Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1

Unit 2: Energy Concepts

Time Frame: 8 hours

Unit 2
Energy Concepts

Learning Objectives
 Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
 Discuss the nature of internal energy.
 Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy transfer by heat.
 Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms of mechanical work.
 Define energy conversion principles.

Content Outline

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mass and Energy
2.3 Energy transfer (Heat, Work, By mass)
2.4 Conservation of Energy

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Energy is inherent in all matter. Energy is something that appears in many different forms which are related to
each other by the fact that conversion can be made from one form of energy to another. Energy can exist in
numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear,
and their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system. The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is
denoted by e and is expressed as

Two Groups of Energy:

Macroscopic form of Energy - those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside
reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies. The macroscopic energy of a system is related to
motion and the influence of some external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface
tension.

Microscopic form of Energy - those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

Measuring Energy

Energy is a scalar quantity, not a vector quantity. Energy has only magnitude. The energy of a system of
bodies is simply the sum of energies of the individual bodies. Note that energy is a conserved property. Also
the total amount of energy that a system contains cannot be determined; therefore energies in a system are
measured with respect to a datum or some reference state.

Forms of Energy

The term energy was coined in 1807 by Thomas Young, and its use in thermodynamics was proposed in
1852 by Lord Kelvin.

Page 1 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]
Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Unit 2: Energy Concepts

 Internal energy, U- The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is related to the
molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity, and can be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules. The term first appeared in the works of Rudolph Clausius and
William Rankine in the second half of the nineteenth century, and it eventually replaced the alternative
terms inner work, internal work, and intrinsic energy commonly used at the time.
 Thermal Energy – heat content of the body composed of latent energy and sensible energy.
 Chemical Energy - The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.
 Nuclear Energy - The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the
nucleus of the atom itself.
 Kinetic Energy, KE - The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame.
 Potential Energy, PE - The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
field.
 Mechanical Energy - The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and
directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.

2.2 MASS AND ENERGY

Relation of Mass and Energy

Einstein’s Theory of Relativity:

Mass may be converted into energy and energy into mass.

where is the energy ( in Btu, KJ), is the mass (kg, slug, lbm) and is the speed of light ( 2.9979 x 108
m/s)

Also, mass increases with speed

[ ( ) ]

Where is the rest mass and is the speed of the mass

2.3 ENERGY TRANSFER

Forms of Energy that can Cross the Boundaries of a System

1. Energy Transfer by mass transfer

Since energy is inherent in all matter, mass flow in and out of the system serves as
mechanism of energy transfer. Energy transfer associated in mass transfer happens in an open
system or control volume. Enumerated below are the energy transfer associated by mass transfer:
a. Internal Energy: U
- The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy. (Kinetic, potential, nuclear, etc of a molecules)
( ) in KJ, BTU, ft-lbf

Page 2 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]
Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Unit 2: Energy Concepts

where is specific internal energy ( internal energy per unit mass), is the mass of the system.

b. Gravitational Potential Energy: P.E.

- The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field.
( )
( )

Where z is the elevation from reference level, is the gravitational acceleration.

c. Kinetic Energy: KE
- The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference frame.

where are the mass and velocity of the system, respectively.

In the absence of magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects, the total energy of a system consists
of the kinetic, potential, and internal energies and is expressed as

d. Flow Energy (Flow work): Ef

- Special form of work that is significant for a moving stream. The work done in pushing a fluid
across a boundary.
( )
where is pressure, is volume, is mass and is specific volume.

2. Work
- work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
- General formula (force x distance);
∫
- The generally accepted formal sign convention for work interactions is as follows: work done
by a system is positive: work done on a system is negative.
- Work is a path function and path functions have inexact differentials designated by a symbol .

Mechanical Form of Work:

a. Moving boundary work:

- For system with movable boundary
- Occurs when there is change in the volume of the
system (compression or expansion).
∫

Where: = pressure

= volume

The area under the process curve on a p-V

diagram represents the boundary work.

Page 3 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]
Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Unit 2: Energy Concepts

b. Shaft work – also known as brake work.

Where: = torque = rev/min

c. Elastic work/Spring work

For spring,

( )

where k is the spring constant(N/m, lbf/ft), x1 and x2 are the initial and final length of the spring.

d. Surface Tension

Where: = surface tension, = area

Non-Mechanical Form of Work:

e. Electrical work

Where: = potential difference, = current, = time

f. Other non-mechanical work: Magnetic work, etc.

3. Heat
- the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its surroundings)
by virtue of a temperature difference. That is, an energy interaction is heat only if it takes place
because of a temperature difference. Then it follows that there cannot be any heat transfer between
two systems that are at the same temperature.
- The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat interactions is as follows: heat added
to the system is positive: heat rejected from the system is negative.

Page 4 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]
Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Unit 2: Energy Concepts

Modes of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction - the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.
2. Convection (Natural and Forced) - the transfer of energy between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
3. Radiation - the transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or photons).

Types of Heat

1.Sensible Heat – heat needed to change the temperature of the body without changing it phase.

For liquids & solids

where: = mass (kg/ lb) , = specific heat (kJ/kg.K, Btu/lb.R) = change in temperature
(K, R)

For gases:

Where: = constant pressure specific heat = constant volume specific heat

Specific heat for liquid water,

Specific Heat Ratio (for gases): k

(always greater than 1), since:

Relation among , ,

– gas constant

𝒄𝒑 𝒄𝒗 𝑹
𝑐𝑝
from: 𝑘 𝑐𝑝 𝑘𝑐𝑣
𝑐𝑣

𝑘𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑣 𝑅

(𝑘 )𝑐𝑣 𝑅
𝑹 𝒌𝑹
𝒄𝒗 𝒄𝒑
𝒌−𝟏 𝒌−𝟏

Page 5 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]
Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Unit 2: Energy Concepts

2. Latent Heat

- Heat needed to change the phase of the substance without changing its temperature.

Where: = mass

= latent Heat

= latent heat of vapor

for :

(+) –

(-) –

Adiabatic Process - process during which there is no heat transfer.

2.4 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Conservation of Energy: (First Law of Thermodynamics)

- energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.
- Energy Balance: The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a
process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the
system during that process. That is,

Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind:

- Any device that violates the first law of thermodynamics.

Additional Property which is useful in the analysis of energy in a system:

Enthalpy: H – a property which is a combination of two properties.

Enthalpy = Internal Energy + Flow work/energy

Page 6 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]
Study Guide on Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Unit 2: Energy Concepts

in KJ, BTU

in KJ/kg, BTU/lbm

Exercise 2.1

1. An electron has a rest mass of 9.11 x 10-28 gm. What is its mass when moving with a speed of 0.90c?
2. The 600-kg hammer of a pile driver is lifted 2 m above a piling head. What is the change in potential
energy? If the hammer is released, what will be its velocity at the instant it strikes the piling? Local g =
9.65 m/s2.
3. There are 400 kg/min of water being handled by a pump. The lift is from a 20-m deep well and the
delivery velocity is 15 m/s. Find (a) the change in potential energy, (b) the kinetic energy, (c) the
required power of the pumping unit; g = 9.75 m/s 2.
4. A 2000-kg elevator accelerates upward uniformly at 1 m/s 2 from a stopped position. (a) What is the
tension in the lifting cable? (b) at the end of 4 s of operation, what will be the kinetic energy and the
change of potential energy? Local gravity acceleration is 9.70 m/s 2.
5. If 6 L. of a gas at a pressure of 100 kPaa are compressed reversibly according to pV2 = C (the product
of pressure and velocity at any state is constant) until the final volume becomes 2 L, find the final
pressure and work.
6. Determine the work done by a 1-lb fluid system as it expands slowly within a piston-cylinder
arrangement from an initial pressure and volume of 80 psia and 1 ft 3, respectively, to a final volume of 4
ft3 in accordance with the following defining relations: (a) p =C, (b) pV =C, (c) pV1.4 = C, (d)
for V in ft3, (e) pV2 = C.
7. A force F measured in the x direction is given as where the constant . Find
the work in joules as F moves from x 1 = 1m to x2 = 3m.
8. The flow energy of 142 L/min of a fluid passing a boundary to a system is 108.5 kJ/min. Determine the
pressure at this point.
9. Provide 4 kg of a gaseous substance with 300 kJ of heat at a constant volume so that it undergoes a
temperature change of 80 K. (a) Find the average specific heat cv of the substance during this process.
(b) If k = 1.55 for this gas, find cp and R.
10. Find the heat required to change at 10 kg Ice at – 10OC to water vapor at 120OC. Assume
Cice = 2.09 kJ/kg.K and Csteam = 2.05 kJ/kg.K

REFERENCES

Cengel, Y. A., & Boles, M. A. (2015). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Eight Edition.

Faires, V. M., & Simmang, C. M. (1978). Thermodynamics (Faires and Simmang) and Problems on
thermodynamics (Faires, Simmang, and Brewer): Solutions to selected problems. Macmillan College.

Page 7 of 7
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Architecture [email protected]