*-.,!

oPEN cHANNELs 313

v;
2e
CHAPTER
v3

10 it

t H.G. L. .rSlope S.
TA

lr'tr

OPEN
CHANNELS

FIGURE 1O,T
Open-channel flow-definition sketch (L, distance along the channel bed between sections A and B).

,-,,,
and B. Each term in the equation is in foot-pounds per pound (newton-met"r,
f,",
newton) of water flowing and, hence, in feet (or meters).
rn uniform flow the flow cross section remains constant in size and shape
from one section to another. Hence, in uniform flow, yo: yB, VA: Vt, and the
Twotypesofconduitsareusedtoconveywater,theopenchannelandthepressure channel bed, water surface, and energy line are parallel to one another. Thus, in
or partly
.onauii. The open channel may take the form of a canal, flume, tunnel, uniform flow, the slopes of the channel bed so, the water surface s., and the
in contrast to
fille<l pipe. open channels are characterized by a free water surface, energy line are identical.
pressure conduits, which always flow full' The average velocity for uniform flow in an open channel is given by the
Manning equation as follows:

HYDRAULICS OF OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW English units v -L'49 p2t3grt2 (t0.2a)

It is presumed that the reader is familiar with fluid mechanics, and the following
n
encountered in the
sections review only the salient features pertinent to problems
field of water resources. The following discussion will be limited to
turbulent-flow SI metric units: V :l Pzttgrlz (to.2b)
n
conditions.
where v is the auerage uelocity of flow, n is the roughness cofficient of the
channel, R is the hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area divided by the wetted
10.1 Unlform Flow perimeter), and s is the energy gradient, the head loss per length of flow path,
Figure 10.1 illuntrates conditions for flow of water in an open channel.
writing hrlL.Equations (10.2a) and(10.2b) are applicable when the channel bed slope is
thJ energy equstion between sections A and B, employing a velocity head less than 0.10. Under such conditions the slant length r of the channel is
correction frotor of 1.0, gives approximately the same as the horizontal distance Ax between the sections. Hence,
for uniform flow, the energy gradient S: hlL x hJL,x: A,zlA,x: So, the bed
.ttlt+Z:zniln+fi+n, (10.1) slope.
Typical values of the roughness coefficient, commonly called Manning,s n,
datum, y is are presented in Table 10.1. tf the roughness is not uniform across the channel
whore z is thc CIw$lpn of thc channel bottom above an arbitrsry width, an average value of n must be sclected or the channel may be treated as
iiri Ouptfr of f,ow, lt lf ttro 6vcrage velocity' and hl is thc hosd lom botwecn ,4

d;r4,
 l
tt
314 wATER-REsouRctlls p.N(ltNlttlRlN(i oPEN cHANNELs 315

TABLE IO.I a D.R.

Values of the roughness coefficient z
3000 16
Channel material T4
2000 1.0
).2
Plastic, glass, drawn tubing 0.009
Neat cement, smooth metal 0.010 1 500 10
Planed timber, asbestos pipe 0.011 9
Wrought iron, welded steel, canvas 0.012 1000 8
30' 0.00c01
Ordinary concrete, asphalted cast iron 0.013 7
Unplaned timber, vitrified clay 0.014 25'
6 1.5
Cast-iron pipe 0.015
Rivited steel, brick 0.016 500 5

Rubble masonry 0.017 400

16',
Smooth earth 0.018
0,00005
300 t4'
Corrugated metal pipe 0.022 2.0
Firm gravel 0.023 1Z',

Natural channels in good condition 0.025 200 0 0001

Natural channels with stones and weeds 0.035 = = lU9'
150 o)
Very poor natural channels 0,060 o, c oc,, )
; 100
,o64::,, o
d) !c
-9 E .g o
0)
90
80
ot 72" ,; Eo o
q)
3.0
o
'a
o"
0.0005 o
two or more contiguous channels, each having its own value of n. The discharge 70
s3
oo" .3 q)
60 !, o
in each subdivision of the channel is computed independently, and the separate G
5 50
G

E +a" l.g 0,001 o o

values are added to obtain the total flow. Natural channels with overbank flood o
.! 40 '6 no flE c
o)
o
o 4.0
plains are often treated in this manner.r o o 0.8 B .3 ;
various types of open-channel problems occur in cngineering practice. o
30
6 36"
0,7 r q) =oo
o o.
Tables, nomographs (Fig. 10.2) and other devices have boen prcpared to simplify E ro" 06 o E
calculations and facilitate solution of these problems. Thc nomograph of Fig. 10.2
,E
o
20 .g
o a 5.0
24" 0.5 0,005
is applicable for English units2 when z :0.013. It should hc noted that v and Q
E
G 15
E,
irrc proportional to lln and S proportional to n2 so that values from the o
.9 IB"
0,4 0,0I 6.0
nomograph may be readily adjusted to any other value of n.
o A0

A situation often encountered in hydraulic enginecring, particularly in the

I 15"
7.0
r,6xc of scwers, is that of a closed conduit flowing partly full. Undcr this condition {r 12"
l) 8.0
lltt' lirlrrid surface is at atmospheric pressure and the flow is thc same as that in 10"
c1 rlfcn channel. It is often inconvenient to computc /t rtnd A tor partially full
4 0 Ofr
9,0
!Er.llrrtu, nrrtl il is simpler to calculate V or Q for thc pipc flowing full and to adjust t IJ"
0 lr) 10.0
[9 pnrllV lrrll cgrrclitions by use of a chart3 such as Fig. 10.3. Whcn the depth of flow
fi i 1tr r'rrlnr pipc incrcases above 0.9D, the wetted pcrimctcr incrcases more rapidly 0','l')
12.0

14.0
IF'or l dh$r*lln ul llrtr lopic. rcfcr lo Ven Tc Q[11v, "()pcn'('httnncl ].lydraulics," sec.6,5,
MoOrrw.H$[ Nru Yrrrl, luitl
2
A nomop1h ht lhr lrlttlIrtt ol Muttning's cquation (t - 0.()l]) irr Sl nrotric units is givcn in
Appondlr !.1,
rThc roUlhin rilmdr$l fl v6tl€r rrrnrowlurl with tlopth of llow.'l'his vuriation is rollcototl itt rl( i l lll lil l0.l
Fig, 10,1, i11 nUn lild I ltttulllllt ol Srnitrry snd Stornr Sowcrs, AS('t'l Manuul of I'ructloe Notlrgtttltlt (llrrlllrlr ttttltrl frrt rolullntt nf lhl Mlrllttl FrlllAthrll (rl - (1.()l l)

37. rov, ld,, pi ll lt' Amllurn ltxilelY of ('ivil En3inoorr, Now York. 1976.

d_\
 tt6 wAlFt thruutlnn hN.rNrillrN(l oPEN cHANNELs 317

1,0 10.3 Critical Depth

il. The critical depth y" for flow in an opOn Chmnncl is defined as that depth for which

h
I
0,1 t ) the specific energy (sum of dopth and VflOglty hcnd) is a minimum. It can be shown
-.(,,. - mathematically that critical dopth oooun ln tt chtnnel when
lh 0,t :
I

Y t_ AtB
(10.4)
(
4
a

+
I

I
ilr 0,4
/ where B is the surface width. On U mlld lltt;rc 1.1,,, > y") uniform flow is subcritical,
I ; while on a steep slope (y,, < y.) unlform flow irr strpcrcritical.
e {
fl

L+ :
0,2
&.
Example 10.1 A discharge ol 4,5 ml/l rtlcrtt'n in rr roctangular channel 1.83 m wide
-t- with S : 0.002 and n = (l.0l2, Flnd thl nlrtrrul dopth for uniform flow and determine
0,2 04 06
I

0.8 r.0 t.2

: the critical depth. Is thc flow luborltl0fl ttr rttpercritical?

*ll\l,,,6nd v lvt,tl
Solution

l'l(;l,ltlr: lll.,l
l'lyrlnrrrlio e huntt:toliltics of uire rrlrrr pipcs lhwing partly full.
:
s:\ 1p,,,s,,, *
u,,1,,
, r,mr(,
,lil';r,,)"'
x 0.0021/2 :4.5 m3ls

: By trial, .y, : 1.060 m, Crltlonl dopth oot'tttr wlrcn

tharr thc cross-sectioRfll ilrcll hccnuse of the convergence of the pipe walls. Hence * A' o, 4 lr 1l.ti3r,)3
Qt
R, anrl consequcntly I/. dccrouscs. Maximum discharge occurs when y :0.94D. U f, uHl 1.83
from which .y" : 0.tt5 m. Sinco ,rr r ,l/rr lhr llow is subcritical.
:
10.2 Normal Depth
tt which uniform flow will occur in an open channel.
Normal depth,y,, is lhc dcpth : 10.4 Nonuniform (Varled) Flow
Normal depth muy bc determincd by writing the Manning equation for discharge: of in
Uniform flow rarely occuril in nnlUffl llt$lllllti bccause changes depth,
:J width, and slope along tho chunnol, Whlle thc sirnplcst design lor constructed
l'49
English units Q - AR2t3stt2 (10.3o) channcls provides a uniform croil l.0llon 6llrl constitnt slope, this is not always
n
fcasiblc bscause of topogrnphic condlllotlr 'l'ltcrclitro, tho engineer is often con'
:

j
ocrnc{ with nonunilorm flow lrt rtpcn $hlnrrrrh ( )nc ntethod of solving problems
SI metric units: g:L 4P'''5''.- (10.3b) ol'nonuniform flow utilizcs n rilop.hy.fllp ptor:$(lurc irnd the assumption that the
,l hcad loss in a short roach of tho uhnnnd lr ltlrtrlrcrrl with that caused by uniform
flow in u chunnel whose hytlnrullo rldlttr lnrl rttctn vclocity are equal to the
and substituting for A and R expressions involving y and other necessary rrtrrncricrrl ilvcrflgcri oI tho roip00llvc {lltttttttt,r ttl thc cnd points of thc rertclt,
dimensions o[ thc channel cross section. The resulting equation requires a
Writingthccncrgycqutrtionlttq,(ltl,l)'ll||r tlre cotttlilionsof Fig. l0.l.suhrtitul'
trial-and-error solution (see Example 10.1) or the normal depth may be computed
ittg lr, r,\ A.r lntl i,r" zr *,lrrA,t'nnd lulvtrrp l'ol A,v givcs
through lhc rrsc ol'tables.l
+ Vllllt lrx t Vl/2s1
A.x - t,v, ,$,,
(10,5)

I Varioun tuhlcs lirr thc solution of open-channel flow problcms nrc

availahlc in E 1.. Brutcr ilr wlriclr,\,, is the sklpe of tho ohfnml hollotrr rttttl S cun lrc rtpproxlntnlod
and H. W. King, "lllntlhrxrk ol'Hydraulics," 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, Ncw York, 1976, hy rrrhnlitrrting tlrc mo$Rn of lhr hydllrrlt,' clctttenls of the two rocllttnr of
 3l tl wA lriR-RrisouR('ris rN(irNrliRrN(i oPEN cHANNELs 319

M,mF
r,*r lll

s2

N !z< !t

FIGURE 10.4
W
Typical water-surface profiles for some nonuniform flow sitrurliorrn
v,
---=

Mild slope

the reach into the Manning equation, which frrr this prrr'posrr ntiry hc trtnsformed
(b) Case 2: Y2) Ii (1,o., vl (Yr )

to r,'TGURE 10.5
n Iixamples of Iocation of a hydraulic jurnl): yt lnrl g,, ,u" llrr: lrormal depths on upper and lower slopes,
English units
": "V?",
znni!]
(10.6a) rcspcctively; y', is conjugate to y1;.y" is cottjttgllo 1,, 1',

Sl rnclric rrnits: .- n'v1""

": &nJl
( r0.6b)
10.5 l,ocation of the Hydraulic Jump
Equitliott (lt).5) is ttsod hy stitrting at some poirrl ol'kltowrr rleJrl lr rrrrrl r:orrr;ruting Wlrcncvcr flow changcs frorrr srrpcrcrillurl lo strbcritical, a hydraulic jump will
thc tlistrrttcc A.r' lo it soclion ol'slightly dillcrclrt tlcptlr A rcrrsorrrrhly irccurate occur. ()ne problem facing lhc tlcrigttor tH lo litrtl thc location of the hydraulic
clc(crrttitrttliolt of lltc w;rlcr-srrr[ircc profilc is possihle lry llrrr rrrclltorl if thc
.irrrnp rrntlcr various condiliotts ol' llow l'rprrrliort (9.8) permits computation of
incrctltt:ttls ol'tlugrllt itrc stttitll. ('ornputer pr()gnulB. trrt'lr rui llli(' l, l birscrl on corr,irrgllc dcpths, i.c., dcplhs hcl'orc ntul ullr'r iurrrl'r, [or the case of a channel with
llttl grtcrcctlittg ('ott(:(:l)ls rtlt: rtvitilltlllc ftlr the cotttpttlrrltotr ol wrrlr.r rrrllircc llnrlilcs. rcclrrrrl4rrl;rr cross scctiott olt rt ltorirrttllHl ,,1,'pr l"or moderate slopes this equation
'l'ltc slttt;rc ol llrc wttlct strrlircc prolilc irt l grvcrr r lurrrrrcl tltrpcnrls on
givcsgootl rcsrrlls. [.irrchunncl rloporgforrlrr llr:rrr0. l0amodificationrisrcquircd.
lltc rclitliottnltip helwectt lltc rrt'luirl depth t,. crrlrt'trl rlrpllr r,,, irrrrl rrormirl Artollrcr mothrld of dctcrnrinirrg eorrlttgnlr rh'plhs in a rectangular channcl with
dcptlt t'r, l"tgttt'c 10 4 sltowr rix r:ornrnon ttotttrtllor ttr llrw rllurrlrorrs lilr rnild rlotlt:rirlc boltom sklpc lirr rrny lkrw lHlo 11 gx'r rrnit width is to plot thc functiort
(M) rrrttl slt'rp (,\) nkrgrt'n 'l'ltts lip.trrr: is a usefrrl grrtrlc rrr ir prelrnrirrirry lrrrirlysis
of mitny grtohlertrrr trr rrorriltulirrrrr llow. ln ttrltllltotr lo llrc $tx (:lts(:s slrown,
r)l) I q)lgvvcrlrusdcpth.t,, l,'orurryvHlrrrol llrt:l'unctionwithinthcrangcol'llrc
t'rrrvc llrclc will bc lwo tleplln, wltlt'lt etr'r'orrjrrgrrlo. A sepanrlc curvc tttttsl hc
thcrc itrc six olltct ;toxntlrlo r'rurcs, lwo ettclt lirr r'rtltt'nl. ltnlt/onlltl, irrrrl lrtlvcrsc
;rLrtlcrl lirr circlr ll<lw rllc. lilrurrltlm rtllltr. Lrt rrliort ol'a hydraulic.iurnp lrc sltowtt
bottrlm slol.re r. l rrr l,'tg. 10.5.

IHIi('-2 Wrrlcr rrrrlrrr,t. lttilllkr l,tilgrrrrrrrrrr.rr MIrtuIl Irrrl llrr,|r Mrilt,rrrl. I Iyrlrol,rgrl l;rrgirrt:cr
ing ('cnlcr, Il,S Arrrry l'l|rlu ill l'I11il#il.
l,ilvts, ('ltlll . l',lXl It' l, Krrrrlrvutcr, l'ho llytlruultc.lulrrp ll t{lrtplttl t hnrrrrolr, 'lir,:r,ti. Ali( '/l Vol l(}9, II Il(}/ Il'\4,
I Vcn'l'c ('how, "()[on rlrrrurol llyrlr*ultra,
II. 221 ]ll. Mr(lrrrw lltll, Nuw \ iltl. l')1'l I
't'l.l
 320 wArER-REsouRcEs ENcTNEERTNo

o
o.l
(,
rH '-:-:=-
H3 > >-?=>;l
b
g o
o)
<r;
oq
C\I
\_
b
*

h]a
lr
oh€
+@
.26'l -> \\\
72', 3', 77',' \\ R 6N€r
NS
FIGURE 10.6
Sketch ofwater-surface profile for -N9
va€i
Example 10.2 (vertical scale exaggerated).
EEgg
a/)
I
h Oooci

10.6 Free Outfall nN€N

x;:3S
If the flow in a channel is. subcriticar, critical
E88E
o6od
at a free outfall (Fig..10.6) since tte'spe"ifi. depth shourd theoretically occur
point' However' curvature of the ;;;;lr?"u.rrtrimum at that GDTP
streamlines in the vicinity of
the outfall alters qdE a\t9{
the flow conditions and resurts- i" ;;;;
brink at the
ress than 7".
The depth at a free outfa, hu,
"orsa"iuuty
b""n ob-*'"*3d exne.Lmgntary to- be about 0.7y" for ;O t*h ..r
subcriticar flow, and under such ir!
6or a
upstream from the brink. In contrast,"riarii"r,
triticar aeptt o""u., about 4y" oi o\ di a
if the flowis supercritical, the depth l12
;1l.1j!
less than th";;;;i at brink
depth, *r,i"r, ir-r"""r.u.ly berow i ls: s
ffi'li*t"1, the
+
:?TN a
qoo 9!
ooo
Example 10.2. Adischarge ot
with : ffit, o"",
: o.orz. iii;, ;:il], H:.JilT,i::XT;1,:H:$i:.-;f:
N
.so 0 002 and, q) irlNls'
6

depth at the brink, yn, andz. o"t"r*in.. € a

the shape .i,i" *",".rurface profile q o or6 €
ran
a distance of 100 ft ofrtrr"rn f.orn for NNN N+
il.l.irt. c,
ol
+ +++ +
X
Solation rd
mr6 atr o
r€
@
o\ o
E IilNi!lq) n ON:
r'+g -i.j'.i -j
e : AR2t3srrz : 6y, x
!) U

#x (_!n)r, x o.oo2tt2: 160 crs o o o

\€ e
o o\
!+
oi
Rs8 .')
€
o
By trial l,: 3.5ft. Critical depth occurs when (l)
e
o.ddj
cl a
Q'
hoh
(>Od €
+
:o, or 16o2
_(6y,)3 0I eitr .q T v) !.) !.'}

s832.26 (l)l
o

from which y":2.g1^ft.,Si1.. Gll I

profile is M, (Fig. 10.4). The {,
> y" the flow is subcritical and
aJptf,
Critical depth occurs at about qi":
""i-ii,
outfall is
the water_surface
"pp."r*rri y 0.7y": 2.0 ft.
:l:l N'
+
atr
a.t
q EEE e{d
t
r-.i
d
o
E

for the water-surface

it
ii-rprtr"u_ from the brink. Computations ol
profile usin'g'eq.-ffO.Sf are shown rl
in Table 10.2. ! .ll
EI ii
\o
€
\o
s88
Fqidi
cI
6l
tr
h1 cr. I d
10.7 Hydraulic Efficiency of Channels rl
E EI
ol
From Eq. (10.3) it is evident that,
with unifonn flow and fixed varues
I- UI da €
^i
Paa
.i ri ri
NI "l
.,.i I t
a
(A

S, and n, the rate of flow will

a; ;;;;um of r,
is a maximum. The cross when the hydraulic radius R
section having ttl'tigrrr.t hydrauric efficiency (maximum
322 wArER-REsoURcEsENoINEERING
oPEN cHANNELs 323

R for a given ,4) is the half circle. For a trapezoidal channel

for maxlmum channel efficiency R:
shape of a half hexagon, while the best
to one-half the width'
yl2.The best
rectangular section is
it can be shown that
trapezoidal
one
section has the
with depth equal ,wl"General case

Outer
bank
10.8 Channel Transitions
join conduits of differing size or b Rectangular c
Special transition sections are often used to cross section
shap" in order to avoid undesirable flow conditions such as wave action and $
eddies. Through proper design a relatively smooth flow through the transi-
loss. Transition design for super- +
ii* ir possibie. This will minimize head
in detail
Plan view
critical flow is a complicated problem that will not be discussed 1
FIGURE TO.8
here. If the flow is sutcritical, a straight-line transition (Fig. 10.7a)
with an
angle of about 12.5' is fairly satisfactory and will result
at an
in a head
expansion,
loss of
where
i Flow in an open-channel bend.

about 0.1 Lhu at a channel tontraction and 0.2 Lhu :

A/r, is the change in velocity head in the transition' for supercritical flow (Nr > r.0) is to avoid excess
from ' buildup of standing waves on
The cylinder-quadrani transition (Fig. 10.7b) is effective for a change the water surface. These.waves may overtop the
(NF: vlJsy) channel walls. No generar rures
trapezoidal to rectangular cross section if the Froude number for the design of a transition for suplrcriticai flow
are possiute, unJ"u"t, case must
complex
in the downstream seition is less than 0.5. At higher Froude numbers be treated independently.r
of transitions
warped transitions are advisable. The main problem in the design

10.9 FIow Around Bends

-T-- when a body moves along a curved path at constant
speed, it is acted upon
Flow e
Plan by a force directed toward the center of curvature
of the path. opposite to
this force is the centrifugal force. The centrifug-al force
.0 acting or'"i"-"nt abcd (Fig.
10'8) must be balanced. by the net pressure
Tor"". arrr-iig it ur'ir," veroeity v
across the section is uniform and that r B,
*
yB(y, + yr)12 V,
_yy? _yyl
g12 2
(10.7)

By algebraic transformation this expression

becomes

V2B
lz-!r gr (10.8)

It can be shown that Eq. (10.8) applies to any shape of cross

effect of velocity distribution and'variatio;;, -;;i;;.-;;;or. section. If the
Trapezoidal Flow
Rectangular section are considered, the difference in water depths the stream
section between the outer and inner
banks may be as much as 20 percert
the actual velocity distribution across -or.
\ than that given by Eq. (10.g). If
cYtinarical quadrant
/ the stream is kiown, ihe width may
(b)

FIGURE 10.7
(D) cylindor'quadrent transition from tArthurT.Ippen,DesignofChannelContractions,
opcn-channcl transitions: (a) simplc straight-line contraction; Trans.ASL:E,VoI.ll6, pp.326_346,1951;and
trepozoidal to roctengular scction. F. M, Hendcrson, ,,Open Channel Flow,,,chap.
, 7, Macmillan, New york, 1966.
 oPEN cHANNELs 325
324 wATER-RESoURCES ENGINEERING

TABLE IO3
bedividedintosectionsandthedifferenceinelevationcomputedforeachsection. Coefficient C, (English units) for rectangular sharp-
Thetotaldifferencei"su'faceelevationacrossthestreamisthesumofthe crested weirs without end contractions*
differences for the individual sections' provided
In designing bend, additional wall height must be Head i on weir, ft
" "ir"i"r
ontheoutsideofthebend.Inadditiontocentrifugaleffects,diagonalwaves Hd/h 0.6
supercritical' These waves' 0.4 0.8 1.0 2.0
will occur in the ."gio' of the bend if the flow issuppressed by superelevating
5.0

of height uppro*irnut.iy tq';i1t ('ln''.may

be 0.5 4.18 4.13 4.12 4.11 4.11 4.10 4.10

the channel bottom ,if.,i " spiral tiinsition

to introduce the superelevation 1.0 3.7s 3.71 3.69 3.68 3.58 1.6',7 3.67
2.O 3.53 3.49 3.48 3.47 3.46 3.46 3.45
gradually.lDiagonalsiilslhatsitupcounterdisturbanceshavealsobeenusedto r0.0 3.36 3.32 3.30 3.30 3.29 3.29 3.28
reduce wave heights' oo 3.32 3.28 3.26 3.26 3.25 3.25 3.24

* When using SI metric units the values of C_ in

the table should be multiplied
by 0.5s2.
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW IN OPEN
CHANNELS
Theflowinlargenaturalchannelsisusuallymeasured.withacurrentmeter, where C, is a coefficient that, in addition to other factors, accounts for the velocity
asdescribedinChap.2.Theflowinsmallstreamsandconstructedchannels of approach, The characteristics of the flow pattern that affect c* can be defined
by other methods. Among the most
may often be more J"#rl"r,rv measured by h and' Hrf h, where f/, is the height of the weir. values of c. (English units) for
common methods are the u" oi weirs and venturi-type flumes' sharp-crested rectangular weirs without end contractions are given in Table 10.3.
Equations (10.10) and (10.11) apply to free-flow conditions (Fig. 10.9a).
A weir without end contractions must be provided with an air vent to maintain
10.10 Weirs such conditions. When the water level downstream from a weir rises above the
Forweirformulastogiveaccuratevaluesofdischarge,theupstreamfaceof level of the weir crest, the weir crest is said to be submerged (Fig. ro.gb). Formulas
the weir must be u.rii.ut and at right angles
to the channel, atmospheric have been developed for flow over submerged weirs, but under such conditions
n-appe, and the approach channel
pressure should u" *ulrrtuined undei the accurate flow measurement is not possible because surface disturbances down-
shouldbestraight""a,""u''ructed.rnecrestofrectangularweirsshould stream from the weir make it difficult to measure the depth of submergence ft".
far enough upstream from
be horizontal. The iead h should be measured If the discharge to be measured is quite small, a triangular, or v-notch,
theweirtoavoidtheeffectsofcurvatureofthewatersurfaceneartheweir. weir will usually prove more accurate than a rectangular weir. The discharge
rectangular weir without end
The standard formula for discharge over a over a triangular weir is given by
contractions is g __ 0 -^
: C'; - tan 4.28C',hst2 tan
0

e : c'*'r,l-* rl! . U)" - e)") (10.e) Q

u JZon'r, i: ,
(10.1 1)

whereCjisacoefficientcharacteristicofflowconditionsovertheweir,Zisthe
Vo is the velocity of flow
length of the weir A-it head on the crest' and
't* from the weir'
"r"ri,,pttilum
in the channel :urt If the weir is contracted' an
the contractions may be made by subtract'
approximate correction'ior the effect of
ing0.1/rfromlforea"hcontraction.ItisconvenienttosimplifyEq.(10'9)to
(10'10)
Q: c.Lhttz

(a) Free flow (b) Submerged

lR. T. Knapp, Design of Channel Curves for Supercritical Flow' Iran^r' '{SCE' Vol'
116' pp'
tiing, "Handbook of Hvdraulics," 6th od" pp' l'lGl.JRE t0.9
2g^,32',l95l, Soe ufro n, il ir.tor and H. W, l"low over a sharp-crcsted wcir,
S-te to S-ZO, McGraw'Hill, N,ow'Jork' 1976'
326 wATER-REsoURcESENGINEERING

concrete are often preferred because of their durability. ;r:;;;:

applicable to broad-crested weirs. For flow measurement purposes,
the shape of
the weir must conform to one for which coefficients have been established
by test,
or values of c. can be determined by measuring the flow at various flow rates
using a current meter (Sec. 2.9). The value of thJ weir coefficient
varies with the
ygir 1!ane and with hlHo(Fig.10.11).In lieu of employing the weir equation
(10.10)], a fairly accurate determination of the flow .at"-is possible [Eq.
FIGURE 10.10 it roogh-ur.
Proportional weir' of Eq. (10.4) since the depth passes through critical depth y" as the flow goi
ou..
the weir.
The head on a weir is usually measured in the field with a stafl gage,
where 0 is the vertex angle of the notch. For
a sharp-crested triangular weir the better results are obtained with a hook or point gage in a stilling *"r.
though
English units are employed and rrr. gu!.
coefficient cihas u rurir. close to 0.5g when reading correspondingto zero head should be determined accura6ly
value of C'i varies slightly with head and cheited
approximately 0.32witt Sl metric units' The from time to time. Inaccurate head determination will produce sizable error
in
and notch angle. flow measurement.l
A Cipoletti weir is in shape' with side slopes, of 4 vertical
trapezoidal
tolhorizontal.The.*"",.no*permitteduyttrefl-aringendsoftheCipoletti Example f03. (a) Water flows over a sharp_crested rectangular weir (C.
crest length 4.00 ft at a rate of 10.fi) cfs. Find the percentage error in
: 3.30) of
weircorrespona,,",y"toselytoth"d"",.*"ntofflowinducedbythelateral thi computed
may be determined by use
contraction, and the ai*"f'"ig" of a Cipoletti weir value of the flow rate if the head measurement had been inco--rrectly
observed as being
0.020 ft greater than its actual value.
ofEq.(10.10)andTableto.r.rneproportionalweir(Fig.10.10)isonefor
This type is often used for
which the flow rate varies directly with head'
(6) Repeat (a) for the case of a sharp-crested triangular weir (ci)
whose vertex
flows' angle is 60'.
irrigation diversions or for measuring very small
Corrosion of the crest of u ihu'p-"t"tted weir
or damage by floating
the weir coefficient. Broad-crested weirs (Fig' 10'11) of timber or Solation
debris may alter (a) : 10.00 : C*Lh3t2 :3.30{4.00)h3t2
0
t : 0.831 ft
lf h:0.851 ft, 0 : 10.363 cfs
o/o
error: 0.363/10.00 : 3.63yo
(b) :
0 10.00 :4.28(0.58)&5t2 tan(6012)
h : 2.175 ft
If h :2.195 ft, Q :10.230 cfs
oh error: 0.230/10.00 :2.3}yo
(a) Mild slope
10.11 Venturi Flumes
If water contains suspended sediment, some will be deposited in the pool above
a weir, resulting in a gradual change in the weir coefficient. Moreover,
the use of
a weir results in a relatively large head loss. Both these difficulties are at least
partially overcome by use of venturi-type flumes. one of the most
common of the
venturi flumes is the parshall flume2 (Fig. 10.12).

(D) SteeP slope I Charles W' Thomas, Common Errors in Measuremcnt of Irrigation Water,
Trans. ASCE,yol. 124,
pp.3l9-34Q 1959.
2
FIGURE lO.II R. L. Parchall, Thc Prrehall Moeeuring Flumo, Colo, Agr. Exp. Sta, Bull.4Z3,
vcntilatod: (a) on mild slopo; (D) on ctccp slopc' 1936.
Broad-crestod woir in uniform thannol, fulty
328 wATER-REsouRcEsENGINEERING
opEN cHANNELs 329
The angle through which the vane rotates is indicative
of the velocity and hence
the flow rate. By proper calibration in a channel
section of specified shape and
size, good results can be obtained with this
device. The bit is that there
is practically no head loss. "arirtrl"
Example 10.4. Examine the flow conditions in a
very long 10_ft wide open rectangular
channel of rubble masonry withn:0.0r7 when
tn. novi.ut.-r, +io.rr. The channel
slope is 0.020, and an ogeeweir 5.0 ft high with :
C. 3.g is located at the downstream
end of the channel (Fig. 10.13).

Solution. The normal depth of flow in the channel

is found from

4oo:
# , ,on.(L.)'" ,, orro,,,

from which, by trial, /,:2-36 ft. critical depth in this channer is found from
(10.4): Eq.

h, .. ( Q' \',',': ( 4002 \,rr :3.67

?
-
crest
'": \n) (rr, , ,- ) rt

Since y, < y,, the flow is supercriticar. The

head required at the weir to discharge
the given flow is found from Eq. (9.2):
Elevation
4oo:3.6 * rc{n* [4ool(5 + fi) x 10121:rz
FIGURE 10.12
Parshall measuring flume.
L
from which, by trial, h:4.53 ft. Hence the depth
ec.q
-J
of water just upstream from
the weir is 9.53
ft, which is greater than y". The flow at this point
is subcritical, and
a hydraulic jump must occur upstrea-. tt. depth
y, after tie jrrn;-;---
Flow through a Parshall flume usually occurs in a free-flow condition with
2.36 , f2.36' 2g00123.6l, x 2.361u2
critical depth at the crest and a hydraulic jump in the exit section. The discharge
equation in English units for Parshall flumes with throat widths from 1 through
lz:-T*L o .-ff) :5.42rt
8 ft under free-flow condition is The distance from the weir to the jump is determined
with Eq. (10.5):
Q : 414/7r'szznoozc (10.12)
!.c: s.42 ft vn:#: 7.3e ftlsec : o.r, o
size, good results can be obtained
is practically no head loss.
with this device. The big advantage is that there fi
correction factor. Tables giving the dimensions of Parshall flumes, the corre- ln:9.53 ft vr:
H: 4.20 ft/sec o.r, o
sponding free-flow discharge, and correction factors for submerged flows arg ff:
available in the literature.l For best results a Parshall flume ought to be installed v _VA+Vb
in a straight section of channel where flow conditions are relatively uniform. '*":-2::5'79ftlsec
Another technique of measuring flow in an open channel makes use of a Ru"e : 2'95 ft
vane that is free to rotate on a horizontal axis at right angles to the channel axis.
(0.017 x
r- : 5.7912
: o'oolo4
T.2l x 2954t3

5.42+0.8S _9,53_0.27
t Richard H. Fronch, "Opcn-Channol Hydraulics," pp, 35G365, Mo0raw.Hill, Now York, 1985. x=<_rg6ft - r'
0,00104_0.02000
330 wATER-REsouRcEs ENGTNEERING opEN cHANNELs 331

of Manning's n by adjusting the assumed value of n so that the computed water

fi -o.as' Energy line
levels match the observed stages at the points where the flow was measured.
Engineering works on streams and rivers serve a number of purposes:
5.40, ---+ 4.53'
increasing the flow capacity, stabilizing the alignment, deepening the cliannel
3.72', for navigation, and preventing bank erosion and sloughing. Capacity can be
-186' increased by enlarging the cross section, straightening the alignment, smooth-
Horizontal datum'
ing the banks to reduce the value of n, and through the use of levees (Sec.
FIGURE IO.I3 20.9). Bank stabilization is achieved in a variety of ways including the use
Sketch of flow conditions for Example 10.4. of riprap, sand bags, and mattresses (sec. 17.4). Gabions (Fig. r0.14), wire baskets
placed along the banks and filled with large stones, are also used for bank
stabilization. From an environmental viewpoint gabions are much more attractive
The hydraulic and energy grade lines are shown in Fig. 10.13. It is interesting than sand bags or a concrete-lined channel as vegetation will grow among the
to note that in this example the water surface downstream of the jump slopes stones, particularly after sediment has had an opportunity to be deposited between
uphill in the direction of flow. The slope of the energy line, of course, is downhill. the stones.
It has been assumed that the water-surface profile from the end of the jump to
the weir is a straight line. Actually the surface profile (type S, of Fig. 10.4) is
slightly curved, and greater accuracy could have been obtained if Ax had been 10.13 Canals
computed in increments. Since computations of this type involve small differences The problem of canal location is similar in many respects to highway location,
between large numbers, it is important to carry as many significant figures as the but the solution may be more difficult since the slope of the canal bottom must
data justify. be downgrade, and frequent changes in slope (and hence changes in section) should
If SI metric units had been used in this problem, the method of solution be avoided. within the limitations of topography, the exact route of a canal is
would have been the same except that Manning's equation in SI units [Eq.
(10.2b)7 would have been used to find the normal depth and a diflerent weir
coefficient (Sec. 10.11) would have been employed.

TYPES OF OPEN CHANNELS

10.12 Streams and Rivers
Streams and rivers are the most prevalent type of open channel. Usually their
beds are unstable and their banks are subject to scour and sloughing at high
flows. Near their mouths rivers form meanders that are sometimes cut off
at high flows to form ox-bows. The configuration of streams and rivers can
be modified by dredging, straightening, narrowing, etc., and the banks can
be stabilized (Secs. 17.4 and 20.15).
The hydraulic analysis of natural channels is similar to that of engi-
neered channels. However, uncertainty in estimating the value of Manning's
n can lead to inaccurate results. Rarely is sufficient flow data available to
permit calculation of Manning's n. Hence n must be estimated by observation
of the roughness and configuration of the bed and banks of the river. Because
of irregularities in the alignment and cross sections, uniform flow rarely, if
ever, occurs in a natural channel. Consequently, hydraulic analysis of the flow in
streams and rivers is performed using computer programs employing the varied
flow equations (Sec. 10.4). To obtain good results, an adequate number of cross r,'TGURE 10.14
sections to account for irregularities is necessary. If flow data al two or more (iabions, 4 yr aftcr installation, uscd for bank protection on Saratoga Creek in
California. Note thal
points along the river are availablc, it is possible by trial to delcrmine the value vegetatitrn is starting to Srow among the gabions. (Courtesy oJ'Santa Clara Valley Wdter Disltict)
332 wATER-REsouRcEsENGINEERING
oPEN cHANNELs 333

TABLE IO.4 TABLE IO.5

Maximum permissible velocities in canals and flumes Typical side slopes for unlined canals
Velocity, ftlsec Yelocity, m/s Slopes
Bank material (horizontal: verticrl)
Clear Water with abrasive Clear Water with abrasive
Channel material water sediment water sediment Cut in firm rock |tl
Cut in fissured rock i,l
Fine sand 1.5 1.5 0.45 0.45 Cut in flrm soil 1: I
Silt loam 2.0 2.0 0.60 0.60 Cut or fill in gravelly loam lt:l
Fine gravel 2.5 3.5 0.75 1.00 Cut or fill in sandy soil 2t:l
Stiff clay 4.0 3.0 t.2 0.90
Coarse gravel 4.0 6.0 t.2 1.8
Shale, hardpan 6.0 5.0 1.8 1.5
Steel 8.0 * 2.4
Timber 20.0 10.0 6.0 3.0
Freeboard must be provided above the design water level as a precaution
Concrete 40.0 12.0 t2.0 3.6 against accumulation of sediment in the canal, reduction in hydraulic
efficiency
by plant growth, wave action, settlement of the banks, and flow in excess of
* Limited only by possible cavitation.
design quantities during storms. Economy in the cost of excavation and
earthwork
is achieved primarily by balancing cut and fill. It may, however,
be advantageous to
borrow or waste where the haul distance is great. On sidehill locations tte canal
determined by the slopes that can be tolerated. Excessive slope may result in a may be quite deep in order to balance cut and fill. Typical canal sections
are shown
velocity sufficient to cause erosion of the channel bottom or sides. The velocity at in Fig. 10.15.
which scour will begin depends on the bed material and the shape of the channel If the water has high value and the soil in which the canal is constructed
cross section. Fine-grained soils generally scour at a lower velocity than coarse- is quite permeable, it may be economical to provid e a canal lining to reduce
grained soils, but this is not always the case, for the presence of cementing material seepage from the canal. The rate of seepage from unlined canals
is influenced
in the soil may greatly increase its resistance to scour. The bed material of a canal chiefly by the character of the soil and the location of the groundwater level.
tends to consolidate with use and develop increased resistance to erosion. Water Table 10.6 indicates the order of magnitude of seepage fro-m canals situated
that carries abrasive material is more effective in eroding cohesive or consolidated
materials. Table 10.4 lists approximate maximum permissible velocities in channels
of various materials. A more sophisticated approach to the scour probleml
involves comparing the boundary shear stress (tractive force per unit area)Vith Water surface

the permissible unit tractive force. Through such an approach it is possible to

achieve a balanced design, i.e., to determine the bottom width and side slope of
the channel such that scour of bottom and sides is equally unlikely. Original ground surface
If
the channel slope is too gradual, the velocity may be so low that
(ol
growth of aquatic plants will reduce the hydraulic efficiency of the channel. Flat country

Moreover, suspended sediment in the water may be deposited. Consequently,

design velocities should be slightly less than the maximum permissible if topo-
graphy permits.
water surface priginal
Earth canals are generally trapezoidal, with side slopes determined by the ground surface
stability of the bank material. The determination of stable slopes uses the iCut,
procedures described for earth dams (Sec. 8.24). Table 10.5 lists typical side slopes -/ -4a
for unlined canals in various materials.

(6) Side.hill location

FIOURE IO.T5
I Ven Tc Chow, "Opon-Channol Hydraulicr," sccs. ?-l t through 7-15' Mo0rrw.Hill, Ncw York, 1959. Typical canal crose gcctions,
 OPEN CHANNELS 335

FIGURE IO.I6
Canal-lining machine in operation. (Courtesl, Caterpillar .l-ractor
Company)

empty. Such drainageis oftenprovided by graver

packings that direct the drain
water to weep holes. Seepage.loss from properry
rined be as low as
0'0-s i176u, (0.015 m/cr). In addirion to "ulrurr,,uf
a ieduction in seepage, rining may permit
higher water velocities and smailer cross
sections in the ."'r"i, *i,r., a resulting
saving in cost.

Example r0.5. A trapezoidar channer (Fig.

r0.r7), with side slopes
excavated in a stiff cray (permissibre verocity
l on 1, is to be
4.0. ft/sec) ,o cfs on a slope
of 0'0008' Specify a cross section for this channel
such that"onu"y-izs
it will not scour. Assume
n :0.02.

't(;t rRt,. t0.t7

l,.r, l, l;,, r,....,.,-r.. rr\.
334 wATER-RESouRcEs ENcINEERING

H?"i:';t"t* from unlined ca11ls

Seeprge rrte, ftlday Seepage rrte, m/d
Mrterial
0.25-0.75 0.075-0.225
Clay loam
1.0-1.5 0.30-0.45
Sandy loam
1.5-2.0 0.45-O.60
Loose sandY soils
3.0,6.0 0.90-1.80
Gravelly soils

above the water table. Seepage ratesl may be measured by

(l) ponding, (2)
determinations' In the pond-
inflow-outflow measurements, and (3) seepage meter
used to isolate a reach of canal'
ing method temporary wateriight bulkheads are
is admitted, and its ,ut.Lf disappearance less an allowance
for evaporation
Witil
is not reliable because a small
loss is the seepage rate. The inflow-outflow method
a relatively large error in the
error in one of these measurements will produce
of an inverted metal cup with
computed seepage rate. The seepage meter consists
water bag that is initially filled
;-f"*;;;" oiZie connected Uy tuUe to a flexible
bottom with the bag
wittr water. The cup is insertei face down into the canal
permitting water to flow from
submerged in the canal water. A valve is opened
The rate of loss
the bag to the cup to satisfy seepage through the canal bottom.
rate. To determine an average
of watlr from the bag is indicative of the seepage
points of the canal bottom
seepage rate by this method, numerous tests of various
are necessary.
Various types of linings2 are used to reduce seepage losses from
canals'
gunite, and reinforced concrete
Clay, asphalt, piastic membranes, cement mortar,
is a buried membrane
trare'Ueen used effectively. An effective and inexpensive lining
bottom of the channel and then
constructed by spraying asphalt over the sides and
of about 6 in' cm) of soil' The presence of fine
placing u protr.tirl (15
"irei
sediment in the water may help to make the canal self-sealing. For important
canals a concrete lining is usually most satisfactory because of its permanency'
of to in' (5 to 20 cm)
Reinforced concrete is u-sed for canal linings in thicknesses 2 8

depending on the size and importance of the canal. Standard

reinforcement is 0'5
ii percent in the transverse direction'
p"r..nt the longitudinal direction and 0.2
regular intervals' Mortar linings for
Watertight construction joints are required at
small canals are often piaced by guniting over steel mesh or by use of movable
forms. Special paving machines (Fig. 10.16) are used on large canals.
For a concretq
ru""..rf,il, the canal tants ana bottom must be stable and well drained'
lining to be
nJt, uplift under the lining may cause serious damage when the canal
is
If

I August R. Robinson, Jr., and carl Rohwer, Measurement of Canal Seepage, Trans. ASCE, Yol' 122,
pp. 347-173, 1957.
2,,Canal Linings and Mothodr of Rottucing Costs," U.S. Bureau of Roclrmrtion, W['rhington' D'C'
 336 wA'rBR.RrcouncBs ENGINEERING oPEN cHANNELs 337

Solution

y 1.49
R2t3stt2: 1.11 n2rc10.0008)1/2 : 4.0 ftlsec
lntake
n 0.02

R2l3: 1.90 R:2.62 ft

A : QIY :22514 : 56.25 ft2 : by _t y2
P : b * 2.828y : AIR : s6.2s12.62 : 21.47 ft
Solving the two foregoing equations yields y : 4 ft and , : 10 ft. For design
purposesselectachannelwithy:5ftandb:l}fttothusprovidelftoffreeboard.
A deeper and narrower channel of prbper size could convey 225 cfs, but the average
velocity would exceed the 4.0-ft/sec criterion' If the permissible velocity were 3.0 ft/sec,
a shallower U: L8a ft) and wider (6:3S.9 ft) channel would be required.

Example 10.6. Water flows in an earthen canal, trapezoidal section, bottom width
l0 ft, side slopes 3 horizontal on I vertical, at a depth of 2.0 ft. The canal is on a
slope of 0.0006. Manning's z and the seepage.rate are estimated to have values of
0.022 and 1.5 ft/day, respectively. What is the seepage loss in a 10,000-ft length of
this canal? How does the seepage loss compare to the flow in the canal?

Solution
Topwidth:6+10+6:22ft
FIGURE 10.18
Seepageloss
= 22(10,000) x 1.5:33,000 ft3lday Typical canal layout.
:3.82 cfs
A : 16 x 2: 32 ft2 P : t0 + 2(6.32) -* 22.64 ft
If the overall change in elevation for a canal is large, it may be necessary
1.49 / 32 \2t3 to use chutes or drops to avoid excessive slope in the canal. A chute (Fig.
O: o.onOrr\rr*) o.ooo6ri2 crs :66.88
10.20) ordinarily consists of an intake structure, a long inclined section, and
Seepage loss : 3.82166.88 : 0.057 (5.7%) of flow rate an outlet designed to dissipate excessive kinetic energy. Because of the high
velocity in the chute, the entire structure is usually concrete lined. A drop
is similar to a chute, but the change in elevation is effected in a shortei
distance. In some cases a vertical drop is used.
10.14 Canal Appurtenances If a canal meets an obstruction such as highway embankment or hill
Numerous structures are necessary for the proper operation of canals. A general extending above the canal grade, a culvert or tunnel may be used to carry
layout of a canal system is shown in Fig. 10.18. The usual diuersion structure is water through the obstruction (Fig. 10.21a).If the canal must cross a depression
an overflow dam built across a stream to maintain the water level above the floor such as a highway cut, stream, or gully, a flume (Fig. l}.2lb) or a pipe may be
of the intake structure. Diversion dams may be provided with sluiceways for used to convey the water. In some cases an inuerted siphon (Fig. 10.21c and sec.
flushing sediment from the pool above the dam or discharging water during 11.28) may be used in preference to an elevated crossing. In all cases a suitable
low-flow periods. Canal intakes (Fig. 10.19) are ordinarily located a short distance transition structure is required at the inlet and outlet of the special section. Many
upstream from the diversion structure and serve to regulate the flow into the canal. times the alternative of carrying the canal around the obstruction may be chosen
On small installations a simple slide gate may be sufficient, while more elaborate if the annual cost of the additional length of canal is less than that of the
gates are required for large canals. Fish screens are often provided at the intake comparable flume or inverted siphon.
to keep fish out of the canal. This is mainly a wildlife conservation measure, as Regulation of flow in the canal and the distribution of the water is facilitated
the fish do little damage in the canals. The transition from thc intake to the canal by various structures. A check is a short, concreteJined structure placed in the
should be long enough to permit smooth adjustment of thG flow, canal and provided with piers so that flashboards or gates can be used for flow
 OPEN CHANNELS 339

Plan view

Elevation

\-/
Section A-A
U
Section BB
\_-/
Section C-C

FIGURE 10.20
Chute.

(c) Culvert throuth earth embankment

(D) Flume across canyon on tresfic

(cl lnvortcd siphon

FICURE IO.2I
Arranlcments for carrying a canal past an obstruction.
33tl wA r l1R Rlls()trR('l1s l,N(;lNIil-IRING

FIGURE IO.T9
Typical intake structure for a small canal.(lrmto Mctal Products. Dittision of Armttt Stael Corprtration\

regulation. The main purpose of the check is to raise the upstream water level to
permit diversion. Automalic water-leDel qates that operate on the principle of the
balance of moments from hydrostatic and other forces are used where it is desired
to prevent the water level from exceeding some preset height. Turnctut.s are usually
pipes through the canal embankment for diversion of flow from the main canal
io a smaller distribution canal. In some cases true siphons are used to carry the
flow over the canal bank and thus avoid placing pipes through the embankment.
The intake to a turnout is provided with a gate or stop logs so that it may be
opened or closed aS required. Wastewuys are canals or pipes used to return
excess water to the stream. They are necessarily provided with gates and are
sometimes used for sluicing sediment from the canal.
If the use of water from a canal is suddenly discontirrrrctl,'l'hc tlrc clritnncl
may lill up and overflow r-rnlcss thc inflow is reduccd at thc intltkc. wlrslcway
mentioned ip thc prccccling parirgrirplr mly proviclc s()tllc l)r()lc('liorr ltgltittsl sttch
flooding, htrt irrrlornulic ovr.:rllow spillways lrnd siphorr spillwrrvs:ttt'ol'lt'll provitlctl
lrlgng l[c cirrlrl lo rn:rirrllrin :r slrlc rtrtximttttt wltlcr lt:vcl. lixt'r'ss rvltlt't is tliscltltrgtltl
 OPEN CHANNELS 341

Metal tie rod

Timber
flume

Timber
trestle

(b) Steel flume

pedestals
(o) Timber flume

Gravel pit

(d) Precast-concrete bench flume

{c) Concrete flume on

concrete piers
(e) Concrete and gunite bench flume

FIGURE 10.22
.Cross sections of some typical flumes.

unstable, a concrete or steel liner may be used to prevent collapse. Tunnels

driven through stable rock need not be lined for structural reasons, but their
interior surfaces are usually smoothed with gunite to improve hydraulic character-
istics. The minimum economic diameter for hand-excavated tunnels is about 6 ft
(2 m), while machine-excavated tunnels are usually at least 8 ft (2.5 m) in diameter.
Tunnels may flow full or partly full. when flowing full, they act as pressure
conduits and metal liners may be necessary to control bursting pressures. When
flowing partially full, the tunnel acts as an open channel and flow in it (if uniform)

(al Horseshoe tunnel

ffi ffi
(D) Pressure tunnel
lunreinforcedl
Reinforced-concrete tunnel

FIGURE 10.23
Typical tunnol oross scctionl,
340 wATER-REsouRcEs ENcINEERING

into a natural drainage course. Excess storm water may be prevented from entering
a canal by use of drainage culuerts under the canal or an ouerchute (flume passing
over the canal). In either case, it is essential that the culvert or overchute have
adequate capacity to pass the floodwaters that are expected.
Settling basins arc sometimes constructed just below the point of diversion
so that sediment can be collected and sluiced back to the river. A settling basin
consists of a large, shallow basin through which the water passes with a velocity
of 1 ft/sec (0.3 m/s) or less. As much as 90 percent of the suspended sediment can
be collected in a well-designed settling basin. Sand traps are sections of depressed
canal bed located upstream from a check structure and provided with wasteways
or sluiceways so that accumulated sediment can be sluiced from the canal.

10.15 Flumes
A flume is a channel of wood, concrete, or metal that is usually supported
above ground. Flumes are used to convey water over terrane where construc-
tion of canals is difficult or expensive. They are often employed to carry a
canal over a depression. The flume channel must be designed to carry its
own weight and that of the water as a beam between supports, while the
supporting piers or trestle must carry the flume and water load plus such
wind and snow loads as may be appropriate. Wooden flumes are usually of
rectangular cross section, but triangular and semicircular sections are also used.
Various types of wood have been used in timber flumes, but redwood and cypress
are superior to all others. The cross sections of several typical flumes are shown
in Fig. 10.22.
The most permanent type of flume is a properly constructed concrete
flume. However, care must be taken to avoid cracking as a result of unequal
settlement of the supporting structure. Suitable contraction joints must trs pro-
vided at each pier. Small concrete flumes are often constructed of precast
sections supported on steel, timber, or concrete piers. Large flumes are usually
cast in place with concrete piers and channel. Because of the thin sections that
are exposed to the weather, concrete flumes are not well adapted to extremely
cold climates. Construction and transportation problems may make concrete
flumes expensive for use in rugged terrane where access is difficult.
The formation of ice in flumes or canals will reduce their capacity. In
cold climates canals are sometimes patroled by boats to keep the ice broken
up. Flumes and canals are sometimes covered to minimize evaporation, pollutiop,
and freezing. The covering is placed well above the highest water level so that the
flow will always be under open-channel conditions.

10.16 Tunnels
Occasionally it is cheaper to convey water by tunnel through a hill than by
flume or canal around the hill. Tunnels are usually of circular or horseshoe
section (Fig. 10.23) to take advantage of arch action. If the tunnel material is
342 wATER-RESouRcEs ENGTNEERTNG cHANNELS 343

is governed by the Manning equation. unlined tunnels, when used to convey water depth of flow for this flow rate is 6.3 ft. At a certain section I the depth of flow
under pressure to hydroelectric plants, are provided with a rock trap (large cavity in the channel is 4.0 ft. Will the depth of flow increase, decrease, or remain the same
below and near the downstream end ofthe tunnel) to protect gates and turbines. as one proceeds downstream from section l? Sketch a physical situation where this
type of flow will occur.
10.f8. A rectangular channel is 7 ft wide, has an 0.008 slope, discharge of 135 cfs, and
PROBLEMS n :0.015. Find y, and y". If the actual depth of flow is 5 ft, what type of profile
(Fig. 10.a) exists? Where might this condition occur in engineering practice?
10.1. What is the flow rate in a 48-in. circular corrugated-metal pipe on a slope of 0.004
10.19. A long trapezoidal channel with a basewidth of 9 ft, side slopes of I horizontal to
if the depth of flow is 20 in.?
1 vertical, n :0.017, and bottom slope 0.0005 carries 580 cfs. If at some point in the
10.2. What is the maximum uniform flow rate under open-channel conditions for the pipe
channel the depth is 5.00 ft, how far upstream or downstream will the depth be 6.00
of Prob. 10.1?
ft?
10.3. At what depth will flow in a 36-in.-diameter concrete pipe on a slope of 0.004?
12.4 cfs
10.20. The depths of flow before and after a hydraulic jump in a horizontal rectangular
10.4. What is the uniform flow rate in a 40-cm-diameter concrete pipe on a slope of 0.002
channel are 0.5 and 1.6 m. What is the critical depth?
if the depth is 11.0 cm?
10.21. A rectangular channel is 3.5 m wide and ends in a free outfall. If the discharge is 10
10.5. Repeat Prob. 10.3 for the case of a 36-in.-diameter corrugated-metal pipe.
m3/s, slope is 0.0025, and n:0.017, find y,, y", and the water-surface profile for a
10.6. It is necessary to discharge 25 cfs in a cast-iron pipe 36 in. in diameter. What is the
distance of 150 m upstream from the outfall.
minimum possible slope that can be employed if the pipe is to flow uniformly at 0.8
10.22. A rectangular channel is 22 ft wide and ends in a free outfall. If the depth at the
depth?
brink is 1.25 ft, what is the flow rate in the channel?
10.7. It is necessary to discharge 0.23 m3/s in a welded-steel pipe on a slope of 0.007. What 10.23. A rectangular drainage channel is 16 ft wide and is to carry 500 cfs. The channel is
diameter pipe should be chosen so that the uniform flow depth does not exceed 0.85
lined with rubble masonry and has a bottom slope of 0.0025. It discharges into a
of the diameter?
stream that may reach a stage l0 ft above the channel bottom during floods.
10.8. what will the uniform flow depth be for the conditions of prob. 10.4 if the Calculate yn, y", and the distance from the channel outlet to the point where normal
40-cm-diameter pipe is replaced with 35-cm-diameter pipe? depth would occur under this condition.
10.9. A trapezoidal earth canal with side slopes of 2 horizontal to I vertical is to carry 10.24. What would be the cross section of greatest hydraulic efficiency for a trapezoidal
2150 cfs at a uniform flow depth of 6 ft. The canal slope is 0.0045. What should be channel with side slopes of 2hoizontal to I vertical if the design discharge is 12.5
the basewidth of the canal? m3/s and the channel slope is 0.0006? Use ,,, : 0.025.
10.10. Given an open channel with a parabolic cross section (x : 1.0 m, y :1.0 m) on a 10.25. What width of rectangular channel is required to carry 1400 cfs uniformly at
slope of 0.007 with r : 0.015, find the normal depth and the critical depth for e : 1.7 maximum channel efficiency if the channel slope is 0.0009 and n : 0.030?
m3/s.
10.26. A, trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 10 ft and side slopes of 2.5 horizontal
10.11. On what slope should one construct a l2-ft-wide rectangular channel (z :
0.013) so to I vertical has a horizontal curve with a radius of90 ft and without superelevation.
that critical flow will occur at a depth of 4.0 ft? If the discharge is 825 cfs and the water surface at the inside of the curve is 5 ft
10.12. Is the flow of Prob. 10.3 subcritical or supercritical? above the channel bottom, find the water-surface elevation at the outside of the
10.13. Is the flow of Prob. 10.4 subcritical or supercritical? curve. Assume the flow is subcritical.
10.14. Water flows steadily at 16.0 cfs in a very long triangular flume that has side slopes 10.27. A rectangular channel of width 50 ft, slope 0.001, and n:0.027 carries 2950 cfs.
1 on l. The bottom of the flume is on a slope of 0.0035. At a certain section I
the What radius of curvature is required for a bend in this channel if the flow is at
depth of flow is 2.00 ft. Is the flow at this section subcritical or supercritical? At normal depth entering the bend and the water surface at the outside wall of the
another section B,2C0ft downstream from A, the depth offlow is 2.50 ft. Approx- bend must not be more than 6 in. above the depth entering the bend?
imately what is the value of Manning's n? Find y,. Under what conditions 10.28. It is desired to measure a discharge that may vary from 0.77 to 3.0 cfs with a relative
can this flow occur? accuracy of at least 0.5 percent throughout the entire range. A stage recorder that
10.15. Water flows at 8.5 m3/s in a 3.0-m-wide open channel of rectangular cross section. is accurate to the nearest 0.005 ft is available. What is the maximum width of
The bottom slope is adverse, i.e., it rises 0.15 m per 100 m in the direction of flow. If rectangular sharp-crested weir that will satisfy these conditions? Assume the weir
the water depth decreases from 2.10 to 1.65 m in a 150-m length ofchannel, determine has end contractions ar,d C.: 3.5. Neglect velocity of approach.
Manning's n. 10.29. What is the maximum permissible vertex angle of a V-notch weir that will satisfy
10.16. When a varied flow of 1.7 mt ls occurs in the channel of Prob. 10.10, find the distance the conditions of Prob. 10.28?
between sections where the depths are 1.20 and 1.50 m. Which section is farther 10.30. With a head of 0.15 m on a 75'V-notch weir, what error in the measured head will
downstream? What type of water-surface profile is this? produce the same pcrcentage of error in the computed flow rate as an error of lo
10.17. The flow in a long l2-ft-wide rectangular channel that hae a constsnt bottom slope in the vertex anglo?
is 870 cfs. A computation using the Manning equation indlcator that the normal 10.31. Show that the goom€try of a proportional*{ileir is given by 2xyrrz - K(see Fig. 10.10).