1

BASICS OF COMPUTER

Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:

ƒƒ Digital and analog computers

ƒƒ Characteristics of computer
ƒƒ History of computer
ƒƒ Generations of computer
ƒƒ Classification of computer
ƒƒ The computer system
ƒƒ Central processing unit
ƒƒ Memory unit
ƒƒ Instruction format
ƒƒ Instruction set
ƒƒ Instruction cycle
ƒƒ Microprocessor
ƒƒ Interconnecting the units of a computer
ƒƒ Performance of a computer
ƒƒ Inside a computer cabinet
ƒƒ Application of computers

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 1.4 Computer Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, computers are an integral part of our lives. They are used for the reservation of
tickets for airplanes and railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposit and with-
drawal of money from banks, processing of business data, forecasting of weather conditions,
diagnosis of diseases, searching for information on the Internet, etc. Computers are also used
extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music industry, movie industry, scientific
research, law firms, fashion industry, etc.
The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate.
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by per-
forming calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer
performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.
This chapter discusses the history and evolution of computer, the concept of input-process-
output and the characteristics of computer. This chapter also discusses the classification of
digital computers based on their size and type, and the application of computer in different
domain areas.

1.2  Digital and Analog Computers

A digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information are rep-
resented using the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are
digital computers.
Analog computer is another kind of a computer that represents data as variable across a con-
tinuous range of values. The earliest computers were analog computers. Analog computers
are used for measuring of parameters that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature,
pressure and voltage. Analog computers may be more flexible but generally less precise than
digital computers. Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.
This book deals only with the digital computer and uses the term computer for them.

1.3  Characteristics of Computer

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteris-
tics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are:
1. Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions
per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete oth-
erwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation
and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather
forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature, pres-
sure and humidity of various places, etc.
2. Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer
can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
3. Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or
fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accu-
racy from the start till the end.

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 Basics of Computer  1.5

4. Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the com-
puter and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored,
temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and
compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
5. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with
the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document
and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has been
programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It exe-
cutes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.

1.4  History of Computer

Until the development of the first generation computers based
on vacuum tubes, there had been several developments in the
computing technology related to the mechanical computing
devices. The key developments that took place till the first
computer was developed are as follows:
1. Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechani-
cal calculating device for counting of large numbers.
The word ABACUS means calculating board. It con-
sists of bars in horizontal positions on which sets of
beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have 10 beads
each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc. An abacus
is shown in Figure 1.1
2. Napier’s Bones was a mechanical device built for the
purpose of multiplication in 1617 ad. by an English Figure 1.1  |  Abacus
mathematician John Napier.
3. Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century. Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It was used extensively till late 1970s. Figure 1.2 shows a
slide rule.

Figure 1.2  |  Slide rule

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 1.6 Computer Fundamentals

4. Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could
add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
5. Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that could
both multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz
built it around 1673.
6. Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801. He
invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of hole in the punched
card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary zero. The 0s and 1s are the basis of
the modern digital computer. A punched card is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3  |  Punched card

7. Babbage’s Analytical Engine An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical

machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was
called as difference engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed
a general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also
called the father of computer.
8. Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith. The
machine could read the information from a punched card and process it electronically.

The developments discussed above and several others not discussed here, resulted in the
development of the first computer in the 1940s.

1.5  Generations of Computer

The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but
much more powerful machine. The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in
terms of the generations of computer. Each generation of computer is designed based on a
new technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller computers that are
more powerful, faster and efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are five genera-
tions of computer. In the following subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer
in terms of:

1. the technology used by them (hardware and software),

2. computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second),
3. physical appearance, and
4. their applications.

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 Basics of Computer  1.7

1.5.1 First Generation (1940 to 1956):

Using Vacuum Tubes
1. Hardware Technology: The first generation of computers
used vacuum tubes (Figure 1.4) for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory. The input to the computer was through
punched cards and paper tapes. The output was displayed
as printouts.
2. Software Technology: The instructions were written in
machine language. Machine language uses 0s and 1s for cod-
ing of the instructions. The first generation computers could
solve one problem at a time.
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in
milliseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: These computers were enormous in
size and required a large room for installation.
5. Application: They were used for scientific applications as Figure 1.4  |  Vacuum tube
they were the fastest computing device of their time.
6. Examples: UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC).
The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus generated
a lot of heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. The
machines were prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance. Since
first generation computers used machine language, they were difficult to program.

1.5.2  Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors

1. Hardware Technology: Transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced
the vacuum tubes of the first generation of comput-
ers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The second
generation computers used magnetic core technology for
primary memory. They used magnetic tapes and mag-
netic disks for secondary storage. The input was still
through punched cards and the output using print-
outs. They used the concept of a stored program, where
instructions were stored in the memory of computer.
2. Software Technology: The instructions were written
using the assembly language. Assembly language uses mne-
monics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for
coding of the instructions. It is easier to write instructions
in assembly language, as compared to writing instruc-
tions in machine language. High-level programming lan-
guages, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN
were also developed during this period. Figure 1.5  |  Transistors

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 1.8 Computer Fundamentals

3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in microseconds.

4. Physical Appearance: Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus,
the size of the computer was also reduced.
5. Application: The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high,
though less than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled
manually in second generation computers.
6. Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.
Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the first generation
computers. They required less maintenance than the first generation computers.

1.5.3  Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits

1. Hardware Technology: The third generation computers
used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips. Figure 1.6 shows IC
chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a
silicon chip. Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use
of IC chip increased the speed and the efficiency of com-
puter, manifold. The keyboard and monitor were used
to interact with the third generation computer, instead
of the punched card and printouts.
2. Software Technology: The keyboard and the monitor
were interfaced through the operating system. Operating Figure 1.6  |  IC chips
system allowed different applications to run at the same time. High-level languages were
used extensively for programming, instead of machine language and assembly language.
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in nanoseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: The size of these computers was quite small compared to the
second generation computers.
5. Application: Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers were pro-
duced commercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
6. Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.
The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the second genera-
tion computers. The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual components of the
computer were not required to be assembled manually. The maintenance cost of the computers
was also less compared to their predecessors.

1.5.4  Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors

1. Hardware Technology: They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon
chip using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be
integrated in a small chip. This era is marked by the development of microprocessor.
Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of transistors and components, and, designed
using LSI and VLSI technology. A microprocessor chip is shown in Figure 1.7. This genera-
tion of computers gave rise to Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor memory replaced
the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access to memory. Secondary
storage device like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger in capacity.

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 Basics of Computer  1.9

The linking of computers is another key development

of this era. The computers were linked to form net-
works that led to the emergence of the Internet.
This generation also saw the development of point-
ing devices like mouse, and handheld devices.
2. Software Technology: Several new operating sys-
tems like the MS-DOS and MS-Windows developed
during this time. This generation of computers sup-
ported Graphical User Interface (GUI ). GUI is a user-
friendly interface that allows user to interact with the
computer via menus and icons. High-level program-
ming languages are used for the writing of programs. Figure 1.7  |  Microprocessors
3. Computing Characteristics: The computation time is in picoseconds.
4. Physical Appearance: They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation.
Some can even fit into the palm of the hand.
5. Application: They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal com-
puters became available to the home user.
6. Examples: The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the com-
puter like Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip. In 1981,
IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.
The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors. The fourth generation computers are also portable and more reliable.
They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors.
GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has
resulted in resource sharing and communication among different computers.

1.5.5  Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learn-
ing and self-organization. The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated
(SLSI) chips that are able to store millions of components on a single chip. These comput-
ers have large memory requirements.
This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be
executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing
speed. The Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.
The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate
the human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert
System (ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition,
robotics, etc.
The various generations of the computer in terms of technology and other features is tabu-
lated at the end of this chapter.

1.6  Classification of Computer

The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The com-
puters are broadly classified into four categories (Figure 1.8) based on their size and type:
(1) Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers, and (4) Supercomputer.

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 1.10 Computer Fundamentals

Supercomputers

Mainframe Computers

Minicomputers

Microcomputers

Figure 1.8  |  Classification of computers based on size and type

1.6.1 Microcomputers
Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU,
input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-
alone machines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers that can
serve more than one user. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh
are some examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, note-
book computers or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook,
as shown in Figure 1.9.

1. Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is the most common type of microcom-
puter. It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it consists
of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU, memory,
hard disk drive, etc. It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a single user at
home, small business units, and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell and Lenovo
are some of the PC manufacturers.
2. Notebook Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook. They are portable and have all
the features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size
(can be put inside a briefcase), can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has
all the functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while working
(hence the name). Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines.
3. Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are
designed for accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in

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 Basics of Computer  1.11

PC Laptop Netbook

Tablet PDA Smart Phone

Figure 1.9  |  Microcomputers

late 2007, they have gained significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the perfor-
mance needed to enjoy popular activities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web
surfing or instant messaging. The word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and
notebook.
4. Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a
stylus or a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet com-
puter are the new kind of PCs.
5. Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small computer that can
be held on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a
pen or a stylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory
and are less powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection.
Casio and Apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs
have merged into mobile phones to create smart phones.
6. Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They
may use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the
Internet wirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play
games, etc. Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of
smart phones.

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 1.12 Computer Fundamentals

1.6.2 Minicomputers
Minicomputers (Figure 1.10) are digital computers, gener-
ally used in multi-user systems. They have high processing
speed and ­high storage capacity than the microcomputers.
Minicomputers can s­upport 4–200 users simultaneously.
The users can access the m­ inicomputer through their PCs
or terminal. They are used for r­eal-time applications in
industries, research centers, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000 series)
are some of the widely used minicomputers.

Figure 1.10  | Minicomputer

1.6.3  Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers (Figure 1.11) are multi-user, multi-
programming and high performance computers. They
operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capac-
ity and can handle the workload of many users. Mainframe
computers are large and powerful systems generally used
in centralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe
computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an
intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store
data or do processing of its own. It has the input and output
device only. An intelligent terminal has the input and output
device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own.
The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the processing
power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer.
Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks
or companies, where many people require frequent access
to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC
6600 and IBM ES000 series.

1.6.4 Supercomputers
Supercomputers (Figure 1.12) are the fastest and the most Figure 1.11  |  Mainframe computer
expensive machines. They have high processing speed com-
pared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS
(FLoating point Operations Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform tril-
lions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands of
processors that can work in parallel.
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather fore-
casting, climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological research, nuclear
research and aircraft design. They are also used in major universities, military agencies and
scientific research laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner,
IBM Blue gene and Intel ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputer assembled in India
by C-DAC (Center for Development of Advanced Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma
is the latest machine in this series. The peak computing power of PARAM Padma is 1 Tera
FLOP (TFLOP).

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 Basics of Computer  1.13

Figure 1.12  | Supercomputer

1.7  The Computer System

Computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes the input data by per-
forming mathematical and logical operations on it, and gives the desired output. The com-
puter system consists of four parts: (1) Hardware, (2) Software, (3) Data, and (4) Users. The
parts of computer system are shown in Figure 1.13.
1. Hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine.
The hardware consists of physical devices of the computer. The devices are required
for input, output, storage and processing of the data. Keyboard, monitor, hard disk
drive, floppy disk drive, printer, processor and motherboard are some of the hardware
devices.
2. Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed
and how these tasks are to be performed. Program is a set of instructions, written in a
language understood by the computer, to perform a specific task. A set of programs
and documents are collectively called software. The hardware of the computer system
cannot perform any task on its own. The hardware needs to be instructed about the task

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 1.14 Computer Fundamentals

Figure 1.13  |  Parts of computer system

to be performed. Software instructs the computer about the task to be performed. The
hardware carries out these tasks. Different software can be loaded on the same hard-
ware to perform different kinds of tasks.
3. Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much significance.
For example, the data like 29, January, and 1994 just represent values. The data is pro-
vided as input to the computer, which is processed to generate some meaningful infor-
mation. For example, 29, January and 1994 are processed by the computer to give the
date of birth of a person.
4. Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer. They
are also known as skinware, liveware, humanware or peopleware. Programmers, data entry
operators, system analyst and computer hardware engineers fall into this category.

1.7.1  The Input-Process-Output Concept

A computer is an electronic device that (1) accepts data,
(2) processes data, (3) generates output, and (4) stores
Input Process Output
data. The concept of generating output information from
the input data is also referred to as input-process-output
concept.
The input-process-output concept of the computer is explained as follows:
1. Input: The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device like key-
board. The input data can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.
2. Process: The computer processes the input data. For this, it performs some actions on
the data by using the instructions or program given by the user of the data. The action
could be an arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a document, etc. During
processing, the data, instructions and the output are stored temporarily in the com-
puter’s main memory.

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 Basics of Computer  1.15

3. Output: The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The output may
be in the form of text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer may display the out-
put on a monitor, send output to the printer for printing, play the output, etc.
4. Storage: The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in the second-
ary storage devices like disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later, whenever
needed.

1.7.2  Components of Computer Hardware

The computer system hardware comprises of three main components:
1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit,
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
3. Memory Unit.
The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations and
processing on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the
data, the instructions and the output information. Figure 1.14 illustrates the typical interaction
among the different components of the computer.

Memory Unit

CPU

Input Registers Output

Unit Unit

CU ALU

Figure 1.14  |  The computer system interaction

1. Input/Output Unit: The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input
unit accepts data from the user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the
information to the user. The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user,
into a form that is understandable by the computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides
the output in a form that is understandable by the user. The input is provided to the
computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and mouse. Some of the com-
monly used output devices are monitor and printer.
2. Central Processing Unit: CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the
computer. It is responsible for processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

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 1.16 Computer Fundamentals

a. ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
b. CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of
­execution of instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning
of the units of computer.
Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instruc-
tions, addresses and intermediate results of calculation.
3. Memory Unit: Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and out-
put, temporarily, during the processing of data. This memory is also called the main mem-
ory or primary memory of the computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought
into the main memory before processing. The instructions required for processing of
data and any intermediate results are also stored in the main memory. The output is
stored in memory before being transferred to the output device. CPU can work with the
information stored in the main memory. Another kind of storage unit is also referred
to as the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the output are
stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks and
magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory.

1.8  Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is also often called the brain of computer. CPU
(Figure 1.15) consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). In addition, CPU
also has a set of registers which are temporary storage areas for holding data, and instruc-
tions. ALU performs the arithmetic and logic operations on the data that is made available to
it. CU is responsible for organizing the processing of data and instructions. CU controls and
coordinates the activity of the other units of computer. CPU uses the registers to store the data,
instructions during processing.
CPU executes the stored program instructions, i.e. instructions and data are stored in memory
before execution. For processing, CPU gets data and instructions from the memory. It interprets

Central processing unit

Arithmetic
Control
logic
unit
unit

Registers

Figure 1.15  | CPU

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 Basics of Computer  1.17

the program instructions and performs the arithmetic and logic operations required for the
processing of data. Then, it sends the processed data or result to the memory. CPU also acts as
an administrator and is responsible for supervising operations of other parts of the computer.
The CPU is fabricated as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip, and is also known as the micro-
processor. The microprocessor is plugged into the motherboard of the computer (Motherboard
is a circuit board that has electronic circuit etched on it and connects the microprocessor with
the other hardware components).

1.8.1  Arithmetic Logic Unit

1. ALU consists of two units—arithmetic unit and logic unit.
2. The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available
to it. Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the arithmetic unit are—addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
3. The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit per-
forms comparisons of numbers, letters and special characters. Logic operations include
testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.
4. ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses registers to hold the data that is
being processed.

1.8.2 Registers
1. R egisters are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the least storage capac-
ity. Registers are not referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and manipu-
lated by the CPU during instruction execution.
2. Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing.
Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.
3. The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the registers of
CPU before they can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added, both
numbers are brought in the registers, added and the result is also placed in a register.
4. Registers are used for different purposes, with each register serving a specific purpose.
Some of the important registers in CPU (Figure 1.16) are as follows:

Figure 1.16  |  CPU registers

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 1.18 Computer Fundamentals

i. Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.

ii. Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently fetched.
iii. Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be processed.
iv. Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next location in the
­memory to be accessed.
v. Memory Buffer Register (MBR) temporarily stores data from memory or the data to
be sent to memory.
vi. Data Register (DR) stores the operands and any other data.
5. The number of registers and the size of each (number of bits) register in a CPU helps to
determine the power and the speed of a CPU.
6. The overall number of registers can vary from about ten to many hundreds, depending
on the type and complexity of the processor.
7. The size of register, also called word size, indicates the amount of data with which the
computer can work at any given time. The bigger the size, the more quickly it can process
data. The size of a register may be 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. For example, a 32-bit CPU is one in
which each register is 32 bits wide and its CPU can manipulate 32 bits of data at a time.
Nowadays, PCs have 32-bit or 64-bit registers.
10. 32-bit processor and 64-bit processor are the terms used to refer to the size of the registers.
Other factors remaining the same, a 64-bit processor can process the data twice as fast as one
with 32-bit processor.

1.8.3  Control Unit

1. T he control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data. It organizes
the processing of data and instructions. It acts as a supervisor and, controls and coordi-
nates the activity of the other units of computer.
2. CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to
carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the reg-
isters. CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which circuit
needs to be activated. It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic opera-
tions. When a program is run, the Program Counter (PC) register keeps track of the
program instruction to be executed next.
3. CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results,
the sequencing of events during processing etc.
4. CU also holds the CPU’s Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations that the CPU
can perform.
The function of a (CU) can be considered synonymous with that of a conductor of an
orchestra. The conductor in an orchestra does not perform any work by itself but manages the
orchestra and ensures that the members of orchestra work in proper coordination.

1.9  Memory Unit

The memory unit consists of cache memory and primary memory. Primary memory or main
memory of the computer is used to store the data and instructions during execution of the
instructions. Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are the primary

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 Basics of Computer  1.19

memory. In addition to the main memory, there is another kind of storage device known as
the secondary memory. Secondary memory is non-volatile and is used for permanent storage
of data and programs. A program or data that has to be executed is brought into the RAM
from the secondary memory.

1.9.1  Cache Memory

1. The data and instructions that are required during the processing of data are brought
from the secondary storage devices and stored in the RAM. For processing, it is required
that the data and instructions are accessed from the RAM and stored in the registers.
The time taken to move the data between RAM and CPU registers is large. This affects
the speed of processing of computer, and results in decreasing the performance of CPU.
2. Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU. Cache
memory increases the speed of processing.
3. Cache memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is used more often, temporar-
ily, and makes them available to CPU at a fast rate. During processing, CPU first checks
cache for the required data. If data is not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM for data.
4. To access the cache memory, CPU does not have to use the motherboard’s system bus
for data transfer. (The data transfer speed slows to the motherboard’s capability, when
data is passed through system bus. CPU can process data at a much faster rate by avoid-
ing the system bus.)
5. Cache memory is built into the processor, and may also be located next to it on a sepa-
rate chip between the CPU and RAM. Cache built into the CPU is faster than separate
cache, running at the speed of the microprocessor itself. However, separate cache is
roughly twice as fast as RAM.
6. The CPU has a built-in Level 1 (L1) cache and Level 2 (L2) cache, as shown in Figure 1.17.
In addition to the built-in L1 and L2 cache, some CPUs have a separate cache chip on
the motherboard. This cache on the motherboard is called Level 3 (L3) cache. Nowadays,
high-end processor comes with built-in L3 cache, like in Intel core i7. The L1, L2 and
L3 cache store the most recently run instructions, the next ones and the possible ones,
respectively. Typically, CPUs have cache size varying from 256KB (L1), 6 MB (L2), to
12MB (L3) cache.
7. Cache memory is very expensive, so it is smaller in size. Generally, computers have
cache memory of sizes 256 KB to 2 MB.

Processor
(Core) L1 cache L2 cache
RAM

Figure 1.17  |  Illustration of cache memory

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 1.20 Computer Fundamentals

1.9.2  Primary Memory

1. Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store data and instruc-
tions during the processing of data. Primary memory is semiconductor memory.
2. Primary memory is of two kinds—Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM).
3. RAM is volatile. It stores data when the computer is on. The information stored in
RAM gets erased when the computer is turned off. RAM provides temporary storage
for data and instructions.
4. ROM is non-volatile memory, but is a read only memory. The storage in ROM is perma-
nent in nature, and is used for storing standard processing programs that permanently
reside in the computer. ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.
5. RAM stores data and instructions during the execution of instructions. The data and instruc-
tions that require processing are brought into the RAM from the storage devices like
hard disk. CPU accesses the data and the instructions from RAM, as it can access it at a
fast speed than the storage devices connected to the input and output unit (Figure 1.18).
6. The input data that is entered using the input unit is stored in RAM, to be made avail-
able during the processing of data. Similarly, the output data generated after process-
ing is stored in RAM before being sent to the output device. Any intermediate results
generated during the processing of program are stored in RAM.
7. RAM provides a limited storage capacity, due to its high cost.

Figure 1.18  |  Interaction of CPU with memory

1.9.3  Secondary Memory

1. The secondary memory stores data and instructions permanently. The information can
be stored in secondary memory for a long time (years), and is generally permanent in
nature unless erased by the user. It is a non-volatile memory.
2. It provides back-up storage for data and instructions. Hard disk drive, floppy drive and
optical disk drives are some examples of storage devices.
3. The data and instructions that are currently not being used by CPU, but may be required
later for processing, are stored in secondary memory.
4. Secondary memory has a high storage capacity than the primary memory.
5. Secondary memory is also cheaper than the primary memory.

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 Basics of Computer  1.21

6. It takes longer time to access the data and instructions stored in secondary memory than
in primary memory.
Magnetic tape drives, disk drives and optical disk drives are the different types of storage
devices.

1.10  Instruction Format

A computer program is a set of instructions that describe the steps to be performed for carry-
ing out a computational task. The program and the data, on which the program operates, are
stored in main memory, waiting to be processed by the processor. This is also called the stored
program concept.
An instruction is designed to perform a task and is an elementary operation that the pro-
cessor can accomplish. An instruction is divided into groups called fields. The common fields
of an instruction are—Operation (op) code and Operand
code ­(Figure 1.19). The remainder of the instruction fields
differs from one computer type to other. The operation Operation code Operand code

code represents action that the processor must execute.

It tells the processor what basic operations to perform.
Figure 1.19  |  Instruction format
The ­operand code defines the parameters of the action and
depends on the operation. It specifies the locations of the data or the operand on which the
operation is to be performed. It can be data or a memory address.
The number of bits in an instruction varies according to the type of data (could be between
8 and 32 bits). Figure 1.20 shows the instruction format for ADD command.

ADD op code 1st operand address 2nd operand address

Figure 1.20  |  Instruction format for ADD command

1.11  Instruction Set

A processor has a set of instructions that it understands, called as instruction set. An instruc-
tion set or an instruction set architecture is a part of the computer architecture. It relates to pro-
gramming, ­instructions, registers, addressing modes, memory architecture, etc. An Instruction
Set is the set of all the basic ­operations that a processor can accomplish. Examples of some
instructions are shown in Figure 1.21. The instructions in the instruc-
tion set are the language that a processor understands. All programs LOAD R1, A
have to communicate with the processor using these instructions. An
instruction in the instruction set involves a series of logical opera-
tions (may be thousands) that are performed to complete each task. ADD R1, B
The instruction set is embedded in the processor (hardwired), which
determines the machine language for the processor. All programs STORE R1, X
written in a high-level language are compiled and translated into
machine code before execution, which is understood by the proces- Figure 1.21  | Examples
sor for which the program has been coded. of some instructions

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 1.22 Computer Fundamentals

Two processors are different if they have different instruction sets. A program run on one
computer may not run on another computer having a different processor. Two processors are
compatible if the same machine level program can run on both the processors. Therefore, the
system software is developed within the processor’s instruction set.

 Microarchitecture is the processor design technique used for implementing the Instruction
Set. Computers having different microarchitecture can have a common Instruction Set. Pen-
tium and Athlon CPU chips implement the x86 instruction set, but have different internal
designs.

1.12  Instruction Cycle

The primary responsibility of a computer processor is to execute a sequential set of instructions
that ­constitute a program. CPU executes each instruction in a series of steps, called instruction
cycle (Figure 1.22).
1. A instruction cycle involves four steps (Figure 1.23):
i. Fetching: The processor fetches the instruction from the memory. The fetched
instruction is placed in the Instruction Register. Program Counter holds the address of
next instruction to be fetched and is incremented after each fetch.

Figure 1.22  |  Instruction cycle

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 Basics of Computer  1.23

Fetch instruction
from memory
↓
Place instruction Decode instruction
in IR
Break into parts Execute instruction
↓
Increment PC using instruction set
The operation Store
architecture
implied by instruction instruction
is performed in computer
memory

Fetch next instruction

Figure 1.23  |  Steps in instruction cycle

ii. Decoding: The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded.
The instruction is translated into commands so that they correspond to those in the
CPU’s instruction set. The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in
which an instruction is decoded.
iii. Executing: The decoded instruction or the command is executed. CPU performs the
operation implied by the program instruction. For example, if it is an ADD instruc-
tion, addition is performed.
iv. Storing: CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer’s memory.
2. Instructions are of different categories. Some categories of instructions are:
i. Memory access or transfer of data between registers.
ii. Arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction.
iii. Logic operations such as AND, OR and NOT.
iv. Control the sequence, conditional connections, etc.
A CPU performance is measured by the number of instructions it executes in a second,
i.e., MIPS (million instructions per second), or BIPS (billion instructions per second).

1.13 Microprocessor
A processor’s instruction set is a determining factor in its architecture. On the basis of the
instruction set, microprocessors are classified as—Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC),
and Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC). The x86 instruction set of the original Intel
8086 processor is of the CISC type. The PCs are based on the x86 instruction set.
1. CISC architecture hardwires the processor with complex instructions, which are difficult
to create o
­ therwise using basic instructions. CISC combines the different instructions into
one single CPU.
i. CISC has a large instruction set that includes simple and fast instructions for per-
forming basic tasks, as well as complex instructions that correspond to statements
in the high level language.

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 1.24 Computer Fundamentals

ii. An increased number of instructions (200 to 300) results in a much more complex
processor, requiring millions of transistors.
iii. Instructions are of variable lengths, using 8, 16 or 32 bits for storage. This results in
the processor’s time being spent in calculating where each instruction begins and
ends.
iv. With large number of application software programs being written for the processor,
a new processor has to be backwards compatible to the older version of processors.
v. AMD and Cyrix are based on CISC.
2. RISC has simple, single-cycle instructions, which performs only basic instructions. RISC
architecture does not have hardwired advanced functions. All high-level language sup-
port is done in the software.
i. RISC has fewer instructions and requires fewer transistors, which results in the
reduced manufacturing cost of processor.
ii. The instruction size is fixed (32 bits). The processor need not spend time in finding
out where each instruction begins and ends.
iii. RISC architecture has a reduced production cost compared to CISC processors.
iv. The instructions, simple in nature, are executed in just one clock cycle, which speeds
up the program execution when compared to CISC processors.
v. RISC processors can handle multiple instructions simultaneously by processing
them in parallel.
vi. Apple Mac G3 and PowerPC are based on RISC.
Processors like Athlon XP and Pentium IV use a hybrid of both technologies.

 Pipelining improves instruction execution speed by putting the execution steps into paral-
lel. A CPU can receive a single instruction, begin executing it, and receive another instruction
before it has completed the first. This allows for more instructions to be performed, about,
one instruction per clock cycle.
Parallel Processing is the simultaneous execution of instructions from the same program on
different processors. A program is divided into multiple processes that are handled in paral-
lel in order to reduce execution time.

1.14  Interconnecting the Units of a Computer

CPU sends data, instructions and information to the components inside the computer as well
as to the peripherals and devices attached to it. Bus is a set of electronic signal pathways that
allows information and signals to travel between components inside or outside of a computer.
The different components of computer, i.e., CPU, I/O unit, and memory unit are connected
with each other by a bus. The data, instructions and the signals are carried between the differ-
ent components via a bus. The features and functionality of a bus are as follows:
1. A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can carry one bit of data.
2. A bus width is defined by the number of wires in the bus.

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 Basics of Computer  1.25

CPU Memory

Data bus
System Address bus
bus
Control bus

Figure 1.24  |  Interaction between CPU and memory

3. A computer bus can be divided into two types—Internal Bus and External Bus.
4. The Internal Bus connects components inside the motherboard like, CPU and system
memory. It is also called the System Bus. Figure 1.24 shows interaction between proces-
sor and memory.
5. The External Bus connects the different external devices, peripherals, expansion slots, I/O
ports and drive connections to the rest of computer. The external bus allows various devices
to be attached to the computer. It allows for the expansion of computer’s capabilities. It is
generally slower than the system bus. It is also referred to as the Expansion Bus.
6. A system bus or expansion bus comprise of
three kinds of buses — data bus, address bus System bus
and control bus.
7. The interaction of CPU with memory and I/O CPU Memory
devices involves all the three buses.
Expansion bus
i. T  he command to access the memory or the
I/O device is carried by the control bus.
ii. The address of I/O device or memory is
­carried by the address bus. Controller Controller Controller

iii. The data to be transferred is carried by the

data bus. Hard disk Monitor Keyboard
Figure 1.25 shows interaction between processor,
memory and the peripheral devices. Figure 1.25  |  Interaction between CPU,
memory and peripheral devices
1.14.1  System Bus
The functions of data bus, address bus and control bus, in the system bus, are as follows:
1. Data Bus transfers data between the CPU and memory. The bus width of a data bus
affects the speed of computer. The size of data bus defines the size of the processor. A pro-
cessor can be 8, 16, 32 or 64-bit processor. An 8-bit processor has 8 wire data bus to carry
1 byte of data. In a 16-bit processor, 16-wire bus can carry 16 bits of data, i.e., transfer
2 bytes, etc.
2. Address Bus connects CPU and RAM with set of wires similar to data bus. The width
of address bus determines the maximum number of memory locations the computer can
address. Currently, Pentium Pro, II, III, IV have 36-bit address bus that can address
236 bytes or 64 GB of memory.
3. Control Bus specifies whether data is to be read or written to the memory, etc.

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 1.26 Computer Fundamentals

1.14.2  Expansion Bus

The functions of data bus, address bus and control bus, in the expansion bus, are as follows:
1. The expansion bus connects external devices to the rest of computer. The external devices
like monitor, keyboard and printer connect to ports on the back of computer. These
ports are actually a part of the small circuit board or expansion card that fits into an expan-
sion slot on the motherboard. Expansion slots are easy to recognize on the motherboard.
2. Expansion slots make up a row of long plastic connectors at the back of the computer
with tiny copper ‘finger slots’ in a narrow channel that grab the connectors on the
expansion cards. The slots are attached to tiny copper pathways on the motherboard
(the expansion bus), which allows the device to communicate with the rest of computer.
3. Data Bus is used to transfer data between I/O devices and CPU. The exchange of data
between CPU and I/O devices is according to the industry standard data buses. The
most commonly used standard is Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)
which is a 32-bit bus architecture. Some of the common bus technologies are:
i. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus for hard disks, sound cards, network
cards and graphics cards,
ii. Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus for 3-D and full motion video,
iii. Universal Serial Bus (USB) to connect and disconnect different devices.
4. Address Bus carries the addresses of different I/O devices to be accessed like the hard
disk, CD ROM, etc.
5. Control Bus is used to carry read/write commands, status of I/O devices, etc.

1.14.3  External Ports

The peripheral devices interact with the CPU of the Data bus 1010 Serial
Serial
­computer via the bus. The connections to the bus from Address bus inferface device
the peripheral devices are made via the ports and Control bus
sockets ­provided at the sides of the computer. The 1
Data bus
different ports and sockets facilitate the connection of Address bus Parallel 0 Parallel
1
different devices to the computer. Some of the stan- Control bus inferface
0
device
dard port connections ­available on the outer sides of
the computer are—port for mouse, keyboard, monitor, Figure 1.26  |  Interaction of serial and
network, modem, and, audio port, serial port, parallel parallel port interfaces
port and USB port. The different ports are physically
identifiable by their different shapes, size of contact
pins and number of pins. Figure 1.26 shows the interaction of serial and parallel port interfaces
with the devices.

1.15  Performance of a Computer

There are a number of factors involved that are related to the CPU and have an effect on the
overall speed and performance of the computer. Some of the factors that affect the perfor-
mance of the computer include:
1. Registers: The size of the register (word size) indicates the amount of data with which
the computer can work at any given time. The bigger the size, the more quickly it can
process data. A 32-bit CPU is one in which each register is 32 bits wide.

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 Basics of Computer  1.27

2. RAM: It is used to store data and instructions during execution of the instructions.
Anything you do on your computer requires RAM. When the computer is switched on,
the operating system, device drivers, the active files and running programs are loaded
into RAM. If RAM is less, then the CPU waits each time the new information is swapped
into memory from the slower devices. Larger the RAM size, the better it is. PCs nowa-
days usually have 1 GB to 4 GB of RAM.
3. System Clock: The clock speed of a CPU is defined as the frequency with which a pro-
cessor executes instructions or the data is processed. Higher clock frequencies mean
more clock ticks per second. The computer’s operating speed is linked to the speed
of the system clock. The clock ­frequency is measured in millions of cycles per sec-
ond or megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) which is billions of cycles per second. A
CPU’s performance is measured by the number of instructions it executes in a second,
i.e., MIPS or BIPS. PCs nowadays come with a clock speed of more than 1 GHz. In
Windows OS, you can select the System Properties dialog box to see the processor name and
clock frequency.

Figure 1.27  |  System properties in Windows XP Professional

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 1.28 Computer Fundamentals

4. Bus: Data bus is used for transfering data between CPU and memory. The data bus width
affects the speed of computer. In a 16-bit processor, 16-bit wire bus can carry 16 bits of
data. The bus speed is measured in MHz. Higher the bus speed the better it is. Address bus
connects CPU and RAM with a set of wires similar to data bus. The address bus width
determines the maximum number of memory locations the computer can address. Pentium
Pro, II, III, IV have 36-bit address bus that can address 236 bytes or 64 GB of memory. PCs
nowadays have a bus speed varying from 100 MHz to 400 MHz.
5. Cache Memory: Two of the main factors that affect a cache’s performance are its size
(amount of cache memory) and level L1, L2 and L3. Larger the size of cache, the better
it is. PCs nowadays have a L1 cache of 256KB and L2 cache of 1MB.
Figure 1.27 shows the general information about a computer as displayed in the system
properties window in Windows XP Professional.

1.16  Inside a Computer Cabinet

The computer cabinet encloses the components that are required for the running of the com-
puter. The components inside a computer cabinet include the power supply, motherboard,
memory chips, expansion slots, ports and interface, processor, cables and storage devices.

1.16.1 Motherboard
The computer is built up around a motherboard. The motherboard is the most important com-
ponent in the PC. It is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB), having many chips, connectors
and other electronics mounted on it. The motherboard is the hub, which is used to connect all
the essential components of a computer. The RAM, hard drive, disk drives and optical drives
are all plugged into interfaces on the motherboard. The motherboard contains the processor,
memory chips, interfaces and sockets, etc.
The motherboard may be characterized by the form factor, chipset and type of processor
socket used. Form factor refers to the motherboard’s geometry, dimensions, arrangement and elec-
trical requirements. Different standards have been developed to build motherboards, which can
be used in different brands of cases. Advanced Technology Extended (ATX) is the most common
design of motherboard for desktop computers. Chipset is a circuit, which controls the majority
of resources (including the bus interface with the processor, cache memory and RAM, expan-
sion cards, etc.) Chipset’s job is to coordinate data transfers between the various components of
the computer (including the processor and memory). As the chipset is integrated into the moth-
erboard, it is important to choose a motherboard, which includes a recent chipset, in order to
maximize the computer’s upgradeability. The processor socket may be a rectangular connector
into which the processor is mounted vertically (slot), or a square-shaped connector with many
small connectors into which the processor is directly inserted (socket). The Basic Input Output
System (BIOS) and Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) are present on the
motherboard.
1. BIOS: It is the basic program used as an interface between the operating system and
the motherboard. The BIOS (Figure 1.28) is stored in the ROM and cannot be rewrit-
ten. When the computer is switched on, it needs instructions to start. BIOS contain the
instructions for the starting up of the computer. The BIOS runs when the computer is

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 Basics of Computer  1.29

switched on. It performs a Power On Self

Test (POST) that checks that the hardware
is functioning properly and the hardware
devices are present. It checks whether the
operating system is present on the hard ROM BIOS on
drive. BIOS invokes the bootstrap loader a motherboard
to load the operating system into memory.
BIOS can be configured using an interface
named BIOS setup, which can be accessed
when the computer is booting up (by press-
ing the DEL key).
2. CMOS Chip: BIOS ROMs are accompa- Figure 1.28  |  ROM BIOS
nied by a smaller CMOS (CMOS is a type of
memory technology) memory chip. When the computer is turned off, the power sup-
ply stops providing electricity to the motherboard. When the computer is turned on
again, the system still displays the correct clock time. This is because the CMOS chip
saves some system information, such as time, system date and essential system settings.
CMOS is kept powered by a button battery located on the motherboard (Figure 1.29).
The CMOS chip is working even when the computer power is switched off. Information
of the hardware installed in the computer (such as the number of tracks or sectors on
each hard drive) is stored in the CMOS chip.

Battery for
CMOS chip on
the motherboard

Figure 1.29  |  Battery for CMOS chip

1.16.2  Ports and Interfaces

Motherboard has a certain number of I/O sockets that are connected to the ports and interfaces
found on the rear side of a computer (Figure 1.30). You can connect external devices to the
ports and interfaces, which get connected to the computer’s motherboard.
1. Serial Port—to connect old peripherals.
2. Parallel Port—to connect old printers.
3. USB Ports—to connect newer peripherals like cameras, scanners and printers to the
computer. It uses a thin wire to connect to the devices, and many devices can share that
wire simultaneously.

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 1.30 Computer Fundamentals

Figure 1.30  |  Ports on the rear side of a PC

4. Firewire is another bus, used today mostly for video cameras and external hard drives.
5. RJ45 connector (called LAN or Ethernet port) is used to connect the computer to a net-
work. It corresponds to a network card integrated into the motherboard.
6. VGA connector for connecting a monitor. This connector interfaces with the built-
in graphics card.
7. Audio plugs (line-in, line-out and microphone), for connecting sound speakers and the
microphone. This connector interfaces with the built-in sound card.
8. PS/2 port to connect mouse and keyboard into PC.
9. SCSI port for connecting the hard disk drives and network connectors.

1.16.3  Expansion Slots

The expansion slots (Figure 1.31) are located on the motherboard. The expansion cards are inserted
in the expansion slots. These cards give the computer new features or increased performance. There
are several types of slots:
1. ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot—To connect modem and input devices.
2. PCI (Peripheral Component InterConnect) slot—To connect audio, video and graphics.
They are much faster than ISA cards.
3. AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port) slot—A fast port for a graphics card.

Expansion slots

Figure 1.31  |  Expansion slots

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 Basics of Computer  1.31

4. PCI (Peripheral Component InterConnect) Express slot—Faster bus architecture than AGP
and PCI buses.
5. PC Card—It is used in laptop computers. It includes Wi-Fi card, network card and external
modem.

1.16.4  Ribbon Cables

Ribbon cables (Figure 1.32) are flat, insulated and consist of several tiny wires moulded together
that carry data to different components on the motherboard. There is a wire for each bit of the
word or byte and additional wires to coordinate the activity of moving information. They also
connect the floppy drives, disk drives and CD-ROM drives to the connectors in the mother-
board. Nowadays, Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) cables have replaced the
ribbon cables to connect the drives to the motherboard.

Ribbon
cables

Figure 1.32  |  Ribbon cables inside a PC

1.16.5  Memory Chips

The RAM consists of chips on a small circuit board (Figure 1.33). Two types of memory
chips—Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM) and Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM)
are used in desktop computers. The CPU can retrieve information from DIMM chip at 64 bits
compared to 32 bits or 16 bits transfer with SIMM chips. DIMM chips are used in Pentium 4
onwards to increase the access speed.

Figure 1.33  |  RAM memory chip

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 1.32 Computer Fundamentals

1.16.6  Storage Devices

The disk drives are present inside the machine. The common disk drives in a machine are hard
disk drive, floppy drive (Figure 1.34 (i & ii)) and CD drive or DVD drive. High-storage devices
like hard disk, floppy disk and CDs (Figure 1.34 (iii) & (iv)) are inserted into the hard disk
drive, floppy drive and CD drive, respectively. These storage devices can store large amounts
of data, permanently.

Figure 1.34  |  Storage devices (i) Hard disk drive, (ii) DVD drive, (iii) Floppy disk, (iv) CD

1.16.7 Processor
The processor or the CPU is the main component of the computer. Select a processor based
on factors like its speed, performance, reliability and motherboard support. Pentium Pro,
Pentium 2 and Pentium 4 are some of the processors.

1.17  Application of Computers

Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user, computer is a tool that
provides the desired information, whenever needed. You may use computer to get informa-
tion about the reservation of tickets (railways, airplanes and cinema halls), books in a library,
medical history of a person, a place in a map, or the dictionary meaning of a word. The infor-
mation may be presented to you in the form of text, images, video clips, etc.
Figure 1.35 shows some of the applications of computer. Some of the application areas of
the computer are listed below:
1. Education: Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting
education. Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lec-
tures. Computers are used to develop computer-based training packages, to provide
distance education using the e-learning software, and to conduct online examinations.
Researchers use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to
get global access to the research material.
2. Entertainment: Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry.
The user can download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema
halls, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using
computers, etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create
music using computers, etc.

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 Basics of Computer  1.33

Business Medicine
Education

Entertainment Science&Eng
APPLICATIONS OF
COMPUTERS IN
DIFFERENT FIELDS

Home
Sports Advertising

Figure 1.35  |  Applications of computer

3. Sports: A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game,
play games (like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of
training players.
4. Advertising: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be dis-
played on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product
by different customers can be posted. Computers are also used to create an advertise-
ment using the visual and the sound effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium
via which the advertisements can be viewed globally. Web advertising has become a
significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all companies. In fact, the business
model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for generating revenues.
5. Medicine: Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information
about the advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The medi-
cal history of patients is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral part of
various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CAT scan
machine, MRI scan machine, etc. C ­ omputers also provide assistance to the medical sur-
geons during critical surgery operations like laparoscopic operations, etc.
6. Science and Engineering: Scientists and engineers use computers for performing com-
plex scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM applica-
tions) and also for simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for storing
the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3-dimensional
objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space exploration,
etc., are not possible without the computers.

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 1.34 Computer Fundamentals

7. Government: The government uses computers to manage its own operations and
also for e-governance. The websites of the different government departments provide
information to the users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, pay-
ing taxes, online submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record
details, etc. The police department uses computers to search for criminals using finger-
print matching, etc.
8. Home: Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home,
people use computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicat-
ing with friends and relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning,
etc. Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs,
food processors, home theatres, security devices, etc.
The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to discuss all of them
here. In addition to the applications of the computers discussed above, computers have also
proliferated into areas like banks, investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket reservation,
military operations, meteorological predictions, social networking, business organizations,
police department, video conferencing, telepresence, book publishing, web newspapers, and
information sharing.

1.18 Summary
1. Computer is an electronic device which accepts data as input, performs processing on
the data, and gives the desired output. A computer may be analog or digital computer.
2. Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are the main characteristics
of computer.
3. The computing devices have evolved from simple mechanical machines, like ABACUS,
Napier’s bones, Slide Rule, Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine, Leibniz’s
Multiplication and Dividing Machine, Jacquard Punched Card System, Babbage’s
Analytical Engine and Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine, to the first electronic computer.
4. Charles Babbage is called the father of c­ omputer.
5. The evolution of computers to their present state is divided into five generations of com-
puters, based on the hardware and software they use, their physical appearance and
their computing characteristics.
6. First generation computers were vacuum tubes based machines. These were large in size,
expensive to operate and instructions were written in machine language. Their compu-
tation time was in milliseconds.
7. Second generation computers were transistor based machines. They used the stored pro-
gram concept. Programs were written in assembly language. They were smaller in size,
less expensive and required less maintenance than the first generation computers. The
computation time was in microseconds.
8. Third generation computers were characterized by the use of IC. They consumed less
power and required low maintenance compared to their predecessors. High-level lan-
guages were used for programming. The computation time was in nanoseconds. These
computers were produced commercially.
9. Fourth generation computers used microprocessors which were designed using the LSI
and VLSI technology. The computers became small, portable, reliable and cheap. The

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 Basics of Computer  1.35

computation time is in picoseconds. They became available both to the home user and
for commercial use.
10. Fifth generation computers are capable of learning and self organization. These ­computers
use SLSI chips and have large memory requirements. They use parallel processing and
are based on AI. The fifth generation computers are still being developed.
11. Computers are broadly classified as microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframe
­computers, and supercomputers, based on their sizes and types.
12. Microcomputers are small, low-cost stand-alone machines. Microcomputers include
desktop computers, notebook computers or laptop, netbooks, tablet computer, hand-
held computer and smart phones.
13. Minicomputers are high processing speed machines having more storage capacity than
the microcomputers. Minicomputers can support 4-200 users simultaneously.
14. Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance com-
puters. They have very high speed, very large storage capacity and can handle large
workloads. Mainframe computers are generally used in centralized databases.
15. Supercomputers are the most expensive machines, having high processing speed capable
of performing trillions of ­calculations per second. The speed of a supercomputer is mea-
sured in FLOPS. Supercomputers find applications in computing-intensive tasks.
16. Computer is an electronic device based on the input-process-output concept. Input/
Output Unit, CPU and Memory unit are the three main components of computer.
17. Input/Output Unit consists of the Input unit which accepts data from the user and the
Output unit that provides the processed data. CPU processes the input data, and, con-
trols, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer. CPU consists of ALU,
CU and Registers. The memory unit stores programs, data and output, temporarily,
during the processing. Additionally, storage unit or secondary memory is used for the
storing of programs, data and output permanently.
18. Computers are used in various areas of our life. Education, entertainment, sports,
advertising, medicine, science and engineering, government, office and home are some
of the application areas of computers.
19. Different computers may have different organization, but the basic organization of com-
puter remains the same.
20. I/O Unit, CPU and Memory Unit are the main components of computer.
21. CPU or microprocessor is called the brain of computer. It processes data and instructions.
It also supervises the operations of the other parts of computer.
22. Registers, Arithmetic Logic Unit and Control Unit are the parts of CPU.
23. Cache memory, primary memory and secondary memory constitute the memory unit.
Primary memory consists of RAM and ROM.
24. Registers are low-storage capacity, high-speed storage areas within the CPU. The data,
instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing are stored in the registers
by the CPU.
25. Cache memory is a very high-speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU, to
increase the processing speed. Cache memory is available in three levels - L1, L2 and L3.
26. RAM provides temporary storage, has a limited storage capacity and is volatile mem-
ory. The access speed of RAM is faster than access speed of the storage devices like hard
disk. The data and the instructions stored in the hard disk are brought into the RAM so
that the CPU can access the data and the instructions and process it.

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 1.36 Computer Fundamentals

27. CU organizes the processing of data and instructions. It acts as a supervisor and ­controls
and coordinates the activity of other units of computer.
28. ALU performs arithmetic operations and logic operations on the data.
29. An instruction is an elementary operation that the processor can accomplish. The
instructions in the instruction set are the language that a processor understands. The
instruction set is embedded in the processor which determines the machine language
for the processor.
30. A CPU instruction cycle involves four steps: (1)  Fetching the instructions from the mem-
ory, (2) Decoding instructions so that they correspond to those in the CPU’s instruction
set, (3) Executing the decoded instructions, and (4) Storing the result to the computer
memory.
31. RISC and CISC are the two kinds of microprocessors classified on the basis of instruction
set. CISC has a large and complex instruction set. RISC has fewer instructions.
32. The different components of computer are connected with each other by a bus. A com-
puter bus is of two types—system bus and expansion bus. A system bus or expansion
bus comprise of three kinds of buses—data bus, address bus and control bus.
33. The System Bus connects the CPU, system memory, and all other components on the
motherboard.
34. The Expansion Bus connects the different external devices, peripherals, expansion slots,
I/O ports and drive connections to the rest of computer.
35. The performance of computer is affected by the size of registers, size of RAM, speed of
system clock, width of bus, and size of cache memory.
36. Inside a computer cabinet, there is a motherboard, ports and interfaces, expansion slots,
ribbon cables, RAM memory chips, high storage disk drives, and, processor.
37. The motherboard is characterized by the form factor, chipset and type of processor socket.
Form factor is the motherboard’s geometry, dimensions, arrangement and electrical
requirements. Chipset controls the majority of resources of the computer.
38. BIOS and CMOS are present on the motherboard. BIOS is stored in ROM and is used as
an interface between the operating system and the motherboard. The time, the system
date, and essential system settings are saved in CMOS memory chip present on the
motherboard. When the computer power is switched off, CMOS chip remains alive
powered by a button battery.
39. Ports and interfaces are located on the sides of the computer case to which the external
devices can be connected. Some of the ports and interfaces are— Serial port, Parallel
port, USB port, Firewire, RJ45 connector, VGA connector, Audio plugs, PS/2 port, and
SCSI port.

Exercise Questions
1. Define an analog computer and a digital computer.
2. Give an example each of analog computer and digital computer.
3. List the main characteristics of the computer.
4. Describe the characteristics of the computer.
5. List three significant limitations of the computer.
6. Explain briefly the developments in computer technology starting from a simple calculating
machine to the first computer.

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 Basics of Computer  1.37

7. What is a calculating machine?

8. What is the key feature of the Jacquard’s punch card?
9. Name the first calculating device for the counting of large numbers.
10. Who is called the Father of Computer?
11. The first generation computers used ____________ for circuitry.
12. Describe the first generation computer based on the
a. Hardware d. Physical appearance
b. Software e. Their applications
c. Computing ­characteristics
13. Give two examples of first generation computers.
14. List the drawbacks of the first generation computers.
15. The second generation computers used ____________ for circuitry.
16. Describe the second generation computer based on the
a. Hardware d. Physical appearance
b. Software e. Their applications
c. Computing characteristics
17. Give two examples of second generation computers.
18. List the drawbacks of the second generation computers.
19. The third generation computers used ____________ for circuitry.
20. Describe the third generation computer based on the
a. Hardware d. Physical appearance
b. Software e. Their applications
c. Computing characteristics
21. Give two examples of third generation computers.
22. List the drawbacks of the third generation computers.
23. The fourth generation computers used ____________ for circuitry.
24. Describe the fourth generation computer based on the
a. Hardware d. Physical appearance
b. Software e. Their applications
c. Computing characteristics
25. Give two examples of fourth generation computers.
26. List the drawbacks of the fourth generation computers.
27. The fifth generation computers used ____________ for circuitry.
28. Describe the fifth generation computer based o­ n the
a. Hardware d. Physical appearance
b. Software e. Their applications
c. Computing ­characteristics
29. Give two examples of fifth generation computers.
30. Compare in detail the five generations of computers based on the
a. Hardware c. Computing characteristics
b. Software d. Physical appearance
e. Their applications
Also give at least one example of each generation of computer.

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 1.38 Computer Fundamentals

31. Define microcomputer.

32. Give two examples of microcomputer.
33. List three categories of microcomputers.
34. Define minicomputers.
35. Give two examples of minicomputer.
36. Define mainframe computer.
37. Give two examples of mainframe computer.
38. Define a dumb terminal.
39. Define an intelligent terminal.
40. Define a supercomputer.
41. Give two examples of supercomputer.
42. The speed of supercomputer is generally measured in ____________.
43. List two uses of the supercomputer.
44. Name the supercomputer assembled in India.
45. Highlight the differences between microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe computer and super-
computer.
46. Define a computer.
47. Define:
a. Program e. CU
b. Software f. CPU
c. Hardware g. Data
d. ALU
48. Differentiate between software, data and hardware.
49. List the components of computer hardware.
50. Explain in detail the components of computer hardware.
51. List the steps in the working of the computer.
52. Explain the working of the computer.
53. Explain the input-process-output cycle.
54.  C PU is also often called the _________of computer.
55.  Define a microprocessor.
56.  Define a motherboard.
57.  The different parts of the CPU are ______, ________ and _________.
58.  _______ and ______ are the main memory.
59.  What is the purpose of the main memory?
60.  List the main functions of the CPU.
61.  ALU consists of the ______ unit and ______ unit.
62.  What are the functions of the ALU?
63.  ______ is also called the working memory of the CPU.
64.  List five important registers of the CPU. Also state the purpose of each register.
65.  Why are Registers used in the CPU?
66.  Define word size.
67.  “This is a 64-bit processor”. Explain its meaning.

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 Basics of Computer  1.39

 68. The size of the register is also the ______ size.

 69. Which is faster—a 32-bit processor or a 64-bit­processor?
 70. What are the functions of the control unit?
 71. Explain the need of the cache memory?
 72. The ______ memory is placed between the RAM and the CPU.
 73. There are _______ levels of cache memory.
 74. Explain the three levels of the cache memory.
 75. State three important features of the cache memory.
 76. The size of the cache memory is generally in the range ________.
 77. What is the purpose of RAM?
 78. List the features of the primary memory.
 79. List the key features of the secondary memory.
 80.  Define the stored program concept.
 81. Describe the format of an instruction.
 82. The common fields of an instruction are ______ code and ______ code.
 83. What is the function of the operand code and the operation code?
 84. Define an Instruction set.
 85. What is the significance of the Instruction set in the CPU?
 86. “Two processors are compatible”. How do you deduce this statement?
 87. Define microarchitecture.
 88. Define an instruction cycle.
 89. Give a detailed working of the instruction cycle.
 90. Name the four steps involved in an instruction cycle.
 91. The number of instructions executed in a second by the CPU, is measured in _____.
 92. The microprocessors are classified as _____ and _____ on the basis of the instruction set.
 93. The x86 instruction set of the original Intel 8086 processor is of the _____ type.
 94. Describe the features of the CISC architecture.
 95. Give two examples of the CISC processor.
 96. Describe the features of the RISC architecture.
 97. Give two examples of the RISC processor.
 98. What is the use of parallel processing and pipelining?
 99. Define a bus.
100. Define a system bus.
101. Define an expansion bus.
102. Why is a bus used?
103. Define:
a. Control bus c. Data bus
b. Address bus
104. A system bus or expansion bus comprises of three kinds of buses ______, ______ and _____.
105. Name the bus connecting CPU with memory?
106. Name the bus connecting I/O devices with CPU?
107. In a system bus, what is the significance of the control bus, address bus and data bus?

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 1.40 Computer Fundamentals

108. The ______ of data bus affects the speed of computer.

109. Name the bus whose width affects the speed of computer?
110. The __________ of address bus determines the maximum number of memory locations the com-
puter can address.
111. Name the bus whose width determines the maximum number of memory locations the computer
can address?
112. What are the functions of data bus, address bus and control bus in the expansion bus?
113. Where is the expansion card fixed on the motherboard?
114. What is an expansion slot?
115. Name three common bus technologies.
116. What kind of devices is attached to the PCI bus, AGP bus and USB bus?
117. List the factors that affect the performance of the computer.
118. Explain in detail the factors that affect the performance of the computer.
119. What is the use of the system clock?
120. The clock frequency is measured in _____.
121. “The motherboard is characterized by the form factor, chipset and the type of processor socket
used”. Explain.
122. Define form factor.
123. Define chipset.
124. _____ is the most common design of the motherboard for desktop computers.
125. What is the significance of the chipset?
126. What is the function of the BIOS?
127. What is the function of the CMOS chip?
128. Explain the booting process when the computer is switched on.
129. What is POST?
130. List five ports and interfaces available on the backside of the computer to connect the devices.
131. What devices are attached to
a. Serial Port
b. Parallel Port
c. USB Port
d. Firewire
e. RJ45 connector
f. VGA connector
g. Audio plugs (­ Line-In, Line-Out and microphone)
h. PS/2 Port
i. SCSI Port
132. List five expansion slots available in the computer.
133. What devices are attached to
a. ISA slots d. PCI Express slot
b. PCI slot e. PC Card
c. AGP slot
134. What is the purpose of the Ribbon cables?

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 Basics of Computer  1.41

135. Two types of memory chips ______ and ______ are used in desktop computers.
136. List any three storage devices that are attached to the computer.
137. List some areas where the computers are used.
138. Explain briefly the use of computers in the following areas
a. Education c. Government
b. Advertising

Additional Questions
139. Give full form of the following abbreviations
a. CPU j. ES
b. I/O k. NLP
c. ALU l. AI
d. CU
m. PDA
e. LSI
n. FLOPS
f. VLSI
g. PC o. UNIVAC
h. GUI p. ENIAC
i. SLSI q. EDVAC
140. Write short notes on:
a. Components of Computer l. Microcomputers
b. Input-Process-Output m. Minicomputers
c. I/O Unit n. Mainframe Computers
d. Central Processing Unit o. Supercomputer
e. Storage Unit
p. Personal Computer (PC)
f. History of Computers
q. Notebook Computer
g. First Generation Computer
h. Second Generation Computer r. Tablet Computer
i. Third Generation Computer s. Netbook
j. Fourth Generation Computer t. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
k. Fifth Generation Computer u. Applications of Computer
141. Give differences between the following:
a. Analog and Digital Computer
b. Dumb Terminal and Intelligent Terminal
c. Microcomputer and Minicomputer
d. Minicomputer and Mainframe Computer
e. Mainframe computer and Supercomputer
f. First Generation Computers and Second Generation Computers
g. Second Generation Computers and Third Generation Computers
h. Third Generation Computers and Fourth Generation Computers
i. Fourth Generation Computers and Fifth Generation Computers
j. Desktop Computer and Notebook Computer

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 1.42 Computer Fundamentals

142. Give full form of the following abbreviations:

a. IC o. POST
b. MIPS p. ISA
c. EISA q. ROM
d. PCI r. ACC
e. USB s. IR
f. AGP t. PC
g. BIPS u. MAR
h. SIMM v. MBR
i. DIMM w. DR
j. GHz x. RISC
k. MHz y. CISC
l. PCB z. ATX
m. BIOS aa. SATA
n. CMOS
143. Write short notes on:
a. Working of computer l. System bus
b. Central processing unit m. Expansion bus
c. Registers n. Performance of ­computer
d. Cache memory o. System clock
e. RAM p. Motherboard
f. Control unit q. BIOS
g. ALU r. CMOS chip
h. Instruction format s. Ports and interfaces in computer
i. Instruction set t. Main components in a computer case
j. Instruction Cycle u. Expansion slots
k. Microprocessor
144. Give differences between the following:
a. Registers and cache memory d. System bus and expansion bus
b. Cache memory and RAM e. Data bus, address bus and control bus
c. RISC and CISC

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 Generations of Computer
Features First Generation Second Generation Third Generation Fourth Generation Fifth Generation
Year 1940 to 1956 1956 to 1964 1964 to 1971 1971 to present Present and Next
Hardware Vacuum tubes Transistors that Integrated Large Scale Super Large Scale
Technology for circuitry and are smaller, faster, Circuit (IC) Integration Integrated (SLSI)
magnetic drums for cheaper, energy chips. In an IC (LSI) and the chips are able to
memory. efficient and chip, multiple Very Large Scale store millions of
reliable. transistors Integration (VLSI) components on a

M01_COMPUTER-FUNDAM00_SE_XXXX_CH01.indd 43
are placed technologies. single chip. These
on a silicon computers have
chip. Silicon large memory
is a type of requirements.
semiconductor.
Input Punched cards and Magnetic core Keyboard Keyboard, Keyboard,
paper tapes technology for mouse and other mouse and other
primary memory. handheld devices handheld devices
They used
magnetic tapes and
magnetic disks for
secondary storage.
The input was still
through punched
cards.
Output Displayed as Output using Monitor Monitor Monitor and other
printouts printouts output devices
Software Instructions were Assembly language Operating MS-Dos, Artificial
Technology written in machine programming, system and Windows, and intelligence
language, i.e., 0s and COBOL and high level GUI includes areas like
1s. FORTRAN languages Expert System
(ES).
Processing The computation Microseconds Nanoseconds Picoseconds Very fast
speed time was in
Milliseconds.
(Continued)
Basics of Computer  1.43

6/24/2016 12:32:47 PM
 Features First Generation Second Generation Third Generation Fourth Generation Fifth Generation
Application They were used The transistors had Computers Personal Large parallel
for scientific to be assembled became computers and processing
applications, as they manually in accessible to networking
were the fastest second generation mass audience.
computing device of computers. Computers
their time. were produced
commercially.
Physical These computers Smaller in size Smaller and They are smaller Smaller

M01_COMPUTER-FUNDAM00_SE_XXXX_CH01.indd 44
Appearance were enormous in cheaper and can even fit
1.44 Computer Fundamentals

size and required than their into the palm of

a large room for predecessors. the hand.
installation.
Examples UNIVersal PDP-8, IBM 1401 IBM 370 and Intel 4004 chip Natural Language
Automatic Computer and CDC 1604 PDP 11 was the first Processing
(UNIVAC), Electronic microprocessor. (NLP), speech
Numerical Integrator In 1981, IBM home recognition, voice
And Calculator computer, and recognition,
(ENIAC) and in 1984, Apple robotics, etc.
Electronic Discrete Macintosh
Variable Automatic
Computer
(EDVAC)
Advantage/ Used a large number Second generation Smaller and Thousands of They are based
disadvantage of vacuum tubes and computers faster transistors are on Artificial
thus generated a lot generated a lot integrated on Intelligence
of heat. of heat but much a small silicon (AI). They try
More electricity less than the chip using LSI to simulate the
expensive. first generation technology. human way of
The machines were computers. VLSI allows thinking and
prone to frequent They required less hundreds of reasoning.
malfunctioning. maintenance than thousands of
the first generation components to
computers. be integrated in a
small chip.

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