 m
1
final downward velocity of weights during descent . . . . . . 0:0615 m s
initial temperature in vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288:829 K
final temperature in vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289:148 K
mean air temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289:228 K
a Ref. [91], p. 67, experiment 5.
b Calculated from the masses and specific heat capacities of the materials.

For the purposes of the calculations, define the system to be the combination of the vessel, its
contents (including the paddle wheel and water), and its lid. All energies are measured in a
lab frame. Ignore the small quantity of expansion work occurring in the experiment. It helps
conceptually to think of the cellar room in which Joule set up his apparatus as being effectively
isolated from the rest of the universe; then the only surroundings you need to consider for the
calculations are the part of the room outside the system.
(a) Calculate the change of the gravitational potential energy Ep of the lead weights during
each of the descents. For the acceleration of free fall at Manchester, England (where
Joule carried out the experiment) use the value g D 9:813 m s 2 . This energy change
represents a decrease in the energy of the surroundings, and would be equal in magnitude
and opposite in sign to the stirring work done on the system if there were no other changes
in the surroundings.
Solution:
2
Ep D mgh D .26:3182 kg/.9:813 m s /. 1:5898 m/ D 410:6 J
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy Ek of the descending weights just before they reached the
floor. This represents an increase in the energy of the surroundings. (This energy was
dissipated into thermal energy in the surroundings when the weights came to rest on the
floor.)
Solution:
Ek D .1=2/mv 2 D .1=2/.26:3182 kg/.0:0615 m sec 1 2
/ D 0:0498 J
(c) Joule found that during each descent of the weights, friction in the strings and pulleys
decreased the quantity of work performed on the system by 2:87 J. This quantity repre-
sents an increase in the thermal energy of the surroundings. Joule also considered the
slight stretching of the strings while the weights were suspended from them: when the
weights came to rest on the floor, the tension was relieved and the potential energy of the
strings changed by 1:15 J. Find the total change in the energy of the surroundings during
the entire experiment from all the effects described to this point. Keep in mind that the
weights descended 20 times during the experiment.
Solution:
Esur D .20/ . 410:6 C 0:0498 C 2:87 1:15/ J D 8176:6 J
 15

(d) Data in Table 2 show that change of the temperature of the system during the experiment
was
T D .289:148 288:829/ K D C0:319 K
The paddle wheel vessel had no thermal insulation, and the air temperature was slighter
warmer, so during the experiment there was a transfer of some heat into the system. From
a correction procedure described by Joule, the temperature change that would have oc-
curred if the vessel had been insulated is estimated to be C0:317 K.
Use this information together with your results from part (c) to evaluate the work needed
to increase the temperature of one gram of water by one kelvin. This is the “mechanical
equivalent of heat” at the average temperature of the system during the experiment. (As
mentioned on p. 87, Joule obtained the value 4:165 J based on all 40 of his experiments.)
Solution:
Esys D Esur D 8176:6 J
8176:6 J D 4:08 J g 1
K 1
.6:04118 kg C 0:27478 kg/.103 g kg 1
/.0:317 K/
3.11 Refer to the apparatus depicted in Fig. 3.1 on page 61. Suppose the mass of the external weight
is m D 1:50 kg, the resistance of the electrical resistor is Rel D 5:50 k, and the acceleration
of free fall is g D 9:81 m s 2 . For how long a period of time will the external cell need to
operate, providing an electric potential difference jj D 1:30 V, to cause the same change in
the state of the system as the change when the weight sinks 20:0 cm without electrical work?
Assume both processes occur adiabatically.

Solution:
The value of U is the same in both processes.
Sinking of weight:
U D w D mgh D .1:50 kg/.9:81 m s 2 /.20:0  10 2
m/ D 2:943 J
Electrical work:
U D w D I 2 Rel t  D IRel (Ohm’s law);
therefore, U D ./2 t=Rel .
Rel U .5:50  103 /.2:943 J/
tD D D 9:58  103 s
./2 .1:30 V/2
 16

Chapter 4 The Second Law

4.1 Explain why an electric refrigerator, which transfers energy by means of heat from the cold
food storage compartment to the warmer air in the room, is not an impossible “Clausius de-
vice.”

Solution:
In addition to heat transfer, there is consumption of electrical energy from the surroundings.
The refrigerator does not fit the description of the device declared by the Clausius statement
of the second law to be impossible; such a device would produce no other effect but the
transfer of energy by means of heat from a cooler to a warmer body.

4.2 A system consisting of a fixed amount of an ideal gas is maintained in thermal equilibrium
with a heat reservoir at temperature T . The system is subjected to the following isothermal
cycle:
1. The gas, initially in an equilibrium state with volume V0 , is allowed to expand into a
vacuum and reach a new equilibrium state of volume V 0 .
2. The gas is reversibly compressed from V 0 to V0 .
H H
For this cycle, find expressions or values for w, ¶q=T , and dS .

Solution:
Step 1: w D 0 because it is a free expansion; U D 0 because it is an ideal gas and
isothermal; therefore q D U w D 0.
Step 2: w D nRT ln.V0 =V 0 / (Eq. 3.5.1); U D 0 because it is an ideal gas and isothermal;
0
therefore q D U w D nRT ln.V H 0 =V /. H
0
Overall: w D nRT ln.V H0 =V /; ¶q=T D Hq=T D nR ln.V0 =V 0 /; dS D 0 because S is a
state function. Note that dS is greater than ¶q=T because of the irreversible expansion
step, in agreement with the mathematical statement of the second law.

4.3 In an irreversible isothermal process of a closed system:

(a) Is it possible for S to be negative?
Solution:
Yes. Provided S is less negative than q=T , there is no violation of the second law.
(b) Is it possible for S to be less than q=T ?
Solution:
According to the second law, no.
4.4 Suppose you have two blocks of copper, each of heat capacity CV D 200:0 J K 1 . Initially one
block has a uniform temperature of 300:00 K and the other 310:00 K. Calculate the entropy
change that occurs when you place the two blocks in thermal contact with one another and
surround them with perfect thermal insulation. Is the sign of S consistent with the second
law? (Assume the process occurs at constant volume.)

Solution:
Since the blocks have equal heat capacities, a given quantity of heat transfer from the warmer
to the cooler block causes temperature changes that are equal in magnitude and of opposite
signs. The final equilibrium temperature is 305:00 K, the average of the initial values.
When the temperature of one of the blocks changes reversibly from T1 to T2 , the entropy
change is
 17

Z Z T2
¶q CV dT T
S D D D CV ln 2
T T1 T T1
305:00 K
1
Cooler block: S D 200:0 J K D 3:306 J K 1
ln
300:00 K
305:00 K
Warmer block: S D 200:0 J K 1 ln D 3:252 J K 1
310:00 K
1 1 1
Total entropy change: S D 3:306 J K 3:252 J K D 0:054 J K
The sign of S is positive as predicted by the second law for an irreversible process in an
isolated system.

4.5 Refer to the apparatus shown in Figs. 3 on page 9 and 6 on page 13 and described in Probs. 3.3
R systems, evaluate S for the process that results from opening the stopcock.
and 3.8. For both
Also evaluate ¶q=Text for both processes (for the apparatus in Fig. 6, assume the vessels have
adiabatic walls). Are your results consistent with the mathematical statement of the second
law?

Solution:
The initial states of the ideal gas are the same in both processes, and the final states are also
the same. Therefore the value of S is the same for both processes. Calculate S for a
reversible isothermal expansion of the ideal gas from the initial to the final volume:
   
q w V2 p V V2
S D D D nR ln D 1 1 ln
T T V1 T V1
 
.3:00  105 Pa/.0:500 m3 / 1:50 m3
D ln
300: K 0:500 m3
1
D 549 J K
R
Use the values of q found in Probs. 3.3 and 3.8 to evaluate ¶q=Text :
For
R the expansion through the porous plug,
¶q=Text D q=T D 1:00  105 J=300: K D R333 J K 1 .
For the expansion into the evacuated Rvessel, ¶q=Text D q=T D 0.
In both processes S is greater than ¶q=Text , consistent with the second law.

water

Figure 7

4.6 Figure 7 shows the walls of a rigid thermally-insulated box (cross hatching). The system is the
contents of this box. In the box is a paddle wheel immersed in a container of water, connected
 18

by a cord and pulley to a weight of mass m. The weight rests on a stop located a distance h
above the bottom of the box. Assume the heat capacity of the system, CV , is independent of
temperature. Initially the system is in an equilibrium state at temperature T1 . When the stop
is removed, the weight irreversibly sinks to the bottom of the box, causing the paddle wheel
to rotate in the water. Eventually the system reaches a final equilibrium state with thermal
equilibrium. Describe a reversible process with the same entropy change as this irreversible
process, and derive a formula for S in terms of m, h, CV , and T1 .

Solution:
When the stop is removed, the system is an isolated system of constant internal energy. To
reversibly change the system between the same initial and final states as the irreversible
process, reversibly lower the weight with gravitational work w D mgh, then let reversible
heat q D CV .T2 T1 / enter the system. Since U is zero, the sum of q and w must be zero:
mgh
CV .T2 T1 / mgh D 0 T2 D T1 C
CV
The entropy change of the reversible process is
Z Z T2  
¶q dT T2 mgh
S D D CV D CV ln D CV ln 1 C
Tb T1 T T1 CV T1
This is also the entropy change of the irreversible process.
 19

Chapter 5 Thermodynamic Potentials

5.1 Show that the enthalpy of a fixed amount of an ideal gas depends only on the temperature.
Solution:
def
The enthalpy H is defined by H D U C pV . For a fixed amount of an ideal gas, U depends
only on T (Sec. 3.5.1). The product pV for an ideal gas also depends only on T since it is
equal to nRT . Thus, the enthalpy of a fixed amount of an ideal gas, like the internal energy,
depends only on T .
5.2 From concepts in this chapter, show that the heat capacities CV and Cp of a fixed amount of
an ideal gas are functions only of T .
Solution:
Since the internal energy and enthalpy of a fixed amount of an ideal gas depend only on T ,
the derivatives dU= dT and dH= dT must also depend only on T . These derivatives are equal
to CV and Cp in the case of an ideal gas (Eqs. 5.6.2 and 5.6.4).
5.3 During the reversible expansion of a fixed amount of an ideal gas, each increment of heat is
given by the expression ¶q D CV dT C .nRT =V / dV (Eq. 4.3.4).
(a) A necessary and sufficient condition for this expression to be an exact differential is that
the reciprocity relation must be satisfied for the independent variables T and V (see Ap-
pendix F). Apply this test to show that the expression is not an exact differential, and that
heat therefore is not a state function.
Solution:
The reciprocity relation is satisfied if .@CV =@V /T and Œ@.nRT =V /=@T V are equal. For
an ideal gas, CV is a function only of T (Prob. 5.2). Thus, .@CV =@V /T is zero. The
other partial derivative is Œ@.nRT =V /=@T V D nR=V , which is not zero. Thus, the
reciprocity relation is not satisfied, the expression is not an exact differential, and q is not
a state function.
(b) By the same method, show that the entropy increment during the reversible expansion,
given by the expression dS D ¶q=T , is an exact differential, so that entropy is a state
function.
Solution:
The expression for the entropy increment is ¶q=T D .CV =T / dT C .nR=V / dV . The
reciprocity relation is satisfied if Œ@.CV =T /=@V T and Œ@.nR=V /=@T V are equal. Since
CV =T is a function only of T , Œ@.CV =T /=@V T is zero. Œ@.nR=V /=@T V is also zero,
so the reciprocity relation is satisfied, the expression is an exact differential, and S is a
state function.
5.4 This problem illustrates how an expression for one of the thermodynamic potentials as a func-
tion of its natural variables contains the information needed to obtain expressions for the other
thermodynamic potentials and many other state functions.
From statistical mechanical theory, a simple model for a hypothetical “hard-sphere” liquid
(spherical molecules of finite size without attractive intermolecular forces) gives the following
expression for the Helmholtz energy with its natural variables T , V , and n as the independent
variables:   
V
A D nRT ln cT 3=2 b nRT C na
n
Here a, b, and c are constants. Derive expressions for the following state functions of this
hypothetical liquid as functions of T , V , and n.
 20

(a) The entropy, S

Solution:
      
@A 3=2 V 3
SD D nR ln cT b C nR C nR
@T V;n n 2
    
V 5
D nR ln cT 3=2 b C nR
n 2
(b) The pressure, p
Solution:
 
1
  nRT
@A n nRT
pD D   D
@V T;n V V nb
b
n
(c) The chemical potential, 
Solution:
      
@A 3=2 V nRT V
D D RT ln cT b   RT C a
@n T;V n V n2
b
n
  
V VRT
D RT ln cT 3=2 b C RT C a
n V nb
(d) The internal energy, U
Solution:
   
5 3
U D A C TS D nRT C na C nRT D nRT C na
2 2
(e) The enthalpy, H
Solution:
   
3 nRT
H D U C pV D nRT C na C V
2 V nb
(f) The Gibbs energy, G
Solution:
G D U T S C pV D H T S
        
3 nRT V 5
D nRT C na C V nRT ln cT 3=2 b nRT
2 V nb n 2
  
V nVRT
D nRT ln cT 3=2 b C nRT C na
n V nb
Since  is the molar Gibbs energy, the same result can be obtained using G D n.
(g) The heat capacity at constant volume, CV
Solution:
   
@U 3
CV D D nR
@T V;n 2
(h) The heat capacity at constant pressure, Cp (hint: use the expression for p to solve for V
as a function of T , p, and n; then use H D U C pV )
 21

Solution:
nRT
V D C nb pV D nRT C nbp
p
       
@H @.U C pV / 3 5
Cp D D D nR C nR D nR
@T p;n @T p;n 2 2

gas

liquid

Figure 8

5.5 Figure 8 depicts a hypothetical liquid in equilibrium with its vapor. The liquid and gas are
confined in a cylinder by a piston. An electrical resistor is immersed in the liquid. The system
is the contents of the cylinder to the left of the piston (the liquid, gas, and resistor). The initial
state of the system is described by

V1 D 0:2200 m3 T1 D 300:0 K p1 D 2:50  105 Pa

A constant current I D 0:5000 A is passed for 1600 s through the resistor, which has electric
resistance Rel D 50:00 . The piston moves slowly to the right against a constant external
pressure equal to the vapor pressure of the liquid, 2:50  105 Pa, and some of the liquid vapor-
izes. Assume that the process is adiabatic and that T and p remain uniform and constant. The
final state is described by

V2 D 0:2400 m3 T2 D 300:0 K p2 D 2:50  105 Pa

(a) Calculate q, w, U , and H .

Solution:
q D 0 because the process is adiabatic.
wD pV C I 2 Rel t
D .2:50  105 Pa/.0:0200 m3 / C .0:5000 A/2 .50:00 /.1600 s/
D 1:50  104 J
U D q C w D 1:50  104 J
H D U C pV D 1:50  104 J C .2:50  105 Pa/.0:0200 m3 /
D 2:00  104 J
(b) Is the process reversible? Explain.
Solution:
The process is not reversible, because of the electrical work.
(c) Devise a reversible process that accomplishes the same change of state, and use it to
calculate S .
 22

Solution:
The same change of state can be accomplished by omitting the electrical work and
allowing energy to be reversibly transferred into the system by means of heat. The work
is then equal to pV . The quantity of heat must cause the same increase of internal
energy as in the original process:
q D U w D 1:50  104 J C .2:50  105 Pa/.0:0200 m3 / D 2:00  104 J
Calculate S for this reversible process:
q 2:00  104 J
S D D D 66:7 J K 1
T 300:0 K
(d) Compare q for the reversible process with H . Does your result agree with Eq. 5.3.8?
Solution:
The heat for the isobaric process without nonexpansion work is equal to the enthalpy
change, in agreement with Eq. 5.3.8.

Table 3 Surface tension

of water at 1 bar a

t =ı C =10 6
J cm 2

15 7:350
20 7:275
25 7:199
30 7:120
35 7:041
a Ref. [175].

5.6 Use the data in Table 3 to evaluate .@S=@As /T;p at 25 ı C, which is the rate at which the entropy
changes with the area of the air–water interface at this temperature.

Solution:
From Eq. 5.7.4:
   
@S @
D
@As T;p @T p

At 25 ı C, .@ =@T /p is about 1:55  10 8

JK 1
cm 2
; thus, .@S=@As /T;p is approximately
1:55  10 8 J K 1 cm 2 .

5.7 When an ordinary rubber band is hung from a clamp and stretched with constant downward
force F by a weight attached to the bottom end, gentle heating is observed to cause the rubber
band to contract in length. To keep the length l of the rubber band constant during heating,
F must be increased. The stretching work is given by ¶w 0 D F dl. From this information,
find the sign of the partial derivative .@T =@l/S;p ; then predict whether stretching of the rubber
band will cause a heating or a cooling effect.
(Hint: make a Legendre transform of U whose total differential has the independent variables
needed for the partial derivative, and write a reciprocity relation.)
You can check your prediction experimentally by touching a rubber band to the side of your
face before and after you rapidly stretch it.
 23

Solution:
The total differential of the internal energy is given by dU D T dS p dV C F dl.
To change the independent variables from S , V , and l to S , p, and l, subtract the conjugate
pair product . p/.V / from U to make the Legendre transform H :
dH D d.U C pV / D dU C p dV C V dp D .T dS p dV C F dl/ C p dV C V dp
D T dS C V dp C F dl
Reciprocity relation:
   
@T @F
D
@l S;p @S p;l
The partial derivative .@F=@S /p;l is positive because S increases when heat reversibly enters
the rubber band and raises the temperature, and experimentally F must be increased if l is to
be constant as T increases. Thus, .@T =@l/S;p is positive, which means that as the rubber band
is stretched reversibly and adiabatically (dS D 0), T will increase.
 24

Chapter 6 The Third Law and Cryogenics

6.1 Calculate the molar entropy of carbon disulfide at 25:00 ı C and 1 bar from the heat capac-
ity data for the solid in Table 4 and the following data for p D 1 bar. At the melting point,

Table 4 Molar heat capacity of

CS2 (s) at p D 1 bar a
1 1
T =K Cp;m =J K mol
15:05 6:9
20:15 12:0
29:76 20:8
42:22 29:2
57:52 35:6
75:54 40:0
94:21 45:0
108:93 48:5
131:54 52:6
156:83 56:6
a Ref. [25].

161:11 K, the molar enthalpy of fusion is fus H D 4:39  103 J mol 1 . The molar heat capac-
ity of the liquid in the range 161–300 K is described by Cp;m D a C bT , where the constants
have the values a D 74:6 J K 1 mol 1 and b D 0:0034 J K 2 mol 1 .

Solution:
Debye extrapolation from 0 K to 15:05 K:
1 1 1 1
Sm D .6:9 J K mol /=3 D 2:3 J K mol
Molar entropy of heating the solid from 15:05 K to the melting point: When the molar heat
capacity of the solid is plotted versus ln.T =K/, a practically-linear relation is observed (Fig. 9
on the next page). The sloped line is drawn through the first and last points and extended a
very short distance to the melting point at ln.161:11/ D 5:08. The area under this line is
75:7 J K 1 mol 1 . Numerical integration of a curve fitted to the points will yield a similar
value.
Molar entropy of fusion:
fus H 4:39  103 J mol 1
1 1
fus S D D D 27:2 J K mol
Tfus 161:11 K
Molar entropy change of heating the liquid to 298:15 K:
Z T2 Z T2 Z T2 Z T2
Cp;m a C bT dT
Sm D dT D dT D a Cb dT
T1 T T1 T T1 T T1

1 1 298:15 K
D .74:6 J K mol / ln
161:11 K
2 1
C .0:0034 J K mol /.298:15 K 161:11 K/
1 1
D 46:4 J K mol
Total molar entropy change:
 25

60
bc

bc

50 bc

bc

1 mol 1
bc
40
bc

30 bc

Cp;m =J K bc
20

bc

10
bc

0
2:5 3:0 3:5 4:0 4:5 5:0 5:5
ln.T =K/

Figure 9

1 1 1 1
Sm D .2:3 C 75:7 C 27:2 C 46:4/ J K mol D 151:6 J K mol
Thus, the molar entropy at 25:00 ı C and 1 bar is close to 151:6 J K 1
mol 1
.
 26

Chapter 7 Pure Substances in Single Phases

7.1 Derive the following relations from the definitions of ˛, T , and :

   
1 @ 1 @
˛D T D
 @T p  @p T

Solution:
The definitions of ˛ and T refer to a fixed mass of a uniform phase. Let X D 1=V D =m,
where m is constant:
    "   #
def 1 @V @.1=X / 1 @X
˛ D DX DX
V @T p @T p X 2 @T p
     
1 @X m @.=m/ 1 @
D D D
X @T p  @T p  @T p
       
def 1 @V @.1=X / 1 @X
T D D X D X
V @p T @p T X 2 @p T
     
1 @X m @.=m/ 1 @
D D D
X @p T  @p T  @p T
7.2 Use equations in this chapter to derive the following expressions for an ideal gas:

˛ D 1=T T D 1=p

Solution:
In the following, n is constant:
     
def 1 @V 1 @.nRT =p/ 1 nR
˛ D D D
V @T p V @T p V p
1
D
T
       
def 1 @V 1 @.nRT =p 1 nRT 1 V
T D D D D
V @p T V @p T V p2 V p
1
D
p
7.3 For a gas with the simple equation of state
RT
Vm D CB
p
(Eq. 2.2.8), where B is the second virial coefficient (a function of T ), find expressions for ˛,
T , and .@Um =@V /T in terms of dB= dT and other state functions.

Solution:
   
1 @Vm 1 R dB
˛D D C
Vm @T p Vm p dT
   
1 @Vm 1 RT RT
T D D 2
D
Vm @p T Vm p Vm p 2
 27

    
@Um ˛T T R dB Vm p 2
D pD C p
@V T T Vm p dT RT
2  
p dB
D
R dT
7.4 Show that when the virial equation pVm D RT .1 C Bp p C Cp p 2 C


/ (Eq. 2.2.3) adequately
represents the equation of state of a real gas, the Joule–Thomson coefficient is given by
RT 2 ŒdBp = dT C .dCp = dT /p C



JT D
Cp;m

Note that the limiting value at low pressure, RT 2 .dBp = dT /=Cp;m , is not necessarily equal to
zero even though the equation of state approaches that of an ideal gas in this limit.
Solution:
.˛T 1/Vm
JT D
Cp;m
      
@Vm R RT dBp dCp
˛Vm D D .1 C Bp p C Cp p 2 C


/ C pC p2 C



@T p p p dT dT
Combine these expressions with the expression for Vm to obtain the final expression for JT .
7.5 The quantity .@T =@V /U is called the Joule coefficient. James Joule attempted to evaluate
this quantity by measuring the temperature change accompanying the expansion of air into a
vacuum—the “Joule experiment.” Write an expression for the total differential of U with T
and V as independent variables, and by a procedure similar to that used in Sec. 7.5.2 show that
the Joule coefficient is equal to
p ˛T =T
CV
Solution:
   
@U @U
dU D dT C dV
@T V @V T
Divide by dV and impose a condition of constant U :
     
@U @T @U
0D C
@T V @V U @V T
Solve for .@T =@V /U and make appropriate substitutions:
 
@T .@U=@V /T ˛T =T p
D D
@V U .@U=@T /V CV
7.6 p–V –T data for several organic liquids were measured by Gibson and Loeffler.2 The following
formulas describe the results for aniline.
Molar volume as a function of temperature at p D 1 bar (298–358 K):
Vm D a C bT C cT 2 C d T 3
where the parameters have the values
a D 69:287 cm3 mol 1
cD 1:0443  10 4
cm3 K 2
mol 1

b D 0:08852 cm3 K 1
mol 1
d D 1:940  10 7
cm3 K 3
mol 1

2 Ref. [70].
 28

Molar volume as a function of pressure at T D 298:15 K (1–1000 bar):

Vm D e f ln.g C p=bar/

where the parameter values are

e D 156:812 cm3 mol 1

f D 8:5834 cm3 mol 1
g D 2006:6

(a) Use these formulas to evaluate ˛, T , .@p=@T /V , and .@U=@V /T (the internal pressure)
for aniline at T D 298:15 K and p D 1:000 bar.
Solution:
At 298:15 K and 1:000 bar, the molar volume calculated from either formula is
Vm D 91:538 cm3 mol 1 .
 
1 @V b C 2cT C 3d T 2
˛D D D 8:519  10 4 K 1
Vm @T p Vm
   
1 @V 1 f
T D D D 4:671  10 5 bar 1
Vm @p T Vm g C p=bar
 
@p ˛
D D 18:24 bar K 1
@T V T
 
@U ˛T
D p D 5437 bar
@V T T
(b) Estimate the pressure increase if the temperature of a fixed amount of aniline is increased
by 0:10 K at constant volume.
Solution:
 
@p 1
p  T D .18:24 bar K /.0:10 K/ D 1:8 bar
@T V
7.7 (a) From the total differential of H with T and p as independent variables, derive the relation
.@Cp;m =@p/T D T .@2 Vm =@T 2 /p .
Solution:
   
@H @H
dH D dT C dp D Cp dT C .1 ˛T /V dp
@T p @p T
The reciprocity relation from this total differential is
   
@Cp @.1 ˛T /V
D
@p T @T p
or
     
@Cp @V @.˛T V /
D
@p T @T p @T p

Using the relation ˛V D .@V =@T /p , this becomes

       
@Cp @.˛V / @.˛V / @2 V
D ˛V ˛V T D T D T
@p T @T p @T p @T 2 p

Divide by n to obtain the final relation.

(b) Evaluate .@Cp;m =@p/T for liquid aniline at 300:0 K and 1 bar using data in Prob. 7.6.
 29

Solution:
   
@Cp;m @2 Vm
D T D T .2c C 6d T /
@p T @T 2 p

2
D 4:210  10 cm3 K 1
mol 1

2
D .4:210  10 2
cm3 K 1
mol 1
/.10 m=cm/3

8 1 1 1
D 4:210  10 JK Pa mol

7.8 (a) From the total differential of V with T and p as independent variables, derive the relation
.@˛=@p/T D .@T =@T /p .
Solution:
dV D ˛V dT T V dp (Eq. 7.1.6)
Reciprocity relation:
   
@.˛V / @.T V /
D
@p T @T p

From the chain rule:

       
@V @˛ @V @T
˛ CV D T V
@p T @p T @T p @T p
or
   
@˛ @T
˛. T V / C V D T .˛V / V
@p T @T p

The first term on the left equals the first term on the right, so these terms cancel, giving
   
@˛ @T
D
@p T @T p
(b) Use this relation to estimate the value of ˛ for benzene at 25 ı C and 500 bar, given that
the value of ˛ is 1:2  10 3 K 1 at 25 ı C and 1 bar. (Use information from Fig. 7.2 on
page 168.)
Solution:
From the curve for benzene in Fig. 7.2, the value of .@T =@T /p at 25 ı C is
approximately 7:3  10 7 bar 1 K 1 .
 
@˛
˛.500 bar/  ˛.1 bar/ C .500 1/bar
@p T
3 1 7 1 1
D 1:2  10 K C . 7:3  10 bar K /.499 bar/
4 1
D 8  10 K
7.9 Certain equations of state supposed to be applicable to nonpolar liquids and gases are of the
form p D Tf .Vm / a=Vm2 , where f .Vm / is a function of the molar volume only and a is a
constant.
(a) Show that the van der Waals equation of state .p C a=Vm2 /.Vm b/ D RT (where a and
b are constants) is of this form.
 30

Solution:
The van der Waals equation can be rearranged to
RT a
pD
Vm b Vm2
The function f .Vm / is R=.Vm b/.
(b) Show that any fluid with an equation of state of this form has an internal pressure equal
to a=Vm2 .
Solution:
From Eq. 7.2.1, the internal pressure is equal to T .@p=@T /V p.
   
@p a a
T p D Tf .Vm / Tf .Vm / D 2
@T V;n Vm2 Vm
7.10 Suppose that the molar heat capacity at constant pressure of a substance has a temperature
dependence given by Cp;m D a C bT C cT 2 , where a, b, and c are constants. Consider the
heating of an amount n of the substance from T1 to T2 at constant pressure. Find expressions
for H and S for this process in terms of a, b, c, n, T1 , and T2 .

Solution:
Z T2    c  
b
H D n Cp;m dT D n a.T2 T1 / C .T22 T12 / C .T23 T13 /
T1 2 3
Z T2    c  
Cp;m T2
S D n dT D n a ln C b.T2 T1 / C .T22 T12 /
T1 T T1 2
7.11 At p D 1 atm, the molar heat capacity at constant pressure of aluminum is given by

Cp;m D a C bT

where the constants have the values

1 1 2 1
a D 20:67 J K mol b D 0:01238 J K mol

Calculate the quantity of electrical work needed to heat 2:000 mol of aluminum from 300:00 K
to 400:00 K at 1 atm in an adiabatic enclosure.

Solution:
Since the process is isobaric, H is equal to the heat that would be needed to cause the same
change of state without electrical work:
Z T2  
b 2 2
H D n Cp;m dT D n a.T2 T1 / C .T2 T1 / D 5:001  103 J
T1 2
In the adiabatic enclosure, H has the same value, and electrical work substitutes for heat:
w 0 D 5:001  103 J.

7.12 The temperature dependence of the standard molar heat capacity of gaseous carbon dioxide in
the temperature range 298 K–2000 K is given by
ı c
Cp;m D a C bT C
T2
where the constants have the values
1 1 3 2 1
a D 44:2 J K mol b D 8:8  10 JK mol cD 8:6  105 J K mol 1
 31

Calculate the enthalpy and entropy changes when one mole of CO2 is heated at 1 bar from
ı
300:00 K to 800:00 K. You can assume that at this pressure Cp;m is practically equal to Cp;m .

Solution:
Z T2     
b 1 1
H D n Cp;m dT D n a.T2 T1 / C .T22 T12 / c
T1 2 T2 T1
D 2:27  104 J
Z T2    c   1 
Cp;m T2 1
S D n dT D n a ln C b.T2 T1 /
T1 T T1 2 T22 T12
1
D 43:6 J K

7.13 This problem concerns gaseous carbon dioxide. At 400 K, the relation between p and Vm at
pressures up to at least 100 bar is given to good accuracy by a virial equation of state truncated
at the second virial coefficient, B. In the temperature range 300 K–800 K the dependence of B
on temperature is given by

B D a0 C b 0 T C c 0 T 2 C d 0 T 3

where the constants have the values

a0 D 521 cm3 mol 1

0
b D 2:08 cm3 K 1
mol 1

0 3 3 2 1
c D 2:89  10 cm K mol
d 0 D 1:397  10 6
cm3 K 3
mol 1

(a) From information in Prob. 7.12, calculate the standard molar heat capacity at constant
ı
pressure, Cp;m , at T D 400:0 K.
Solution:
ı
Cp;m D a C bT C c=T 2

1 1 3 2 1 8:6  105 J K mol 1

D 44:2 J K mol C .8:8  10 JK mol /.400:0 K/ C
.400:0 K/2
1 1 1 1
D .44:2 C 3:52 5:4/ J K mol D 42:3 J K mol
(b) Estimate the value of Cp;m under the conditions T D 400:0 K and p D 100:0 bar.
Solution:
B D a0 C b 0 T C c 0 T 2 C d 0 T 3
dB
D b 0 C 2c 0 T C 3d 0 T 2
dT
d2 B
D 2c 0 C 6d 0 T
dT 2
3 
3 10 2 m
3 2 1
D 2. 2:89  10 cm K mol /
1 cm
 3
10 2 m
C 6.1:397  10 6 cm3 K 3 mol 1 / .400:0 K/
1 cm

9 9
D . 5:78  10 C 3:35  10 / m3 K 2
mol 1
 32

9
D 2:43  10 m3 K 2
mol 1

ı d2 B
Cp;m Cp;m  pT
dT 2
 
105 Pa 9
D .100:0 bar/ .400:0 K/. 2:43  10 m3 K 2
mol 1
/
1 bar
1 1
D 9:7 J K mol
1 1 1 1
Cp;m  .42:3 C 9:7/ J K mol D 52:0 J K mol
7.14 A chemist, needing to determine the specific heat capacity of a certain liquid but not having an
electrically heated calorimeter at her disposal, used the following simple procedure known as
drop calorimetry. She placed 500:0 g of the liquid in a thermally insulated container equipped
with a lid and a thermometer. After recording the initial temperature of the liquid, 24:80 ı C,
she removed a 60:17-g block of aluminum metal from a boiling water bath at 100:00 ı C and
quickly immersed it in the liquid in the container. After the contents of the container had
become thermally equilibrated, she recorded a final temperature of 27:92 ı C. She calculated
the specific heat capacity Cp =m of the liquid from these data, making use of the molar mass of
aluminum (M D 26:9815 g mol 1 ) and the formula for the molar heat capacity of aluminum
given in Prob. 7.11.
(a) From these data, find the specific heat capacity of the liquid under the assumption that its
value does not vary with temperature. Hint: Treat the temperature equilibration process
as adiabatic and isobaric (H D 0), and equate H to the sum of the enthalpy changes
in the two phases.
Solution:
Enthalpy change of the aluminum block:
Z T2  
m b 2 2
H.Al/ D n Cp;m .Al/ dT D a.T2 T1 / C .T2 T1 /
T1 M 2

60:17 g
D .20:67 J K 1 mol 1 ).301:07 K 373:15 K/
26:9815 g mol 1

1  
C .0:01238 J K 2 mol 1 / .301:07 K/2 .373:15 K/2
2
D 3:993  103 J
Assume that Cp for the liquid is equal to H (l)=T , and equate H (l) to H.Al/:
H (l) 3:993  103 J
Cp (l) D D D 1:280  103 J K 1
T 301:07 K 297:95 K
Specific heat capacity:
Cp (l) 1:280  103 J K 1
1 1
D D 2:56 J K g
m 500:0 g
(b) Show that the value obtained in part (a) is actually an average value of Cp =m over the
temperature range between the initial and final temperatures of the liquid given by
Z T2
.Cp =m/ dT
T1
T2 T1
 33

Solution:
The value in part (a) was calculated from H (l)=.T2 T1 /m. Make the substitution
Z T2
H (l) D Cp dT
T1

and rearrange.
7.15 Suppose a gas has the virial equation of state pVm D RT .1 C Bp p C Cp p 2 /, where Bp and
Cp depend only on T , and higher powers of p can be ignored.
(a) Derive an expression for the fugacity coefficient, , of this gas as a function of p.
Solution:
Z   Z !
p0 p0 1 C Bp p C Cp p 2
Vm 1 1
ln .p 0 / D dp D dp
0 RT p 0 p p
Z p0
D .Bp C Cp p/ dp
0

1
D Bp p 0 C Cp .p 0 /2
2
ln  D Bp p C 12 Cp p 2
(b) For CO2 (g) at 0:00 ı C, the virial coefficients have the values Bp D 6:67  10 3 bar 1

and Cp D 3:4  10 5 bar 2 . Evaluate the fugacity f at 0:00 ı C and p D 20:0 bar.
Solution:
1
ln  D Bp p C Cp p 2
2
1
D . 6:67  10 3
bar 1
/.20:0 bar/ C . 3:4  10 5
bar 2
/.20:0 bar/2
2
D 0:140
f D p D .0:869/.20:0 bar/ D 17:4 bar

Table 5 Molar volume of H2 O(g) at 400:00 ı C a

p=105 Pa Vm =10 3
m3 mol 1
p=105 Pa Vm =10 3
m3 mol 1

1 55:896 100 0:47575

10 5:5231 120 0:37976
20 2:7237 140 0:31020
40 1:3224 160 0:25699
60 0:85374 180 0:21447
80 0:61817 200 0:17918
a based on data in Ref. [75]

7.16 Table 5 lists values of the molar volume of gaseous H2 O at 400:00 ı C and 12 pressures.
(a) Evaluate the fugacity coefficient and fugacity of H2 O(g) at 400:00 ı C and 200 bar.
Solution:
Calculate .Vm =RT 1=p/ at each pressure; see Table 6 on the next page. The values are
 34

Table 6
   
Vm 1 Vm 1 =10
p=105 Pa RT p =10
8
Pa 1
p=105 Pa RT p
8
Pa 1

1 1:302 100 1:4997

10 1:318 120 1:5481
20 1:335 140 1:6005
40 1:374 160 1:6583
60 1:413 180 1:7236
80 1:455 200 1:7986

1:2
bc
1:3 bc
bc
1

bc
1:4
Pa

bc

bc
8

bc
1:5
=10

bc


bc
1:6
p
1

bc
RT

1:7
Vm

bc


bc
1:8

1:9
0 50 100 150 200
p=105 Pa

Figure 10

plotted in Fig. 10. Extrapolate these values to p D 0:

 
Vm 1
lim D 1:300  10 8 Pa 1
p!0 RT p
Use numerical integration to find the area under the curve:
Z 200 bar  
Vm 1
ln  D dp D 0:3031
0 RT p
 D 0:739 f D p D .0:739/.200 bar/ D 148 bar
(b) Show that the second virial coefficient B in the virial equation of state, pVm D RT .1 C
B=Vm C C =Vm2 C


/, is given by
 
Vm 1
B D RT lim
p!0 RT p

where the limit is taken at constant T . Then evaluate B for H2 O(g) at 400:00 ı C.
Solution:
pVm D RT .1 C B=Vm C C =Vm2 C


/
   
Vm 1 1 1 1
D .1 C B=Vm C C =Vm2 C


/ D .B=Vm C C =Vm2 C


/
RT p p p p
 35

B=Vm C C =Vm2 C



D
.RT =Vm /.1 C B=Vm C C =Vm2 C


/
 
1 B C C =Vm C



D
RT 1 C B=Vm C C =Vm2 C


/
As p approaches 0, 1=Vm also approaches zero and the preceding expression approaches
B=RT . Thus, B is the product of RT and the limiting value of the expression.
From Prob. 7.16(a), the value of B for H2 O(g) at 400:00 ı C is
1 1 8 1
B D .8:3145 J K mol /.673:15 K/. 1:300  10 Pa /
5
D 7:28  10 m3 mol 1
 36

Chapter 8 Phase Transitions and Equilibria of Pure Substances

8.1 Consider the system described in Sec. 8.1.5 containing a spherical liquid droplet of radius r
surrounded by pure vapor. Starting with Eq. 8.1.15, find an expression for the total differential
of U . Then impose conditions of isolation and show that the equilibrium conditions are T g D
T l , g D l , and p l D p g C 2 =r, where is the surface tension.

Solution:
Internal energy change without constraints (Eq. 8.1.15):
dU D T l dS l p l dV l C l dnl C T g dS g p g dV g C g dng C dAs
Because the system boundary contacts only the vapor phase, the constraint for no work is
p g d.V l C V g / D 0.
V l D .4=3/ r 3 As D 4 r 2
From the constraints dV l D 4 r 2 dr and dAs D 8 r dr, obtain dAs D .2=r/ dV l .
Conditions for an isolated system: dU D 0, p g dV g D p g dV l , dng D dnl .
After substitution in the expression for dU :
0 D T l dS l C T g dS g .p l pg 2 =r/ dV l C .l g / dnl
Substitute dS l D dS dS g and solve for dS :
.T l T g/ .p l p g 2 =r/ .l g /
dS D dS g C dV l dnl
Tl Tl Tl
This is the total differential of S in the isolated system with S g , V l , and nl as independent
variables. In the equilibrium state, dS is zero for each independent change:
2
Tg D Tl g D l pl D pg C
r
8.2 This problem concerns diethyl ether at T D 298:15 K. At this temperature, the standard molar
entropy of the gas calculated from spectroscopic data is Smı (g) D 342:2 J K 1 mol 1 . The
saturation vapor pressure of the liquid at this temperature is 0:6691 bar, and the molar enthalpy
of vaporization is vap H D 27:10 kJ mol 1 . The second virial coefficient of the gas at this
temperature has the value B D 1:227  10 3 m3 mol 1 , and its variation with temperature is
given by dB= dT D 1:50  10 5 m3 K 1 mol 1 .
(a) Use these data to calculate the standard molar entropy of liquid diethyl ether at 298:15 K.
A small pressure change has a negligible effect on the molar entropy of a liquid, so that it
is a good approximation to equate Smı (l) to Sm (l) at the saturation vapor pressure.
Solution:
Gas at p D 0:6691 bar (from Table 7.5):
p dB
Sm (g) Smı (g)  R ln p
pı dT
1 1 1 1
D 342:2 J K mol .8:3145 J K mol / ln.0:6691/
.0:6691  105 Pa/.1:50  10 5
m3 K 1
mol 1
/
1 1
D 344:5 J K mol
Molar entropy of reversible vaporization at p D 0:6691 bar:
 37

vap H 27:10  103 J mol 1 1 1

vap S D D D 90:9 J K mol
T 298:15 K
Standard molar entropy of liquid diethyl ether:
Smı (l) D Sm (g) ŒSm (g) Sm (l) C ŒSmı (l) Sm (l)
1 1 1 1
 Sm (g) vap S D .344:5 90:9/ J K mol D 253:6 J K mol
(b) Calculate the standard molar entropy of vaporization and the standard molar enthalpy of
vaporization of diethyl ether at 298:15 K. It is a good approximation to equate Hmı (l) to
Hm (l) at the saturation vapor pressure.
Solution:
vap S ı D Smı (g) Smı (l) D .342:2 253:6/ J K 1
mol 1
D 88:6 J K 1
mol 1

Gas at p D 0:6691 bar (from Table 7.5):

 
dB
Hm (g) Hmı (g)  p B T
dT
D .0:6691  105 Pa/Œ. 1:227  10 3
m3 mol 1
/
5 3 1 1
.298:15 K/.1:50  10 m K mol /
1
D 381:3 J mol
vap H ı D Hmı (g) Hmı (l)
D ŒHm (g) Hm (l) ŒHm (g) Hmı (g) C ŒHm (l) Hmı (l)
 vap H ŒHm (g) Hmı (g)
D .27:10  103 C 381:3/ J mol 1
D 2:748  104 J mol 1

8.3 Explain why the chemical potential surfaces shown in Fig. 8.12 are concave downward; that
is, why .@=@T /p becomes more negative with increasing T and .@=@p/T becomes less
positive with increasing p.

Solution:
The partial derivatives are given by Eqs. 7.8.3 and 7.8.4:
   
@ @
D Sm D Vm
@T p @p T
Since Sm increases with increasing T at constant p (.@S=@T /p D Cp =T ), and molar volume
decreases with increasing p at constant T , both partial derivatives are negative.

8.4 Potassium has a standard boiling point of 773 ı C and a molar enthalpy of vaporization vap H D
84:9 kJ mol 1 . Estimate the saturation vapor pressure of liquid potassium at 400: ı C.

Solution:
   
p vap H 1 1 84:9  103 J mol 1
1 1
ln 2  D D 5:41
p1 R T2 T1 8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 673 K 1046 K
3 3 3
p2 =p1 D 4:5  10 p2 D .4:5  10 /.1 bar/ D 4:5  10 bar

8.5 Naphthalene has a melting point of 78:2 ı C at 1 bar and 81:7 ı C at 100 bar. The molar volume
change on melting is fus V D 0:019 cm3 mol 1 . Calculate the molar enthalpy of fusion to
two significant figures.
 38

Solution:
Rearrange Eq. 8.4.8:
fus V .p2 p1 /
fus H 
ln.T2 =T1 /
.0:019 cm3 mol 1 /.10 2 m=cm/3 .100 1/105 Pa 1
D D 19 J mol
ln.354:9 K=351:4 K/
8.6 The dependence of the vapor pressure of a liquid on temperature, over a limited temperature
range, is often represented by the Antoine equation, log10 .p=Torr/ D A B=.t C C /, where
t is the Celsius temperature and A, B, and C are constants determined by experiment. A
variation of this equation, using a natural logarithm and the thermodynamic temperature, is
b
ln.p=bar/ D a
T Cc
The vapor pressure of liquid benzene at temperatures close to 298 K is adequately represented
by the preceding equation with the following values of the constants:
a D 9:25092 b D 2771:233 K cD 53:262 K
(a) Find the standard boiling point of benzene.
Solution:
Solve the equation for T and set p equal to 1 bar:
b 2771:233 K
T D cD 53:262 K D 352:82 K
a ln.p=bar/ 9:25092 ln.1/
(b) Use the Clausius–Clapeyron equation to evaluate the molar enthalpy of vaporization of
benzene at 298:15 K.

Solution:
Rearrange Eq. 8.4.13 to
 
d ln.p=p ı / b
trs H  RT 2 D RT 2 D 3:4154  104 J mol 1
dT .T C c/2
8.7 At a pressure of one atmosphere, water and steam are in equilibrium at 99:97 ı C (the normal
boiling point of water). At this pressure and temperature, the water density is 0:958 g cm 3 , the
steam density is 5:98  10 4 g cm 3 , and the molar enthalpy of vaporization is 40:66 kJ mol 1 .
(a) Use the Clapeyron equation to calculate the slope dp= dT of the liquid–gas coexistence
curve at this point.
Solution:
 
1 1 1
vap V D .18:0153 g mol /
5:98  10 4 g cm 3 0:958 g cm 3
D 3:011  104 cm3 mol 1

p vap H 40:66  103 J mol 1

D D D 3:62  103 Pa K 1
T Tvap V .373:13 K/.3:011  10 2 m3 mol 1
/
(b) Repeat the calculation using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
Solution:
p vap Hp .40:66  103 J mol 1 /.1:01325  105 Pa/
 D D 3:56  103 Pa K 1
T RT 2 .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.373:13 K/2
 39

(c) Use your results to estimate the standard boiling point of water. (Note: The experimental
value is 99:61 ı C.)
Solution:
p2 p1
Tvap .p2 /  Tvap .p1 / C
dp= dT
Use the value of dp= dT from the Clapeyron equation, which is more accurate:
.1 1:01325/  105 Pa
Tvap .1 bar/  373:12 K C D 373:12 K 0:366 K
3:62  103 Pa K 1
D 372:75 K (99:60 ı C)
8.8 At the standard pressure of 1 bar, liquid and gaseous H2 O coexist in equilibrium at 372:76 K,
the standard boiling point of water.
(a) Do you expect the standard molar enthalpy of vaporization to have the same value as the
molar enthalpy of vaporization at this temperature? Explain.
Solution:
The values of vap H ı and vap H are different because the standard state of a gas is the
hypothetical ideal gas at the standard pressure, which is not the same as the real gas at
the standard pressure.
(b) The molar enthalpy of vaporization at 372:76 K has the value vap H D 40:67 kJ mol 1 .
Estimate the value of vap H ı at this temperature with the help of Table 7.5 and the fol-
lowing data for the second virial coefficient of gaseous H2 O at 372:76 K:
4
BD 4:60  10 m3 mol 1
dB= dT D 3:4  10 6
m3 K 1
mol 1

Solution:
 
dB
Hm (g)  Hmı (g) Cp B T
dT

D Hmı (g) C .1  105 Pa/ . 4:60  10 m3 mol 4 1
/

.372:76 K/.3:4  10 6 m3 K 1 mol 1 /
D Hmı (g) 1:73  102 J mol 1

vap H ı D vap H C Hmı (g) Hm (g) D 40:67  103 J mol 1

C 1:73  102 J mol 1

D 4:084  104 J mol 1

(c) Would you expect the values of fus H and fus H ı to be equal at the standard freezing
point of water? Explain.
Solution:
Yes, because the standard states of the solid and liquid are the same as the real coexisting
phases at the standard pressure.
8.9 The standard boiling point of H2 O is 99:61 ı C. The molar enthalpy of vaporization at this
temperature is vap H D 40:67 kJ mol 1 . The molar heat capacity of the liquid at temperatures
close to this value is given by
Cp;m D a C b.t c/
where t is the Celsius temperature and the constants have the values
1 1 2 1
a D 75:94 J K mol b D 0:022 J K mol c D 99:61 ı C
 40

Suppose 100:00 mol of liquid H2 O is placed in a container maintained at a constant pressure

of 1 bar, and is carefully heated to a temperature 5:00 ı C above the standard boiling point, re-
sulting in an unstable phase of superheated water. If the container is enclosed with an adiabatic
boundary and the system subsequently changes spontaneously to an equilibrium state, what
amount of water will vaporize? (Hint: The temperature will drop to the standard boiling point,
and the enthalpy change will be zero.)

Solution:
The enthalpy change for the process is the same as the enthalpy change when the water is
cooled to 99:61 ı C and vaporization then takes place reversibly:
Z t2
H D 0 D n Cp;m dt C ng vap H
t1
Z t2
n Cp;m dt
g t1
n D
vap H
Write x D t c, Cp;m D a C bx:
Z x2
n .a C bx/ dx  
g x1 n a.x2 x1 / C .b=2/.x22 x12 /
n D D
vap H vap H
 
.100:00 mol/ .75:94 J K 1 mol 1 /. 5:00 K/ C .0:022 J K 2
mol 1
/. 5:00 K/2 =2
D
4:067  104 J mol 1
D 0:93 mol
 41

Chapter 9 Mixtures

9.1 For a binary solution, find expressions for the mole fractions xB and xA as functions of the
solute molality mB .

Solution:
Equate the expressions for nB =nA in Eqs. 9.1.9 and 9.1.12 and solve for xB :
xB MA mB
D MA mB xB D
1 xB 1 C MA mB
Find xA :
1
xA D 1 xB D
1 C MA mB
9.2 Consider a binary mixture of two liquids, A and B. The molar volume of mixing, V (mix)=n,
is given by Eq. 9.2.19.
(a) Find a formula for calculating the value of V (mix)=n of a binary mixture from values
of xA , xB , MA , MB , , A , and B .
Solution:
V (mix)=n D V =n xA VA xB VB
Make the following substitutions:
V D m= D .nA MA C nB MB /= VA D MA =A VB D MB =B
The result is
nA MA C nB MB xA MA xB MB x M C xB MB xA MA xB MB
V (mix)=n D D A A
n A B
 A B

Table 7 Molar volumes of mixing of binary mixtures of 1-hexanol (A) and

1-octene (B) at 25 ı C. a

xB ŒV (mix)=n=cm3 mol 1

xB ŒV (mix)=n=cm3 mol 1

0 0 0:555 0:005
0:049 0:027 0:597 0:011
0:097 0:050 0:702 0:029
0:146 0:063 0:716 0:035
0:199 0:077 0:751 0:048
0:235 0:073 0:803 0:056
0:284 0:074 0:846 0:058
0:343 0:065 0:897 0:057
0:388 0:053 0:944 0:049
0:448 0:032 1 0
0:491 0:016

a Ref. [170].

(b) The molar volumes of mixing for liquid binary mixtures of 1-hexanol (A) and 1-octene
(B) at 25 ı C have been calculated from their measured densities. The data are in Table
7. The molar volumes of the pure constituents are VA D 125:31 cm3 mol 1 and VB D
 42

157:85 cm3 mol 1 . Use the method of intercepts to estimate the partial molar volumes of
both constituents in an equimolar mixture (xA D xB D 0:5), and the partial molar volume
VB1 of B at infinite dilution.
Solution:
The experimental points are shown as filled circles in Fig. 11.

0:10

1
b b b

ŒV .mix/=n=cm3 mol 0:05 b b

b
b

b
b
b b
0
b bc
b
b

b
0:05 b
b b
b b
b

0:10
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
xB

Figure 11 Molar volume of mixing as a function of xB .

The dashed line is an estimated tangent to a curve through the experimental points at the
point shown by the open circle at xB D 0:5; V (mix)=n D 0:013 cm3 mol 1 . The
slope of the line is 0:34 cm3 mol 1 . Represent the line by y D axB C b and find
a D 0:34 cm3 mol 1 and b D 0:18 cm3 mol 1 . The intercepts are
y D 0:18 cm3 mol 1 at xB D 0 and y D 0:16 cm3 mol 1 at xB D1. The partial molar
volumes are therefore
VA .xB D 0:5/  .125:31 0:18/ cm3 mol 1
D 125:13 cm3 mol 1

VB .xB D 0:5/  .157:85 C 0:16/ cm3 mol 1

D 158:01 cm3 mol 1

The dotted line in Fig. 11 is an estimated tangent to a curve through the experimental
points at xB D 0. The slope of this line is 0:70 cm3 mol 1 ; this is also the value of the
intercept at xB D1. Therefore
VB1  .157:85 0:70/ cm3 mol 1
D 157:15 cm3 mol 1

9.3 Extend the derivation of Prob. 8.1, concerning a liquid droplet of radius r suspended in a gas,
to the case in which the liquid and gas are both mixtures. Show that the equilibrium conditions
g
are T g D T l , i D li (for each species i that can equilibrate between the two phases), and
l g
p D p C2 =r, where is the surface tension. (As in Prob. 8.1, the last relation is the Laplace
equation.)

Solution:
The derivation is like that of Prob. 8.1, with the total differential of U given by
X X g g
dU D T l dS l p l dV l C li dnli C T g dS g p g dV g C i dni C dAs
i i

and the conditions for an isolated system given by

 43

g
dU D 0 dV g D dV l dni D dnli for each species i
The result is the total differential
.T l T g/ .p l p g 2 =r/ 1 X l g
dS D dS g C dV l .i i / dnli
Tl Tl Tl
i

The equilibrium conditions are the ones that make the coefficient of each term zero.

9.4 Consider a gaseous mixture of 4:0000  10 2 mol of N2 (A) and 4:0000  10 2 mol of CO2
(B) in a volume of 1:0000  10 3 m3 at a temperature of 298:15 K. The second virial coeffi-
cients at this temperature have the values3
6
BAA D 4:8  10 m3 mol 1

6
BBB D 124:5  10 m3 mol 1

6 3 1
BAB D 47:5  10 m mol

Compare the pressure of the real gas mixture with that predicted by the ideal gas equation. See
Eqs. 9.3.20 and 9.3.23.

Solution:
The composition is given by yA D 0:50000, yB D 0:50000.
Real gas:
3
1:0000  10 m3 2
V =n D 2
D 1:2500  10 m3 mol 1
8:0000  10 mol
B D yA2 BAA C 2yA yB BAB C yB2 BBB D 56:1  10 6 m3 mol 1
 
1 B
p D RT C D 1:9743  105 Pa D 1:9743 bar
V =n .V =n/2
Ideal gas: p D nRT =V D 1:9832 Pa D 1:9832 bar
The real gas mixture has a slightly lower pressure than the ideal gas at the same temperature
and volume, due to attractive forces between the molecules.

9.5 At 25 ı C and 1 bar, the Henry’s law constants of nitrogen and oxygen dissolved in water are
kH,N2 D 8:64  104 bar and kH,O2 D 4:41  104 bar.4 The vapor pressure of water at this
temperature and pressure is pH2 O D 0:032 bar. Assume that dry air contains only N2 and
O2 at mole fractions yN2 D 0:788 and yO2 D 0:212. Consider liquid–gas systems formed by
equilibrating liquid water and air at 25 ı C and 1:000 bar, and assume that the gas phase behaves
as an ideal gas mixture.
Hint: The sum of the partial pressures of N2 and O2 must be .1:000 0:032/ bar D 0:968 bar.
If the volume of one of the phases is much larger than that of the other, then almost all of the
N2 and O2 will be in the predominant phase and the ratio of their amounts in this phase must
be practically the same as in dry air.
Determine the mole fractions of N2 and O2 in both phases in the following limiting cases:
(a) A large volume of air is equilibrated with just enough water to leave a small drop of liquid.
Solution:
Assume that the amounts of N2 and O2 in the gas phase are in the same ratio as in dry air:
nN2 0:788
D D 3:72
nO2 0:212

3 Refs. [3], [49], and [50]. 4 Ref. [184].

 44

pN2 yN2 p .nN2 =n/p

D D D 3:72
pO2 yO2 p .nO2 =n/p
Solve simultaneously with pN2 C pO2 D 0:968 bar:
pN2 D 0:763 bar, pO2 D 0:205 bar
Calculate compositions in gas and liquid phases:
yN2 D pN2 =p D 0:763, yO2 D pO2 =p D 0:205
xN2 D pN2 =kH,N2 D 0:763 bar=8:64  104 bar D 8:83  10 6

xO2 D pO2 =kH,O2 D 0:205 bar=4:41  104 bar D 4:65  10 6

(b) A large volume of water is equilibrated with just enough air to leave a small bubble of
gas.
Solution:
Assume that the amounts of N2 and O2 in the liquid phase are in the same ratio as in dry
air:
xN2 nN 0:788
D 2 D D 3:72
xO2 nO2 0:212
 
pN2 kH,N2 xN2 8:64  104 bar
D D .3:72/ D 7:29
pO2 kH,O2 xO2 4:41  104 bar
Solve simultaneously with pN2 C pO2 D 0:968 bar:
pN2 D 0:851 bar, pO2 D 0:117 bar
Calculate compositions in gas and liquid phases:
yN2 D pN2 =p D 0:851, yO2 D pO2 =p D 0:117
xN2 D pN2 =kH,N2 D 0:851 bar=8:64  104 bar D 9:85  10 6

xO2 D pO2 =kH,O2 D 0:117 bar=4:41  104 bar D 2:65  10 6

9.6 Derive the expression for m;B given in Table 9.4, starting with Eq. 9.5.18.

Solution:
Equate the expression for m;B from Eq. 9.5.18 and the expression for B in the equilibrated
gas phase:
 mB 
ref ref
m;B C RT ln m;B ı D B (g) C RT ln .fB =p/
m
Solve for m;B :
" #
ref
B (g) ref
m;B mı fB
m;B D exp 
RT mB p

On the right side of this expression, only fB and mB depend on the solution composition:
fB
m;B D Cm;B
mB
where Cm;B is independent of mB .
Solve for Cm;B :
 45

m;B mB
Cm;B D
fB
In the limit as mB approaches zero at constant T and p, m;B approaches 1 and fB =mB
approaches km;B . Evaluate Cm;B in this limit:
mB 1
Cm;B D lim m;B D
mB !0 fB km;B
With this value for Cm;B , the activity coefficient is given by
fB
m;B D
km;B mB

9.7 Consider a nonideal binary gas mixture with the simple equation of state V D nRT =p C nB
(Eq. 9.3.21).
(a) The rule of Lewis and Randall states that the value of the mixed second virial coefficient
BAB is the average of BAA and BBB . Show that when this rule holds, the fugacity coef-
ficient of A in a binary gas mixture of any composition is given by ln A D BAA p=RT .
By comparing this expression with Eq. 7.8.18 for a pure gas, express the fugacity of A in
the mixture as a function of the fugacity of pure A at the same temperature and pressure
as the mixture.
Solution:
If BAB is equal to .BAA C BBB /=2, Eq. 9.3.27 gives BA0 D BAA , and Eq. 9.3.29 becomes
BAA p
ln A D
RT
Comparing the expression with Eq. 7.8.18 for a pure gas, ln   Bp=RT , we see that
the fugacity coefficient of A in the mixture is equal to the fugacity coefficient of pure A
at the same T and p:
A D fA =pA D fA =p
Therefore, according to the rule of Lewis and Randall the fugacity of A is given by
fA D .pA =p/fA D yA fA
(b) The rule of Lewis and Randall is not accurately obeyed when constituents A and B are
chemically dissimilar. For example, at 298:15 K, the second virial coefficients of H2 O
(A) and N2 (B) are BAA D 1158 cm3 mol 1 and BBB D 5 cm3 mol 1 , respectively,
whereas the mixed second virial coefficient is BAB D 40 cm3 mol 1 .
When liquid water is equilibrated with nitrogen at 298:15 K and 1 bar, the partial pressure
of H2 O in the gas phase is pA D 0:03185 bar. Use the given values of BAA , BBB , and
BAB to calculate the fugacity of the gaseous H2 O in this binary mixture. Compare this
fugacity with the fugacity calculated with the value of BAB predicted by the rule of Lewis
and Randall.
Solution:
The gas-phase composition is yA D pA =p D 0:03185, yB D 1 yA D 0:96815. Using
the values of BAA , BBB , and BAB given in the problem, and Eq. 9.3.27:
BA0 D 143 cm3 mol 1

Then from Eq. 9.3.29:

BA0 p . 143 cm3 mol 1 /.10 2 m=cm/3 .1  105 Pa/
ln A D D D 0:00576
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
 46

A D 0:99425, fA D A pA D .0:99425/.0:03185 bar/ D 0:03167 bar

Using BAB D .BAA C BBB /=2 D 581:5 cm3 mol 1
:
BA0 D BAA D 3
1158 cm mol 1
, fA D 0:03040 bar

Table 8 Activity coefficient of ben-

zene (A) in mixtures of benzene and
1-octanol at 20 ı C. The reference state
is the pure liquid.

xA A xA A
0 2:0 a 0:7631 1:183
0:1334 1:915 0:8474 1:101
0:2381 1:809 0:9174 1:046
0:4131 1:594 0:9782 1:005
0:5805 1:370
a extrapolated

9.8 Benzene and 1-octanol are two liquids that mix in all proportions. Benzene has a measurable
vapor pressure, whereas 1-octanol is practically nonvolatile. The data in Table 8 were obtained
by Platford5 using the isopiestic vapor pressure method.
(a) Use numerical integration to evaluate the integral on the right side of Eq. 9.6.10 at each
of the values of xA listed in the table, and thus find B at these compositions.
Solution:

Table 9 Calculations for Problem 9.8

R xA xA
xA ln B D x D0 x d ln A B A xA B xB
A B

0 0 1 0 1
0:1334 0:0033 1:003 0:255 0:869
0:2381 0:0166 1:017 0:431 0:775
0:4131 0:0809 1:084 0:658 0:636
0:5805 0:2389 1:270 0:796 0:533
0:7631 0:5767 1:780 0:903 0:422
0:8474 0:8921 2:440 0:933 0:372
0:9174 1:3188 3:739 0:960 0:309
0:9782 2:438 11:45 0:983 0:250
1 1 0

The values in column 2 of Table 9 were calculated by the trapezoidal rule. The resulting
values of B are listed in column 3 of this table.
(b) Draw two curves on the same graph showing the effective mole fractions A xA and B xB
as functions of xA . Are the deviations from ideal-mixture behavior positive or negative?
Solution:
The values listed in the last two columns of Table 9 are plotted in Fig. 12 on the next
page. The deviations from ideal-mixture behavior are positive.

5 Ref. [145].
 47

ut bc
1:0 bc
bc
bc
bc
ut

bc
0:8 ut

bc

A xA and B xB
ut

0:6
ut

bc ut
0:4 A xA B xB ut

ut

bc ut

0:2

bc ut
0
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
xA

Figure 12 Results for Problem 9.8(b).

Table 10 Liquid and gas compositions in the two-phase sys-

tem of methanol (A) and benzene (B) at 45 ı C a

xA yA p=kPa xA yA p=kPa
0 0 29:894 0:4201 0:5590 60:015
0:0207 0:2794 40:962 0:5420 0:5783 60:416
0:0314 0:3391 44:231 0:6164 0:5908 60:416
0:0431 0:3794 46:832 0:7259 0:6216 59:868
0:0613 0:4306 50:488 0:8171 0:6681 58:321
0:0854 0:4642 53:224 0:9033 0:7525 54:692
0:1811 0:5171 57:454 0:9497 0:8368 51:009
0:3217 0:5450 59:402 1 1 44:608
a Ref. [169].

9.9 Table 10 lists measured values of gas-phase composition and total pressure for the binary
two-phase methanol–benzene system at constant temperature and varied liquid-phase com-
position. xA is the mole fraction of methanol in the liquid mixture, and yA is the mole fraction
of methanol in the equilibrated gas phase.
(a) For each of the 16 different liquid-phase compositions, tabulate the partial pressures of A
and B in the equilibrated gas phase.
Solution:
Calculate the partial pressures with the relations
pA D yA p
pB D p pA
The values are tabulated in columns 2 and 3 of Table 11 on the next page.
(b) Plot pA and pB versus xA on the same graph. Notice that the behavior of the mixture is far
 48

Table 11 Calculations for Problem 9.9

xA pA =kPa pB =kPa B xA pA =kPa pB =kPa B

0 0 29:894 1 0:4201 33:55 26:47 1:527
0:0207 11:44 29:52 1:008 0:5420 34:94 25:48 1:861
0:0314 15:00 29:23 1:009 0:6164 35:69 24:73 2:157
0:0431 17:77 29:06 1:016 0:7259 37:21 22:66 2:765
0:0613 21:74 28:75 1:025 0:8171 38:96 19:36 3:541
0:0854 24:71 28:51 1:043 0:9033 41:15 13:54 4:68
0:1811 29:71 27:74 1:133 0:9497 42:68 8:33 5:54
0:3217 32:37 27:03 1:333 1 44:608 0

from that of an ideal mixture. Are the deviations from Raoult’s law positive or negative?
Solution:
See Fig. 13. The deviations from Raoult’s law are positive.

50
bc
bc
bc
40 bc
bc
bc
bc
pA =kPa and pB =kPa

bc
bc
ut ut
30 ut ut tu
tu
bc
ut
ut ut
ut
bc ut
ut
bc

20 bc
ut

bc pA pB ut
bc
10 ut

bc ut
0
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
xA

Figure 13 Results for Problem 9.9.

(c) Tabulate and plot the activity coefficient B of the benzene as a function of xA using a
pure-liquid reference state. Assume that the fugacity fB is equal to pB , and ignore the
effects of variable pressure.
Solution:
Calculate the activity coefficient with the relation
pB
B D
xB pB
where the vapor pressure of pure benzene is pB D 29:894 kPa. The calculated values are
in the last column of Table 11 and are plotted in Fig. 14 on the next page. Note how B
approaches 1 as xA approaches zero.
(d) Estimate the Henry’s law constant kH,A of methanol in the benzene environment at 45 ı C
by the graphical method suggested in Fig. 9.7(b). Again assume that fA and pA are equal,
 49

6
bc

5 bc

4
bc

B
3 bc

bc
2 bc
bc
bc
bc
bc bc bc bc bc bc
1

0
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
xA

Figure 14 Activity coefficient of benzene in liquid methanol–benzene mixtures.

and ignore the effects of variable pressure.

Solution:
See Fig. 15. Based on the first three points, the extrapolation of pA =xA to xA D 0 gives a
value of kH,A  680 kPa.

700

600
.pA =xA /=kPa

bc

500
bc

bc
400
bc

300
0 0:02 0:04 0:06 0.08
xA

Figure 15 Estimate of the Henry’s law constant of methanol in benzene.

9.10 Consider a dilute binary nonelectrolyte solution in which the dependence of the chemical po-
tential of solute B on composition is given by
mB
B D ref
m;B C RT ln C km mB
mı
where ref
m;B and km are constants at a given T and p. (The derivation of this equation is
sketched in Sec. 9.5.4.) Use the Gibbs–Duhem equation in the form dA D .nB =nA / dB to
obtain an expression for A A as a function of mB in this solution.
 50

Solution:
Make the substitutions nB =nA D MA mB (Eq. 9.1.12) and dB D .RT =mB C km / dmB , and
integrate from pure solvent to solution of molality mB :
Z 0A Z m0B  
RT
dA D MA mB C km dmB
A 0 mB
1
0A A D MA RT m0B 2
MA km .m0B /2
1
A A D MA RT mB 2
MA km m2B
9.11 By means of the isopiestic vapor pressure technique, the osmotic coefficients of aqueous so-
lutions of urea at 25 ı C have been measured at molalities up to the saturation limit of about
20 mol kg 1 .6 The experimental values are closely approximated by the function
0:050 mB =mı
m D 1:00
1:00 C 0:179 mB =mı
where mı is 1 mol kg 1 . Calculate values of the solvent and solute activity coefficients A
and m;B at various molalities in the range 0–20 mol kg 1 , and plot them versus mB =mı . Use
enough points to be able to see the shapes of the curves. What are the limiting slopes of these
curves as mB approaches zero?
Solution:
Substitute the expression for A given by Eq. 9.5.15 into Eq. 9.6.16 and solve for ln A :
ln A D ln xA m MA mB
Values of xA can be found from mB with the formula derived in Prob. 9.1:
1
xA D
1 C MA mB
m;B is found from Eq. 9.6.20:
Z m0B
0 m 1
ln m;B .mB / D m 1 C dmB
0 mB
Z m0B =mı
0:050m0B =mı 0:050
D 0 ı
d.mB =mı /
1:00 C 0:179mB =m 0 1:00 C 0:179mB =mı
0:050m0B =mı
D 0:50 ln.1:00 C 0:179m0B =mı /
1:00 C 0:179m0B =mı
See Fig. 16 on the next page for the curves plotted from values calculated with these
formulas. The limiting slopes are d A = d.mB =mı / D 0 and d m;B = d.mB =mı / D 0:09.
9.12 Use Eq. 9.2.49 to derive an expression for the rate at which the logarithm of the activity coef-
ficient of component i of a liquid mixture changes with pressure at constant temperature and
composition: .@ ln i =@p/T;fnig D‹
Solution:
i D ref
i C RT ln. i xi / RT ln i D i ref
i RT ln xi
    !
@RT ln i @i @ref
i
D D Vi Vi
@p T;fnig @p T;fnig @p
T;fnig

6 Ref. [160].
 51

1:03 1:2

1:02 1:0

m;B
1:01 0:8
A

1:00 0:6

0:99 0:4
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
mB =mı mB =mı
(a) (b)

Figure 16 Activity coefficients in aqueous urea solutions at 25 ı C.

 
@ ln i Vi Vi
D
@p T;fnig RT

9.13 Assume that at sea level the atmosphere has a pressure of 1:00 bar and a composition given by
yN2 D 0:788 and yO2 D 0:212. Find the partial pressures and mole fractions of N2 and O2 ,
and the total pressure, at an altitude of 10:0 km, making the (drastic) approximation that the
atmosphere is an ideal gas mixture in an equilibrium state at 0 ı C. For g use the value of the
standard acceleration of free fall listed in Appendix B.

Solution:
Partial pressures at sea level:
pN2 D yN2 p D .0:788/.1:00 bar/ D 0:788 bar
pO2 D yO2 p D .0:212/.1:00 bar/ D 0:212 bar

Calculate the partial pressures at elevation h with the equation pi .h/ D pi .0/e Mi gh=RT
(Sec. 9.8.1):
 
.28:01  10 3 kg mol 1 /.9:806 65 m s 2 /.10:0  103 m/
pN2 D .0:788 bar/ exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.273:15 K/
D 0:235 bar
 
.32:00  10 3 kg mol 1 /.9:806 65 m s 2 /.10:0  103 m/
pO2 D .0:212 bar/ exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.273:15 K/
D 0:0532 bar
The total pressure and mole fractions are found from
p D pN2 C pO2 D 0:288 bar
yN2 D pN2 =p D 0:815 yO2 D pO2 =p D 0:185
The composition of the mixture has shifted toward a higher mole fraction of N2 at the higher
elevation, because of the lower molar mass of N2 .

9.14 Consider a tall column of a dilute binary liquid solution at equilibrium in a gravitational field.
 52

(a) Derive an expression for ln Œ cB .h/=cB .0/ , where cB .h/ and cB .0/ are the solute concen-
trations at elevations h and 0. Your expression should be a function of h, MB , T , , and
the partial specific volume of the solute at infinite dilution, vB1 . For the dependence of
pressure on elevation, you may use the hydrostatic formula dp D g dh (Eq. 8.1.14 on
page 200) and assume the solution density  is the same at all elevations. Hint: use the
derivation leading to Eq. 9.8.22 as a guide.
Solution:
Only an outline of the derivation is given here. Students should be expected to provide a
more complete explanation of the various steps.
Using dp D g dh:
Z h
p.h/ p.0/ D g dh D gh
0

Reversible elevation of small sample of mass m:

¶w 0 D mg dh D .nA MA C nB MB /g dh
dG D S dT C V dp C A dnA C B dnB C .nA MA C nB MB /g dh
   
@B @.nA MA C nB MB /g
D D MB g
@h T;p;nA ;nB @nB T;p;nA ;h

B .h/ D B .0/ C MB gh (ac;B .h/ D ac;B .0/ )

General relation:
B .h/ D ıc;B C RT ln ac;B .h/ C MB gh
At equilibrium:
B .h/ D B .0/
ıc;B C RT ln ac;B .h/ C MB gh D ıc;B C RT ln ac;B .0/
ac;B .h/ MB gh
ln D
ac;B .0/ RT
 
ı VB1 .p p ı / cB
ac;B D c;B c;B cB =c  exp
RT cı
ac;B .h/ V 1 Œp.h/ p.0/ c .h/
ln D B C ln B
ac;B .0/ RT cB .0/
VB1 gh c .h/ MB vB1 gh c .h/
D C ln B D C ln B
RT cB .0/ RT cB .0/
Equate the two expressions for lnŒac;B .h/=ac;B .0/:


cB .h/ MB gh 1 vB1 
ln D
cB .0/ RT
(b) Suppose you have a tall vessel containing a dilute solution of a macromolecule solute of
molar mass MB D 10:0 kg mol 1 and partial specific volume vB1 D 0:78 cm3 g 1 . The
solution density is  D 1:00 g cm 3 and the temperature is T D 300 K. Find the height h
from the bottom of the vessel at which, in the equilibrium state, the concentration cB has
decreased to 99 percent of the concentration at the bottom.
 53

0:5

0:5

ln A
1:0

1:5

2:0

2:5
48 49 50 51 52
r 2 /cm2

Figure 17 Sedimentation equilibrium of a dilute solution of the FhuA-dodecyl mal-

toside aggregate.

Solution:


c .h/ MB gh 1 vB1 
ln B D ln 0:99 D
cB .0/ RT
vB1  D .0:78 cm3 g 1
/.1:00 g cm 3
/ D 0:78
RT ln 0:99 .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.300 K/.ln 0:99/
hD
D D 1:2 m
MB g 1 vB1  .10:0 kg mol 1 /.9:81 m s 2 /.0:22/

9.15 FhuA is a protein found in the outer membrane of the Escherichia coli bacterium. From the
known amino acid sequence, its molar mass is calculated to be 78:804 kg mol 1 . In aqueous
solution, molecules of the detergent dodecyl maltoside bind to a FhuA molecule to form an
aggregate that behaves as a single solute species. Figure 17 shows data collected in a sedi-
mentation equilibrium experiment with a dilute solution of the aggregate.7 In the graph, A is
the absorbance measured at a wavelength of 280 nm (a property that is a linear function of the
aggregate concentration) and r is the radial distance from the axis of rotation of the centrifuge
rotor. The experimental points fall very close to the straight line shown in the graph. The
sedimentation conditions were ! D 838 s 1 and T D 293 K. The authors used the values
vB1 D 0:776 cm3 g 1 and  D 1:004 g cm 3 .
(a) The values of r at which the absorbance was measured range from 6:95 cm to 7:20 cm.
Find the difference of pressure in the solution between these two positions.
Solution:
! 2   00 2  .838 s 1 /2 .1:004 g cm 3
/.1 kg=103 g/
p 00 p0 D .r / .r 0 /2 D
2 2
 2 2
 2
 .7:20 cm/ .6:95 cm/ .1 cm=10 m/
D 1:2  105 kg m 1
s 2
D 1:2 bar
(b) Find the molar mass of the aggregate solute species, and use it to estimate the mass bind-
ing ratio (the mass of bound detergent divided by the mass of protein).
7 Ref. [18].
 54

Solution:
The slope of the line is d ln A= dr 2  0:594 cm 2
. From Eq. 9.8.22:
2RT d ln A= dr 2
MB D
! 2 .1 vB1 /
2.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.293 K/.0:594 cm 2 /.1 cm=10 2 m/2
D
.838 s 1 /2 Œ1 .0:776 cm3 g 1 /.1:004 g cm 3 /
1
D 187 kg mol
1
.187 78:8/ kg mol
Binding ratio: D 1:37
78:8 kg mol 1
 55

Chapter 10 Electrolyte Solutions

10.1 The mean ionic activity coefficient of NaCl in a 0.100 molal aqueous solution at 298:15 K
has been evaluated with measurements of equilibrium cell potentials,8 with the result ln ˙ D
0:2505. Use this value in Eq. 10.6.9, together with the values of osmotic coefficients in Table
12, to evaluate ˙ at each of the molalities shown in the table; then plot ˙ as a function of
mB .

Table 12 Osmotic coefficients of aqueous NaCl at

298:15 K a
1 1
mB =mol kg m mB =mol kg m
0.1 0.9325 2.0 0.9866
0.2 0.9239 3.0 1.0485
0.3 0.9212 4.0 1.1177
0.5 0.9222 5.0 1.1916
1.0 0.9373 6.0 1.2688
1.5 0.9598

a Ref. [31].

Solution:

0:1 1:2
bc bc
bc bc
0 bc
bc
bc 1:1
1

0:1
=kg mol

bc bc bc
1:0
0:2
bc
˙

0:3 0:9 bc


bc
m 1

0:4 bc
0:8
mB

bc
0:5 bc
bc
bc


0:7 bc bc
0:6 bc bc

bc
0:7 0:6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
mB =mol kg 1 mB =mol kg 1

(a) (b)

Figure 18 Aqueous NaCl at 298:15 K.

The function .m 1/=mB is plotted versus mB in Fig. 18(a). Values of the area under the
curve from mB D 0:1 mol kg 1 to higher molalities are listed in the second column of Table
13 on the next page. The last column of this table lists values of ln ˙ calculated from Eq.
10.6.9 with m00B D 0:1 mol kg 1 and ln ˙ .m00B / D 0:2505; Fig. 18(b) shows ˙ as a
function of mB .
10.2 Rard and Miller9 used published measurements of the freezing points of dilute aqueous so-
lutions of Na2 SO4 to calculate the osmotic coefficients of these solutions at 298:15 K. Use
their values listed in Table 14 on the next page to evaluate the mean ionic activity coefficient
8 Ref. [154], Table 9.3. 9 Ref. [151].
 56

Table 13 Calculations for Prob. 10.1

R m0B m 1
m0B =mol kg 1
m00 mB
dmB ln ˙
B

0:1 0 0:2505
0:2 0:0430 0:3021
0:3 0:0751 0:3369
0:5 0:1118 0:3726
1:0 0:1609 0:4066
1:5 0:1808 0:4040
2:0 0:1887 0:3851
3:0 0:1825 0:3170
4:0 0:1592 0:2245
5:0 0:1251 0:1165
6:0 0:0836 0:0022

of Na2 SO4 at 298:15 K and a molality of mB D 0:15 mol kg 1 . For the parameter a in the
Debye–Hückel equation (Eq. 10.4.7), use the value a D 3:0  10 10 m.

Table 14 Osmotic coefficients of aqueous Na2 SO4 at

298:15 K
1 1
mB =mol kg m mB =mol kg m
0.0126 0.8893 0.0637 0.8111
0.0181 0.8716 0.0730 0.8036
0.0228 0.8607 0.0905 0.7927
0.0272 0.8529 0.0996 0.7887
0.0374 0.8356 0.1188 0.7780
0.0435 0.8294 0.1237 0.7760
0.0542 0.8178 0.1605 0.7616
0.0594 0.8141

Solution:
Estimate ln ˙ at mB D 0:0126 mol kg 1 , the lowest molality for which experimental data are
available, using the Debye–Hückel equation:
p
ADH jzC z j Im
ln ˙ D p
1 C BDH a Im
p
.1:1744 kg1=2 mol 1=2 /.2/ .3/.0:0126 mol kg 1 /
D p
1 C .3:285  109 m 1 kg1=2 mol 1=2 /.3:0  10 10 m/ .3/.0:0126 mol kg 1 /
D 0:3832
The experimental points are plotted in Fig. 19 on the next page (open circles). From the curve
through the points, estimate .m 1/=mB D 1:58 kg mol 1 at mB D 0:15 mol kg 1 (open
triangle). At this point: m D .0:15 mol kg 1 /. 1:58 kg mol 1 / C 1 D 0:763.
Let m00B D 0:0126 mol kg 1 and m0B D 0:15 mol kg 1
. By numerical integration:
Z m0B 
m 1
dmB D 0:426
m00
B
mB
 57

ut bc
bc bc
2 bc
bc

bc
bc

1
bc
bc

=kg mol
bc
4 bc

bc

m 1 6 bc

mB


bc

8
bc

10
0 0:05 0:10 0:15 0.20
mB =mol kg 1

Figure 19 Aqueous Na2 SO4 at 298:15 K.

Evaluate ˙ at mB D m0B from Eq. 10.6.9:

Z m0B
m 1
ln ˙ .m0B / D m .m0B / m .m00B / C ln ˙ .m00B / C dmB
m00
B
mB
D 0:763 0:8893 0:3832 0:426
D 0:936
˙ D 0:392
 58

Chapter 11 Reactions and Other Chemical Processes

11.1 Use values of f H ı and f G ı in Appendix H to evaluate the standard molar reaction enthalpy
and the thermodynamic equilibrium constant at 298:15 K for the oxidation of nitrogen to form
aqueous nitric acid:
1
N .g/
2 2
C 54 O2 .g/ C 12 H2 O.l/ ! HC .aq/ C NO3 .aq/

Solution:
The formation values of the elements and HC ion are zero.
1
r H ı D  H ı .H2 O/
2 f
C f H ı .NO3 /
1 1 1 1
D 2
. 285:830 kJ mol / C . 206:85 kJ mol /D 63:94 kJ mol
1
r G ı D  G ı .H2 O/
2 f
C f G ı .NO3 /
1 1
D 2
. / C . 110:84 kJ mol 1 / D 7:74 kJ mol 1
237:16 kJ mol
 
ı 7:74  103 J mol 1 2
K D exp . r G =RT / D exp D 4:41  10
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
11.2 In 1982, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry recommended that the value
of the standard pressure p ı be changed from 1 atm to 1 bar. This change affects the values of
some standard molar quantities of a substance calculated from experimental data.
(a) Find the changes in Hmı , Smı , and Gmı for a gaseous substance when the standard pressure
is changed isothermally from 1:01325 bar (1 atm) to exactly 1 bar. (Such a small pressure
change has an entirely negligible effect on these quantities for a substance in a condensed
phase.)
Solution:
The standard state of a gaseous substance is the pure gas acting ideally. From expressions
in Table 7.4, which apply to isothermal changes of pressure of an ideal gas, we have
H
Hm D D0
n
S p 1 bar
Sm D D R ln 2 D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/ ln
n p1 1:01325 bar
1 1
D 0:109 J K mol
G p 1 bar
Gm D D RT ln 2 D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/T ln
n p1 1:01325 bar
1 1
D .0:109 J K mol /T
(b) What are the values of the corrections that need to be made to the standard molar enthalpy
of formation, the standard molar entropy of formation, and the standard molar Gibbs
energy of formation of N2 O4 (g) at 298:15 K when the standard pressure is changed from
1:01325 bar to 1 bar?
Solution:
The formation reaction is
P
N2 (g) C 2O2 (g) ! N2 O4 (g) i i D 2
for which the standard molar enthalpy of formation is given by
 59

f H ı .N2 O4 / D Hmı .N2 / 2Hmı .O2 / C Hmı .N2 O4 /

with analogous formulas for f S ı and f G ı . From the formulas in part (a), no
correction is needed for f H ı .
The correction for f S ı is . 2/.0:109 J K 1
mol 1
/D 0:219 J K 1
mol 1

The correction for f G ı is . 2/. 0:109 J K 1

mol 1
/.298:15 K/ D 65 J mol 1

11.3 From data for mercury listed in Appendix H, calculate the saturation vapor pressure of liquid
mercury at both 298:15 K and 273:15 K. You may need to make some reasonable approxima-
tions.

Solution:
The reference state of mercury at 298:15 K is the liquid; thus, the formation reaction of
gaseous mercury is the vaporization process: Hg(l) ! Hg(g). Values from Appendix H for
Hg(g) at 298:15 K:
f H ı D 61:38 kJ mol 1
f G ı D 31:84 kJ mol 1

Since the vapor pressure is low, assume that the mercury vapor is an ideal gas. Assume that
the molar enthalpy and Gibbs energy of the liquid at low pressure is the same as at the
standard pressure. Find the vapor pressure at 298:15 K from the equilibrium constant of the
formation reaction at this temperature:
   
p r G ı 31:84  103 J mol 1
K D ı D exp D exp D 2:6  10 6
p RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
6
p D 2:6  10 p ı D 2:6  10 6
bar
Find the vapor pressure at 273:15 K from the Clausius–Clapeyron equation:
   
p2 vap H 1 1 61:38  103 J mol 1 1 1
ln D D
p1 R T2 T1 8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 273:15 K 298:15 K
D 2:2662
6 7
p2 =p1 D 0:1037 p2 D .0:1037/.2:6  10 bar/ D 2:7  10 bar

11.4 Given the following experimental values at T D 298:15 K, p D 1 bar:

HC (aq) C OH (aq) ! H2 O(l) r H ı D 55:82 kJ mol 1

Na(s) C H2 O(l) ! NaC (aq/ C OH (aq) C 21 H2 (g) r H ı D 184:52 kJ mol 1

NaOH(s) ! NaOH(aq) sol H 1 D 44:75 kJ mol 1

1
NaOH in 5 H2 O ! NaOH in 1 H2 O Hm (dil) D 4:93 kJ mol
ı 1
NaOH(s) f H D 425:61 kJ mol

Using only these values, calculate:

(a) f H ı for NaC (aq), NaOH(aq), and OH (aq);
Solution:
Add the first two reaction equations:
HC (aq) C OH (aq) ! H2 O(l) r H ı D 55:82 kJ mol 1
Na(s) C H2 O(l) ! NaC (aq/ C OH (aq) C 21 H2 (g) r H ı D 184:52 kJ mol 1
sum:
Na(s) C HC (aq) ! NaC (aq/ C 12 H2 (g) r H ı D 240:34 kJ mol 1
 60

P
From the relation r H ı D i i f H ı .i / and because f H ı is zero for each species in
the reaction except NaC (aq):
f H ı .NaC , aq/ D 240:34 kJ mol 1

Add the reaction equations for the dissolution of NaOH and formation of NaOH(s):
NaOH(s) ! NaC (aq) C OH (aq) r H ı D 44:75 kJ mol 1
Na(s) C 12 O2 (g) C 12 H2 (g) ! NaOH(s) r H ı D 425:61 kJ mol 1
sum:
Na(s) C 12 O2 (g) C 12 H2 (g) ! NaC (aq) C OH (aq) r H ı D 470:36 kJ mol 1

The resulting reaction is the formation of aqueous NaOH:

f H ı .NaOH, aq/ D 470:36 kJ mol 1
P
Apply the relation r H ı D i i f H ı .i / to this reaction, setting the standard molar
enthalpies of formation of the elements equal to zero:
1
470:36 kJ mol D f H ı .NaC , aq/ C f H ı .OH , aq/
1
D 240:34 kJ mol C f H ı .OH , aq/
f H ı .OH , aq/ D 230:02 kJ mol 1

(b) f H for NaOH in 5 H2 O;

Solution:
A solute at infinite dilution has the same partial molar enthalpy as in the solute standard
state. Thus, the molar enthalpy change of the process in which NaOH in 5 H2 O is
formed from the elements in their reference states is the sum of the standard molar
enthalpy of formation of NaOH(aq) and the molar enthalpy change of transferring NaOH
from infinite dilution to NaOH in 5 H2 O:
1 1
f H.NaOH in 5 H2 O/ D . 470:36 C 4:93/ kJ mol D 465:43 kJ mol
(c) Hm(sol) for the dissolution of 1 mol NaOH(s) in 5 mol H2 O.
Solution:
The process can either be treated as the conversion of NaOH(s) into its elements,
followed by the formation of the NaOH in the final solution:
r H D f H ı .NaOH, s/ C f H.NaOH in 5 H2 O/
1 1
D .425:61 465:43/ kJ mol D 39:82 kJ mol
or as the solution process to form the infinitely dilute solution, followed by a change to
the final solution (the reverse of dilution):
r H D sol H 1 Hm (dil)
1 1
D . 44:75 C 4:93/ kJ mol D 39:82 kJ mol
 61

Table 15 Data for Problem 11.5 a

1 1
Substance f H /kJ mol M /g mol
H2 O(l) 285:830 18:0153
Na2 S2 O3
5H2 O.s/ 2607:93 248:1828
Na2 S2 O3 in 50 H2 O 1135:914
Na2 S2 O3 in 100 H2 O 1133:822
Na2 S2 O3 in 200 H2 O 1132:236
Na2 S2 O3 in 300 H2 O 1131:780
a Ref. [177], pages 2-307 and 2-308.

11.5 Table 15 lists data for water, crystalline sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate, and several sodium
thiosulfate solutions. Find H to the nearest 0:01 kJ for the dissolution of 5:00 g of crystalline
Na2 S2 O3
5H2 O in 50:0 g of water at 298:15 K and 1 bar.

Solution:
The amounts in the solution are
5:00 g
n.Na2 S2 O3 / D 1
D 0:0201 mol
248:1828 g mol
50:0 g
n.H2 O/ D 1
C 5  0:0201 mol D 2:87 mol
18:0153 g mol
This is Na2 S2 O3 in 143 H2 O. From a plot of f H versus amount of H2 O, estimate
1
f H.Na2 S2 O3 in 143 H2 O/ D 1132:9 kJ mol .
Write reaction equations for three reactions whose sum is the dissolution process:
Na2 S2 O3
5H2 O(s) ! 2 Na(s) C 2 S(s) C 82 O2 (g) C 5 H2 (g)
2 Na(s) C 2 S(s) C 32 O2 (g) C 143 H2 O(l) ! Na2 S2 O3 in 143 H2 O
5 H2 (g) C 52 O2 (g) ! 5 H2 O(l)
sum:
Na2 S2 O3
5H2 O(s) C 138 H2 O(l) ! Na2 S2 O3 in 143 H2 O
Calculate the enthalpy change per amount of solute dissolved from the sum for the three
reactions:
1
.H=nB /=kJ mol D 2607:93 1132:9 5  285:830 D 45:9
Calculate the enthalpy change for nB D 0:0201 mol:
1
H D .0:0201 mol/.45:9 kJ mol / D 0:92 kJ

11.6 Use the experimental data in Table 16 on the next page to evaluate LA and LB at 25 ı C for an
aqueous HCl solution of molality mB D 0:0900 mol kg 1 .

Solution:
p
Plot Hm .dil, m0B !m00B / versus m00B ; see Fig. 20 on the next page. Extrapolation to
p
mB D 0 using the theoretical value of the limiting slope C˚L gives
Hm .dil, m0B !0/  3:836 kJ mol 1 , resulting in the scale of ˚L shown of the right side of
the figure.
 62

Table 16 Data for Problem 11.6. Molar in-

tegral enthalpies of dilution of aqueous HCl
(m0B D 3:337 mol kg 1 ) at 25 ı C.a

m00B =mol kg 1
Hm .dil, m0B !m00B /=kJ mol 1

0:295 2:883
0:225 2:999
0:199 3:041
0:147 3:143
0:113 3:217
0:0716 3:325
0:0544 3:381
0:0497 3:412
0:0368 3:466
0:0179 3:574
0:0128 3:621

a Ref. [167].

2:8 1.0
bc
1
Hm .dil, m0B !m00B /=kJ mol

bc
3:0 bc
0.8
bc

1
3:2 bc
0.6
bc
bc
˚L =kJ mol
3:4 bc
bc
0.4
bc
3:6 bc
0.2
3:8 0
4:0
0:0 0:1 0:2 0:3 0:4 0:5 0:6
q
m00B =mol kg 1

Figure 20 Plot for Problem 11.6. The dashed line has the theoretical slope C˚L D
1:988  103 J kg1=2 mol 3=2 .

p
At molality mB D 0:0900 mol kg 1 ( mB D 0:300 mol1=2 kg 1=2 ), values read from the plot
p
are ˚L  0:560 kg mol 1 and d˚L = d mB  1:670 kJ kg1=2 mol 3=2 .
From Eq. 11.4.27:
p
mB d˚L
LB D ˚L C p
2 d mB
!
1 0:300 mol1=2 kg 1=2
D 0:560 kg mol C .1:670 kJ kg1=2 mol 3=2
/
2
1
D 0:810 kg mol
From Eq. 11.4.24:
 63

LA D MA mB .˚L LB /
1 1 1
D .0:018015 kg mol /.0:0900 mol kg /Œ.0:560 0:810/ kJ mol 
1
D 0:405 J mol
 64

Table 17 Data for Problem 11.7. The values of intensive properties are
for a temperature of 298:15 K and a pressure of 30 bar unless otherwise
stated. Subscripts: A = H2 O, B = O2 , C = CO2 .

Properties of the bomb vessel:

internal volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350:0 cm3
mass of n-hexane placed in bomb . . . . . . . 0:6741 g
mass of water placed in bomb . . . . . . . . . . 1:0016 g
Properties of liquid n-hexane:
molar mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M D 86:177 g mol 1
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  D 0:6548 g cm 3
cubic expansion coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . ˛ D 1:378  10 3 K 1
Properties of liquid H2 O:
molar mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M D 18:0153 g mol 1
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  D 0:9970 g cm 3
cubic expansion coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . ˛ D 2:59  10 4 K 1
standard molar energy of vaporization . . . vap U ı D 41:53 kJ mol 1
Second virial coefficients, 298:15 K:
BAA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158 cm3 mol 1
BBB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 cm3 mol 1
dBBB = dT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0:21 cm3 K 1 mol 1
BCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 cm3 mol 1
dBCC = dT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0:97 cm3 K 1 mol 1
BAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 cm3 mol 1
BAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 cm3 mol 1
BBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43:7 cm3 mol 1
dBBC = dT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0:4 cm3 K 1 mol 1
Henry’s law constants at 1 bar (solvent = H2 O):
O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . km;B D 796 bar kg mol 1
CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . km;C D 29:7 bar kg mol 1
Partial molar volumes of solutes in water:
O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VB1 D 31 cm3 mol 1
CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VC1 D 33 cm3 mol 1
Standard molar energies of solution (solvent = H2 O):
O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sol U ı D 9:7 kJ mol 1
CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sol U ı D 17:3 kJ mol 1

11.7 This 16-part problem illustrates the use of experimental data from bomb calorimetry and other
sources, combined with thermodynamic relations derived in this and earlier chapters, to eval-
uate the standard molar combustion enthalpy of a liquid hydrocarbon. The substance under
investigation is n-hexane, and the combustion reaction in the bomb vessel is
19
C6 H14 .l/ C 2 2
O .g/ ! 6 CO2 .g/ C 7 H2 O.l/

Assume that the sample is placed in a glass ampoule that shatters at ignition. Data needed for
this problem are collected in Table 17.
States 1 and 2 referred to in this problem are the initial and final states of the isothermal bomb
process. The temperature is the reference temperature of 298:15 K.
(a) Parts (a)–(c) consist of simple calculations of some quantities needed in later parts of the
problem. Begin by using the masses of C6 H14 and H2 O placed in the bomb vessel, and
 65

their molar masses, to calculate the amounts (moles) of C6 H14 and H2 O present initially
in the bomb vessel. Then use the stoichiometry of the combustion reaction to find the
amount of O2 consumed and the amounts of H2 O and CO2 present in state 2. (There is
not enough information at this stage to allow you to find the amount of O2 present, just
the change.) Also find the final mass of H2 O. Assume that oxygen is present in excess
and the combustion reaction goes to completion.
Solution:
Initial amounts:
0:6741 g 3
nC6 H14 D 1
D 7:822  10 mol
86:177 g mol
1:0016 g
nH2 O D 1
D 0:05560 mol
18:0153 g mol
Change in amount of oxygen:
3
nO2 D .19=2/.7:822  10 mol/ D 0:07431 mol
Final amounts (state 2):
3
nH2 O D 0:05560 mol C .7/.7:822  10 mol/ D 0:11035 mol
3
nCO2 D .6/.7:822  10 mol/ D 0:04693 mol
Final mass of H2 O:
1
.0:11035 mol/.18:0153 g mol / D 1:9880 g
(b) From the molar masses and the densities of liquid C6 H14 and H2 O, calculate their molar
volumes.
Solution:
1
86:177 g mol
Vm (C6 H14 ) D 3
D 131:61 cm3 mol 1
0:6548 g cm
18:0153 g mol 1
Vm (H2 O) D D 18:070 cm3 mol 1
0:9970 g cm 3
(c) From the amounts present initially in the bomb vessel and the internal volume, find the
volumes of liquid C6 H14 , liquid H2 O, and gas in state 1 and the volumes of liquid H2 O
and gas in state 2. For this calculation, you can neglect the small change in the volume of
liquid H2 O due to its vaporization.
Solution:
Initial volumes:
V (C6 H14 ) D .7:822  10 3 mol/.131:61 cm3 mol 1 / D 1:029 cm3
V (H2 O) D .0:05560 mol/.18:070 cm3 mol 1 / D 1:005 cm3
V g D .350:0 1:029 1:005/ cm3 D 348:0 cm3
Final volumes:
V (H2 O) D .0:11035 mol/.18:070 cm3 mol 1
/ D 1:994 cm3
V g D .350:0 1:994/ cm3 D 348:0 cm3
(d) When the bomb vessel is charged with oxygen and before the inlet valve is closed, the
pressure at 298:15 K measured on an external gauge is found to be p1 D 30:00 bar. To a
good approximation, the gas phase of state 1 has the equation of state of pure O2 (since
the vapor pressure of water is only 0:1 % of 30:00 bar). Assume that this equation of state
 66

is given by Vm D RT =p C BBB (Eq. 2.2.8), where BBB is the second virial coefficient
of O2 listed in Table 17. Solve for the amount of O2 in the gas phase of state 1. The gas
phase of state 2 is a mixture of O2 and CO2 , again with a negligible partial pressure of
H2 O. Assume that only small fractions of the total amounts of O2 and CO2 dissolve in the
liquid water, and find the amount of O2 in the gas phase of state 2 and the mole fractions
of O2 and CO2 in this phase.
Solution:
In gas phase of state 1:
Vg 348:0  10 6 m3
nO2 D D
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/ 6
C BBB 16  10 m3 mol 1
p 30:00  105 Pa
D 0:429 mol
In gas phase of state 2:
nO2 D .0:429 0:07431/ mol D 0:355 mol
ng D .0:355 C 0:04693/ mol D 0:402 mol
yO2 D .0:355 mol/=.0:402 mol/ D 0:883
yCO2 D 1 0:883 D 0:117
(e) You now have the information needed to find the pressure in state 2, which cannot be
measured directly. For the mixture of O2 and CO2 in the gas phase of state 2, use Eq.
9.3.23 on page 247 to calculate the second virial coefficient. Then solve the equation of
state of Eq. 9.3.21 on page 246 for the pressure. Also calculate the partial pressures of the
O2 and CO2 in the gas mixture.
Solution:
In gas phase of state 2:
B D yB2 BBB C 2yB yC BBC C yC2 BCC
B=cm3 mol 1
D .0:883/2 . 16/ C 2.0:883/.0:117/. 43:7/ C .0:117/2 . 127/
D 23:2 cm3 mol 1
ng RT .0:402 mol/.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
pD D
V g ng B 348:0  10 6 m3 .0:402 mol/. 23:2  10 6 m3 mol 1
/
6
D 2:79  10 Pa D 27:9 bar
pO2 D yO2 p D .0:883/.27:9 bar/ D 24:6 bar
pCO2 D yCO2 p D .0:117/.27:9 bar/ D 3:26 bar
(f) Although the amounts of H2 O in the gas phases of states 1 and 2 are small, you need to
know their values in order to take the energy of vaporization into account. In this part,
you calculate the fugacities of the H2 O in the initial and final gas phases, in part (g) you
use gas equations of state to evaluate the fugacity coefficients of the H2 O (as well as of
the O2 and CO2 ), and then in part (h) you find the amounts of H2 O in the initial and final
gas phases.
The pressure at which the pure liquid and gas phases of H2 O are in equilibrium at 298:15 K
(the saturation vapor pressure of water) is 0:03169 bar. Use Eq. 7.8.18 on page 187 to es-
timate the fugacity of H2 O(g) in equilibrium with pure liquid water at this temperature
and pressure. The effect of pressure on fugacity in a one-component liquid–gas system is
discussed in Sec. 12.8.1; use Eq. 12.8.3 on page 400 to find the fugacity of H2 O in gas
phases equilibrated with liquid water at the pressures of states 1 and 2 of the isothermal
 67

bomb process. (The mole fraction of O2 dissolved in the liquid water is so small that you
can ignore its effect on the chemical potential of the water.)
Solution:
H2 O(g) in equilibrium with H2 O(l) at 298:15 K and 0:03169 bar:
BAA p . 1158  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.0:03169  105 Pa/ 3
ln  D D D 1:48  10
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
 D 0:9985
f D p D .0:9985/.0:03169 bar/ D 0:03164 bar
Equation 12.8.3:
 
V (l).p2 p1 /
fi .p2 / D fi .p1 / exp i
RT
H2 O(g) in equilibrium with H2 O(l) at 298:15 K and 30:00 bar (state 1):
 
.18:070  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.30:00 0:03169/  105 Pa
f D .0:03164 bar/ exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D 0:03234 bar
H2 O(g) in equilibrium with H2 O(l) at 298:15 K and 27:9 bar (state 2):
 
.18:070  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.27:9 0:03169/  105 Pa
f D .0:03164 bar/ exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D 0:03229 bar
(g) Calculate the fugacity coefficients of H2 O and O2 in the gas phase of state 1 and of H2 O,
O2 , and CO2 in the gas phase of state 2.
For state 1, in which the gas phase is practically-pure O2 , you can use Eq. 7.8.18 on
page 187 to calculate O2 . The other calculations require Eq. 9.3.29 on page 247, with
the value of Bi0 found from the formulas of Eq. 9.3.26 or Eqs. 9.3.27 and 9.3.28 (yA is so
small that you can set it equal to zero in these formulas).
Use the fugacity coefficient and partial pressure of O2 to evaluate its fugacity in states 1
and 2; likewise, find the fugacity of CO2 in state 2. [You calculated the fugacity of the
H2 O in part (f).]
Solution:
Gas phase of state 1:
BA0 D 2BAB BBB D 2. 40  10 6
m3 mol 1
/ . 16  10 6
m3 mol 1
/
D 64  10 6 m3 mol 1
BA0 p . 64  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.30:00  105 Pa/
ln A D D D 0:077
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
A D 0:925
BBB p . 16  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.30:00  105 Pa/
ln B D D D 0:019
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
B D 0:981
fB D B pB D .0:981/.30:00 bar/ D 29:4 bar
Gas phase of state 2:
 68

BA0 D 2yB BAB C 2yC BAC 2yB yC BBC yB2 BBB yC2 BCC
D Œ2.0:883/. 40/ C 2.0:117/. 214/ 2.0:883/.0:117/. 43:7/
2 2 6
.0:883/ . 16/ .0:117/ . 127/  10 m3 mol 1

6
D 97:5  10 m3 mol 1

BA0 p . 97:5  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.27:9  105 Pa/

ln A D D
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D 0:110
A D 0:896
BB0 D BBB .BBB 2BBC C BCC /yC2
D Œ 16 . 16 C 2  43:7 127/.0:117/2   10 6
m3 mol 1

6
D 15  10 m3 mol 1

BB0 p . 15  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.27:9  105 Pa/

ln B D D
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D 0:017
B D 0:983
BC0 D BCC .BBB 2BBC C BCC /yB2
D Œ 127 . 16 C 2  43:7 127/.0:883/2   10 6
m3 mol 1

6
D 84  10 m3 mol 1

BC0 p . 84  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.27:9  105 Pa/

ln C D D
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D 0:094
C D 0:910
fB D B pB D .0:983/.24:6 bar/ D 24:2 bar
fC D C pC D .0:910/.3:26 bar/ D 2:97 bar
(h) From the values of the fugacity and fugacity coefficient of a constituent of a gas mixture,
you can calculate the partial pressure with Eq. 9.3.17 on page 245, then the mole fraction
with yi D pi =p, and finally the amount with ni D yi n. Use this method to find the
amounts of H2 O in the gas phases of states 1 and 2, and also calculate the amounts of
H2 O in the liquid phases of both states.
Solution:
H2 O in gas phase of state 1:
fA 0:03234 bar
pA D D D 0:0350 bar
A 0:925
pA 0:0350 bar
yA D D D 0:00117
p 30:00 bar
4
nA D yA ng D .0:00117/.0:429 mol/ D 5:00  10 mol
H2 O in gas phase of state 2:
 69

fA 0:03229 bar
pA D D D 0:03604 bar
A 0:896
pA 0:03604 bar
yA D D D 0:00129
p 27:9 bar
4
nA D yA ng D .0:00129/.0:402 mol/ D 5:19  10 mol
H2 O in liquid phase of state 1:
4
nA D 0:05560 mol 5:00  10 mol D 0:05510 mol
H2 O in liquid phase of state 2:
4
nA D 0:11035 mol 5:19  10 mol D 0:10983 mol
(i) Next, consider the O2 dissolved in the water of state 1 and the O2 and CO2 dissolved in
the water of state 2. Treat the solutions of these gases as ideal dilute with the molality of
solute i given by mi D fi =km;i (Eq. 9.4.21). The values of the Henry’s law constants of
these gases listed in Table 17 are for the standard pressure of 1 bar. Use Eq. 12.8.35 on
page 408 to find the appropriate values of km;i at the pressures of states 1 and 2, and use
these values to calculate the amounts of the dissolved gases in both states.
Solution:
Equation 12.8.35:
 
VB1 .p2 p1 /
km;B .p2 / D km;B .p1 / exp
RT
Dissolved O2 in state 1:
 
1 .31  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.30:00 1/  105 Pa
km;B D .796 bar kg mol / exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
1
D 825 bar kg mol
fB 29:4 bar 1
mB D D 1
D 0:0356 mol kg
km;B 825 bar kg mol
1 3 5
nB D .0:0356 mol kg /.1:0016  10 kg/ D 3:57  10 mol
Dissolved O2 and CO2 in state 2:
 
.31  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.27:9 1/  105 Pa
km;B D .796 bar kg mol 1 / exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
1
D 823 bar kg mol
fB 24:2 bar 1
mB D D 1
D 0:0294 mol kg
km;B 823 bar kg mol
1
nB D .0:0294 mol kg /.1:9880  10 3 kg/ D 5:85  10 5 mol
 
1 .33  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.27:9 1/  105 Pa
km;C D .29:7 bar kg mol / exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
1
D 30:8 bar kg mol
fC 2:97 bar 1
mC D D 1
D 0:096 mol kg
km;C 30:8 bar kg mol
1 3 4
nC D .0:096 mol kg /.1:9880  10 kg/ D 1:92  10 mol
 70

(j) At this point in the calculations, you know the values of all properties needed to describe
the initial and final states of the isothermal bomb process. You are now able to evaluate
the various Washburn corrections. These corrections are the internal energy changes, at
the reference temperature of 298:15 K, of processes that connect the standard states of
substances with either state 1 or state 2 of the isothermal bomb process.
First, consider the gaseous H2 O. The Washburn corrections should be based on a pure-
liquid standard state for the H2 O. Section 7.9 shows that the molar internal energy of a
pure gas under ideal-gas conditions (low pressure) is the same as the molar internal energy
of the gas in its standard state at the same temperature. Thus, the molar internal energy
change when a substance in its pure-liquid standard state changes isothermally to an ideal
gas is equal to the standard molar internal energy of vaporization, vap U ı . Using the
value of vap U ı for H2 O given in Table 17, calculate U for the vaporization of liquid
H2 O at pressure p ı to ideal gas in the amount present in the gas phase of state 1. Also
calculate U for the condensation of ideal gaseous H2 O in the amount present in the gas
phase of state 2 to liquid at pressure p ı .
Solution:
Vaporization:
4
U D .5:00  10 mol/.41:53  103 J mol 1
/ D 20:8 J
Condensation:
4
U D .5:19  10 mol/.41:53  103 J mol 1
/D 21:6 J
(k) Next, consider the dissolved O2 and CO2 , for which gas standard states are used. Assume
that the solutions are sufficiently dilute to have infinite-dilution behavior; then the partial
molar internal energy of either solute in the solution at the standard pressure p ı D 1 bar
is equal to the standard partial molar internal energy based on a solute standard state (Sec.
9.7.1). Values of sol U ı are listed in Table 17. Find U for the dissolution of O2 from
its gas standard state to ideal-dilute solution at pressure p ı in the amount present in the
aqueous phase of state 1. Find U for the desolution (transfer from solution to gas phase)
of O2 and of CO2 from ideal-dilute solution at pressure p ı , in the amounts present in the
aqueous phase of state 2, to their gas standard states.
Solution:
O2 dissolution:
5
U D .3:57  10 mol/. 9:7  103 J mol 1
/D 0:35 J
O2 desolution:
5
U D .5:85  10 mol/.9:7  103 J mol 1
/ D 0:57 J
CO2 desolution:
4
U D .1:92  10 mol/.17:3  103 J mol 1
/ D 3:32 J
(l) Calculate the internal energy changes when the liquid phases of state 1 (n-hexane and
aqueous solution) are compressed from p ı to p1 and the aqueous solution of state 2 is
decompressed from p2 to p ı . Use an approximate expression from Table 7.4, and treat
the cubic expansion coefficient of the aqueous solutions as being the same as that of pure
water.
Solution:
From Table 7.4: U  ˛T Vp
C6 H14 (l) compression:
3 1 6
U D .1:378  10 K /.298:15 K/.1:029  10 m3 /
 71

 .30:00  105 Pa 1  105 Pa/ D 1:226 J

Solution compression:
4 1 6
U D .2:59  10 K /.298:15 K/.1:005  10 m3 /
 .30:00  105 Pa 1  105 Pa/ D 0:225 J
Solution decompression:
4 1 6
U D .2:59  10 K /.298:15 K/.1:994  10 m3 /
 .1  105 Pa 27:9  105 Pa/ D 0:414 J
(m) The final Washburn corrections are internal energy changes of the gas phases of states 1
and 2. H2 O has such low mole fractions in these phases that you can ignore H2 O in these
calculations; that is, treat the gas phase of state 1 as pure O2 and the gas phase of state 2
as a binary mixture of O2 and CO2 .
One of the internal energy changes is for the compression of gaseous O2 , starting at a
pressure low enough for ideal-gas behavior (Um D Umı ) and ending at pressure p1 to form
the gas phase present in state 1. Use the approximate expression for Um Umı (g) in Table
7.5 to calculate U D U.p1 / nUmı (g); a value of dB= dT for pure O2 is listed in Table
17.
The other internal energy change is for a process in which the gas phase of state 2 at
pressure p2 is expanded until the pressure is low enough for the gas to behave ideally,
and the mixture is then separated into ideal-gas phases of pure O2 and CO2 . The molar
internal energies of the separated low-pressure O2 and CO2 gases are the same as the
standard molar internal energies of these gases. The internal energy of unmixing ideal
gases is zero (Eq. 11.1.11). The dependence P of the internal energy of the gas mixture is
given, to a good approximation, by U D i Uiı (g) npT dB= dT , where B is the second
virial coefficient of the gas mixture; this expression is the analogy for a gas mixture of the
approximate expression for Um Umı (g) in Table 7.5. Calculate the value of dB= dT for
the mixture of O2 and CO2 in state 2 (you need P Eq. 9.3.23 on page 247 and the values of
dBij = dT in Table 17) and evaluate U D i ni Uiı (g) U.p2 / for the gas expansion.
Solution:
O2 compression:
U D U.p1 / nUmı (g) D nUm .p1 / nUmı (g) D np1 T dBBB = dT
D .0:429 mol/.30:00  105 Pa/.298:15 K/.0:21  10 6
m3 K 1
mol 1
/
D 81 J
Gas mixture:
dB= dT D yB2 dBBB = dT C 2yB yC dBBC = dT C yC2 dBCC = dT
D .0:883/2 .0:21  10 6
m3 K 1
mol 1
/
6 3 1 1
C 2.0:883/.0:117/.0:4  10 m K mol /
C .0:117/2 .0:97  10 6
m3 K 1
mol 1
/
6
D 0:26  10 m3 K 1
mol 1

Gas mixture expansion:

P
U D i ni Uiı (g) U.p2 / D ng p2 T dB= dT
D .0:402 mol/.27:9  105 Pa/.298:15 K/.0:26  10 6
m3 K 1
mol 1
/
 72

D 87 J
(n) Add the internal energy changes you calculated in parts (j)–(m) to find the total internal
energy change of the Washburn corrections. Note that most of the corrections occur in
pairs of opposite sign and almost completely cancel one another. Which contributions are
the greatest in magnitude?
Solution:
The Washburn corrections are collected in Table 18. The largest contributions are those
for H2 O vaporization and condensation, for compression of the O2 , and for expansion of
the product gas mixture.

Table 18 Washburn corrections

Contribution U=J
H2 O vaporization 20.8
H2 O condensation 21.6
O2 dissolution 0.35
O2 desolution 0.57
CO2 desolution 3.32
C6 H14 (l) compression 1.226
solution compression 0.225
solution decompression 0.414
O2 compression 81.
gas mixture expansion 87.
Sum 8.

(o) The internal energy change of the isothermal bomb process in the bomb vessel, corrected
to the reference temperature of 298:15 K, is found to be U.IBP; Tref / D 32:504 kJ.
Assume there are no side reactions or auxiliary reactions. From Eqs. 11.5.9 and 11.5.10,
calculate the standard molar internal energy of combustion of n-hexane at 298:15 K.
Solution:
U.IBP; Tref / C (Washburn corrections)
c U ı .Tref / D
nC6 H14
32:504 kJ C 8  10 3 kJ
D D 4154:4 kJ mol 1
7:822  10 3 mol
(p) From Eq. 11.5.13, calculate the standard molar enthalpy of combustion of n-hexane at
298:15 K.
Solution:
X g
c H ı D c U ı .Tref / C i RTref
i
1 19

1 1
D 4154:4 kJ mol C 2
C 6 .8:3145 J K mol /.298:15 K/.1 kJ=103 J/
1
D 4163:1 kJ mol
11.8 By combining the results of Prob. 11.7(p) with the values of standard molar enthalpies of
formation from Appendix H, calculate the standard molar enthalpy of formation of liquid n-
hexane at 298:15 K.
 73

Solution:
P
Apply the relation r H ı D i i f H ı .i/ to the combustion reaction
C6 H14 .l/ C 19
2 2
O .g/ ! 6 CO2 .g/ C 7 H2 O.l/:
c H ı (C6 H14 ) D f H ı (C6 H14 ) C 6 f H ı (CO2 ) C 7 f H ı (H2 O, l)
f H ı (C6 H14 ) D c H ı (C6 H14 ) C 6 f H ı (CO2 ) C 7 f H ı (H2 O, l)
1 1 1
D . 4163:1 kJ mol / C 6. 393:51 kJ mol / C 7. 285:830 kJ mol /
1
D 198:8 kJ mol
11.9 Consider the combustion of methane:
CH4 .g/ C 2 O2 .g/ ! CO2 .g/ C 2 H2 O.g/
Suppose the reaction occurs in a flowing gas mixture of methane and air. Assume that the
pressure is constant at 1 bar, the reactant mixture is at a temperature of 298:15 K and has
stoichiometric proportions of methane and oxygen, and the reaction goes to completion with
no dissociation. For the quantity of gaseous product mixture containing 1 mol CO2 , 2 mol H2 O,
and the nitrogen and other substances remaining from the air, you may use the approximate
formula Cp .P/ D a C bT , where the coefficients have the values a D 297:0 J K 1 and b D
8:520  10 2 J K 2 . Solve Eq. 11.6.1 for T2 to estimate the flame temperature to the nearest
kelvin.
Solution:
R T2
Equation 11.6.1: r H ı .T1 / C T1 Cp .P/ dT D 0

Calculate c H ı .T1 / from values in Appendix H for T1 D 298:15 K:

c H ı D f H ı (CH4 ) C f H ı (CO2 ) C 2 f H ı (H2 O, g) D 802:29 kJ mol 1

R T2 R T2
T Cp .P/ dT D T .a C bT / dT D a.T2 T1 / C b2 .T22 T12 /
1 1

D aT22 C b2 T22 aT1 b 2

T
2 1

Write Eq. 11.6.1 in the form Ax 2 C Bx C C D 0, where

x D T2
2 2
A D b=2 D 4:260  10 JK
1
B D a D 297:0 J K
b 2
C D c H ı .T1 / aT1 T
2 1

D .1 mol/. 802:29  103 J mol 1

/ .297:0 J K 1
/.298:15 K/
2 2
.4:260  10 JK /.298:15 K/2
D 8:9463  105 J
Solve with the quadratic formula:
p
B ˙ B 2 4AC
T2 D x D D 2272 K or 9244 K
2A
Only the positive value is physically possible.
11.10 The standard molar Gibbs energy of formation of crystalline mercury(II) oxide at 600:00 K has
the value f G ı D 26:386 kJ mol 1 . Estimate the partial pressure of O2 in equilibrium with
HgO at this temperature: 2 HgO(s) • 2 Hg(l) C O2 (g).
 74

Solution:
r G ı D 2 f G ı (HgO) D 52:772 kJ mol 1

r G ı 52:772  103 J mol 1

ln K D D D 10:578
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.600:00 K/
5
K D 2:55  10
2
aHg(l) fO2 =p ı
KD 2
 pO2 =p ı
aHgO(s)

pO2 D Kp ı D 2:55  10 5
bar

11.11 The combustion of hydrogen is a reaction that is known to “go to completion.”

(a) Use data in Appendix H to evaluate the thermodynamic equilibrium constant at 298:15 K
for the reaction
H2 .g/ C 21 O2 .g/ ! H2 O.l/
Solution:
r G ı D f G ı (H2 O, l) D 237:16 kJ mol 1

237:16  103 J mol 1

K D exp . r G ı =RT / D exp D 3:5  1041
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
(b) Assume that the reaction is at equilibrium at 298:15 K in a system in which the partial
pressure of O2 is 1:0 bar. Assume ideal-gas behavior and find the equilibrium partial
pressure of H2 and the number of H2 molecules in 1:0 m3 of the gas phase.
Solution:
aH2 O(l)
KD
.fH2 =p /.fO2 =p ı /1=2
ı

For ideal gas mixture, pO2 D 1:0 bar:

1
KD
.pH2 =p ı /.1:0/1=2
pı 1 bar 42
pH2 D D D 2:8  10 bar
K 3:5  1041
NA pH2 V
NH2 D
RT
.6:022  1023 mol 1 /.2:8  10 42 bar/.105 Pa=1 bar/.1:0 m3 / 17
D D 6:9  10
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
(c) In the preceding part, you calculated a very small value (a fraction) for the number of H2
molecules in 1:0 m3 . Statistically, this fraction can be interpreted as the fraction of a given
length of time during which one molecule is present in the system. Take the age of the
universe as 1:0  1010 years and find the total length of time in seconds, during the age of
the universe, that a H2 molecule is present in the equilibrium system. (This hypothetical
value is a dramatic demonstration of the statement that the limiting reactant is essentially
entirely exhausted during a reaction with a large value of K.)
Solution:
17
t D .6:9  10 /.1:0  1010 years/.365 d year 1
/.24 h d 1
/.60 min h 1
/.60 s min 1
/
D 22 s
 75

11.12 Let G represent carbon in the form of graphite and D represent the diamond crystal form. At
298:15 K, the thermodynamic equilibrium constant for G•D, based on a standard pressure
p ı D 1 bar, has the value K D 0:31. The molar volumes of the two crystal forms at this
temperature are Vm .G/ D 5:3  10 6 m3 mol 1 and Vm .D/ D 3:4  10 6 m3 mol 1 .
(a) Write an expression for the reaction quotient Qrxn as a function of pressure. Use the
approximate expression of the pressure factor given in Table 9.6.
Solution:
Qrxn D a.D/=a.G/ D .D/= .G/
exp ŒVm .D/.p p ı /=RT  ŒV .D/ Vm .G/.p p ı /
 ı
D exp m
exp ŒVm .G/.p p /=RT  RT
(b) Use the value of K to estimate the pressure at which the D and G crystal forms are in
equilibrium with one another at 298:15 K. (This is the lowest pressure at which graphite
could in principle be converted to diamond at this temperature.)
Solution:
Find the pressure at which Qrxn is equal to K:
ŒVm .D/ Vm .G/.p pı/
ln Qrxn 
RT
.3:4 5:3/  10 6 m3 mol 1 .p p ı / 10
D D 7:7  10 m3 J 1
.p pı/
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
At equilibrium, ln Qrxn D ln K D ln.0:31/ D 1:17
1:17
p D 1:5  109 Pa D 1:5  104 bar
7:7  10 10 m3 J 1
11.13 Consider the dissociation reaction N2 O4 .g/ ! 2 NO2 .g/ taking place at a constant tempera-
ture of 298:15 K and a constant pressure of 0:0500 bar. Initially (at  D 0) the system contains
1:000 mol of N2 O4 and no NO2 . Other needed data are found in Appendix H. Assume ideal-
gas behavior.
(a) For values of the advancement  ranging from 0 to 1 mol, at an interval of 0:1 mol or
less, calculate Œ G./ G.0/  to the nearest 0:01 kJ. A computer spreadsheet would be a
convenient way to make the calculations.
Solution:
To simplify the nomenclature, write the reaction as A ! 2 B. Use Eq. 11.7.19 on
page 348, with p D 0:0500p ı , yA, 0 D 1, nB, 0 D 0, A D 1, and B D 2:
G./ G.0/ D r G ı C nA RT ln yA C nB RT ln yB C RT  ln.0:0500/
where
r G ı D f G ı (N2 O4 ) C 2 f G ı (NO2 ) D .97:72 kJ mol 1
/ C 2.51:22 kJ mol 1
/
D 4:72 kJ mol 1
nA
yA D yB D 1 yA
nA C nB
nA D 1:000 mol  nB D 2
1 1 1
RT D .8:3145 J K mol /.298:15 K/ D 2:4790 kJ mol
See Table 19 for calculated values.
(b) Plot your values of G./ G.0/ as a function of , and draw a smooth curve through the
points.
 76

Table 19 Problem 11.13(a)

1
=mol nA =mol nB =mol yA yB ŒG./ G.0/=kJ mol
0 1:000 0 1 0 0
0:1 0:900 0:200 0:818 0:182 1:56
0:2 0:800 0:400 0:667 0:333 2:43
0:3 0:700 0:600 0:538 0:462 3:04
0:4 0:600 0:800 0:429 0:571 3:45
0:5 0:500 1:000 0:333 0:667 3:72
0:6 0:400 1:200 0:250 0:750 3:85
0:65 0:350 1:300 0:212 0:788 3:87
0:7 0:300 1:400 0:176 0:824 3:86
0:8 0:200 1:600 0:111 0:889 3:72
0:9 0:100 1:800 0:053 0:947 3:41
1 0 2:000 0 1 2:71

Solution:
See Fig. 21.

0
1
G.0/=kJ mol

2
ŒG./

bc
4
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
=mol

Figure 21 Problem 11.13(b). The open circle at  D 0:65 mol indicates the estimated
position of eq .

(c) On your curve, indicate the estimated position of eq . Calculate the activities of N2 O4 and
NO2 for this value of , use them to estimate the thermodynamic equilibrium constant K,
and compare your result with the value of K calculated from Eq. 11.8.11.
Solution:
The curve minimum is at eq D 0:65 mol. The activities here are
aA D yA p=p ı D 0:0106 and aB D yB p=p ı D 0:0394. The thermodynamic equilibrium
constant has the value
aB2 .0:0394/2
KD D D 0:146
aA 0:0106
From Eq. 11.8.11:
   
r G ı 4:72  103 J mol 1
K D exp D exp D 0:15
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
 77

Chapter 12 Equilibrium Conditions in Multicomponent Systems

12.1 Consider the heterogeneous equilibrium CaCO3 .s/ • CaO.s/ C CO2 .g/. Table 20 lists pres-
sures measured over a range of temperatures for this system.

Table 20 Pressure of an equilibrium system con-

taining CaCO3 (s), CaO(s), and CO2 (g) a

t=ı C p=Torr t =ı C p=Torr

842:3 343:0 904:3 879:0
852:9 398:6 906:5 875:0
854:5 404:1 937:0 1350
868:9 510:9 937:0 1340
a Ref. [163].

(a) What is the approximate relation between p and K?

Solution:
ı
aCaO aCO2 CaO fCO2 =p
KD D
aCaCO3 CaCO3

Approximate the pressure coefficients of the solids by unity and the CO2 fugacity by
fCO2  pCO2 D p:
K  p=p ı
(b) Plot these data in the form ln K versus 1=T , or fit ln K to a linear function of 1=T . Then,
evaluate the temperature at which the partial pressure of the CO2 is 1 bar, and the standard
molar reaction enthalpy at this temperature.
Solution:
From the values of p=Torr, calculate p=p ı using
105 Pa bar 1
p ı D .1 bar/ 1
D 750:06 Torr
.101; 325=760/ Pa Torr
The values of 1=T and ln.p=p ı /  ln K are listed in Table 21 and plotted in Fig. 22.

Table 21 Data for Problem 12.1(b)

4 1
.1=T /=10 K ln.p=p ı / .1=T /=10 4
K 1
ln.p=p ı /
8:965 0:7824 8:493 0:1586
8:881 0:6322 8:477 0:1894
8:868 0:6185 8:263 0:5877
8:756 0:3840 8:263 0:5803

From either the plot or the equation for the least-squares line, pCO2 equals 1 bar and
ln.p=p ı / is zero when 1=T equals 8:561  10 4 K 1 and T is 1168 K. Use Eq. 12.1.14
to calculate r H ı from the slope of the least-squares line:
d ln.p=p ı /
r H ı D R D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/. 1:97  104 K/
d.1=T /
D 1:64  105 J mol 1
 78

1:0

bcut
0:5

ln.p=p ı /
bc bc

bc

0:5 bc bc

bc

1:0
8:2 8:4 8:6 8:8 9:0
.1=T /=10 4 K 1

Figure 22 Graph for Problem 12.1(b). The solid line is the least-squares fit to the
points: ln.p=p ı / D a C b.1=T /=10 4 K 1 with a D 16:839, b D 1:967.

12.2 For a homogeneous reaction in which the reactants and products are solutes in a solution,
write a rigorous relation between the standard molar reaction enthalpy and the temperature
dependence of the thermodynamic equilibrium constant, with solute standard states based on
concentration.

Solution:
Solve Eq. 12.1.11 for r H ı :
d ln K X
r H ı D RT 2 C RT 2 ˛A i
dT
i¤A

˛A is the cubic expansion coefficient of the pure solvent.

12.3 Derive an expression for the standard molar reaction entropy of a reaction that can be used to
calculate its value from the thermodynamic equilibrium constant and its temperature derivative.
Assume that no solute standard states are based on concentration.

Solution:
Combine the relations r G ı D RT ln K (Eq. 11.8.10) and r G ı D r H ı Tr S ı (Eq.
11.8.21):
r S ı D R ln K C .1=T /r H ı
From Eq. 12.1.13, substitute
d ln K
r H ı D RT 2
dT
to obtain the relation
d ln K
r S ı D R ln K C RT
dT

12.4 Use the data in Table 22 on the next page to evaluate the molal freezing-point depression
constant and the molal boiling-point elevation constant for H2 O at a pressure of 1 bar.
 79

Table 22 Properties of H2 O at 1 bar

M tf tb fus H vap H
1
18:0153 g mol 0:00 ı C 99:61 ı C 6:010 kJ mol 1
40:668 kJ mol 1

Solution:
MA R.Tf /2 .18:0153  10 3
kg mol 1 /.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1
/.273:15 K/2
Kf D D
fus,A H 6:010  103 J mol 1
1
D 1:860 K kg mol
MA R.Tb /2 .18:0153  10 3
kg mol 1 /.8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/.372:76 K/2
Kb D D
vap,A H 40:668  103 J mol 1

1
D 0:5118 K kg mol

12.5 An aqueous solution of the protein bovine serum albumin, containing 2:00  10 2 g of protein
per cubic centimeter, has an osmotic pressure of 8:1  10 3 bar at 0 ı C. Estimate the molar
mass of this protein.

Solution:
From van’t Hoff’s equation for osmotic pressure:
˘ .8:1  10 3 bar/.105 Pa bar 1 / 3
cB  D D 0:36 mol m
RT .1/.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.273 K/
3
nB  .0:36 mol m /.1 cm3 /.10 2
m cm 1 3
/ D 3:6  10 7
mol
2:00  10 2 g
MB  D 5:6  104 g mol 1
3:6  10 7 mol
12.6 Figure 12.8 on page 393 shows a curve fitted to experimental points for the aqueous solubility
of n-butylbenzene. The curve has the equation ln xB D a.t =ı C b/2 C c, where the constants
have the values a D 3:34  10 4 , b D 12:13, and c D 13:25. Assume that the saturated
solution behaves as an ideal-dilute solution, use a solute standard state based on mole frac-
tion, and calculate sol,B H ı and sol,B S ı at 5:00 ı C, 12:13 ı C (the temperature of minimum
solubility), and 25:00 ı C.

Solution:
Rewrite the equation for the curve using thermodynamic temperature:
ln xB D A.T B/2 C C
4 2
where A D 3:34  10 K B D .12:13 C 273:15/ K D 285:28 K C DcD 13:25
From Sec. 12.6.2, with K D xB :
d ln xB
sol,B H ı D RT 2 D ŒRT 2 Œ2A.T B/
dT
sol,B G ı D RT ln xB D RT ŒA.T B/2 C C 
sol,B H ı sol,B G ı
sol,B S ı D
T
The formula of Prob. 12.3 can also be used, with K replaced with xB :
 80

d ln xB
sol,B S ı D R ln xB C RT
dT
The values calculated at the three temperatures are listed in Table 23.

Table 23 Problem 12.6

sol,B H ı sol,B G ı sol,B S ı
t=ı C T =K
kJ mol 1 kJ mol 1 J K 1 mol 1

5:00 278:15 3:06 30:60 121:0

12:13 285:28 0 31:43 110:2
25:00 298:15 6:35 32:71 88:4

12.7 Consider a hypothetical system in which two aqueous solutions are separated by a semiper-
meable membrane. Solution ’ is prepared by dissolving 1:00  10 5 mol KCl in 10:0 g water.
Solution “ is prepared from 1:00  10 5 mol KCl and 1:00  10 6 mol of the potassium salt of
a polyelectrolyte dissolved in 10:0 g water. All of solution “ is used to fill a dialysis bag, which
is then sealed and placed in solution ’.
Each polyelectrolyte ion has a charge of 10. The membrane of the dialysis bag is permeable
to the water molecules and to the KC and Cl ions, but not to the polyelectrolyte. The system
comes to equilibrium at 25:00 ı C. Assume that the volume of the dialysis bag remains constant.
Also make the drastic approximation that both solutions behave as ideal-dilute solutions.
(a) Find the equilibrium molality of each solute species in the two solution phases.
Solution:
1:00  10 6 mol 4 1
Polyelectrolyte molality: mP D D 1:00  10 mol kg
10:0  10 3 kg
Calculate the initial molalities of KC and Cl :
1:00  10 5 mol
m’C D m’ D m“ D D 1:00  10 3
mol kg 1
10:0  10 3 kg

m“C D 1:00  10 3
mol kg 1
C .10/.1:00  10 4
mol kg 1
/ D 2:00  10 3
mol kg 1

Simultaneously solve the following equations for m’ and m“ in the equilibrium system:
m’ C m“ D 2:00  10 3
mol kg 1

.m’ /2 D .m“ C zmP /m“ D .m“ C 1:00  10 3

mol kg 1
/m“
The resulting equilibrium molalities are
m’ D 1:20  10 3
mol kg 1
m“ D 0:80  10 3
mol kg 1

Find the equilibrium values of m’C and m“C from the requirement of electroneutrality in
each phase:
m’C D m’ D 1:20  10 3
mol kg 1

m“C D m“ C zmP D 1:80  10 3

mol kg 1

(b) Describe the amounts and directions of any macroscopic transfers of ions across the mem-
brane that are required to establish the equilibrium state.
Solution:
The change in the amount of KCl in phase ’ is
 81

3 1 3 5 6
.1:20  10 mol kg /.10:0  10 kg/ 1:00  10 mol D 2:0  10 mol
6
Thus, 2:0  10 mol KCl has transferred from phase “ to phase ’.
(c) Estimate the Donnan potential,  ’ “.
Solution:
Apply Eq. 12.7.15:

RT m“ .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/ 1:80  10 3

mol kg 1
’ “  ln C D ln
F m’C .96; 485 C mol 1 / 1:20  10 3
mol kg 1

D 0:0104 V
(d) Estimate the pressure difference across the membrane at equilibrium. (The density of
liquid H2 O at 25:00 ı C is 0:997 g cm 3 .)
Solution:

From Eq. 12.7.11: p “ p ’  A RT Œ.m“C C m“ C mP / .m’C C m’ /

3 3 1
D .0:997 g cm /.10 kg g /.106 cm3 m 3
/
1 1
 .8:3145 J K mol /.298:15 K/
3 1
 Œ.1:80 C 0:80 C 0:100 1:20 1:20/10 mol kg 
D 7:4  102 Pa
12.8 The derivation of Prob. 9.3 on page 42 shows that the pressure in a liquid droplet of radius r is
greater than the pressure of the surrounding equilibrated gas phase by a quantity 2 =r, where
is the surface tension.
(a) Consider a droplet of water of radius 1:00  10 6 m at 25 ı C suspended in air of the same
temperature. The surface tension of water at this temperature is 0:07199 J m 2 . Find the
pressure in the droplet if the pressure of the surrounding air is 1:00 bar.
Solution:
2 2.0:07199 J m 2 /
pl D pg C D 1:00 bar C D 2:44  105 Pa D 2:44 bar
r 1:00  10 6 m
(b) Calculate the difference between the fugacity of H2 O in the air of pressure 1:00 bar equili-
brated with this water droplet, and the fugacity in air equilibrated at the same temperature
and pressure with a pool of liquid water having a flat surface. Liquid water at 25 ı C and
1 bar has a vapor pressure of 0:032 bar and a molar volume of 1:807  10 5 m3 mol 1 .
Solution:
From Eq. 12.8.3:
 
Vm (l).p2 p1 /
f .p2 / D f .p1 / exp
RT
 
.1:807  10 5 m3 mol 1 /.1:44  105 Pa/
D f .p1 / exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D 1:00105f .p1 /
5
f .p2 / f .p1 / D .1:00105 1/f .p1 / D .0:00105/.0:032 bar/ D 3:4  10 bar
12.9 For a solution process in which species B is transferred from a gas phase to a liquid solution,
find the relation between sol G ı (solute standard state based on mole fraction) and the Henry’s
law constant kH,B .
 82

Solution:
sol G ı D RT ln K
ı
x;B p
From Eq. 12.8.30: K D
kH,B
Under standard state conditions, p D p ı and x;B D1
ı ı ı
Therefore sol G D RT lnŒkH,B .p /=p 
12.10 Crovetto10 reviewed the published data for the solubility of gaseous CO2 in water, and fitted
the Henry’s law constant kH,B to a function of temperature. Her recommended values of kH,B at
five temperatures are 1233 bar at 15:00 ı C, 1433 bar at 20:00 ı C, 1648 bar at 25:00 ı C, 1874 bar
at 30:00 ı C, and 2111 bar at 35 ı C.
(a) The partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere is typically about 3  10 4 bar. Assume
a fugacity of 3:0  10 4 bar, and calculate the aqueous solubility at 25:00 ı C expressed
both as a mole fraction and as a molality.
Solution:
From Table 9.4: xB D fB = x;B kH,B . Assume that x;B is 1:
fB 3:0  10 4 bar 7
xB D D D 1:8  10
kH,B 1648 bar
From Eq. 9.1.14, at high dilution:
xB 1:8  10 7 5 1
mB D D D 1:0  10 mol kg
MA 18:0153  10 3 kg mol 1

(b) Find the standard molar enthalpy of solution at 25:00 ı C.

Solution:
From Eq. 12.8.32:
d ln.kH,B =p ı /
sol,B H ı D R
d.1=T /
The values of 1=T and ln kH,B =p ı are listed in Table 24.

Table 24 Data for Problem 12.10

t =ı C T =K .1=T /=10 3
K 1
ln.kH,B =p ı /
15:00 288:15 3:4704 7:117
20:00 293:15 3:4112 7:268
25:00 298:15 3:3540 7:407
30:00 303:15 3:2987 7:536
35:00 308:15 3:2452 7:655

The points are plotted in Fig. 23 on the next page. The tangent to the curve at the point
for 298:15 K (dashed line) has the slope d ln.kH,B =p ı /= d.1=T / D 2:39  103 K. The
same value may be obtained from the slope of a line between the two end points.
sol,B H ı D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/. 2:39  103 K/ D 1:99  104 J mol 1

(c) Dissolved carbon dioxide exists mostly in the form of CO2 molecules, but a small fraction
exists as H2 CO3 molecules, and there is also some ionization:
10 Ref. [40].
 83

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

Figure 23 Plot for Problem 12.10(b).

CO2 .aq/ C H2 O.l/ ! HC .aq/ C HCO3 .aq/

(The equilibrium constant of this reaction is often called the first ionization constant of
carbonic acid.) Combine the kH,B data with data in Appendix H to evaluate K and r H ı
for the ionization reaction at 25:00 ı C. Use solute standard states based on molality, which
are also the solute standard states used for the values in Appendix H.
Solution:
The ionization reaction is the difference of the reaction
CO2 .g/ C H2 O.l/ ! HC .aq/ C HCO3 .aq/ and the solution process
CO2 .g/ ! CO2 .aq/. Calculate the standard molar reaction Gibbs energy and standard
molar reaction enthalpy of the first reaction:
P
r G ı =kJ mol 1 D i i f G ı .i /=kJ mol 1
D . 394:41/ . 237:16/ C .0/ C . 586:90/ D 44:67
P
r H ı =kJ mol 1
D i i f H ı .i /=kJ mol 1
D . 393:51/ . 285:830/ C .0/ C . 689:93/ D 10:59
From Eq. 12.8.30, the equilibrium constant for the solution process, with standard state
based on mole fraction, is related to kH,B by K D x;B p ı =kH,B . Approximate x;B by 1
and take kH,B at 25:00 ı C: K D p ı =kH,B D 1=1648 D 6:07  10 4 . Since the solute
standard states used in Appendix H are based on molality, convert the value using Eq.
11.8.19:
4
K(x basis) 6:07  10 2
K(m basis) D D D 3:37  10
MA m ı .18:0153  10 3 kg mol 1
/.1 mol kg 1
/
Calculate the standard molar reaction Gibbs energy of the solution process:
sol,B G ı D RT ln K(m basis) D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/.298:15 K/ ln.3:37  10 2
/
3 1
D 8:41  10 J mol
For the overall ionization reaction:
r G ı =kJ mol 1 D 44:67 .8:41/ D 36:26
   
r G ı 36:26  103 J mol 1 7
K D exp D exp D 4:4  10
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
r H ı =kJ mol 1
D . 10:59/ . 19:9/ D 9:3
12.11 The solubility of gaseous O2 at a partial pressure of 1:01 bar and a temperature of 310:2 K, ex-
 84

pressed as a concentration, is 1:07  10 3 mol dm 3 in pure water and 4:68  10 4 mol dm 3

in a 3:0 M aqueous solution of KCl.11 This solubility decrease is the salting-out effect. Calcu-
late the activity coefficient c;B of O2 in the KCl solution.

Solution:
The equation for solubility expressed as a concentration analogous to Eq. 12.8.23 is
Kc ı fB =p ı
cB D
c;B c;B

Assume that c;B is equal to 1 when no KCl is present, and that c;B is not affected by the
presence of KCl:
3 3
cB (0 M KCl) 1:07  10 mol dm
c;B (3.0 M KCl) D c;B (0 M KCl) D .1/ 4 3
D 2:29
cB (3.0 M KCl) 4:68  10 mol dm
12.12 At 298:15 K, the partial molar volume of CO2 (aq) is 33 cm3 mol 1 . Use Eq. 12.8.35 to es-
timate the percent change in the value of the Henry’s law constant kH,B for aqueous CO2 at
298:15 K when the total pressure is changed from 1:00 bar to 10:00 bar.

Solution:
From Eq. 12.8.35:
 
VB1 .p2 p1 /
kH,B .p2 /  kH,B .p1 / exp
RT
 
.33  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.10:00 1:00/  105 Pa
kH,B .10:00 bar/  kH,B .1:00 bar/ exp
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
 1:012 kH,B .1:00 bar/
percent change  1:2%

12.13 Rettich et al12 made high-precision measurements of the solubility of gaseous oxygen (O2 ) in
water. Each measurement was made by equilibrating water and oxygen in a closed vessel for
a period of up to two days, at a temperature controlled within ˙0:003 K. The oxygen was
extracted from samples of known volume of the equilibrated liquid and gas phases, and the
amount of O2 in each sample was determined from p-V -T measurements taking gas nonideal-
ity into account. It was then possible to evaluate the mole fraction xB of O2 in the liquid phase
g
and the ratio .nB =V g / for the O2 in the gas phase.

Table 25 Data for Problem 12.13 (A = H2 O, B = O2 )

T D 298:152 K Second virial coefficients:

5 6
xB D 2:02142  10 BAA D 1152  10 m3 mol 1

g 3 6
.nB =V g / D 35:9957 mol m BBB D 16:2  10 m3 mol 1

pA D 3167:13 Pa BAB D 27:0  10 6

m3 mol 1

VA D 18:069  10 6
m3 mol 1

VB1 D 31:10  10 6
m3 mol 1

Table 25 gives values of physical quantities at T D 298:152 K needed for this problem. The
g
values of xB and .nB =V g / were obtained by Rettich et al from samples of liquid and gas phases

11 Ref. [112]. 12 Ref. [152].

 85

equilibrated at temperature T , as explained above. pA is the saturation vapor pressure of pure
liquid water at this temperature.
Your calculations will be similar to those used by Rettich et al to obtain values of the Henry’s
law constant of oxygen to six significant figures. Your own calculations should also be carried
out to six significant figures. For the gas constant, use the value R D 8:31447 J K 1 mol 1 .
The method you will use to evaluate the Henry’s law constant kH,B D fB =xB at the experimen-
tal temperature and pressure is as follows. The value of xB is known, and you need to find the
fugacity fB of the O2 in the gas phase. fB can be calculated from B and pB . These in turn
can be calculated from the pressure p, the mole fraction yB of O2 in the gas phase, and known
values of second virial coefficients. You will calculate p and yB by an iterative procedure.
Assume the gas has the virial equation of state .V g =ng / D .RT =p/ C B (Eq. 9.3.21) and use
relevant relations in Sec. 9.3.4.
(a) For the equilibrated liquid-gas system, calculate initial approximate values of p and yB
g
by assuming that pA is equal to pA and pB is equal to .nB =V g /RT .
Solution:
g 3 1 1
pB D .nB =V g /RT D .35:9957 mol m /.8:31447 J K mol /.298:152 K/
D 89232:5 Pa
p D pA C pB D 3167:13 Pa C 89232:5 Pa D 92399:6 Pa
p
yB D B D 0:965724
p
(b) Use your approximate values of p and yB from part (a) to calculate A , the fugacity
coefficient of A in the gas mixture.
Solution:
From Eq. 9.3.27: BA0 D BAA C . BAA C 2BAB BBB /yB2 D 112:9  10 6
m3 mol 1

From Eq. 9.3.29: A D exp .BA0 p=RT / D 0:995801

(c) Evaluate the fugacity fA of the H2 O in the gas phase. Assume p, yB , and A have the
values you calculated in parts (a) and (b). Hint: start with the value of the saturation vapor
pressure of pure water.
Solution:
From Eq. 9.3.27, with yB set equal to 1: BA0 D BAA D 1152  10 6
m3 mol 1

From Eq. 9.3.29, with p set equal to pA : A .pA / D exp .BA0 pA =RT / D 0:998529
fA .pA / D A .pA /pA D .0:998529/.3167:13 Pa/ D 3162:47 Pa
From Eq. 12.8.3:
 
VA .p pA /
fA .p/ D fA .pA / exp
RT
 
.18:069  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.92399:6 Pa 3167:13 Pa/
D .3162:47 Pa/ exp
.8:31447 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:152 K/
D 3164:53 Pa
From Raoult’s law for fugacity:
fA .p/ D .1 xB /fA .p/ D .0:999980/.3164:53 Pa/ D 3164:47 Pa
(d) Use your most recently calculated values of p, A , and fA to calculate an improved value
of yB .
 86

Solution:
pA D fA =A D .3164:47 Pa/=.0:995801/ D 3177:81 Pa
yB D 1 yA D 1 pA =p D 1 .3177:81 Pa/=.92399:6 Pa/ D 0:965608
(e) Use your current values of p and yB to evaluate the compression factor Z of the gas
mixture, taking nonideality into account.
Solution:
yA D 1 yB D 1 0:965608 D 0:034392
From Eq. 9.3.23:
B D yA2 BAA C 2yA yB BAB C yB2 BBB
D .0:034392/2 BAA C 2.0:034392/.0:965608/BAB C .0:965608/2 BBB
6
D 18:2608  10 m3 mol 1

From Eq. 9.3.22:

6
Bp . 18:2608  10 m3 mol 1 /.92399:6 Pa/
Z D1C D1C 1
D 0:999319
RT .8:31447 J K mol 1 /.298:152 K/
g
(f) Derive a general expression for p as a function of .nB =V g /, T , yB , and Z. Use this
expression to calculate an improved value of p.
Solution:
def pV g g
Z D ng D nB =yB
ng RT
 g 
ng RT Z nB RT Z
pD D
Vg Vg yB
1
3 .8:31447 J K mol 1 /.298:152 K/.0:999319/
D .35:9957 mol m /
0:965608
D 92347:7 Pa
(g) Finally, use the improved values of p and yB to evaluate the Henry’s law constant kH,B at
the experimental T and p.
Solution:
From Eq. 9.3.28:
BB0 D BBB C . BAA C 2BAB BBB /.1 yB /2 D 14:88  10 6
m3 mol 1

From Eq. 9.3.29:

 
. 14:88  10 6 m3 mol 1 /.92347:7 Pa/
B D exp .BB0 p=RT / D exp D 0:999446
.8:31447 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:152 K/
fB  y p .0:999446/.0:965608/.92347:7 Pa/
kH,B D D B B D
xB xB 2:02142  10 5
D 4:40890  109 Pa
12.14 The method described in Prob. 12.13 has been used to obtain high-precision values of the
Henry’s law constant, kH,B , for gaseous methane dissolved in water.13 Table 26 lists values of
ln .kH,B =p ı / at eleven temperatures in the range 275 K–328 K and at pressures close to 1 bar.
Use these data to evaluate sol,B H ı and sol,B Cpı at T D 298:15 K. This can be done by a
13 Ref. [153].
 87

Table 26 Data for Prob. 12.14

1=.T =K/ ln .kH,B =p ı / 1=.T =K/ ln .kH,B =p ı /

0:00363029 10:0569 0:00329870 10:6738
0:00359531 10:1361 0:00319326 10:8141
0:00352175 10:2895 0:00314307 10:8673
0:00347041 10:3883 0:00309444 10:9142
0:00341111 10:4951 0:00304739 10:9564
0:00335390 10:5906

11:0
11.0
bc
bc

bc

bc
10:8

bc
ln .kx;B =p ı /

10:6 bc

bc

10:4 bc

bc

10:2
bc

bc

10:0
3:0 3:1 3:2 3:3 3:4 3:5 3:6 3.7
.1=T /=10 3 K 1

Figure 24 Plot for Prob. 12.14. Open circles: data points from Table 12.26. Dashed
line: tangent to curve at 1=T D 1=298:15 K.

graphical method. Better precision will be obtained by making a least-squares fit of the data to
the three-term polynomial

ln .kH,B =p ı / D a C b.1=T / C c.1=T /2

and using the values of the coefficients a, b, and c for the evaluations.

Solution:
For the graphical method, make a plot of ln kH,B versus 1=T as in Fig. 24. The tangent to the
curve at 1=T D 1=298:15 K (dashed line) has a slope of 1:58  103 K.
From Eq. 12.8.32:
d ln.kH,B =p ı /
sol,B H ı D R D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/. 1:58  103 K/ D 13:1 kJ mol 1
d.1=T /
From Eq. 11.3.6:
sol,B Cpı D dsol,B H ı = dT
 88

From the slope between the first two points on the graph:
sol,B H ı D . 897 K/R at T  325:6 K
From the slope between the last two points on the graph:
sol,B H ı D . 2264 K/R at T  276:8 K
1 1
. 897 K C 2264 K/.8:3145 J K mol /
sol,B Cpı  D 233 J K 1
mol 1
325:6 K 276:8 K
Using a least-squares fit to ln .kH,B =p ı / D a C b.1=T / C c.1=T /2 :
a D 1:6755 b D 6896:86 K c D 1:263836  106 K2
d ln.kH,B =p ı /
sol,B H ı D R D RŒ b C 2c.1=T / D 13:145 kJ mol 1
d.1=T /
sol,B Cpı D dsol,B H ı = dT D 2Rc.1=T /2 D 236:42 J K 1
mol 1

12.15 Liquid water and liquid benzene have very small mutual solubilities. Equilibria in the binary
water–benzene system were investigated by Tucker, Lane, and Christian14 as follows. A known
amount of distilled water was admitted to an evacuated, thermostatted vessel. Part of the water
vaporized to form a vapor phase. Small, precisely measured volumes of liquid benzene were
then added incrementally from the sample loop of a liquid-chromatography valve. The benzene
distributed itself between the liquid and gaseous phases in the vessel. After each addition, the
pressure was read with a precision pressure gauge. From the known amounts of water and
benzene and the total pressure, the liquid composition and the partial pressure of the benzene
were calculated. The fugacity of the benzene in the vapor phase was calculated from its partial
pressure and the second virial coefficient.
At a fixed temperature, for mole fractions xB of benzene in the liquid phase up to about
3  10 4 (less than the solubility of benzene in water), the fugacity of the benzene in the
equilibrated gas phase was found to have the following dependence on xB :
fB
D kH,B AxB
xB
Here kH,B is the Henry’s law constant and A is a constant related to deviations from Henry’s
law. At 30 ı C, the measured values were kH,B D 385:5 bar and A D 2:24  104 bar.
(a) Treat benzene (B) as the solute and find its activity coefficient on a mole fraction basis,
x;B , at 30 ı C in the solution of composition xB D 3:00  10 4 .
Solution:
From Table 9.5, with the pressure factor of unity:
fB
ax;B D x;B xB D
kH,B
fB AxB .2:24  104 bar/.3:00  10 4
/
x;B D D1 D1 D 0:9826
kH,B xB kH,B 385:5 bar
(b) The fugacity of benzene vapor in equilibrium with pure liquid benzene at 30 ı C is fB D
0:1576 bar. Estimate the mole fraction solubility of liquid benzene in water at this tem-
perature.
Solution:
Assume that the fugacity of benzene vapor in equilibrium with a saturated aqueous
solution of benzene is 0:1576 bar, and solve the equation fB =xB D kH,B AxB for xB :
14 Ref. [171].
 89

AxB2 kH,B xB C fB D 0
q
2
kH,B ˙ kH,B 4AfB
xB D D 1:68  10 2 or 4:19  10 4
2A
As xB is increased in the unsaturated solution the saturation condition is reached at the
lower of the two values: xB D 4:19  10 4 .
(c) The calculation of x;B in part (a) treated the benzene as a single solute species with
deviations from infinite-dilution behavior. Tucker et al suggested a dimerization model to
explain the observed negative deviations from Henry’s law. (Classical thermodynamics, of
course, cannot prove such a molecular interpretation of observed macroscopic behavior.)
The model assumes that there are two solute species, a monomer (M) and a dimer (D), in
reaction equilibrium: 2M • D. Let nB be the total amount of C6 H6 present in solution,
and define the mole fractions
def nB n
xB D  B
nA C nB nA
def nM n def nD n
xM D  M xD D  D
nA C nM C nD nA nA C nM C nD nA
where the approximations are for dilute solution. In the model, the individual monomer
and dimer particles behave as solutes in an ideal-dilute solution, with activity coefficients
of unity. The monomer is in transfer equilibrium with the gas phase: xM D fB =kH,B . The
equilibrium constant expression (using a mole fraction basis for the solute standard states
2
and setting pressure factors equal to 1) is K D xD =xM . From the relation nB D nM C2nD ,
and because the solution is very dilute, the expression becomes
xB xM
KD 2
2xM

Make individual calculations of K from the values of fB measured at xB D 1:00  10 4 ,

xB D 2:00  10 4 , and xB D 3:00  10 4 . Extrapolate the calculated values of K to
xB D0 in order to eliminate nonideal effects such as higher aggregates. Finally, find the
fraction of the benzene molecules present in the dimer form at xB D 3:00  10 4 if this
model is correct.
Solution:
Use the formulas
fB AxB2 xB xM
xM D D xB and K D 2
kH,B kH,B 2xM
The results are K D 29:4 at xB D 1:00  10 4 , K D 29:7 at xB D 2:00  10 4
, and
K D 30:1 at xB D 3:00  10 4 . The extrapolated value is K  29:1. At
xB D 3:00  10 4 , the fraction of benzene molecules in the dimer form is
4
2nD nM xM 2:95  10
D1 1 D1 4
D 0:017
nB nB xB 3:00  10
12.16 Use data in Appendix H to evaluate the thermodynamic equilibrium constant at 298:15 K for
the limestone reaction

CaCO3 .cr; calcite/ C CO2 .g/ C H2 O.l/ ! Ca2C .aq/ C 2HCO3 .aq/

Solution:
P
r G ı =kJ mol 1
D i  i f G
ı
.i/=kJ mol 1
 90

D . 1128:8/ . 394:41/ . 237:16/ C . 552:8/ C 2. 586:90/

D 33:8
   
r G ı 33:8  103 J mol 1 6
K D exp D exp D 1:2  10
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/

12.17 For the dissociation equilibrium of formic acid, HCO2 H.aq/ • HC .aq/ C HCO2 .aq/, the
acid dissociation constant at 298:15 K has the value Ka D 1:77  10 4 .
(a) Use Eq. 12.9.7 to find the degree of dissociation and the hydrogen ion molality in a
0.01000 molal formic acid solution. You can safely set r and m,HA equal to 1, and
use the Debye–Hückel limiting law (Eq. 10.4.8) to calculate ˙ . You can do this cal-
culation by iteration: Start with an initial estimate of the ionic strength (in this case 0),
calculate ˙ and ˛, and repeat these steps until the value of ˛ no longer changes.
Solution:
Equation 12.9.7:
2 2
˙ ˛ mB =mı 2 ˛ 2 mB =mı
Ka D r  ˙
m,HA .1 ˛/ 1 ˛
Solve for ˛:
 2
1=2
Ka C Ka2 C 4 ˙ .mB =mı /Ka
˛D 2
2 ˙ .mB =mı /
Calculate ˙ from Eq. 10.4.8:
p
ln ˙ D A jzC z j Im D 1:1744.˛mB =mı /1=2
First estimate (Im D 0; ˙ D 1):
 1=2
1:77  10 4 C .1:77  10 4 /2 C 4.0:01000/.1:77  10 4
/
˛D D 0:124
2.0:01000/
ln ˙ D .1:1744/.0:00124/1=2 D 0:0414 ˙ D 0:9594
Second estimate:
4
 1=2
1:77  10 C .1:77  10 4 /2 C 4.0:9594/2 .0:01000/.1:77  10 4
/
˛D
2.0:9594/2 .0:01000/
D 0:129
ln ˙ D .1:1744/.0:00129/1=2 D 0:0422 ˙ D 0:9586
Third estimate:
4
 1=2
1:77  10 C .1:77  10 4 /2 C 4.0:9586/2 .0:01000/.1:77  10 4
/
˛D
2.0:9586/2 .0:01000/
D 0:129
The calculated degree of dissociation has become constant at ˛ D 0:129; the hydrogen
ion molality is mC D ˛mB D 1:29  10 3 mol kg 1 .
(b) Estimate the degree of dissociation of formic acid in a solution that is 0.01000 molal in
both formic acid and sodium nitrate, again using the Debye–Hückel limiting law for ˙ .
Compare with the value in part (a).
 91

Solution:
Use same formula for ˛ as in part (a); calculate ˙ from
p
ln ˙ D A jzC z j Im D 1:1744.˛mB =mı C 0:01000/1=2
First estimate:
ln ˙ D 1:1744.0:01000/1=2 D 0:1174 ˙ D 0:8892
 1=2
1:77  10 4 C .1:77  10 4 /2 C 4.0:8892/2 .0:01000/.1:77  10 4
/
˛D
2.0:8892/2 .0:01000/
D 0:139
ln ˙ D .1:1744/.0:00139 C 0:01000/1=2 D 0:1253 ˙ D 0:8822
Second estimate:
4
 1=2
1:77  10 C .1:77  10 4 /2 C 4.0:8822/2 .0:01000/.1:77  10 4
/
˛D
2.0:8822/2 .0:01000/
D 0:140
ln ˙ D .1:1744/.0:00140 C 0:01000/1=2 D 0:1254 ˙ D 0:8822
This value of ˙ will give the same value of the degree of dissociation as before:
˛ D 0:140. The increased ionic strength causes the degree of dissociation to increase.
12.18 Use the following experimental information to evaluate the standard molar enthalpy of for-
mation and the standard molar entropy of the aqueous chloride ion at 298:15 K, based on the
conventions f H ı .HC , aq/ D 0 and Smı .HC , aq/ D 0 (Secs. 11.3.2 and 11.8.4). (Your calcu-
lated values will be close to, but not exactly the same as, those listed in Appendix H, which are
based on the same data combined with data of other workers.)
 For the reaction 21 H2 .g/ C 12 Cl2 .g/ ! HCl.g/, the standard molar enthalpy of reaction
at 298:15 K measured in a flow calorimeter15 is r H ı D 92:312 kJ mol 1 .
 The standard molar entropy of gaseous HCl at 298:15 K calculated from spectroscopic
data is Smı D 186:902 J K 1 mol 1 .
 From five calorimetric runs,16 the average experimental value of the standard molar en-
thalpy of solution of gaseous HCl at 298:15 K is sol,B H ı D 74:84 kJ mol 1 .
 From vapor pressure measurements of concentrated aqueous HCl solutions,17 the value
of the ratio fB =am;B for gaseous HCl in equilibrium with aqueous HCl at 298:15 K is
5:032  10 7 bar.

Solution:
The sum of the reactions 12 H2 .g/ C 12 Cl2 .g/ ! HCl.g/ and HCl.g/ ! HC .aq/ C Cl .aq/ is
the net reaction
1
H .g/
2 2
C 12 Cl2 .g/ ! HC .aq/ C Cl .aq/
with standard molar reaction enthalpy equal to the sum of the corresponding standard molar
enthalpy changes:
r H ı D . 92:312 74:84/ kJ mol 1
D 167:15 kJ mol 1

Since r H ı for the net reaction is equal to the sum of the standard molar enthalpies of
formation of HC (aq) and Cl (aq), and f H ı .HC , aq/ is zero, we have

15 Ref. [155]. 16 Ref. [77]. 17 Ref. [148].

 92

f H ı .Cl , aq/ D 167:15 kJ mol 1

For the dissolution reaction

HCl.g/ ! HC .aq/ C Cl .aq/
the equilibrium constant is given by K D am;B =.fB =p ı /, and the standard molar reaction
Gibbs energy is
 
ı 1 1 1
r G D RT ln K D .8:3145 J K mol /.298:15 K/ ln
5:032  10 7
D 3:595  104 J mol 1

The standard molar reaction entropy is then

r H ı r G ı . 74:84  103 C 3:595  104 / J mol 1
r S ı D D
T 298:15 K
1 1
D 130:44 J K mol
Use Eq. 11.8.22 on page 355:
P
r S ı D i i Siı D Smı (HCl, g) C Smı .HC , aq/ C Smı .Cl , aq/
Since Smı .HC , aq/ is zero, we have
Smı .Cl , aq/ D r S ı C Smı (HCl, g) D . 130:44 C 186:902/ J K 1
mol 1

1 1
D 56:46 J K mol

12.19 The solubility of crystalline AgCl in ultrapure water has been determined from the electrical
conductivity of the saturated solution.18 The average of five measurements at 298:15 K is sB D
1:337  10 5 mol dm 3 . The density of water at this temperature is A D 0:9970 kg dm 3 .
(a) From these data and the Debye–Hückel limiting law, calculate the solubility product Ks
of AgCl at 298:15 K.
Solution:
From Eq. 9.1.14 for a dilute solution:
cB 1:337  10 5 mol dm 3
5 1
mB D D D 1:341  10 mol kg
A 0:9970 kg dm 3
Find the mean ionic activity coefficient from the Debye–Hückel limiting law, Eq. 10.4.8:
p
ln ˙ D A Im D .1:1744 kg1=2 mol 1=2 /.1:341  10 5 mol kg 1 /1=2
3
D 4:301  10
˙ D 0:996
Use Eq. 12.5.26 with r D 1:
2
Ks D ˙ .mB =mı /2 D .0:996/2 .1:341  10 5 2
/ D 1:783  10 10

(b) Evaluate the standard molar Gibbs energy of formation of aqueous AgC ion at 298:15 K,
using the results of part (a) and the values f G ı .Cl , aq/ D 131:22 kJ mol 1 and
f G ı .AgCl, s/ D 109:77 kJ mol 1 from Appendix H.
Solution:
Calculate sol G ı for the dissolution reaction AgCl.s/ • AgC .aq/ C Cl .aq/:
18 Ref. [72].
 93

sol G ı D RT ln Ks D .8:3145 J K 1
mol 1
/.298:15 K/ ln.1:783  10 10
/
D 5:5647  104 J mol 1

P
Apply the general relation r G ı D i  i f G
ı
.i / to the dissolution reaction:
sol G ı D f G ı .AgCl, s/ C f G ı .AgC , aq/ C f G ı .Cl , aq/
Rearrange to
f G ı .AgC , aq/ D sol G ı C f G ı .AgCl, s/ f G ı .Cl , aq/
f G ı .AgC , aq/=kJ mol 1
D 55:647 C . 109:77/ . 131:22/ D 77:10
12.20 The following reaction was carried out in an adiabatic solution calorimeter by Wagman and
Kilday:19
1
AgNO3 (s) C KCl(aq, mB D 0:101 mol kg ) ! AgCl(s) C KNO3 (aq)

The reaction can be assumed to go to completion, and the amount of KCl was in slight excess,
so the amount of AgCl formed was equal to the initial amount of AgNO3 . After correction
for the enthalpies of diluting the solutes in the initial and final solutions to infinite dilution,
the standard molar reaction enthalpy at 298:15 K was found to be r H ı D 43:042 kJ mol 1 .
The same workers used solution calorimetry to obtain the molar enthalpy of solution at infinite
dilution of crystalline AgNO3 at 298:15 K: sol,B H 1 D 22:727 kJ mol 1 .
(a) Show that the difference of these two values is the standard molar reaction enthalpy for
the precipitation reaction

AgC .aq/ C Cl .aq/ ! AgCl.s/

and evaluate this quantity.

Solution:
The reaction AgNO3 (s) C KCl(aq) ! AgCl(s) C KNO3 (aq) is equivalent to
AgNO3 (s) C Cl (aq) ! AgCl(s) C NO3 (aq). Subtracting the equation for the
dissolution of AgNO3 , AgNO3 (s) ! AgC (aq) C Cl (aq), gives the equation for
precipitation, AgC (aq) C Cl (aq) ! AgCl(s). Thus, the standard molar reaction
enthalpy for the precipitation reaction is the difference
r H ı D Œ. 43:042/ .22:727/ kJ mol 1
D 65:769 kJ mol 1

(b) Evaluate the standard molar enthalpy of formation of aqueous AgC ion at 298:15 K,
using the results of part (a) and the values f H ı .Cl , aq/ D 167:08 kJ mol 1 and
f H ı .AgCl, s/ D 127:01 kJ mol 1 from Appendix H. (These values come from cal-
culations similar to those in Probs. 12.18 and 14.4.) The calculated value will be close to,
but not exactly the same as, the value listed in Appendix H, which is based on the same
data combined with data of other workers.
Solution:
P
Apply the relation r H ı D i f H ı .i / to the precipitation reaction:
r H ı D f H ı (AgC , aq) f H ı (Cl , aq) C f H ı (AgCl, s)
f H ı (AgC , aq) D r H ı f H ı (Cl , aq) C f H ı (AgCl, s)
1
D Œ . 65:769/ . 167:08/ C . 127:01/ kJ mol
1
D 105:84 kJ mol

19 Ref. [176].
 94

Chapter 13 The Phase Rule and Phase Diagrams

13.1 Consider a single-phase system that is a gaseous mixture of N2 , H2 , and NH3 . For each
of the following cases, find the number of degrees of freedom and give an example of the
independent intensive variables that could be used to specify the equilibrium state, apart from
the total amount of gas.
(a) There is no reaction.
Solution:
There are three components: N2 , H2 , and NH3 . The number of degrees of freedom is
F D2CC P D2C3 1D4
The equilibrium state could be specified by T , p, and the mole fractions of two of the
substances; or by T and the partial pressures of each of the substances.
(b) The reaction N2 .g/ C 3 H2 .g/ ! 2 NH3 .g/ is at equilibrium.
Solution:
There are three species and one independent relation for reaction equilibrium,
N2 3H2 C 2NH3 D 0.
F D2Cs r P D2C3 1 1D3
One possibility would be to specify the equilibrium state by values of T and the partial
pressures of two of the gases; the partial pressure of the third gas would be determined
by the thermodynamic equilibrium constant and the fugacity coefficients, and p would
be the sum of the three partial pressures.
(c) The reaction is at equilibrium and the system is prepared from NH3 only.
Solution:
There are three species and two independent relations among intensive variables:
N2 3H2 C 2NH3 D 0 and yH2 D 3yN2 .
F D2Cs r P D2C3 2 1D2
The equilibrium state could be specified by T and p. The partial pressures of the three
gases would be those that satisfy the relations N2 3H2 C 2NH3 D 0, yH2 D 3yN2 ,
and pN2 C pH2 C pNH3 D p.
13.2 How many components has a mixture of water and deuterium oxide in which the equilibrium
H2 O C D2 O • 2 HDO exists?

Solution:
There are three species and one relation among intensive variables,
H2 O D2 O C 2HDO D 0.
C Ds r D3 1D2

13.3 Consider a system containing only NH4 Cl(s), NH3 (g), and HCl(g). Assume that the equilib-
rium NH4 Cl.s/ • NH3 .g/ C HCl.g/ exists.
(a) Suppose you prepare the system by placing solid NH4 Cl in an evacuated flask and heating
to 400 K. Use the phase rule to decide whether you can vary the pressure while both
phases remain in equilibrium at 400 K.
 95

Solution:
There are three species and two relations among intensive variables:
NH4 Cl C NH3 C HCl D 0 and yNH3 D yHCl (or pNH3 D pHCl ).
F D2Cs r P D2C3 2 2D1
The two phases cannot remain in equilibrium while p is varied and T is fixed.
(b) According to the phase rule, if the system is not prepared as described in part (a) could
you vary the pressure while both phases remain in equilibrium at 400 K? Explain.
Solution:
Yes, because yNH3 no longer has to equal yHCl and F is increased to 2. T and p can be
varied independently, and the pressure can be varied while the temperature is fixed at an
arbitrary value.
(c) Rationalize your conclusions for these two cases on the basis of the thermodynamic equi-
librium constant. Assume that the gas phase is an ideal gas mixture and use the approxi-
mate expression K D pNH3 pHCl =.p ı /2 .
Solution:
At a fixed temperature, K has a fixed value. If the system is prepared from NH4 Cl(s)
only, then the following relations hold
p
p D pNH3 C pHCl pNH3 D pHCl D p=2 K D .p=2/2 =.p ı /2 p D 2 Kp ı
and therefore p can have only one value at each temperature. If, however, pNH3 and pHCl
can be varied independently, then the relation K D pNH3 pHCl =.p ı /2 can be satisfied for
a fixed value of K and a varying value of p D pNH3 C pHCl .
13.4 Consider the lime-kiln process CaCO3 .s/ ! CaO.s/ C CO2 .g/. Find the number of inten-
sive variables that can be varied independently in the equilibrium system under the following
conditions:
(a) The system is prepared by placing calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, and carbon dioxide
in a container.
Solution:
There are three species, three phases, and one relation among intensive variables:
CaCO3 C CaO C CO2 D 0
F D2Cs r P D2C3 1 3D1
Only one intensive variable, such as T , can be varied independently while the three
phases remain in equilibrium.
(b) The system is prepared from calcium carbonate only.
Solution:
Only one intensive variable can be varied, as before; the initial condition leads to no
relation among intensive variables.
(c) The temperature is fixed at 1000 K.
Solution:
If T is fixed, no other intensive variable can be varied.
13.5 What are the values of C and F in systems consisting of solid AgCl in equilibrium with an
aqueous phase containing H2 O, AgC (aq), Cl (aq), NaC (aq), and NO3 (aq) prepared in the
following ways? Give examples of intensive variables that could be varied independently.
 96

(a) The system is prepared by equilibrating excess solid AgCl with an aqueous solution of
NaNO3 .
Solution:
Both phases were prepared from either the first or all three of the substances AgCl, H2 O,
and NaNO3 ; thus, there are three components:
C D3 F D2CC P D2C3 2 D 3.
T , p, and mNaC could be varied independently.
(b) The system is prepared by mixing aqueous solutions of AgNO3 and NaCl in arbitrary
proportions; some solid AgCl forms by precipitation.
Solution:
There are six species and two independent relations among intensive variables:
AgCl C AgC C Cl D 0
mAgC C mNaC D mCl C mNO3
From the phase rule we find
C Ds r D4 F D2CC P D2C4 2D4
T , p, and the molalities of any two of the aqueous ions could be varied independently.
13.6 How many degrees of freedom has a system consisting of solid NaCl in equilibrium with
an aqueous phase containing H2 O, NaC (aq), Cl (aq), HC (aq), and OH (aq)? Would it be
possible to independently vary T , p, and mOH ? If so, explain how you could do this.

Solution:
There are six species, two phases, and three independent relations among intensive variables:
NaCl C NaC C Cl D 0
H2 O C HC C OH D 0
mNaC C mHC D mCl C mOH
The system has three degrees of freedom:
F D2Cs r P D2C6 3 2D3
mOH may be varied at any given T and p by dissolving HCl or NaOH in the aqueous phase.

13.7 Consult the phase diagram shown in Fig. 13.4 on page 430. Suppose the system contains 36:0 g
(2:00 mol) H2 O and 58:4 g (1:00 mol) NaCl at 25 ı C and 1 bar.
(a) Describe the phases present in the equilibrium system and their masses.
Solution:
The mass percent NaCl in the system as a whole is
58:4 g
 100 D 61:9%
36:0 g C 58:4 g
The system point at 61.9% NaCl by mass and 25 ı C lies in the two-phase area labeled
sln + NaCl(s). The left end of the tie line drawn through the system point is at 26% NaCl
by mass. The lever rule gives the relation
msln 100 61:9
s
D D 1:06
m 61:9 26
 97

where m is mass. Solve this equation simultaneously with ms C msln D 94:4 g:

msln D 48:6 g ms D 45:8 g
The system contains approximately 49 g solution of composition 26% NaCl by mass,
and 46 g solid NaCl.
(b) Describe the changes that occur at constant pressure if the system is placed in thermal
contact with a heat reservoir at 30 ı C.
Solution:
As the temperature decreases, some NaCl precipitates from the solution. The
temperature drop halts at 0 ı C while the system is converted completely to solid
NaCl
2H2 O; then the solid cools to 30 ı C.
(c) Describe the changes that occur if the temperature is raised from 25 ı C to 120 ı C at con-
stant pressure.
Solution:
As the temperature increases, some of the solid NaCl dissolves in the solution. The
temperature rise halts at 109 ı C until all the water vaporizes. At 120 ı C the system
contains 1:00 mol of solid NaCl and 2:00 mol of gaseous H2 O.
(d) Describe the system after 200 g H2 O is added at 25 ı C.
Solution:
The solid NaCl dissolves to give a single phase, an unsaturated solution of composition
19.8% NaCl by mass.

Table 27 Aqueous solubilities of

sodium sulfate decahydrate and
anhydrous sodium sulfate a

Na2 SO4
10H2 O Na2 SO4

ı
t= C xB t=ı C xB
10 0:011 40 0:058
15 0:016 50 0:056
20 0:024
25 0:034
30 0:048
a Ref. [59], p. 179–180.

13.8 Use the following information to draw a temperature–composition phase diagram for the binary
system of H2 O (A) and Na2 SO4 (B) at p D 1 bar, confining t to the range 20 to 50 ı C and
zB to the range 0–0:2. The solid decahydrate, Na2 SO4
10H2 O, is stable below 32:4 ı C. The
anhydrous salt, Na2 SO4 , is stable above this temperature. There is a peritectic point for these
two solids and the solution at xB D 0:059 and t D 32:4 ı C. There is a eutectic point for
ice, Na2 SO4
10H2 O, and the solution at xB D 0:006 and t D 1:3 ı C. Table 27 gives the
temperature dependence of the solubilities of the ionic solids.

Solution:
See Fig. 25.
 98

50 bc

bc
l + Na2 SO4
l
bc

bc

bc

t=ı C
bc

bc

bc
l + Na2 SO4
10H2 O

Na2 SO4
10H2 O + Na2 SO4

0 bc

ice + l
ice + Na2 SO4
10H2 O

20
0 0:1 0:2
zB

Figure 25 Phase diagram for the binary system of H2 O (A) and Na2 SO4 (B) at p D
1 bar. Open circles are data points given in problem.

Table 28 Data for Problem 13.9. Temperatures of sat-

urated solutions of aqueous iron(III) chloride at p D
1 bar (A = FeCl3 , B = H2 O) a

xA t=ı C xA t=ı C xA t =ı C
0.000 0.0 0.119 35.0 0.286 56.0
0.020 10:0 0.143 37.0 0.289 55.0
0.032 20:5 0.157 36.0 0.293 60.0
0.037 27:5 0.173 33.0 0.301 69.0
0.045 40:0 0.183 30.0 0.318 72.5
0.052 55:0 0.195 27.4 0.333 73.5
0.053 41:0 0.213 32.0 0.343 72.5
0.056 27:0 0.222 32.5 0.358 70.0
0.076 0.0 0.232 30.0 0.369 66.0
0.083 10.0 0.238 35.0 0.369 80.0
0.093 20.0 0.259 50.0 0.373 100.0
0.106 30.0 0.277 55.0
a Data from Ref. [59], page 193.

13.9 Iron(III) chloride forms various solid hydrates, all of which melt congruently. Table 28 lists
the temperatures t of aqueous solutions of various compositions that are saturated with respect
to a solid phase.
(a) Use these data to construct a t –zB phase diagram for the binary system of FeCl3 (A) and
H2 O (B). Identify the formula and melting point of each hydrate. Hint: derive a formula
for the mole ratio nB =nA as a function of xA in a binary mixture.
 99

Solution:
See Fig. 26.

b
100

b
80
b b b
b b
b

b
60 b b b

b u

2
40 b
b b b
b b b
b b b
b

b
20
t=ı C

b b
0
b

20 b

b b

b
40 b

60
u
1
80
0 0:05 0:10 0:15 0:20 0:25 0:30 0:35 0:40
zA

Figure 26 Phase diagram for the binary system of FeCl3 (A) and H2 O (B). Solid
circles: data points.

nB x 1 xA
D B D
nA xA xA
The stoichiometry of each hydrate is given by the mole ratio of the liquid mixture with
the same composition:
xA D 0:143, nB =nA D 5:99: AB6 or FeCl3
6H2 O
xA D 0:222, nB =nA D 3:50: A2 B7 or .FeCl3 /2
7H2 O
xA D 0:286, nB =nA D 2:50: A2 B5 or .FeCl3 /2
5H2 O
xA D 0:333, nB =nA D 2:00: AB2 or FeCl3
2H2 O
(b) For the following conditions, determine the phase or phases present at equilibrium and
the composition of each.
1. t D 70:0ı C and zA D 0:100
2. t D 50:0ı C and zA D 0:275
Solution:
See points 1 and 2 on the phase diagram.
At t D 70:0ı C and zA D 0:100, the phases are solid H2 O (ice) and solid hydrate AB6 .
At t D 50:0ı C and zA D 0:275, the phases are solution of composition xB D 0:259 and
solid hydrate A2 B5 .
 100

70

60

50

t=ı C
P D2 P D1
40

30

20
0 0:1 0:2 0:3 0:4
zB

Figure 27 Temperature–composition phase diagram for the binary system of water

(A) and phenol (B) at 1 bar. a Only liquid phases are present.
a Ref. [59], p. 95.

13.10 Figure 27 is a temperature–composition phase diagram for the binary system of water (A) and
phenol (B) at 1 bar. These liquids are partially miscible below 67 ı C. Phenol is more dense
than water, so the layer with the higher mole fraction of phenol is the bottom layer. Suppose
you place 4:0 mol of H2 O and 1:0 mol of phenol in a beaker at 30 ı C and gently stir to allow
the layers to equilibrate.
(a) What are the compositions of the equilibrated top and bottom layers?
Solution:
The system point is at zB D .1:0 mol/=.5:0 mol/ D 0:20 and t D 30 ı C, in the two-phase
area. The ends of the tie line through this point give the compositions xB (top) D 0:02
and xB (bottom) D 0:31.
(b) Find the amount of each component in the bottom layer.
Solution:
The lever rule gives the relation
n(bottom) 0:20 0:02
D D 1:6
n(top) 0:31 0:20
Solve simultaneously with n(bottom) C n(top) D 5:0 mol to get n(bottom) D 3:1 mol.
Then, in the bottom layer we have
nB D xB n D .0:31/.3:1 mol/ D 1:0 mol nA D 3:1 mol 1:0 mol D 2:1 mol
(c) As you gradually stir more phenol into the beaker, maintaining the temperature at 30 ı C,
what changes occur in the volumes and compositions of the two layers? Assuming that
one layer eventually disappears, what additional amount of phenol is needed to cause this
to happen?
Solution:
The volume of the bottom layer increases and that of the top layer decreases. There is no
change in the compositions of the two phases. When the overall system composition
reaches zB D 0:31, the top layer disappears; the amount of phenol in the system at this
point is calculated from
 101

nB zB nA .0:31/.4:0 mol/
zB D nB D D D 1:8 mol
nA C nB 1 zB 1 0:31
Since 1:0 mol phenol was present initially, the top layer disappears when an additional
0:8 mol phenol has been added.

Table 29 Saturation vapor pressures

of propane (A) and n-butane (B)

t =ı C pA =bar pB =bar

10:0 3:360 0:678
20:0 2:380 0:441
30:0 1:633 0:275

13.11 The standard boiling point of propane is 41:8 ı C and that of n-butane is 0:2 ı C. Table 29
lists vapor pressure data for the pure liquids. Assume that the liquid mixtures obey Raoult’s
law.
(a) Calculate the compositions, xA , of the liquid mixtures with boiling points of 10:0 ı C,
20:0 ı C, and 30:0 ı C at a pressure of 1 bar.
Solution:
Solve Eq. 13.2.4 for xA :
p pB
xA D
pA pB
Set p equal to 1 bar and take values of pA and pB from the table.
at 10 ı C: xA D 0:120
at 20 ı C: xA D 0:288
at 30 ı C: xA D 0:534
(b) Calculate the compositions, yA , of the equilibrium vapor at these three temperatures.
Solution:
Use Eq. 13.2.7: yA D xA pA =p.
at 10 ı C: yA D 0:403
at 20 ı C: yA D 0:686
at 30 ı C: yA D 0:872
(c) Plot the temperature–composition phase diagram at p D 1 bar using these data, and label
the areas appropriately.
Solution:
See Fig. 28.
(d) Suppose a system containing 10:0 mol propane and 10:0 mol n-butane is brought to a
pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 25 ı C. From your phase diagram, estimate the
compositions and amounts of both phases.
Solution:
From the ends of the tie line (dashed line) in Fig. 28:
xA D 0:39, yA D 0:79
 102

10
bc
0
gas
bc bc
10
l+g

t=ı C
bc bc
20
ut ut ut

bc bc
30

40 liquid bc

50
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
zA

Figure 28 Phase diagram for the binary system of propane (A) and n-butane at 1 bar.

Use the lever rule:

ng z xA 0:50 0:39
D A D D 0:38
nl yA zA 0:79 0:50
Solve this equation simultaneously with nl C ng D 20:0 mol:
nl D 14:5 mol, ng D 5:5 mol

Table 30 Liquid and gas compositions in the two-phase sys-

tem of 2-propanol (A) and benzene at 45 ı C a

xA yA p=kPa xA yA p=kPa
0 0 29:89 0:5504 0:3692 35:32
0:0472 0:1467 33:66 0:6198 0:3951 34:58
0:0980 0:2066 35:21 0:7096 0:4378 33:02
0:2047 0:2663 36:27 0:8073 0:5107 30:28
0:2960 0:2953 36:45 0:9120 0:6658 25:24
0:3862 0:3211 36:29 0:9655 0:8252 21:30
0:4753 0:3463 35:93 1:0000 1:0000 18:14
a Ref. [24].

13.12 Use the data in Table 30 to draw a pressure–composition phase diagram for the 2-propanol–
benzene system at 45 ı C. Label the axes and each area.

Solution:
See Fig. 29. The system exhibits a minimum-boiling azeotrope.

13.13 Use the data in Table 31 on the next page to draw a pressure–composition phase diagram for
the acetone–chloroform system at 35:2 ı C. Label the axes and each area.

Solution:
See Fig. 30. The system exhibits a maximum-boiling azeotrope.
 103

38
liquid
34
l+g
30

p=kPa
g+l
26
gas
22

18
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
zA

Figure 29 Phase diagram for the binary system of 2-propanol (A) and benzene at
45 ı C.

Table 31 Liquid and gas compositions in the two-phase

system of acetone (A) and chloroform at 35:2 ı C a

xA yA p=kPa xA yA p=kPa
0 0 39:08 0:634 0:727 36:29
0:083 0:046 37:34 0:703 0:806 38:09
0:200 0:143 34:92 0:815 0:896 40:97
0:337 0:317 33:22 0:877 0:936 42:62
0:413 0:437 33:12 0:941 0:972 44:32
0:486 0:534 33:70 1:000 1:000 45:93
0:577 0:662 35:09
a Ref. [179], p. 286.

50

45
liquid
p=kPa

40 l+g
g+l
35
gas

30
0 0:2 0:4 0:6 0:8 1:0
zA

Figure 30 Phase diagram for the binary system of acetone (A) and chloroform at
35:2 ı C.
 104

Chapter 14 Galvanic Cells

14.1 The state of a galvanic cell without liquid junction, when its temperature and pressure are
uniform, can be fully described by values of the variables T , p, and . Find an expression
for dG during a reversible advancement of the cell reaction, and use it to derive the relation
r Gcell D zFEcell, eq (Eq. 14.3.8). (Hint: Eq. 3.8.8.)

Solution:
Equation 3.8.8 is a general formula for electrical work when the cell is part of an electrical
circuit:
¶wel D Ecell ¶Qsys
Combine this relation with ¶Qsys D zF d (Eq. 14.1.1):
¶wel D zFEcell d
The intermediate states of a reversible cell reaction have uniform T and p and an equilibrium
cell potential: Ecell D Ecell, eq . dG during a reversible process of a closed system with
nonexpansion work is given by the equality of Eq. 5.8.6. In this equality, replace ¶w 0 by
¶wel D zFEcell, eq d:
dG D S dT C V dp zFEcell, eq d
This is an expression for the total differential of G with T , p, and  as the independent
variables. Identify the coefficient of d as the partial derivative .@G=@/T;p , which is the
molar reaction Gibbs energy of the cell reaction:
r Gcell D zFEcell, eq

14.2 Before 1982 the standard pressure was usually taken as 1 atm. For the cell shown in Fig.
ı ı
14.1, what correction is needed, for a value of Ecell, eq obtained at 25 C and using the older
convention, to change the value to one corresponding to a standard pressure of 1 bar? Equation
14.3.15 can be used for this calculation.

Solution:
From Eq. 14.3.15:

ı r G ı
Ecell, eq D
zF
P
where the standard molar reaction Gibbs energy is given by r G ı D i i ıi (Eq. 11.8.3).
The effect of a small pressure change on the chemical potential of a solid or solute is
negligible. The standard state of the gaseous H2 is the pure gas behaving as an ideal gas.
Apply Eq. 7.8.4 to the isothermal pressure change of an ideal gas:
  Z p2
@ RT dp p
D Vm D .p2 / .p1 / D RT D RT ln 2
@p T p p1 p p1
For a pressure change from 1 atm to 1 bar the change of chemical potential is

1 1 1 bar
.1 bar/ .1 atm/ D .8:3145 J K mol /.298:15 K/ ln
1:01325 bar
1
D 32:63 J mol
Therefore for the cell reaction H2 .g/ C 2 AgCl.s/ ! 2 Ag.s/ C 2 HC .aq/ C 2 Cl .aq/ the
ı
pressure change causes Ecell, eq to change by
 105

ı ı ı ı . 32:63 J mol 1 / 4
Ecell, eq .p D 1 bar/ Ecell, eq .p D 1 atm/ D D 1:691  10 V
.2/.96; 485 C mol 1 /
ı
The correction to Ecell, eq based on the older convention is 0:17 mV.

14.3 Careful measurements20 of the equilibrium cell potential of the cell

Pt H2 .g/ HCl.aq/ AgCl.s/ Ag

ı
yielded, at 298:15 K and using a standard pressure of 1 bar, the values Ecell, eq D 0:22217 V
ı 4 1
and dEcell, eq = dT D 6:462  10 V K . (The requested calculated values are close to, but
not exactly the same as, the values listed in Appendix H, which are based on the same data
combined with data of other workers.)
(a) Evaluate r G ı , r S ı , and r H ı at 298:15 K for the reaction
1
H .g/
2 2
C AgCl.s/ ! HC .aq/ C Cl .aq/ C Ag.s/

Solution:
From Eq. 14.3.15:
ı
r G ı D zFEcell, eq D .1/.96; 485 C mol 1
/.0:22217 V/ D 21:436 kJ mol 1

From Eq. 14.3.18:

ı
dEcell, eq
r S ı D zF D .1/.96; 485 C mol 1
/. 6:462  10 4
VK 1
/
dT
1 1
D 62:35 J K mol
r H ı D Tr S ı C r G ı
1 1
D .298:15 K/. 62:35 J K mol / C . 21:436  103 J mol 1
/
1
D 40:03 kJ mol
The value of r H ı may also be calculated with Eq. 14.3.17.
(b) Problem 12.18 showed how the standard molar enthalpy of formation of the aqueous
chloride ion may be evaluated based on the convention f H ı .HC , aq/ D 0. If this value is
combined with the value of r H ı obtained in part (a) of the present problem, the standard
molar enthalpy of formation of crystalline silver chloride can be evaluated. Carry out
this calculation for T D 298:15 K using the value f H ı .Cl , aq/ D 167:08 kJ mol 1
(Appendix H).
Solution:
P
Apply the general relation r H ı D i i f H
ı
.i / (Eq. 11.3.3) to the reaction of part
(a):
1
r H ı D  H ı .H2 , g/
2 f
f H ı .AgCl, s/ C f H ı .HC , aq/
C f H ı .Cl , aq/ C f H ı .Ag, s/
1
D 2
.0/ f H ı .AgCl, s/ C 0 C f H ı .Cl , aq/ C 0
f H ı .AgCl, s/ D r H ı C f H ı .Cl , aq/
1 1 1
D . 40:03 kJ mol / C . 167:08 kJ mol /D 127:05 kJ mol

20 Ref. [4].
 106

(c) By a similar procedure, evaluate the standard molar entropy, the standard molar entropy of
formation, and the standard molar Gibbs energy of formation of crystalline silver chloride
at 298:15 K. You need the following standard molar entropies evaluated from spectro-
scopic and calorimetric data:

Smı .H2 , g/ D 130:68 J K 1 mol 1 Smı .Cl2 , g/ D 223:08 J K 1 mol 1

Smı .Cl , aq/ D 56:60 J K 1 mol 1 Smı .Ag, s/ D 42:55 J K 1 mol 1

Solution:
P ı
For the standard molar reaction entropy, apply the general relation r S ı D i i Si (Eq.
11.8.22) to the reaction of part (a):
1 ı
r S ı D S .H2 , g/
2 m
Smı .AgCl, s/ C Smı .HC , aq/ C Smı .Cl , aq/ C Smı .Ag, s/
By convention, Smı .HC , aq/ is zero.
1 ı
Smı .AgCl, s/ D r S ı S .H2 , g/
2 m
C Smı .Cl , aq/ C Smı .Ag, s/
1
Smı .AgCl, s/=J K 1
mol 1
D . 62:35/ 2
.130:68/ C 56:60 C 42:55 D 96:16

The formation reaction of AgCl is Ag.s/ C 21 Cl2 .g/ ! AgCl.s/:

1 ı
f S ı .AgCl, s/ D Smı .Ag, s/ S .Cl2 , g/
2 m
C Smı .AgCl, s/
1
f S ı .AgCl, s/=J K 1
mol 1
D .42:55/ 2
.223:08/ C 96:16 D 57:93
ı ı ı
f G .AgCl, s/ D f H .AgCl, s/ Tf S .AgCl, s/
D 127:05  103 J mol 1
.298:15 K/. 57:93 J K 1
mol 1
/
1
D 109:78 kJ mol

14.4 The standard cell potential of the cell

Ag AgCl.s/ HCl.aq/ Cl2 .g/ Pt

has been determined over a range of temperature.21 At T D298:15 K, the standard cell po-
ı
tential was found to be Ecell, eq D 1:13579 V, and its temperature derivative was found to be
ı
dEcell, eq = dT D 5:9863  10 4 V K 1 .
(a) Write the cell reaction for this cell.
Solution:
left electrode reaction (oxidation) 2 ŒAg.s/ C Cl .aq/ ! AgCl.s/ C e 
right electrode reaction (reduction) Cl2 .g/ C 2 e ! 2 Cl .aq/
cell reaction 2 Ag.s/ C Cl2 .g/ ! 2 AgCl.s/
(b) Use the data to evaluate the standard molar enthalpy of formation and the standard mo-
lar Gibbs energy of formation of crystalline silver chloride at 298:15 K. (Note that this
calculation provides values of quantities also calculated in Prob. 14.3 using independent
data.)
Solution:
The cell reaction is the formation reaction of AgCl(s). As written in the solution for part
(a), the electron number is z D 2. To simplify the calculation, divide the coefficients by
2:
Ag.s/ C 12 Cl2 .g/ ! AgCl.s/ zD1
21 Ref. [55].
 107

Then we have, from Eq. 14.3.17:

ı
!
dEcell, eq
f H ı .AgCl, s/ D r H ı D zF T ı
Ecell, eq
dT
1
 4 1

D .1/.96; 485 C mol / .298:15 K/. 5:9863  10 VK / 1:13579 V
1
D 126:81 kJ mol
and from Eq. 14.3.15:
ı
f G ı .AgCl, s/ D r G ı D zFEcell, eq D .1/.96; 485 C mol 1
/.1:13579 V/
1
D 109:59 kJ mol
14.5 Use data in Sec. 14.3.3 to evaluate the solubility product of silver chloride at 298:15 K.

Solution:
From Eq. 14.3.16:
zF ı .1/.96; 485 C mol 1 )
ln Ks D Ecell, eq D . 0:5770 V/ D 22:46
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
10
Ks D 1:76  10

14.6 The equilibrium cell potential of the galvanic cell

1
Pt H2 (g, f D1 bar) HCl(aq, 0:500 mol kg ) Cl2 (g, f D1 bar) Pt
ı
is found to be Ecell, eq D 1:410 V at 298:15 K. The standard cell potential is Ecell, eq D 1:360 V.
(a) Write the cell reaction and calculate its thermodynamic equilibrium constant at 298:15 K.
Solution:
left electrode reaction (oxidation) H2 .g/ ! 2 HC .aq/ C 2 e
right electrode reaction (reduction) Cl2 .g/ C 2 e ! 2 Cl .aq/
cell reaction H2 .g/ C Cl2 .g/ ! 2 HC .aq/ C 2 Cl .aq/
From Eq. 14.3.16:
zF ı .2/.96; 485 C mol 1 )
ln Ks D Ecell, eq D .1:360 V/ D 105:9
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
Ks D 9  1045
(b) Use the cell measurement to calculate the mean ionic activity coefficient of aqueous HCl
at 298:15 K and a molality of 0:500 mol kg 1 .
Solution:
From Eq. 14.4.2:

ı 0:02569 V ı 0:02569 V ˙4
.mB =mı /4
Ecell, eq D Ecell, eq ln Qrxn D Ecell, eq ln
z z .fH2 =p ı /.fCl2 =p ı /
4
ı 0:02569 V ˙ .0:500/4
D Ecell, eq ln
2 .1/.1/
ı
Ecell, eq Ecell, eq .1:360 1:410/ V
ln.0:500 ˙ / D D D 0:973
2  0:02569 V 2  0:02569 V
˙ D 0:756
 108

14.7 Consider the following galvanic cell, which combines a hydrogen electrode and a calomel
electrode:
Pt H2 .g/ HCl.aq/ Hg2 Cl2 .s/ Hg.l/ Pt
(a) Write the cell reaction.
Solution:
left electrode reaction (oxidation) H2 .g/ ! 2 HC .aq/ C 2 e
right electrode reaction (reduction) Hg2 Cl2 .s/ C 2 e ! 2 Hg.l/ C 2 Cl .aq/
cell reaction: H2 .g/ C Hg2 Cl2 .s/ ! 2 HC .aq/ C 2 Cl .aq/ C 2 Hg.l/
ı
(b) At 298:15 K, the standard cell potential of this cell is Ecell, eq D 0:2680 V. Using the value
ı
of f G for the aqueous chloride ion in Appendix H, calculate the standard molar Gibbs
energy of formation of crystalline mercury(I) chloride (calomel) at 298:15 K.
Solution:
From Eq. 14.3.15:
ı
r G ı D zFEcell, 1
eq D .2/.96; 485 C mol /.0:2680 V/ D 5:172  10 J mol
4 1

P
r G ı D i f G ı .i / D .0/ f G ı .Hg2 Cl2 , s/ C 2.0/ C 2f G ı .Cl , aq/ C 2.0/
f G ı .Hg2 Cl2 , s/ D r G ı C 2f G ı .Cl , aq/
D . 5:172  104 J mol 1
/ C 2. 131:22  103 J mol 1
/
1
D 210:72 kJ mol
(c) Calculate the solubility product of mercury(I) chloride at 298:15 K. The dissolution equi-
librium is Hg2 Cl2 .s/ • Hg2 2C .aq/ C 2 Cl .aq/. Take values for the standard molar
Gibbs energies of formation of the aqueous ions from Appendix H.
Solution:
P
r G ı D i f G ı .i / D f G ı .Hg2 Cl2 , s/ C f G ı .Hg2 2C , aq/ C 2f G ı .Cl , aq/
r G ı =kJ mol 1 D . 210:72/ C .153:57/ C 2. 131:22/ D 101:85
   
r G ı 101:85  103 J mol 1 18
Ks D exp D exp D 1:4  10
RT .8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/

Table 32 Equilibrium cell potential

as a function of HBr molality mB .
1
mB / (mol kg ) Ecell, eq / V
0.0004042 0.47381
0.0008444 0.43636
0.0008680 0.43499
0.0013554 0.41243
0.001464 0.40864
0.001850 0.39667
0.002396 0.38383
0.003719 0.36173

14.8 Table 32 lists equilibrium cell potentials obtained with the following cell at 298:15 K:22
Pt H2 (g, 1:01 bar) HBr(aq, mB ) AgBr(s) Ag
22 Ref. [98].
 109

0.0712

0.0710 b

bc

bc
0.0708 bc bc

0 =V
bc

Ecell
bc

0.0706 bc

bc
0.0704

0.0702
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
mB =mol kg 1

Figure 31 Graph for Problem 14.8.

Use these data to evaluate the standard electrode potential of the silver-silver bromide electrode
at this temperature to the nearest millivolt. (Since the electrolyte solutions are quite dilute, you
p
may ignore the term Ba mB in Eq. 14.5.2.)

Solution:
The cell has a hydrogen electrode at the left and a silver-silver bromide electrode at the right.
The standard electrode potential E ı of the silver-silver bromide electrode is therefore equal to
ı
the standard cell potential Ecell, eq of this cell.
0 0
Figure 31 shows values of Ecell plotted versus mB (open circles), where the function Ecell is
defined by Eq. 14.5.2 with a set equal to zero:
2RT p 2RT m RT fH
0
Ecell D Ecell, eq C . A mB / C ln Bı ln ı2
F F m 2F p
 
RT p m 1 fH2
D Ecell, eq C 2A mB C 2 ln Bı ln ı
F m 2 p
.8:3145 J K 1 mol 1 /.298:15 K/
D Ecell, eq C
96; 485 C mol 1
 
p 1
 .2/.1:1744 kg1=2 mol 1=2 / mB C 2 ln.mB = mol kg 1
/ ln.1:01/
2
0
To the nearest millivolt, Ecell extrapolated to mB D 0 (filled circle) has the value
ı ı
E D Ecell, eq D 0:071 V.

14.9 The cell diagram of a mercury cell can be written

Zn.s/ ZnO.s/ NaOH.aq/ HgO.s/ Hg.l/

(a) Write the electrode reactions and cell reaction with electron number z D 2.
Solution:
At the left electrode: Zn.s/ C 2 OH .aq/ ! ZnO.s/ C H2 O.l/ C 2 e
At the right electrode: HgO.s/ C H2 O.l/ C 2 e ! Hg.l/ C 2 OH .aq/
 110

Cell reaction: Zn.s/ C HgO.s/ ! ZnO.s/ C Hg.l/

(b) Use data in Appendix H to calculate the standard molar reaction quantities r H ı , r G ı ,
and r S ı for the cell reaction at 298:15 K.
Solution:
r H ı D f H ı (ZnO) C f H ı (Hg) f H ı (Zn) f H ı HgO)
1
D Œ. 350:46/ C 0 0 . 90:79/ kJ mol
1
D 259:67 kJ mol
r G ı D f G ı (ZnO) C f G ı (Hg) f G ı (Zn) f G ı HgO)
1
D Œ. 320:48/ C 0 0 . 58:54/ kJ mol
1
D 261:94 kJ mol
Tr S ı D r H ı r G ı D 2:27 kJ mol 1

2:27  103 J mol 1

r S ı D D 7:61 J K 1 mol 1
298:15 K
(c) Calculate the standard cell potential of the mercury cell at 298:15 K to the nearest 0:01 V.
Solution:

ı r G ı . 261:94  103 J mol 1 /

Ecell, eq D D D 1:36 V
zF .2/.96; 485 C mol 1 /
(d) Evaluate the ratio of heat to advancement, ¶q= d, at a constant temperature of 298:15 K
and a constant pressure of 1 bar, for the cell reaction taking place in two different ways:
reversibly in the cell, and spontaneously in a reaction vessel that is not part of an electrical
circuit.
Solution:
In the cell:
¶q
D Tr S ı D 2:27 kJ mol 1
d
In a reaction vessel, from Eq. 11.3.1:
¶q= d D r H ı D 259:67 kJ mol 1

ı
(e) Evaluate dEcell, eq = dT , the temperature coefficient of the standard cell potential.

Solution:
From Eq. 14.3.18:
ı
dEcell, eq r S ı 7:61 J K 1 mol 1 5 1
D D D 3:9  10 VK
dT zF .2/.96; 485 C mol 1 /