Oilfield Review

Autumn 2013

Acidizing Advances
Monitoring Casing Corrosion
Geomagnetic Referencing
Solar Storms
 n ew pp
t he ad a
c ing w iP
n e
n ou evi
An eld R
i lfi
O

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13-OR-0004
Geomagnetic Referencing for Well Placement

Widely hailed as a breakthrough technology, extended- the drilling process. By using geomagnetic referencing,
reach drilling enables cost-effective development of off- we are able to construct a detailed model of the Earth’s
shore reserves from shore-based locations and centrally magnetic field for comparison with magnetic measure-
located platforms. In addition, it achieves maximum con- ments acquired while drilling (see “Geomagnetic
tact with the reservoir and accesses multiple reservoirs Referencing—The Real-Time Compass for Directional
with a single wellbore. Drillers,” page 32). The model is made up of contribu-
For Eni US Operating Company Inc., extended-reach tions from the Earth’s main magnetic field, the local mag-
drilling has been instrumental in our development of the netic variations in crustal rocks and time-varying
Nikaitchuq field off the North Slope of Alaska, USA. The disturbances caused by solar activity.
field’s characteristics—from its offshore location and Solar-related magnetic storms occur unpredictably, and
downhole temperature to its complex geology—make this at Arctic latitudes, they generate high-amplitude swings in
a highly challenging project. magnetic field strength and direction that must be incor-
Our leases are offshore in the Arctic Ocean and the porated into the model. To quantify these disturbances,
Beaufort Sea north of the Arctic Circle. For better access Schlumberger partnered with the US Geological Survey to
to the reservoir, we’ve built an island a few miles offshore, build a geomagnetic observatory nearby in Deadhorse,
in less than 10 ft [3 m] of water. Of the 30 wells we plan to Alaska. The observatory supplies the high-quality referenc-
drill from the single pad on the man-made island, we have ing data required for real-time drill-ahead corrections and
drilled 17; we have also drilled 22 from an onshore pad for definitive surveys at the end of each bottomhole assem-
located at Oliktok Point. In addition to the economic bene- bly run.
fits, restricting drilling sites to just two pads minimizes our We are drilling our 39th well using geomagnetic refer-
environmental footprint. encing. Since the earliest applications of this technology in
The reservoir we are targeting is shallow and relatively our wells, our wellbore position uncertainty has continually
cool, making the oil viscous. This reservoir had been devel- decreased. And because we know the positions with a high
oped as a line-drive waterflood for optimal oil recovery; the degree of certainty, we are reentering wells to create dual
development plan features alternating horizontal injectors laterals from single laterals. This strategy allows us to
and producers, with a total of 52 wells to be completed by essentially double the wellbore contact with the reservoir
2014. The injection water for waterflood is produced from a and increase production rates. Even with these increased
deeper, warmer formation. rates, we expect to produce from this field for more than
We are drilling shallow, extended-reach wells. While 30 years.
these wells are between 3,200 ft [1,000 m] and 4,200 ft
[1,300 m] deep, some are more than 23,000 ft [7,000 m] Andrew Buchanan
Senior Operations Geologist
long. More than 90% of the wells in the development have Eni US Operating Company Inc.
a reach/TVD ratio of more than 4 and some are as high Anchorage, Alaska, USA
as 6. The wells are spaced 1,200 ft [370 m] apart along
Andrew Buchanan is the Senior Operations Geologist with Eni US Operating
their production intervals, and several follow faults that
Company Inc. in Anchorage, where he has been since 2009. He previously
compartmentalize the reservoir. Accurate well placement worked for ASRC Energy Services as a geologic consultant. Andrew earned a
is crucial to ensure we don’t short-circuit the waterflood or BS degree in geology from the University of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.
inadvertently cross a major fault. A 1% location error in a He currently serves as Past President of the Petroleum Club of Anchorage.

23,000-ft long well translates into an unacceptable error

of more than 200 ft [60 m] at TD.
This is where geomagnetic referencing comes in.
Although traditional gyroscopic surveys could produce
data of sufficient quality to achieve the necessary well-
bore placement positions, gyro surveys are impractical in
this environment and require additional costs and time
that make them prohibitively expensive for drilling pro-
grams in this area. Geomagnetic referencing provides us
with real-time, precise positioning and the certainty of
knowing where our wellbores are without having to stop

1
 Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview

Executive Editor 1 Geomagnetic Referencing for Well Placement

Lisa Stewart
Editorial contributed by Andrew Buchanan, Senior Operations Geologist,
Senior Editors
Tony Smithson Eni US Operating Company Inc.
Matt Varhaug
Rick von Flatern

Editor
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
4 Stimulating Naturally Fractured
Contributing Editors
H. David Leslie Carbonate Reservoirs
Ted Moon
Parijat Mukerji Stimulation of naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs has
Erik Nelson improved significantly with the application of innovative
Ginger Oppenheimer acidizing fluids that contain degradable fibers. The fibers
Rana Rottenberg
congregate and form barriers that impede fluid movement
Design/Production into fractures, redirecting the acid to lower permeability
Herring Design regions. This type of enhanced stimulation efficiency has led
Mike Messinger
to increasingly uniform production profiles across multiple
Illustration zones and substantial production increases in many oil and
Chris Lockwood
Mike Messinger
gas fields worldwide.
George Stewart

Printing
RR Donnelley—Wetmore Plant
Curtis Weeks
18 Casing Corrosion Measurement to
Extend Asset Life
Corrosion in downhole tubulars may shorten a well’s produc-
tive life and contribute to costly damages for operators.
Downhole corrosion monitoring serves as the first line of
defense against casing corrosion.

On the cover:

The aurora borealis appears as shim-

mering curtains of colored light in the
Arctic regions of the Earth’s northern
hemisphere. Auroras, which may occur
in both of the Earth’s polar regions, are
created when emissions from solar
flares and coronal mass ejections inter-
act with the Earth’s magnetic field. A
large loop of plasma, referred to as a
prominence, emanates from the Sun’s About Oilfield Review
surface (inset). Such a mass of plasma Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal, Oilfield Review is published quarterly and © 2013 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
ejected in the direction of the Earth communicates technical advances in printed in the USA. Reproductions without permission are
would create space weather events finding and producing hydrocarbons to strictly prohibited.
that could disrupt modern electromag- customers, employees and other oilfield Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
netic-related technologies, including professionals. Contributors to articles electronic copies of articles in English, For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
well guidance methods that depend on include industry professionals and experts Spanish, Chinese and Russian. terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
magnetic measurements. from around the world; those listed with Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
only geographic location are employees A free iPad® app is available for download.
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.

2
 Autumn 2013
Volume 25
Number 3
ISSN 0923-1730

32 Geomagnetic Referencing—The Real-Time Advisory Panel

Compass for Directional Drillers Hani Elshahawi
Shell Exploration and Production
In recent years, demand for accurate wellbore placement Houston, Texas, USA
has driven technology developments that have advanced the Gretchen M. Gillis
science of wellbore guidance. This article examines magnetic Aramco Services Company
surveying methods that improve real-time measurement Houston, Texas
accuracy and allow drillers to reach their targets efficiently Roland Hamp
and cost-effectively. Woodside Energy Ltd.
Perth, Australia
Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas
48 Blowing in the Solar Wind: Sun Spots, Andrew Lodge
Solar Cycles and Life on Earth Premier Oil plc
London, England
Space weather can affect terrestrial systems that are crucial
for modern society. This article describes solar events that
contribute to space weather and are the source of electro-
magnetic pulses that have the potential to disrupt and
damage electronic, power, communication, transportation
and other infrastructure technologies on Earth and in space.
Solar sunspot cycles and their influence on solar and terres-
trial weather are also discussed.

61 Contributors

63 Defining Production Logging:

Principles of Production Logging
This is the eleventh in a series of introductory articles
describing basic concepts of the E&P industry.

Editorial correspondence Subscriptions Distribution inquiries

Oilfield Review Customer subscriptions can be obtained Matt Varhaug
5599 San Felipe through any Schlumberger sales office. Oilfield Review
Houston, TX 77056 Paid subscriptions are available from 5599 San Felipe
United States Oilfield Review Services Houston, TX 77056
(1) 713-513-1194 Pear Tree Cottage, Kelsall Road United States
Fax: (1) 713-513-2057 Ashton Hayes, Chester CH3 8BH (1) 713-513-2634
E-mail: [email protected] United Kingdom E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]

3
 Stimulating Naturally Fractured
Carbonate Reservoirs

Khalid S. Asiri Naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs can be difficult to stimulate because
Mohammed A. Atwi
Saudi Aramco treatment fluids tend to enter the fractures and avoid less permeable regions.
Udhailiyah, Saudi Arabia Effective fluid diversion techniques are usually necessary to ensure that stimulation
Oscar Jiménez Bueno fluids contact the largest possible reservoir surface area. Engineers and chemists
Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX)
Villahermosa, Mexico have developed an innovative acidizing fluid that employs degradable fibers to
temporarily block permeable fractures and force the fluid into less permeable zones.
Bruno Lecerf
Alejandro Peña Operators have applied the fiber-laden acid to naturally fractured oil and gas reser-
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
voirs in which achieving complete zonal coverage is difficult and, as a result, have
Tim Lesko witnessed substantial production improvements.
Conway, Arkansas, USA

Fred Mueller
College Station, Texas

Alexandre Z. I. Pereira
Petrobras
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Fernanda Tellez Cisneros

Villahermosa, Mexico

Oilfield Review Autumn 2013: 25, no. 3.

Copyright © 2013 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to
Charles-Edouard Cohen, Rio de Janeiro;
Victor Ariel Exler, Macaé, Brazil; Luis Daniel Gigena,
Mexico City; Daniel Kalinin, Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia;
and Svetlana Pavlova, Novosibirsk, Russia.
ACTive, MaxCO3 Acid, POD, SXE and VDA are marks
of Schlumberger.
1. Crowe C, Masmonteil J, Touboul E and Thomas R:
“Trends in Matrix Acidizing,” Oilfield Review 4, no. 4
(October 1992): 24–40.
2. Robert JA and Rossen WR: “Fluid Placement and
Pumping Strategy,” in Economides MJ and Nolte KG
(eds): Reservoir Stimulation, 3rd ed. Chichester,
West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (2000):
19-2–19-3.

4 Oilfield Review
Since the dawn of the oil and gas industry, opera-
tors have endeavored to maximize well productiv-
ity, employing a variety of techniques to do so. For
example, as early as the 19th century, engineers
began pumping acid in wells to improve produc-
tion. Acidizing treatments dissolve and remove
formation damage resulting from drilling and
completion operations, create new production
pathways in producing formations or both.
Acidizing treatments fall into two categories.
Matrix acidizing consists of pumping fluid into
the formation at rates and pressures that will not
fracture the reservoir. The resulting treatment
stimulates a region extending up to about 1 m
[3 ft] around the wellbore. Fracture acidizing is a
hydraulic fracturing treatment that pumps acid
during at least one fluid stage. The stimulation
distance may extend one or two orders of magni-
tude farther into the formation than that
achieved by matrix acidizing.
The composition of acidizing fluids depends
on the type of formation to be stimulated.
Carbonate formations, composed mainly of lime-
stone (calcium carbonate [CaCO3]) or dolomite
(calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg(CO3)2]),
are treated with hydrochloric acid [HCl], various
organic acids or combinations thereof. Sandstone
formations typically consist of quartz [SiO2] or
feldspar [KAlSi3O8–NaAlSi3O8–CaAl2Si2O6] par-
ticles bound together by carbonate or clay miner-
als. Silicate minerals do not react with HCl; they
respond instead to stimulation fluids that contain
hydrofluoric acid [HF] or fluoboric acid [HBF4].1
Despite the fluid chemistry differences, the engi-
neering aspects of carbonate and sandstone
acidizing are largely similar. However, this article
concentrates on recent advances that are partic-
ularly relevant to carbonate acidizing. > Acid-induced wormholes. An intricate network of wormholes formed during
a laboratory-scale matrix acidizing treatment of a carbonate formation sample.
Carbonate Acidizing Fundamentals The length, direction and number of wormholes depend on the formation
Limestone and dolomite rapidly dissolve in reactivity and the rate at which acid enters the formation. Once formed, the
wormholes may carry virtually all of the fluid flow during production.
HCl, forming water-soluble reaction products—
mainly calcium and magnesium chlorides—and
liberating carbon dioxide. The dissolution rate
is limited by the speed at which acid can be
delivered to the rock surface. This dissolution
process results in rapid formation of irregularly Achieving stimulation uniformity can be par- to divert acidizing fluids away from high-permea-
shaped channels called wormholes (above right). ticularly challenging when large permeability bility intervals and into less permeable zones.
Wormholes radiate outward in a dendritic pat- variations exist within the treatment interval. As Engineers accomplish diversion by employing
tern from points where acid leaves the well and acid penetrates the formation, it flows preferen- mechanical or chemical means or both.2
enters the formation. Once formed, they become tially into the most-permeable pathways. Higher- Mechanical diversion of treatment fluids may be
the most permeable pathways into the formation permeability areas receive most of the fluid and achieved using drillpipe or coiled tubing–con-
and carry virtually all of the fluid flow during pro- become larger, causing the treatment fluids to veyed tools equipped with mechanical packers
duction. For efficient stimulation, the wormhole bypass lower-permeability regions where stimu- that isolate and direct fluid into low-permeability
network should penetrate deeply and uniformly lation is needed most. To address this problem, zones. Alternatively, flow can be blocked at indi-
throughout the producing interval. engineers and chemists have developed methods vidual perforations by dropping ball sealers into

Autumn 2013 5
 Ball Sealers Straddle Packers the rate at which the acid reacts with the forma-
tion, thereby allowing more time for the creation
of deeper and more intricate wormholes.
When production begins, VDA fluid is exposed
to hydrocarbons, which alters the ionic environ-
ment and causes the micelles to become spheri-
cal. Entanglement ceases, the micelles roam
freely, and the fluid viscosity decreases dramati-
cally, enabling efficient poststimulation cleanup.
Unlike polymer-base fluids, VESs leave virtually
no damaging residue behind that may interfere
with well productivity.
Naturally fractured reservoirs are the most
> Mechanical diversion methods. Ball sealers (green spheres) are pumped down the well during the
challenging environments for carbonate acidiz-
stimulation treatment (left). The balls provide mechanical diversion because they preferentially block
the perforations that take the highest volume of treatment fluid. Straddle packers may also be deployed ing because they can present extreme permeabil-
on coiled tubing to isolate the preferred treatment interval (right). In this example, engineers have ity contrasts. The fractured regions may be
already stimulated the bottom zone and moved the packers up in preparation for stimulating the next zone. several orders of magnitude more permeable
than the unfractured layers. Until recently, the
industry’s considerable portfolio of diversion
technologies has been inefficient in this environ-
the stimulation fluid as it travels down the well. diverting acid system. VDA fluids have been par- ment. Even when using self-diverting fluids such
The ball sealers are drawn to and seat against ticularly successful in both matrix and fracture as the VDA formulation, engineers struggled to
perforations accepting the most fluid. After the acidizing applications around the world.4 block the fractures and treat the rest of the for-
treatment, the ball sealers fall away, are mechan- The surfactant molecule in the VDA system, mation. Consequently, operators were forced to
ically dislodged or dissolve (above). derived from a long-chain fatty acid, is zwitter- pump large volumes of fluid to achieve stimula-
Chemical diverting agents incorporated in ionic—a neutral molecule that carries a positive tion, leading to higher treatment costs and less
stimulation fluids may be divided into two catego- and a negative charge at separate positions.5 than optimal results.
ries—particulates and viscosifiers. Particulates While being pumped down a well, VDA fluid—a However, Schlumberger engineers and chem-
include plugging agents such as benzoic acid blend of HCl, VES and common acid-treatment ists discovered that significant diversion improve-
flakes and salt grains that are sized to plug forma- additives—maintains a low viscosity. As the acid ments could be achieved by adding degradable
tion pores. Foaming the acid may achieve a simi- is consumed in the formation, the surfactant mol- fibers to VDA fluid. As fiber-laden diversion fluid
lar plugging effect because of two-phase flow. ecules begin to aggregate into elongated enters a fracture, the fibers congregate, entangle
Viscosifiers include water-soluble polymers, micelles.6 The micelles become entangled and and form structures that limit fluid entry. The
crosslinked polymer gels and viscoelastic surfac- cause the fluid viscosity to increase (below). The new product, MaxCO3 Acid degradable diversion
tants (VESs).3 A decade ago, Schlumberger scien- higher-viscosity fluid forms a temporary barrier acid system, has been used successfully and effi-
tists and engineers applied VES chemistry to acid that forces fresh acid to flow elsewhere. In addi- ciently to stimulate notoriously difficult carbon-
stimulation and introduced the VDA viscoelastic tion to providing diversion, the viscosity decreases ate reservoirs around the world.

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Spent acid Hydrocarbon

Surfactant
molecules
Elongated micelles Spherical micelles

> Viscoelastic surfactant (VES) fluid behavior during an acidizing treatment. Initially, when the surfactant is dispersed in acid, each molecule moves
independently throughout the fluid (left). As the acid reacts with the carbonate minerals, the surfactant molecules assemble and create elongated micelles
(center). The micelles entangle and hinder fluid flow, resulting in higher fluid viscosity. When hydrocarbon production begins after the treatment, the
elongated micelles transform into spheres (right), resulting in a dramatic decrease in fluid viscosity and facilitating efficient cleanup.

6 Oilfield Review
 Openhole Acidizing Cased Hole Acidizing

Wormhole
Perforation
Wormhole

Wellbore
wall Casing

Filtercake

Filtercake

Treatment fluid Treatment fluid

Filtercake

Perforation
Filtercake

Well Well

Casing

> Fiber deposition and diversion scenarios. During openhole acidizing (top and bottom left), fibers form
a filtercake that covers the entire wellbore wall. During cased hole acidizing (top and bottom right),
fibers form filtercakes in the perforation tunnels.

This article describes the development of the with both mineral- and polymer-base fibers, they Studying applications for fibers in the context
MaxCO3 Acid system in the laboratory and its discovered techniques for controlling the behav- of acidizing has been a more recent endeavor. In
introduction to the oil field. Case histories from ior of fluids and suspended solids, both during 2007, scientists at Schlumberger began exploring
Mexico, Saudi Arabia and Brazil demonstrate and after placement in a well. The research the ability of fibers to improve fluid diversion in
how application of this new acid system is achiev- resulted in several innovations, including meth- both openhole and cased hole scenarios (above).
ing significant well productivity improvements. ods for limiting lost circulation during drilling The principal difference between the two condi-
and cementing, improving the flexibility and tions is that, for openhole completions, fibers
Studying Fiber-Laden Acids in the Laboratory durability of well cements, aiding proppant trans- must accumulate along the entire wellbore sur-
For more than 20 years, chemists and engineers port during hydraulic fracturing operations and face to provide diversion, but in a cased hole
have explored ways in which fibers could be used preventing proppant flowback into the well after situation, fiber deposition may be confined to
to improve well servicing operations. Working a fracturing treatment. perforations.
The engineers discovered that simply adding
3. For more on water-soluble polymers and VESs: Gulbis J Surfactant-Based Self-Diverting Acid,” SPE Production &
and Hodge RM: “Fracturing Fluid Chemistry and Operations 22, no. 1 (February 2007): 121–127. fibers to a conventional HCl solution failed to cre-
Proppants,” in Economides MJ and Nolte KG (eds): 5. Sullivan P, Nelson EB, Anderson V and Hughes T: “Oilfield ate a stable fibrous suspension. Shortly after
Reservoir Stimulation, 3rd ed. Chichester, West Sussex, Applications of Giant Micelles,” in Zana R and Kaler EW
England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (2000): 7-1–7-23. (eds): Giant Micelles—Properties and Applications. addition, the fibers congregated, formed clumps
4. Al-Anzi E, Al-Mutawa M, Al-Habib N, Al-Mumen A, Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press (2007): 453–472. and separated from the acid. Success was
Nasr-El-Din H, Alvarado O, Brady M, Davies S, Fredd C, 6. A micelle is a colloidal assembly of surfactant molecules.
Fu D, Lungwitz B, Chang F, Huidobro E, Jemmali M, achieved by adding fibers to VDA fluid. The resul-
In the aqueous environment of an acidizing fluid, the
Samuel M and Sandhu D: “Positive Reactions in surfactant molecules are arranged such that the interior tant higher fluid viscosity allowed the creation of
Carbonate Reservoir Stimulation,” Oilfield Review 15, of the micelle is hydrophobic and the exterior is
no. 4 (Winter 2003/2004): 28–45. a robust suspension of discrete fibers.
hydrophilic. Worm-like micelles may be microns long and
Lungwitz B, Fredd C, Brady M, Miller M, Ali S and have a cross section of a few nanometers.
Hughes K: “Diversion and Cleanup Studies of Viscoelastic

Autumn 2013 7
 Openhole Simulation

Pressure

Acid and
fibers

Pressure cell Filtercake

Core

Backpressure Cased Hole Simulation

regulator
Pump
Filtrate
Pressure sensor Wormhole Geometry

Balance
Orifice
Piston

Acid 1 to 2 mm 20 mm
and fibers 25.75 mm
Fluid flow
142 cm

Fissure or Fracture Geometry

Orifice

130 mm 65 mm
2 to 6 mm
75 mm
ID 21 mm

Orifice
Filtercake

> Laboratory-scale equipment for testing leakoff behavior and filtercake deposition. Engineers used a conventional filtration cell to simulate an openhole
stimulation (top). Technicians first placed a carbonate core at the bottom of the cell and then poured in fiber-laden acid. After sealing the cell, they applied
differential pressure across the core and used a balance to measure the amount of filtrate passing though the core. For the cased hole simulation (bottom),
engineers used a bridging apparatus. The apparatus consisted mainly of a 300-mL tube fitted with a piston, a high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) pump and an orifice (left). The orifice could be circular to simulate a wormhole (top right) or rectangular to mimic a fracture (bottom right).
Technicians installed a piston at the top of the tube, which contained fiber-laden acid. Acid exiting the tube passed through the orifice, and the technicians
assessed the diversion capability of fibers by measuring the filtrate volume, the fiber filtercake volume and the pumping pressure at various flow rates.

The engineers then began performing exper- Pressure evolution in the apparatus followed concentration required to achieve bridging
iments with laboratory-scale equipment for a consistent pattern (next page, top left). increased with the fluid injection rate (next
simulating fluid leakoff and fiber deposition Initially there was no pressure increase, but page, top right).
(above). The principal simulator was a bridging within a few seconds, the pressure rose rapidly In the laboratory, after pumping the fiber-
apparatus that accommodated a variety of ori- as the fibers formed a bridge and began to fill laden acid through the orifice, engineers per-
fices through which fiber-laden acid could pass the orifice. These results indicated that as early formed a freshwater flush. As the viscous acid
at various flow rates. Circular orifices, with volumes of fiber-laden acid reach the perfora- left the apparatus, the pumping pressure gradu-
diameters between 1 and 2 mm [0.04 and tions, the acid penetrates the reservoir as if no ally decreased and eventually stabilized. At the
0.08 in.], simulated wormholes. Rectangular ori- fibers are present. Then, as the fibers bridge, end of each test, a stable fiber plug remained in
fices with widths between 2 and 6 mm [0.08 and they accumulate inside the perforations and the orifice. Knowing the pressure, flow rate,
0.24 in.] were analogous to fractures. Engineers form a filtercake. Next, the fibers plug the fluid viscosity and fiber plug length, engineers
observed fiber plug formation and recorded the perforation, decreasing injectivity and promot- were also able to use Darcy’s law to calculate
corresponding system pressure as fiber-laden ing fluid diversion into other perforations. the fiber plug permeabilities. Depending on the
acid passed through an orifice. The engineers also discovered that the fiber fiber concentration and the fluid flow rate dur-

8 Oilfield Review
 Linear fluid velocity, ft/min
2-mm 0 16.4 32.8 49.2 65.6 82.0 98.4
150
slot
Fluid inflow
60

Degradable fiber concentration, lbm/1,000 galUS

50
Bridging region

40
Pressure, psi

100
30

20
Nonbridging region
0 1 2 3
10

0 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, s Linear fluid velocity, m/min
> Pressure-versus-time plot from a slot-flow experiment. During this > Effect of degradable fiber concentration on
experiment, the MaxCO3 Acid composition consisted of 15 wt% VDA fluid and bridging ability in a slot. During the slot-flow
6 kg/m3 (50 lbm/1,000 galUS) degradable fibers. In Period 0, MaxCO3 Acid fluid experiments, engineers determined that the fiber
begins flowing through the slot, and the fibers have not yet formed a bridge. concentration required to achieve bridging and
In Period 1, the pressure rises as the fibers entangle and form a plug in the promote fluid diversion increases with the fluid
slot. Pressure continues to climb until the volume of acid is exhausted. In injection rate.
Period 2, the pressure gradually falls as freshwater enters the slot and
displaces the viscous acid. The system pressure stabilizes during Period 3.
The white fiber plug remains intact and stable inside the slot (photograph).

ing fiber deposition, the measured permeabili-

ties varied between 400 and 2,400 mD. These
10,000 data led engineers to conclude that fibers would
provide the most efficient diversion in zones
with permeabilities exceeding 100 mD (left).7
1,000 The data acquired during the simulator exper-
iments also allowed scientists to develop a math-
ematical model for predicting the behavior of
Apparent permeability, mD

100
fiber-laden acids under openhole and cased hole
conditions; the model may be used to optimize
treatment designs.8 They performed 340 fine-scale
3D simulations that evaluated typical perforation
10
schemes, fibrous filtercake permeabilities and
formation permeabilities. The resulting model
allows scientists to track the movement of the flu-
1 ids and fibers through the wellbore and into the
reservoir and track the propagation of wormholes
generated as the acid reacts with carbonate rock.
0.1 7. It may appear counterintuitive to imagine that fiber plugs
0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000
with permeabilities higher than that of the formation
Core permeability, mD could provide significant diversion. However, significant
diversion is also provided by the flow restriction and
> Apparent permeability resulting from plugging a perforated zone with pressure drop as fluid enters the perforations.
fibers. The x-axis shows the original core permeability. The y-axis shows the 8. Cohen CE, Tardy PMJ, Lesko T, Lecerf B, Pavlova S,
apparent zone permeability after a fibrous filtercake with a permeability of Voropaev S and Mchaweh A: “Understanding Diversion
2 D has formed. The results show that after plugging occurs, when core with a Novel Fiber-Laden Acid System for Matrix
permeability exceeds about 1 mD, apparent permeability eventually levels off Acidizing of Carbonate Formations,” paper SPE 134495,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
at about 100 mD and becomes independent of core permeability. Exhibition, Florence, Italy, September 19–22, 2010.

Autumn 2013 9
 10,000

Fiber plug permeability Layer permeability

2,400 mD 30 D
Apparent reservoir permeability, mD

1,000
1,500 mD 10 D
400 mD 3D
1D
100

Flow rate
10

0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000
Time
Reservoir permeability, mD
> Diversion predictions from the MaxCO3 Acid simulator. During fiber deposition experiments in the perforation simulator, the permeabilities of the resulting
fiber plugs varied between about 400 and 2,400 mD (left). The simulator predicts how the fiber plugs decrease the apparent permeabilities of reservoirs and
promote diversion. Lower-permeability fiber plugs are more efficient diverters. Modeling studies also demonstrated that fibrous filtercakes provide fluid
diversion by equalizing the permeabilities of layers in the treated interval. For example, if the interval contains four layers with various permeabilities, the
fluid flow rate into the more permeable layers decreases and the fluid flow rate into the less permeable layers increases. Eventually, the flow rates
converge to a single flow rate, and the interval behaves as if it has a single permeability (right). Flow rate convergence occurs more quickly in a cased hole
with perforations because the filtercake surface area is lower.

> MaxCO3 Acid fluid batch mixing. The degradable fibers (top left) are light and finely divided, presenting a mixing challenge. Traditional equipment for
batch mixing of acidizing fluids was inefficient. Engineers discovered that equipment for batch mixing cement slurries (bottom left) could disperse the fibers
in VDA fluid. The VDA fluid flows into an 8,000-L [50-bbl] paddle mixer (top right). To avoid the formation of clumps, field personnel manually add fibers to the
fluid. After the fibers have been added, the tank is filled with more VDA fluid, and agitation continues until the mixture reaches a uniform consistency
(bottom right). During the job, engineers maintain the agitation to preserve fluid uniformity.

10 Oilfield Review
In addition, the model predicts fluid diversion 120

behavior (previous page, top).

After demonstrating the diversion capabili- 100
ties of fiber-laden VDA fluids in the laboratory,
the developers considered the effects of fibers on

Fiber degradation time, h

reservoir productivity following an acidizing 80

treatment. If fibers remained in the wormholes

indefinitely, their presence would hinder the flow 60
of fluids from the reservoir to the wellbore. For
this reason, degradable fibers were viewed as an
attractive option. After a treatment, the fibers 40

hydrolyze and degrade within a few days. The

absence of fibers leaves unobstructed wormholes
20
and maximizes formation productivity. Further-
more, the degradable fibers are composed of an
organic acid polymer whose degradation prod- 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ucts are acidic, giving rise to further formation Volume of acid spent at 100°C, %
stimulation (right).9
The results of the laboratory study were suffi-
ciently encouraging to allow the engineers to 16-h 16-h
shut-in shut-in
advance to the next development stage—yard 10
testing to demonstrate that the fiber-laden
9 2% KCI (injection direction)
MaxCO3 Acid fluid could be prepared and pumped 2% KCI (production direction)
efficiently and safely. 8 Fibers injected with spent acid (pH = 6.5)

7
Verifying Wellsite Deliverability
Permeability, mD

Because matrix acidizing treatments typically 6

K0 K6
K1
consume small fluid volumes compared with 5 K7
N2 K4
other stimulation techniques, engineers usually K2 K5
4
employ batch-mixing procedures. By contrast, K3
fracture acidizing usually requires large fluid vol- 3
umes, and continuous mixing is necessary to
2
keep pace with the higher pump rates.
Consequently, engineers needed to develop 1

methods for mixing MaxCO3 Acid formulations in 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
both scenarios. The principal objectives were to
Fluid volume, pore volumes
disperse the fibers safely and efficiently in the
> Behavior of degradable fibers. Engineers performed static bottle tests during which degradable
fluid and prepare a uniform suspension. Because
fibers were immersed in partially spent HCl fluids. The data show that the rate of fiber dissolution
the degradable fibers are light and finely divided, decreases as the HCl becomes neutralized. Nevertheless, complete fiber dissolution occurs within a
engineers were challenged to devise ways to few days (top). Core testing demonstrated that the acidic fiber degradation products may further
immerse the fibers in the VDA fluid so that they stimulate the formation (bottom). Using a standard core testing apparatus at 115°C [239°F], engineers
would form a homogeneous mixture. pumped 2% KCl solution into a limestone core first in the injection direction and then in the reverse, or
production, direction (K0 and K1). Technicians recorded the pressure across the core and, applying
Experimentation led to the discovery that Darcy’s law, determined that the initial core permeability was 5.1 mD. Next, they injected a partially
uniform MaxCO3 Acid mixtures can be efficiently spent 20% HCl fluid (pH = 6.5) containing degradable fibers (N2). Subsequent pumping of 2% KCl in both
batch mixed with existing equipment (previous directions revealed that the core permeability had fallen to 3.5 mD (K2 and K3). Following a 16-h shut-in
page, bottom). The equipment consists of a ves- period, the fibers had begun to degrade, and the core permeability rose to about 4.8 mD (K4 and K5).
After another 16-h shut-in period, complete fiber degradation had occurred, and the core permeability
sel, into which engineers pour the base VDA fluid, rose to 5.5 mD (K6 and K7)—an 8% improvement over the initial permeability of 5.1 mD.
and an 8,000-L [50-bbl] recirculating mixing tank
equipped with rotating paddles. Field personnel
dispense the fibers manually. Until the treatment
commences, continuous agitation prevents fiber
and fluid separation. be an efficient system for preparing MaxCO3 Acid 9. For more on formation damage testing in the laboratory:
The POD programmable optimum density mixtures. However, the fluid exit points must be Hill DG, Liétard OM, Piot BM and King GE: “Formation
Damage: Origin, Diagnosis and Treatment Strategy,” in
blender is standard Schlumberger equipment for secure to ensure that personnel are shielded Economides MJ and Nolte KE (eds): Reservoir
continuously dispensing solid materials such as against fluid leaks and sprays. Therefore, engi- Stimulation, 3rd ed. Chichester, West Sussex, England:
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (2000): 14-31–14-33.
proppant into fracturing fluids, and it proved to neers designed a special splash protection kit

Autumn 2013 11
 IRAN IRAN

SAUDI
ARABIA
South
Pars

BAHRAIN
North
Field

Fiber feeder
SAUDI
ARABIA QATAR
0 km 50

0 mi 50

> Qatar North field. Discovered in the 1970s, this accumulation is the largest
gas field in the world, with estimated reserves as high as 25.5 trillion m3
[900 Tcf]. The reservoir is called the South Pars field on the Iranian side of
the maritime border (dashed black line). The producing formation is
characterized by large interzonal permeability contrasts—up to a ratio of
100:1. The reservoir depth is about 3,000 m [9,800 ft] below the seabed, and
the elevated hydrostatic pressure tends to favor stimulation of bottom
> Continuous mixing of MaxCO3 Acid fluid. A POD blender is outfitted with a zones at the expense of upper reservoir layers, further increasing the
difficulty of achieving uniform stimulation in one treatment.
special fiber delivery feeder (top right) that has no restrictions or bends,
thus ensuring smooth metering. Field workers place a berm (top left) under
the blender to guard against fluid spills. A plastic sidewall around the mixing
tubs (bottom) further shields the mixing process. that includes a berm below the blender and a
plastic sidewall (above left). They also developed
a special chute for metering the degradable
fibers as they are dispersed into the mixing tub.
UNITED STATES The modified chute, mounted directly above the
mixing tub, has no restrictions or bends that
might hinder smooth fiber delivery.
After verifying that MaxCO3 Acid fluids could
MEXICO be prepared reliably with existing field equip-
ment, the project team traveled to Qatar for
field testing. A principal test objective was to
evaluate the accuracy of the acid placement and
diversion simulator.

Jujo-Tecominoacán
Field Field Testing in Qatar
The North field in Qatar is an offshore gas pro-
ducer that presents unique challenges for com-
Tabasco pletion and stimulation (above right). The
State reservoir is 1,000 to 1,300 ft [300 to 400 m] thick
and the wells, which may be deviated by as much
Villahermosa as 55°, can be as long as 2,000 ft [610 m]. The res-
ervoir comprises alternating sequences of lime-
10. Bullheading is the pumping of fluids into a wellbore from
the surface with no direct control over which intervals
will accept the fluids.
0 km 50
11. Thabet S, Brady M, Parsons C, Byrne S, Voropaev S,
0 miles 50 Lesko T, Tardy P, Cohen C and Mchaweh A: “Changing
the Game in the Stimulation of Thick Carbonate Gas
Reservoirs,” paper IPTC 13097, presented at the
> Jujo-Tecominoacán field. This region is among the most prolific oil and gas producing areas in International Petroleum Technology Conference,
southern Mexico. The reservoirs are naturally fractured and difficult to stimulate uniformly. Doha, Qatar, December 7–9, 2009.

12 Oilfield Review
stone and dolomite that have a permeability Optimizing Production in Southern Mexico Mexico (previous page, bottom). The field has
contrast ratio as high as 100:1. The Jujo-Tecominoacán field, operated by 48 producing wells and 19 injection wells to
The typical workflow for designing and per- Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), is located 60 km maintain reservoir pressure. The average depth
forming a MaxCO3 Acid treatment consisted of [40 mi] from Villahermosa, Tabasco, in southern of the producing intervals is 5,000 m [16,400 ft],
several steps. To build a reservoir model, engi-
neers first acquired a thorough description of the
12,200
candidate well. The description included well
completion diagrams, petrophysical and pressure
log measurements and pretreatment well pro- 12,300
duction data. The simulator produced a pumping
schedule designed to provide optimal zonal cov-
erage and maximize posttreatment reservoir per- 12,400
meability. During the treatment, engineers
measured the bottomhole and wellhead pres-
sures and compared the results with those pre- 12,500
dicted by the simulator. Posttreatment activities
included production logging to further verify the
accuracy of the simulator. 12,600
One test well had 290 ft [88 m] of perforations
along 830 ft [250 m] of measured depth— Measured depth, ft
between 12,270 and 13,100 ft [3,740 and 3,990 m]. 12,700
The principal obstacles to effective acid place-
ment were the high permeability contrast and
hydrostatic pressure effects favoring preferential 12,800

stimulation of deeper high-permeability zones

(right). Prior to these field tests, installation of
12,900
bridge plugs had been the preferred technique to
achieve fluid diversion.
Schlumberger engineers performed a matrix
13,000
acidizing treatment from a stimulation vessel
using the bullheading technique.10 The treatment
consisted of alternating stages of 290 bbl [46 m3]
13,100
of 28% HCl and 320 bbl [51 m3] of MaxCO3 Acid
fluid containing 75 lbm/1,000 galUS [9.0 kg/m3]
of degradable fibers. To ensure uniform fiber sus- 13,200
pension, engineers set up the treatment so that 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Permeability, mD
160-bbl [25-m3] spacers of VDA fluid preceded
and followed the MaxCO3 Acid stages. During the > Permeability profile. The permeability varies four orders of magnitude in a
treatment, the simulated and measured bottom- test well in the Qatar North field.
hole pressures were in good agreement, provid-
ing confirmation that the diversion physics of
8,000 40
MaxCO3 Acid behavior were well described by the 35
7,500
simulator (right).

Pump rate, bbl/min

30
After the success of the first test well, engi- 7,000
25
BHP, psi

neers performed 10 more acidizing treatments in 6,500 20

the field with similar results.11 The fiber-laden 6,000
15
acid performed as predicted, and operational 10
5,500
efficiencies were gained by not having to rely on 5
5,000 0
mechanical diversion. The time required to com- 80 100 120 140 160
plete, perforate, stimulate and clean up the Fluid at perforations Time, min
MaxCO3 Acid wells was two to four days shorter Gas MaxCO3 Acid fluid Measured BHP
than that of the traditional approach, represent- HCI Water Simulated BHP
VDA acid Pump rate
ing a savings of US$ 480,000 to US$ 960,000 per
well. Environmental benefits included a 72% > Simulated and measured pressures from a field test in the Qatar North field. Engineers pumped four
stages of 28% HCl and MaxCO3 Acid fluid. A VDA fluid spacer preceded and followed each MaxCO3
reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases
Acid stage to preserve fiber suspension uniformity. The excellent agreement between the measured
because of reduced flaring. Following the success (blue curve) and simulated (black) bottomhole pressures (BHP) helped confirm the validity of the
of the Qatari field tests, the operator deployed MaxCO3 Acid placement model.
MaxCO3 Acid technology in other regions.

Autumn 2013 13
 Stage Fluid Nitrogen Pump
[3,300 psi]. Porosity varies between 5% and 8%.
Stage Name Fluid Name The permeabilities of the upper and lower inter-
Volume, m3 Rate, m3/min
Preflush Aromatic solvent 10 vals are 1,000 mD and 3 mD; therefore, the per-
Acid HCI–formic acid blend 20 meability contrast is 333:1.
Diverter MaxCO3 Acid fluid 5 The initial oil production rate was 1,278 bbl/d
Spacer 3% NH4Cl brine 1 [203 m3/d]. Between 2006 and 2009, PEMEX per-
Preflush Aromatic solvent 10 formed several stimulation treatments using con-
Acid HCI–formic acid blend 20
ventional acids and diversion techniques. The
Diverter MaxCO3 Acid fluid 5
production rate increased immediately after
each treatment but failed to stabilize and contin-
Spacer 3% NH4Cl brine 1
ued to decline. In 2009, PEMEX engineers
Preflush Aromatic solvent 10 80
decided to evaluate the MaxCO3 Acid technology
Acid HCI–formic acid blend 20 80
in the hope of achieving uniform and long-lasting
Flush Nitrogen 150
stimulation of the two intervals.12
> Pumping schedule for a matrix acidizing treatment in the Jujo- Schlumberger engineers performed a matrix
Tecominoacán field. During the 11-stage treatment, engineers pumped an acidizing treatment consisting of bullheading
aromatic solvent to clean up perforations, an HCl–formic acid blend,
30 m3 [7,800 galUS] of aromatic solvent preflush to
MaxCO3 Acid fluid and an ammonium chloride brine spacer. The final stage
contained nitrogen [N2] to enhance well cleanup. clean the perforations, 60 m3 [15,600 galUS] of
HCl–formic acid blend, 10 m3 [2,600 galUS] of
MaxCO3 Acid fluid containing 90 lbm/1,000 galUS
[11 kg/m3] fibers and 2 m3 [520 galUS] of ammo-
nium chloride brine spacer (above left). Pump
rates varied between 8.2 and 15 bbl/min [1.3 and
and the reservoir temperature varies between coverage during stimulation treatment presents 2.4 m3/min]. The last treatment stage contained
120°C and 160°C [250°F and 320°F]. Wells in this a major challenge. nitrogen to energize the fluid and accelerate well
field typically produce from multiple perforated One typical well that was drilled in 2005 has cleanup, and hydrocarbon production commenced
intervals with a highly variable natural fracture two producing intervals: from 5,274 to 5,294 m within three days. The initial oil production rate,
density. This scenario creates a large permeabil- [17,303 to 17,369 ft] and from 5,308 to 5,340 m 3,000 bbl/d [480 m3/d], exceeded PEMEX’s fore-
ity contrast between intervals that can reach [17,415 to 17,520 ft]. The reservoir temperature cast. After three months, the average oil produc-
1,000:1. Consequently, achieving uniform zonal and pressure are 137°C [279°F] and 22.8 MPa tion rate had stabilized at 1,600 bbl/d [250 m3/d]
(below left). Following the success of this treatment,
PEMEX has continued to apply MaxCO3 Acid tech-
nology in this field with favorable results.
12. Martin F, Quevedo M, Tellez F, Garcia A, Resendiz T,
Jimenez Bueno O and Ramirez G: “Fiber-Assisted
3,500 Self-Diverting Acid Brings a New Perspective to Hot,
Deep Carbonate Reservoir Stimulation in Mexico,”
3,000 Oil production paper SPE 138910, presented at the SPE Latin American
and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Lima, Peru, December 1–3, 2010.
2,500 13. Rahim Z, Al-Anazi HA, Al-Kanaan AA and Aziz AAA:
Oil production rate, bbl/d

“Successful Exploitation of the Khuff-B Low Permeability

Gas Condensate Reservoir Through Optimized
2,000 Development Strategy,” Saudi Aramco Journal of
Technology (Winter 2010): 26–33.
1,500 14. Aviles I, Baihly J and Liu GH: “Multistage Stimulation
in Liquid-Rich Unconventional Formations,”
Begin MaxCO3 Acid treatment Oilfield Review 25, no. 2 (Summer 2013): 26–33.
1,000 15. Jauregui JL, Malik AR, Solares JR, Nunez Garcia W,
Bukovac T, Sinosic B and Gürmen MN: “Successful
Application of Novel Fiber Laden Self-Diverting Acid
500
System During Fracturing Operations of Naturally
Fractured Carbonates in Saudi Arabia,” paper
0 SPE 142512, presented at the SPE Middle East Oil and
Jan 2009 Apr 2009 July 2009 Oct 2009 Jan 2010 Apr 2010 Gas Show and Conference, Manama, Bahrain,
Date September 25–28, 2011.

> Production history in a PEMEX well in the Jujo-Tecominoacán field. Initial oil production was
1,278 bbl/d [203 m3/d]. Subsequent matrix acidizing treatments employing conventional techniques
failed to achieve sustained production improvements. After a MaxCO3 Acid treatment in December
2009, oil production increased to 3,000 bbl/d and stabilized at 1,600 bbl/d, exceeding the original
production rate.

14 Oilfield Review
Improving Gas Production in Saudi Arabia
The vast carbonate reservoirs of Saudi Arabia are
prime locations for stimulation treatments using
acidic fluid systems. From simple acid washes to IRAN
major acid fracturing operations, every carbon- SAUDI
IRAN
ate stimulation technology has found an applica- ARABIA
EGYPT
tion in this region.
Most gas production in Saudi Arabia comes
from the Khuff Formation, located in the eastern BAHRAIN
part of the country (right). The Khuff Formation
South Ghawar
is highly heterogeneous, exhibiting wide varia- Field
tions in formation permeability (0.5 mD to
10 mD) and porosity (5% to 15%). It is composed QATAR
mainly of calcite and dolomite interbedded with
streaks of anhydrite. The average temperature
and pressure are 280°F [138°C] and 7,500 psi
[52 MPa].13
UNITED ARAB
Saudi Aramco engineers applied MaxCO3 Acid EMIRATES
technology during several matrix acidizing
treatments, all of which yielded excellent SAUDI ARABIA
0 km 100
results. Following this success, Saudi Aramco
0 mi 100
engineers decided to perform 25 acid fracturing
treatments employing the MaxCO3 Acid formu- Oil Gas
lation. Eight acid fracturing stages were per- > South Ghawar field in eastern Saudi Arabia. The producing reservoirs, in the Khuff Formation, are
formed in three wells equipped with openhole composed of heterogeneous carbonates. The permeability and porosity vary widely within 100 to 200 ft
multistage fracturing completions that enabled [30 to 60 m] of formation thickness, presenting difficult fluid diversion challenges.
continuous treatments.14 The remainder of the
jobs, single-stage treatments in vertical or devi-
ated wells, were completed with cemented and
Treatment Schedule
perforated liners.15
Engineers performed one treatment in a Pump Rate, Stage Fluid Acid
Stage Name Fluid Name
bbl/min [m3/min] Volume, galUS [m3] Concentration, %
cemented and perforated well that had a 65°
deviation. Three pay zones existed along a 240-ft Pad 20 [3.2] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 9,000 [34] 0

[73-m] interval in the central sector of the field. Acid 1 20 [3.2] SXE emulsified acid 9,000 [34] 28
From reservoir parameters obtained from open- Pad 30 [4.8] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 3,000 [11] 0
hole logs, engineers concluded that, to meet Diverter 1 30 [4.8] MaxCO3 Acid fluid 3,000 [11] 15
Saudi Aramco’s production expectations, it would Pad 30 [4.8] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 9,000 [34] 0
be necessary to pump a treatment that stimu- Acid 2 30 [4.8] SXE emulsified acid 9,000 [34] 28
lated all three perforated zones simultaneously. Pad 35 [5.6] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 3,000 [11] 0
Engineers developed a fracturing treatment Diverter 2 35 [5.6] MaxCO3 Acid fluid 3,000 [11] 15
that consisted of 19 fluid stages that alternated Pad 40 [6.4] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 9,000 [34] 0
portions of a 35-lbm/1,000 galUS [4.2-kg/m3] Acid 3 40 [6.4] SXE emulsified acid 9,000 [34] 28
borate crosslinked guar fracturing fluid, 28% SXE Pad 40 [6.4] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 3,000 [11] 0
superX emulsified acid to retard the rate of acid Diverter 3 40 [6.4] MaxCO3 Acid fluid 3,000 [11] 15
consumption, 28% HCl and 15% MaxCO3 Acid for- Pad 40 [6.4] Crosslinked 35-lbm gel 10,000 [38] 0
mulation with degradable fiber concentrations Acid 3 40 [6.4] SXE emulsified acid 9,000 [34] 28
between 75 and 175 lbm/1,000 galUS [9 and Overflush 1 40 [6.4] Overflush 7,000 [26] 0
21 kg/m3] (right). During the treatment, after the Diverter 4 10 [1.6] MaxCO3 Acid fluid 3,000 [11] 15
first MaxCO3 Acid stage contacted the formation, Acid 4 10 [1.6] 28% HCl 7,000 [26] 28
engineers recorded a 4,500-psi [31-MPa] bottom-
Overflush 2 10 [1.6] Overflush 5,000 [19] 0
hole pressure rise—the first time such a large
Flush 10 [1.6] Water 11,200 [42] 0
increase had been recorded in this carbonate
reservoir—indicating that excellent fluid leakoff > Pumping schedule for an acid fracturing treatment in Saudi Arabia. The total fluid volume was
124,200 galUS [2,960 bbl, 470 m3], allowing simultaneous stimulation of three zones without the need for
mechanical diversion techniques. Such treatment simplicity saved several days of rig time, resulting in
significant operational cost savings.

Autumn 2013 15
 15,000 control and diversion had been achieved (left).
13,600
Bottomhole treating pressure 1115 Moreover, the bottomhole pressure exceeded the
Pump rate fracturing pressure throughout most of the treat-
12,200 10
100 ment, which had not been possible to achieve
during previous attempts using conventional
10,800 85 diversion techniques.
9,400
After the treatment, the well cleaned up in
Fracturing pressure

Rate, bbl/min
Pressure, psi

70 less than three days; previously, four to five days

8,000 had been necessary. Prior to the treatment, the
55 gas production rate had been 8 MMcf/d
6,600
[230,000 m3/d] with a wellhead pressure of
5,200
40 2,060 psi [14.2 MPa]. The posttreatment produc-
tion rate was 23 MMcf/d [650,000 m3/d]—a
3,800 25 nearly threefold increase—with a wellhead pres-
sure of 2,230 psi [15.4 MPa]. The excellent post-
2,400
10 stimulation performance of this well has been
1,000 observed in the majority of other wells in this
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 region treated with the fiber-laden acid.
Treatment time, min
Elimination of mechanical diversion tech-
> Pressure and temperature data. During a Saudi Aramco acid fracturing treatment, the pumping rate niques reduced the well completion and stimula-
(blue line) varied from 10 to 40 bbl/min [1.6 to 6.4 m3/min], and the bottomhole treating pressure (red tion time up to six days, resulting in a savings of
line) exceeded the formation fracturing pressure (dashed black line) throughout most of the treatment.
The vertical blue bars denote periods during which MaxCO3 Acid fluid entered the perforations. US$ 480,000 to US$ 600,000. As a result, the
MaxCO3 Acid system is now a prominent element
of Saudi Aramco’s stimulation strategy.

SOUTH
AMERICA
0

1,000

2,000
Overburden formations

3,000

BRAZIL 4,000
Espirito Santo
Depth, m

Basin Salt

Rio de Janeiro 5,000

São Paulo
Campos Basin Presalt
6,000 oil
Curitiba

Santos Basin 7,000

8,000
0 km 500

0 mi 500 9,000

> The presalt reservoirs of Brazil. The main producing fields are located primarily offshore (left). The reservoirs are in carbonate formations that lie
underneath a thick layer of evaporite minerals (right). The reservoir depth is between 4,500 and 6,500 m [14,800 and 21,300 ft].

16 Oilfield Review
 HCl plus mutual solvent
15% HCl
8,000 40 VDA fluid 8,000
MaxCO3 Acid fluid
36
7,000 7,500

32
6,000 7,000
28

Bottomhole pressure, psi

5,000 6,500

Pump rate, bbl/min

24
Rig pressure, psi

4,000 20 6,000

16
3,000 5,500

12
2,000 5,000
8

1,000 4,500
4

0 0 4,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Time, s
> Matrix acidizing treatment. In a presalt well offshore Brazil, engineers pumped 13 fluid stages
consisting of alternating portions of 15% HCl, VDA diverter and MaxCO3 Acid fluid at various pump rates
(blue curve). A mixture of 15% HCl and a mutual solvent preceded and followed the treatment. As the
treatment progressed, the rig pressure (red curve) and bottomhole pressure (green curve) rose,
indicating that the fibers were effectively diverting treatment fluid to zones with lower permeability.

Stimulating Oil Production in Offshore Brazil Engineers at Petrobras decided to evaluate Petrobras has continued to specify the use of
In South America, the presalt region comprises the MaxCO3 Acid fiber-assisted diversion tech- MaxCO3 Acid fluid.
a group of oil-bearing carbonate formations nology in a new well in the Pirambu field. Using
located in an offshore region along the coast of the acid placement and diversion simulator, Refining MaxCO3 Acid Technology
Brazil (previous page, bottom).16 The produc- Schlumberger engineers designed a matrix As of this writing, more than 300 MaxCO3 Acid
ing formations occur at depths between about acidizing treatment for an interval between stimulation treatments have been performed
4,500 and 6,500 m [14,800 and 21,300 ft] and 4,500 m and 4,570 m [14,800 and 15,000 ft]. The around the world. In addition to the examples
lie directly underneath a 2,000-m [6,500-ft] simulator called for a 790-bbl [12.6-m3], featured in this article, treatments have been
layer of evaporite minerals. The reservoir tem- 13-stage bullheaded treatment consisting of performed in Kazakhstan, Angola, Canada, the
peratures vary between about 60°C and 133°C alternating volumes of 15% HCl, VDA fluid and US, Kuwait and the Caspian Sea.
[140°F and 272°F]. MaxCO3 Acid fluid with a fiber concentration As the number of treatments has increased,
The producing carbonate reservoir is a result between 100 and 120 lbm/1,000 galUS [12 and the larger treatment database has allowed con-
of the deposition of mollusks followed by diagen- 14 kg/m3]. The treatment was preceded by a tinuous refinement of the simulator and improve-
esis. Such reservoirs, called “coquinas,” feature brine and HCl mixture containing a monobutyl ment of stimulation results in naturally fractured
large variations in reservoir properties. Porosity ether mutual solvent.17 After the treatment, carbonate reservoirs. The technique has also
varies from 5% to 18%, and permeability varies engineers pumped another volume of HCl with allowed operators to reduce or eliminate the use
from less than 0.001 mD to tens of mDs. Such het- mutual solvent followed by diesel to accelerate of ball sealers or packers, thereby reducing costs
erogeneity presents an especially difficult diver- well cleanup. The pump rate varied from 5 bbl/min and operational risks.
sion challenge during stimulation treatments. [0.8 m3/min] during the MaxCO3 Acid fluid At present, work is underway to combine
16. Beasley CJ, Fiduk JC, Bize E, Boyd A, Frydman M,
stages to 10 bbl/min [1.6 m3/min] during the MaxCO3 Acid technology with the ACTive family of
Zerilli A, Dribus JR, Moreira JLP and Pinto ACC: injection of HCl and to 20 bbl/min [3.2 m3/min] live downhole coiled tubing services. This arrange-
“Brazil’s Presalt Play,” Oilfield Review 22, no. 3
(Autumn 2010): 28–37.
during the VDA diverter stages (above). ment employs distributed temperature sensors
17. Mutual solvents are chemicals in which both aqueous After well cleanup, engineers at Petrobras that will allow engineers to monitor fluid place-
and nonaqueous compounds are miscible. These evaluated the results by performing production ment in real time and change treatment designs
solvents may be used to prevent emulsions, reduce
surface tension and leave formation surfaces logging. The logs showed that the well was pro- during a job. Such flexibility will further enhance
water-wet. ducing from all of the treated zones as pre- the effectiveness of acidizing treatments employ-
dicted by the simulator. Since this treatment, ing fiber-based fluid diversion. —EBN

Autumn 2013 17
 Casing Corrosion Measurement
to Extend Asset Life

Dalia Abdallah Corrosion challenges are not new to the oil and gas industry, and producers are
Mohamed Fahim
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil continually seeking new ways to keep corrosion at bay. Experts have made advances
Operations in corrosion monitoring along several fronts. The implementation of these technolo-
Abu Dhabi, UAE
gies may help operators optimize infrastructure utilization, maximize production and
Khaled Al-Hendi
Mohannad Al-Muhailan
minimize negative impact on the environment.
Ram Jawale
Kuwait Oil Company
Ahmadi, Kuwait Oil and gas companies typically serve two mas- hand, environmental compliance requires that
ters. On the one hand, profitability dictates that companies conduct exploration and production
Adel Abdulla Al-Khalaf producers maximize long-term production while operations safely and in an environmentally
Qatar Petroleum
minimizing operating expenditures. On the other responsible manner.
Doha, Qatar

Zaid Al-Kindi
Abu Dhabi, UAE

Abdulmohsen S. Al-Kuait
Hassan B. Al-Qahtani
Karam S. Al-Yateem
Saudi Aramco
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Nausha Asrar
Sugar Land, Texas, USA

Syed Aamir Aziz

Energy Added During Refining
J.J. Kohring
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Abderrahmane Benslimani
Ahmadi, Kuwait

M. Aiman Fituri
Doha, Qatar Iron Ore (Oxides) and Corrosion Products Refined Metal or Alloy

Mahmut Sengul
Houston, Texas

Oilfield Review Autumn 2013: 25, no. 3.

Copyright © 2013 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Ram Sunder
Kalyanaraman, Clamart, France.
Avocet, EM Pipe Scanner, FloView, Petrel, PipeView,
PS Platform, Techlog, UCI and USI are marks of
Schlumberger. Energy Released by Corrosion

> Typical refining-corrosion life cycle for metals. Energy is stored in a metal as it is refined from its
naturally occurring state (such as iron ore) to an alloy. Corrosion takes place spontaneously and
releases the stored energy, which returns the metal back to a lower energy state. That process can be
slowed by the application of one or more field-based mitigation measures.

18 Oilfield Review
 The two mandates share a common enemy.
Problem Cause of Corrosion Control Methods Monitoring
Corrosion, which is the natural tendency for
materials to return to their most thermodynami- Oxygen corrosion • Oxygenated water • Resistant materials • Water and oxygen sampling
cally stable state by reacting with agents in the • Internal attack • Oxygen scavengers • Iron counts
surrounding environment, attacks almost every • External attack • Oxygen stripping • Corrosion probes
component of a well. Wells are constructed pri- • Improved seal design • Oxygen sensors
• Coatings • Coupon surveys
marily of steel, which is refined from naturally
• Cathodic protection • Wall thickness surveys
occurring iron ore. The process of refining ore
• Visual internal inspections
into a steel alloy suitable for oil and gas drilling
• Visual surveys
and production takes the ore to a higher energy
state. Corrosion reverses this process and brings Hydrogen sulfide • Water from • Degassing at • Probes
corrosion pitting production aquifer low pressures • Iron counts
metal back toward its original, lower energy state or other deep aquifer • Control of • Wall thickness surveys
(previous page).1 • Water contaminated contaminated gas
by stripping or lift gas • Use of resistant
The process of corrosion, which begins the
materials
moment steel is cast, is accelerated in the oil
field by the presence of acidic species—such as Sulfate-reducing • Anaerobic fluids • Biocides • Anaerobic bacteria
bacteria (SRB) • Stagnant fluids • Chlorination counts
hydrogen sulfide [H2S] or carbon dioxide [CO2]—
• Conditions under scales • Chlorine residuals
in many formation fluids and by the elevated measurements
or other deposits
temperatures and pressures in producing forma-
tions. The consequences of corrosion include a Carbon dioxide • Water from • Degassing at • Probes
corrosion production aquifer low pressures • Iron counts
reduction in wall thickness and loss of strength, or other deep aquifer • Control of • Wall thickness surveys
ductility and impact strength in the steel that • Water contaminated contaminated gas
by stripping or lift gas • Use of resistant
makes up the downhole tubulars, wellheads and
materials
surface piping and downstream processing equip-
ment (right). Hydrogen sulfide • Produced fluids • Suitable materials • Materials quality control
stress corrosion containing hydrogen
Failure to address corrosive attacks early cracking sulfide
impacts well profitability because operators must Hydrogen-induced • Anaerobic systems
then implement potentially expensive, and per- cracking contaminated with SRB
haps extensive, mitigation methods. Not only Acid corrosion • Stimulation and • Acid inhibitors • Acid inhibitor checks
does mitigation increase operating expenses, it cleaning acids
may force operators to shut a well in for some Galvanic (bimetallic) • Two metals with • Electrical isolation • Design reviews
period of time. In the worst cases, unattended corrosion different ionic potentials of metals
in a corrosive medium (cathodic coating)
corrosion can lead to a leak or rupture, which
• Improved design
may threaten the safety of oilfield personnel, lead
to production losses and introduce hydrocarbons Pitting corrosion (rapid • Immersion • Materials selection • Equipment inspections
corrosion at defects • Inert surface films
and other reservoir fluids into the environment. in inert surface film)
The total annual cost of corrosion in the US
Subdeposit • Wet solids deposits • Pigging • Equipment inspections
alone is estimated at approximately US$ 1.4 bil- corrosion • Biofilms • Biocides • Bacteria counts
lion, of which US$ 589 million is surface pipeline • Porous gaskets • Improved sealing and
and facility costs, US$ 463 million is downhole design
tubing expenses and US$ 320 million is capital • Minimum velocity design
expenditures.2 These estimates do not factor in Crevice corrosion • Poor design • Improved design • Equipment disassembly
the fines that may be levied by government regu- • Imperfections in metal • Materials selection and inspections
latory agencies against operators that experience • Leak detections
a corrosion-related discharge of production fluids Chloride corrosion • Salt solution • Materials selection • Equipment inspections
into the environment. The costs and risks (rapid cracking on
exposure to hot • Oxygen and heat • Oxygen analyses
may also increase as hydrocarbon sources are chloride media)
discovered in more-challenging environments—
Fatigue • Rotating equipment • Vibration design • Equipment inspections
deeper reservoirs with higher temperatures and • Wave-, wind- or
pressures that contain higher concentrations of current-induced loading

1. For more on the corrosion process: Brondel D, > Summary of corrosion problems and solutions. In the oil field, corrosion is pervasive and takes many
Edwards R, Hayman A, Hill D, Mehta S and Semerad T:
“Corrosion in the Oil Industry,” Oilfield Review 6, no. 2 forms. By properly identifying the source of corrosive attack, an operator can implement a suitable
(April 1994): 4–18. corrosion monitoring and control program.
2. Koch GH, Brongers MPH, Thompson NG, Virmani YP and
Payer JH: “Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in
the United States,” Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation Federal Highway Administration, Office of
Infrastructure Research and Development, Publication
no. FHWA-RD-01-156, September 2001.

Autumn 2013 19
 Well Drilling and Well
Design Completions Production Decline Decommissioning

Production

• Perform • Select • Use corrosion • Implement more-stringent • Ensure long-term

reservoir suitable monitoring tools and expansive asset integrity evaluation. containment of
modeling. drilling mud. and services. abandoned well.
• Implement or expand
• Perform • Select • Use corrosion mitigation oil and water separation operations. • Ensure
core suitable alloys technologies (corrosion compliance with
analysis. for pipe work inhibitors, sand control systems environmental
and equipment. and oxygen scavengers). regulations.
• Perform
materials • Select suitable • Evaluate infrastructure condition
selection. oxygen and and track corrosion rates.
sulfide • Implement repairs and
• Perform scavengers.
risk replacement strategies
analysis. as needed.
> Corrosion considerations at each stage of the asset life cycle. During each stage of a well’s life, engineers must consider
operational factors to keep corrosion at bay and minimize the threat of production fluid leaks into the surrounding environment.

acidic gases—which may present more-aggres- As with CRAs, coatings may promise a longer the Middle East demonstrate how corrosion mon-
sive corrosion environments. operating life with reduced maintenance, but itoring tools and mitigation technologies have
The industry has advanced several methods to they come at a cost premium.5 helped operators identify the location and sever-
combat corrosion and extend the operating life of Operators may use inhibition by chemical ity of corrosion in the subsurface infrastructure,
a well. These may be broadly classified into four means during the production stage of the well to which informed each company’s choice of mitiga-
main categories: mitigate corrosion on the internal surface of pip- tion solution.
• metallurgy—substituting traditional wellbore ing and equipment. Corrosion inhibitors are typi-
tubulars with those manufactured with a corro- cally surfactant-base chemical formulations that Corrosion and the Life Cycle
sion-resistant alloy (CRA) are added to the production stream in concentra- Corrosion is a major concern throughout the life
• chemical—modifying production fluids to tions ranging from tens to several hundred parts of a well, and specific considerations and mitiga-
reduce the intensity of corrosive attacks or cre- per million (ppm). The inhibitor molecules tion strategies are required at each stage. Asset
ating barriers that isolate the metal from pro- migrate and collect at surfaces; in the case of a personnel usually begin making corrosion miti-
duced fluids through the application of a well’s production infrastructure, the molecules gation decisions for a well before drilling.
protective coating collect at the metal surface to form a barrier During the well design stage, the operator con-
• injection—pumping surfactant-base fluids that between it and the corrosive fluid phase. In this ducts comprehensive reservoir studies, which
aggregate at the metal surface and block metal- way, they act in a manner similar to that of a coat- include reservoir simulation modeling, core
water contact, thus inhibiting corrosion ing, but at a lower cost than that of a permanent studies and fluid analysis from offset well data.
• cathodic protection—using DC current to cre- coating or a CRA. Unlike a coating, a corrosion Engineers use the information obtained from
ate impressed cathodic protection.3 inhibitor must be reapplied to replenish the these studies to develop risk assessments for
The first option—upgrading tubulars to those inhibitor film that is degraded or washed away by corrosion threats in subsequent stages of the
composed of CRA—may be cost prohibitive on a the flowing action of the production stream.6 well. Engineers then develop and implement
large scale. In the US alone, there are more than Corrosion prevention through cathodic pro- mitigation strategies that include appropriate
100,000 producing oil and gas wells with casing, tection works by forcing anodic areas of the materials selection, optimal production rates,
tubing, wellheads, processing equipment and metal—those susceptible to corrosive attack— monitoring programs and corrosion inhibitor
gathering lines. to become cathodic or noncorrosive. To accom- treatments (above).
Manufacturers may employ another mitiga- plish this, operators apply a DC current through During the drilling process, operators focus
tion option: applying permanent coatings, which the metal to counteract the corrosion current—a corrosion mitigation strategies on extending the
combat corrosion by forming a resistant barrier technique known as impressed cathodic protec- working life of drillpipe, which is exposed to high
between the corrosive fluid media and the metal tion (ICP)—or use sacrificial anodes, which are operational stresses as well as potentially corro-
surface. Many coating types exist and are gener- composed of metal that has a greater corrosion sive drilling muds and formation fluids. The drill-
ally categorized as follows: tendency than the metal to be protected.7 pipe may undergo one of several types of corrosion
• metallic—zinc, chromium and aluminum This article focuses on corrosion monitoring mechanisms, including localized pitting, in which
• inorganic—enamels, glasses, ceramics and and measurement techniques for downhole infra- H2S, chloride salts or oxygen in water-base drill-
glass-reinforced linings structure during production. Case studies from ing muds cause a corrosion rate that exceeds
• organic—epoxies, acrylics and polyurethanes.4 25 cm [9.8 in.] per year.8 Other corrosion sources

20 Oilfield Review
include the presence of CO2 at a partial pressure Operators realize a profit during a well’s pro- monitor and inspect the infrastructure to gauge
of 20 to 200 kPa [3 to 30 psi] or greater, microbio- duction stage, which may last from only a few the integrity of downhole and surface piping
logically influenced corrosion (MIC) caused by years to several decades. During this stage, cor- and equipment and the effectiveness of the
the presence of certain bacteria (microbes) in rosion mitigation efforts are generally focused mitigation.
produced fluids and crevice corrosion in which on keeping corrosion rates low and preventing Companies use a variety of corrosion monitor-
localized corrosion rates at metal-to-metal or leaks (below). The operator must continually ing techniques in oil and gas fields. Techniques are
metal-to-nonmetal interfaces, such as at joint
couplings or gaskets, reach elevated levels and Cement sheath
lead to pitting or cracking.9
The common ingredient in these various cor-
rosion events is drilling mud. To prevent drilling
muds from becoming corrosive, mud engineers
Corrosion-induced
use specific chemical treatments in the mud. cracks
These treatments focus on keeping the pH of the
mud within an acceptable range—typically
between 9.5 and 12—by dosing it with alkali or
adding oxygen scavengers to reduce dissolved oxy- Water sand
gen levels below 1 ppm or by adding sulfide scav-
engers that eliminate H2S from the mud system.10
The completion phase of a well refers to the
assembly and installation of downhole tubulars
and equipment such as packers and artificial lift
pump systems. Information collected during the Packer
well planning stage, including the temperature
and pressure of the reservoir and the composition Perforations
of the production fluids, helps inform the opera-
tor’s decision on corrosion mitigation measures to
Oil sand
be included in the completion. For example,
anticipation of H2S or CO2 production may lead
the operator to use CRAs in the completion casing
strings, control valves, permanent downhole
gauges and hydraulic and electric control lines.11
At the end of the well’s life cycle, hydrocarbon
production levels fall—often with a correspond- > Corrosion’s impact on casing integrity. Casing leaks typically arise from
ing rise in water production rates—to a point at excessive corrosion in the production system. These leaks, which can prove
which the well is no longer profitable and the costly and environmentally damaging, may allow additional formation water
and sand to enter the production string of the well (blue arrow). Alternatively,
operator must plug and abandon (P&A) it. The crossflows (green arrows) may result, which can be difficult to characterize
operator’s corrosion mitigation strategies shift to and treat, and in severe cases, the operator may have to pull and replace the
permanently prevent reservoir fluid releases to entire casing string.
the environment long after the well is aban-
doned. The basics of a P&A operation include
3. Nalli K: “Corrosion and Its Mitigation in the Oil & Gas 8. The corrosion rate is the thickness of metal that would
removing completion hardware, setting isolation Industry—An Overview,” PetroMin Pipeliner (January– be lost to corrosion in one year. This rate clearly
plugs and squeezing cement into the annular March 2010): 10–16. indicates that a hole would be created in drillpipe wall in
4. Heim G and Schwenk W: “Coatings for Corrosion far less than a year.
spaces at various depths to permanently seal off
Protection,” in von Baekman W, Shwenk W and Prinz W 9. For more on microbiologically influenced corrosion:
producing and water-bearing zones.12 (eds): Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion Protection, 3rd ed. Augustinovic Z, Birketveit O, Clements K, Freeman M,
P&A operations represent a pure cost, which Houston: Gulf Coast Publishing Company (1997): 153–178. Gopi S, Ishoey T, Jackson G, Kubala G, Larsen J,
5. Craig BD, Lane RA and Rose DH: Corrosion Prevention Marcotte BWG, Scheie J, Skovhus TL and Sunde E:
motivates operators to conduct these activities as and Control: A Program Management Guide for Selecting “Microbes—Oilfield Enemies or Allies?,”
quickly and efficiently as possible. At the same Materials, Spiral 2, 2nd ed. Rome, New York, USA: Oilfield Review 24, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 4–17.
Advanced Materials, Manufacturing, and Testing 10. Sloat B and Weibel J: “How Oxygen Corrosion
time, a P&A job must be carried out with strict Information Analysis Center, Alion Science & Technology Affects Drill Pipe,” Oil and Gas Journal 68, no. 24
adherence to government regulatory require- (September 2006): 40. (June 1970): 77–79.
ments. While these regulations vary widely in 6. Corrosion inhibitors are applied either continuously by 11. Saldanha S: “Intelligent Wells Offer Completion Solution
strategically injecting them into the well or production for Lower Tertiary Fields,” Offshore Magazine 72, no. 8
their severity and punitive measures, should a string at a steady rate to maintain a desired (August 1, 2012): 54–57.
regulator find a leak in a previously abandoned concentration or through batch application, wherein a 12. For more on plug and abandonment operations:
larger volume often called a batch, or slug, of inhibitor is Abshire LW, Desai P, Mueller D, Paulsen WB,
well, it is the responsibility of the operator to applied into the well on a periodic basis. Continuous Robertson RDB and Solheim T: “Offshore Permanent
return to make any necessary repairs and replug injection provides an added benefit in that the inhibitor Well Abandonment,” Oilfield Review 24, no. 1
can be applied without shutting in the well. (Spring 2012): 42–50.
the well—often at a significantly higher cost 7. For more on impressed cathodic protection: Brondel et al,
than that of the original P&A operation. reference 1.

Autumn 2013 21
 Casing rate one or more of the various logging tools that
are deployed downhole via wireline, tractor or
coiled tubing.
Transducer Ultrasonic signal

Advances in Downhole Corrosion Monitoring

Logging techniques for monitoring downhole cor-
rosion include ultrasonic, electromagnetic and
mechanical methods that yield detailed informa-
tion about the location and extent of a corrosion
event. Ultrasonic monitoring employs a central-
ized sonde that is immersed in well fluid and uses
Amplitude

a subassembly containing a rotating transducer

Time to perform measurements.15 Most ultrasonic tools
work by the principle of pulse echo measure-
ment, and operators choose a transducer with
the characteristics necessary for the type of mea-
surement to be taken. Measurements include
Amplitude cement evaluation, openhole imaging and corro-
sion imaging.
A USI ultrasonic imager transducer, which
Radius Thickness
transmits an ultrasonic signal at a frequency
ranging from 200 to 700 kHz to make the casing
> Basic principles of the UCI ultrasonic corrosion imager. The UCI tool uses resonate, is typically designed for cement evalua-
a 2-MHz focused transducer to improve the resolution of the ultrasonic tion and pipe inspection. The quality of the
measurement. The transducer also acts as a receiver of the reflected signal
and records its amplitude and time of arrival. This signal is emitted (or cement bond is directly related to the degree of
pulsed) through the well fluid and into the casing (top). As this signal casing resonance: A good cement bond dampens
encounters a discontinuity, such as the inner or outer wall of the casing the acoustic signal and causes a low-amplitude
(center), the signal is reflected back. Most of the energy is reflected in the secondary signal to be returned to the trans-
initial echo at the inner casing wall because of the large impedance contrast
between the mud and the steel; the remaining energy transmitted into the ducer; a poor cement job or free pipe allows the
casing is again reflected at the outer wall. The signal reflected back at the casing to ring and returns a higher amplitude
inner wall can be used to evaluate the casing condition and radius. The time echo. Additionally, USI measurements include 2D
difference between the first two echoes can be used to determine the internal radius imaging of the casing—derived
thickness of the casing (bottom). In comparison, the USI tool is more
commonly used for ultrasonic pipe inspection and employs a 200- to 700-kHz from the traveltime of the main echo from the
unfocused ultrasonic transducer to induce a casing resonance. In the USI internal surface—and the 2D casing thickness,
measurement, thickness is determined from the resonance frequency. derived from the frequency response.
(Adapted from Hayman et al, reference 15.)
Higher resolution casing measurements may
be acquired with the UCI ultrasonic casing imager,
which uses a focused 2-MHz transducer with
selected based in part on the system’s ease of coupon technique is advantageous because cou- improved resolution compared with that of the USI
implementation for a given application or location pons can be fabricated from the same alloy that tool (left).16 The UCI tool records two echoes: the
in the production system, the ease with which makes up the system under study, the corrosion main echo from the internal surface of the casing
results can be interpreted and the relative severity rate can be easily calculated from the coupon’s and the smaller echo from the external surface.
of corrosive attack. Some corrosion measurement weight loss over the time of exposure and the The radius and thickness of the casing are com-
techniques use inline monitoring tools placed technique allows visual verification of corrosion puted from the arrival times of the two echoes. The
directly in the production system; these tools are deposits or localized corrosion. However, if a cor- relative sizes, or amplitudes, of the two echoes are
exposed to the flowing production stream. Other rosion event such as a leak occurred while the qualitative indicators of the casing condition.
techniques provide analysis of corrosion effects coupon was in the system, the operator could not Although the UCI device provides a better indica-
after the fact in a laboratory setting.13 use the coupon alone to accurately pinpoint its tion of the condition of the casing than does the
The weight loss technique using coupons, a time of occurrence. In addition, the coupon tech- USI imager, use of the UCI tool is limited to opera-
direct visual identification method, is a well- nique is applicable only in system locations that tions in which the well fluid comprises brines, oil
known and simple monitoring method. This tech- provide easy or practical access for placing and and light oil–base or water-base muds. Weighted
nique exposes a specimen of material—the extracting the coupon. muds produce an acoustic attenuation that is too
coupon—to the process environment for a given This second limitation makes coupon moni- strong to allow meaningful measurement.
period of time before a technician removes it toring, or any visual inspection technique, essen- Ultrasonic inspection provides several advan-
from the system and analyzes it for its physical tially impossible for the well’s downhole tubulars tages as a corrosion measurement tool, including
condition and the amount of weight lost.14 The and casing strings. The remaining options are its sensitivity to both internal and external
indirect measurement techniques that incorpo-

22 Oilfield Review
defects and instantaneous in-field notification Tool outer , EM Pipe Scanner tool. The tool (left) makes
diameter
when a defect is encountered. In addition, the 2D discrimination Discriminator four measurements. The Z-properties
transmitter, TH measurement (bottom right) uses a transmitter
technique requires access to only one side of the TH (Tz ) operating at three frequencies and one of the
material to gauge the condition of the entire RP Pad Pipe tool’s two receivers (R z ). The impedance
object and obtain detailed exterior and interior receiver, RP response signal depends strongly on the
images of the object. However, inspection is diffi- dimensionless quantity, τ, which is a function of
the pipe internal diameter (ID), the angular
cult for materials that are heterogeneous in com- frequency ω and the electromagnetic properties
position, irregular in shape or thin; to improve of the pipe metal: the permeability μ and the
the results of the inspection, technicians must conductivity σ. The term μ0 is the constant
RP RP
prepare the internal surface prior to measure- permeability of free space. The average pipe wall
thickness, d, is determined using the low-
ment by scraping away scale or other debris. frequency transmitter (TL ) in the middle of the
Operators may also employ another corro- tool, along with two receivers above and two
sion monitoring method: electromagnetic (EM)- below the transmitter (center right). Two
TL
low-frequency receivers (RLL ) are termed
based inspection. The basic principle of this
RLL
long-spacing receivers and two are termed
technique involves measuring the changes to a 2D thickness short-spacing receivers (RLS ). The phase shift of
magnetic field as it passes through a metal TH the signal—which is a function of skin depth
object; the changes are related to the condition RP
Average thickness δ—as it goes through the pipe at the transmitter
RLL and again at each receiver is used to determine
of the material such as its thickness and its RLS
RLS the thickness of the pipe d/δ. Near the top of the
electromagnetic properties. tool, 18 caliper arms press pad receivers (RP )
The industry currently uses two EM corro- against the inside of the pipe (top right).
sion monitoring tools. The first, a flux leakage TL Combining measurements from these sensors
with the low-frequency signal from the
tool, magnetizes the metal object using an elec- transmitter (TL ) at the middle of the tool provides
RLS
tromagnet. When the magnetic flux encounters a 2D thickness measurement. The 18 sensors are
RLL also used with a high-frequency discriminator
a damaged section or hole in the material, part
of the flux leaks out of the metal; coils on the TL d transmitter (TH ) located on the tool mandrel
aligned with the sensor pads (top left). The
tool’s sensors detect this leakage. While this high-frequency signal does not penetrate the
method is useful for measuring abrupt changes pipe wall; this part of the tool provides a 2D map
in pipe thickness, such as pitting or holes in the from signals that discriminate damage on
inner string, and the location of those changes, RLS Skin depth decay the inside wall from signals that may indicate
RLL
other phenomena.
it is less effective for monitoring the steady
Z properties
increase of corrosion or corrosion that varies RZ
RZ RZ
gradually over a large section of pipe or concen- 1 1 μ
TZ RZ τ=
tric casing configurations. μ0 ID ωσ
TZ
The second EM-based monitoring technol-
ogy—the remote field eddy current tool—mea-
sures the signal of not only the primary EM field discriminator transmitter located on the tool large holes, casing splits and corrosion-related
but also the secondary field from the induced mandrel to generate signals that do not penetrate metal loss from both the internal and external
eddy currents in the surrounding pipe.17 the pipe wall, creating a 2D map that discrimi- surfaces of casing; the tool can also measure loss
The EM Pipe Scanner electromagnetic casing nates between damage on the inside and outside from an outer casing string when multiple strings
inspection tool makes four distinct measure- walls. Changes in the geometric properties of the are present. The tool consists of 18 radial arms
ments. Using a transmitter—which operates at metal, such as thickness or diameter, will cause with pad sensors affixed around a slim mandrel.
three frequencies—and two receivers, the changes to the mutual impedance, which is The sensors scan the interior surface and local
EM Pipe Scanner tool makes a measurement of caused by flaws in the casing. thickness of production casing; the mandrel
impedance (Z), which depends on the casing’s Since 2009, the EM Pipe Scanner tool has measurement helps identify average metal loss,
electrical and magnetic characteristics. Using a been used in wells around the world to detect damage and splits in the casing (above).
low-frequency signal transmitter in the middle of
13. “Introduction to Corrosion Monitoring,” Metal Samples: Zapata Bermudez F, Notoadinegoro DM and Sofronov I:
the tool and two sets of receivers—one set above Corrosion Monitoring Systems, www.alspi.com/ “Scanning for Downhole Corrosion,” Oilfield Review 22,
and the other below the transmitter—the tool introduction.htm (accessed March 20, 2013). no. 1 (Spring 2010): 42–50.
14. “Introduction to Corrosion Monitoring,” reference 13. Brill TM, Le Calvez JL, Demichel C, Nichols E and
measures the average thickness of the metal nor- Zapata Bermudez F: “Electromagnetic Casing Inspection
15. Hayman AJ, Hutin R and Wright PV: “High-Resolution
malized by the skin depth.18 Cementation and Corrosion Imaging by Ultrasound,” Tool for Corrosion Evaluation,” paper IPTC 14865,
Transactions of the SPWLA 32nd Annual Logging presented at the International Petroleum Technology
The remaining two measurements provide 2D Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, February 7–9, 2012.
Symposium, Paris, June 16–19, 1991, paper KK.
images of the pipe; the tool obtains these mea- 16. Hayman AJ, Parent P, Rouault G, Zurquiyah S, Verges P, 18. When the EM field encounters a conducting material
surements by pressing pad sensors against the Liang K, Stanke FE and Herve P: “Developments in such as the metal of a pipe, the amplitude of the field
Corrosion Logging Using Ultrasonic Imaging,” decreases exponentially with a characteristic rate given
inner wall of the pipe. One measurement uses a Transactions of the SPWLA 36th Annual Logging by the skin depth. A conductive and ferromagnetic
low-frequency signal to obtain 2D thickness Symposium, Paris, June 26–29, 1995, paper W. material, such as casing, has a short skin depth. All
media other than a vacuum have shorter skin depths at
information, and the other uses a high-frequency 17. For more on electromagnetic induction as a corrosion
higher frequencies.
monitoring method: Acuña IA, Monsegue A, Brill TM,
Graven H, Mulders F, Le Calvez J-L, Nichols EA,

Autumn 2013 23
 True Vertical Depth, ft Operating companies can obtain these mea-

True Vertical Depth, ft

True Vertical Depth, ft

True Vertical Depth, ft

surements without having to pull the completion
tubing out of the hole, which saves rig time and
intervention expense. While the engineer lowers
Total EM Pipe Scanner Total EM Pipe Scanner Total EM Pipe Scanner Total EM Pipe Scanner the EM Pipe Scanner tool into the well on wire-
Thickness Thickness Thickness Thickness
line, tractor or coiled tubing, the tool conducts an
0 in. 1.5 0 in. 1.5 0 in. 1.5 0 in. 1.5
initial high-speed reconnaissance run to flag
areas of interest for detailed diagnostic scans to
be performed as the tool is retrieved to the sur-
1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 face. The tool records a continuous log of both
the average casing inner diameter and total
metal thickness and provides corrosion esti-
mates. The tool responds to overall metal thick-
ness, allowing corrosion of the outer casing or
tubing to be detected. Measurements of the inner
casing metal radius are valid in the presence of
most kinds of scale. Its 2 1/8-in. diameter affords
access through tight restrictions. The tool can
operate in gas or liquid environments.
2,000 2,000
2,000 2,000

Forewarned Is Forearmed
65% metal loss of In 2011, using the EM Pipe Scanner tool, Saudi
62% metal loss of double casings
65% metal loss of double casings 63% metal loss of Aramco conducted a well-casing corrosion moni-
double casings double casings
toring campaign in a field containing both
onshore and offshore wells. Initial scans of seven
onshore wells indicated relatively little metal
loss and confirmed that the existing ICP system
was working satisfactorily. Because of the lack of
3,000 3,000 a sufficiently large power supply, the offshore
3,000
3,000 wells had limited ICP, which raised the possibil-
ity of higher corrosion rates.
The EM Pipe Scanner tool was deployed to
determine the extent of metal loss from well cas-
ings in the offshore portion of the field and to
help the operator geographically map wells
exhibiting the most severe metal loss. In one
campaign, in four adjacent wells that were origi-
nally completed in 1976, Saudi Aramco checked
4,000 4,000
4,000 to determine whether any of these well had con-
4,000
centric casings that might soon leak.19 If engi-
neers observed metal loss, they planned to
analyze the loss profile for the purpose of map-
9 5/8-in. shoe ping and anticipating the likelihood of casing cor-
9 5/8-in. shoe rosion in nearby, nonlogged wells.
9 5/8-in. shoe 9 5/8-in. shoe
The EM Pipe Scanner logs showed varying
degrees of metal loss in each of the four subject
wells, although the logs indicated a distinct depth
5,000 5,000 correlation among them. One noticeable correla-
5,000
tion occurred between 2,500 and 2,800 ft [760 and
> EM Pipe Scanner logs. The logs for four Saudi Aramco wells showed varying degrees of metal loss 850 m], where the four wells had casing metal
(red), remaining thickness (gray) and total measured thickness (green) with respect to depth. A distinct losses ranging from 62% to 65% (left). The operator
pattern correlation, as well as a similar decrease in total thickness with depth, existed among the
concluded that other wells in this geographic
wellbores. All wells showed metal losses in the range of 62% to 65% of the outer double casings at a
depth of approximately 2,500 ft. The operator used this information to anticipate similar metal loss vicinity were susceptible to significant metal loss
patterns and expected a comparable level of severity of corrosion in adjacent wells not yet logged. and at risk of casing leaks in this depth interval.
This conclusion may guide completion decisions
for future wells drilled in the area, which could
include landing the outermost casing string—

24 Oilfield Review
typically 13 3/8-in. casing—deeper than in the previ-
ous wells. The original landing depth of 700 ft
[213 m] could be extended to a depth of 3,000 ft
[914 m] to provide an additional layer of corrosion
protection to the inner string. Another solution
could be to add a further level of protection by run-
ning chrome alloy or coated 13 3/8-in. casing from
1,000 ft [300 m] to 3,000 ft.
The metal loss profiles from these wells also
may influence the operator’s decision to imple-
ment more cost-effective and efficient workovers
for repairing leaks. For example, the operator
Motorized
could reduce workover costs by running a cement centralizers
squeeze limited to the depth of significant metal
loss rather than incurring additional costs of a
liner, casing patch or scab liner, which might be
normally recommended if massive metal loss cov-
ered a long interval.20
Calipers
In addition to the acoustic and electromag-
netic monitoring techniques discussed, mechani-
cal methods are also helpful. A multifinger
mechanical caliper tool uses a fundamentally dif-
ferent approach. Caliper tools rely on direct
physical contact with the pipe wall to make mea-
surements and to detect small changes in the
tubular wall such as deformations arising from
the buildup of scale or metal losses from corro-
sion. While they are well established for evaluat-
ing internal problems, caliper tools provide no
data regarding the condition of the external wall.
Motorized
The Schlumberger PipeView multifinger cal-
centralizers
iper tool for PS Platform toolstring has been
deployed to investigate corrosion in many types
of wells but particularly in those with excessive
scale and corrosion in which acoustic-based
tools cannot be run. The tool can be deployed
with 24, 40 or 60 fingers and used in casing
diameters ranging from 13/4 in. to 14 in. It pro-
vides a mechanical image of the internal tubu-
lar corrosion using 3D analysis and visualization
software (right).

Measurements over Time

Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations
PMIT-24 Fingers PMIT-40 Fingers
(ADCO) deployed the PipeView tool to measure
corrosion over time in a well within a mature and
prolific field. The well was originally drilled in > Multifinger caliper tools. Multifinger caliper tools measure the internal
1969 and has been worked over many times. diameter in casings. Numerous calipers, or fingers, pressed against the wall
During the most recent workover in 2006, a 7-in. of the pipe detect small changes in the pipe inner diameter that may be
interpreted as wear or corrosion. In general, multifinger calipers come with
19. Because the production fluids in these wells were varying numbers of fingers; a higher number of fingers is required for larger
known to be noncorrosive and the tubing-casing internal pipe diameters. The PipeView PS Platform new-generation
annulus contained diesel and corrosion inhibitor, any production services multifinger imaging tool, the PMIT-24 fingers tool (left),
measured metal loss was assumed to be external only.
requires mechanical centralizers (not shown). The PipeView PMIT-40 fingers
20. A cement squeeze is a remedial operation designed to
tool (right) incorporates motorized centralizers. A third version, not shown,
force cement into leak paths in wellbore tubulars and
casing strings. Squeeze cementing operations are has 60 fingers.
performed to repair poor primary cement jobs, isolate
perforations or repair damaged casings or liners.

Autumn 2013 25
 Average metal loss, 2009
X,500 Average metal loss, 2010
50 Average metal loss, 2011

Average metal loss, %

40
Depth, ft

30

20

X,550 10

1,000 ft Depth

Y,000 Average metal loss, 2009

Average metal loss, 2010
50 Average metal loss, 2011

Average metal loss, %

40
Depth, ft

30

20
Y,050
10

500 ft Depth
> Corrosion logs obtained from a caliper tool. PipeView service data (top left) and average metal loss versus depth (top right) were recorded in 2009, 2010
and 2011 for the tubing across the point of gas injection. The logs in Track 1 (top and bottom left) include a measurement for nominal internal radius (dashed
black line), nominal outer radius (dashed green line), eccentricity (dashed red line), minimum internal radius (solid blue line), maximum internal radius (solid
red line) and average internal radius (solid black line) above and below the point of gas injection (top and bottom left, respectively). Track 2 is a trace of
each caliper. Track 3 is an image log of thickness loss in the casing. Dark blue indicates the presence of scale, blue to white indicates 0% to 20% thickness
loss, white to pink is 20% to 40% loss and orange to red indicates 40% to 80% loss. Pure red (not shown) would indicate 100% loss and a hole in the casing.
The average metal loss above the point of gas injection (top right) did not change significantly during the three years, suggesting that the presence of the
gas had a mitigating effect on corrosion. A similar plot for the tubing below the point of gas injection (bottom right) showed greater metal loss, which
increased over the three-year period, suggesting more-aggressive corrosion.

tieback liner was run and cemented to the sur- The caliper logs revealed various degrees of drel did not contain lift gas, that section experi-
face to cover a corroded section of 9 5/8-in. casing. corrosion in two sections of the tubing string, one enced a higher corrosion rate.
The operator then drilled a single 5 7/8-in. horizon- below and one above the injection gas entry point ADCO engineers are still speculating about
tal well into a previously bypassed carbonate at the side pocket mandrel (above). The lower the exact inhibitor mechanism; one plausible
formation. This lateral was completed as a gas section, from the bottom of the tubing up to the theory holds that the injected gas adds turbu-
lift oil producer.21 gas injection point, had experienced a significant lence to the production flow and alters the flow
Company engineers used naturally produced degree of corrosion and subsequent metal loss regime, which reduces water holdup and water
gas with no corrosion inhibitor treatment as the that increased between 2009 and 2011. The upper contact with the tubing’s internal surface. This
injection gas, which entered the system through a interval, from the gas lift mandrel to the top of same phenomenon of less corrosion above the gas
gas lift side pocket mandrel. Concerned with the the tubing string, underwent minimal corrosion injection point has been observed in other gas lift
corrosion potential posed by the injection gas, over the same period and retained its original wells in which caliper surveys were acquired. A
ADCO engineers elected to run time-lapse moni- manufacturing dimensions. caliper log in a similar well, in combination with
toring surveys with the multifinger imaging tool to The operator postulated that the injection a FloView holdup measurement, corroborates the
identify, quantify and track the growth of internal gas, which enters the produced oil-water flow at theory that gas injection may be reducing water
corrosion in the tubing and estimate a corrosion the mandrel and flows upward, provides an inhib- contact with the tubing (next page). The opera-
rate and time-to-failure. ADCO conducted surveys itive effect on the production fluids. This effect tor plans to use these results to refine the design
over a three-year period—2009 to 2011—using a reduces the corrosion rate in the upper interval, of future gas lift well completions to take advan-
111/16-in., 24-finger version of the tool. but because the produced fluids below the man- tage of this effect.

26 Oilfield Review
 Gamma Ray,
2011 Average Metal Loss, 2011
0 gAPI 100 0 % 100
Gamma Ray,
2010 Average Metal Loss, 2010

Depth, ft
0 gAPI 100 0 % 100 Water Holdup,
Gamma Ray, Image View Flow Volume
2009 Average Metal Loss, 2009 Corrected Flow Cross-sectional
0 gAPI 100 0 % 100 0 0.9 0.4 1 regime holdup
distribution

D,500

E,000

E,500

F,000
Above the
side pocket
mandrel,
F,500 gas breaks the
water/metal
contact.
G,000

Gas
injection
G,500

H,000

H,500

Below the
I,000 side pocket
mandrel, the
water/metal
contact is
I,500 stable.

J,000

> Changes to the water holdup profile. A caliper log run in combination with the FloView water holdup probes in an ADCO well
shows increasing corrosion over time (Track 2) below the point of gas injection and very little corrosion above the gas
injection point. This phenomenon is attributed to a decrease in water holdup above the gas entry point. Analysts believe there
is increased gas within the flow regime (right, red dots), which also includes significant water (blue) and oil (green dots).
Water holdup, corrected for flowline volume (Track 4), is reduced in the upper section; the corrosion rate is less in the upper
section than in the lower section, in which less gas is present. Water holdup is imaged (Track 3); blue represents water and
red represents oil and gas.

Combining Measurements for Improved Several factors, including the age, increased completed in September 2001 as a single pro-
Corrosion Monitoring commingling of formation water production and ducer—engineers discovered a leak in the well-
Operators may increase their understanding of the high CO2 and H2S content of the produced bore. To locate the leak zone by quantifying the
the location and extent of downhole tubular cor- fluids, prompted KOC to examine the corrosion
21. Gas lift is an artificial lift completion method in which
rosion by combining information from multiple potential of these wells. gas is injected into the production tubing to reduce the
tools. Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) did this for a During a workover designed to perform a hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in the well and
the bottomhole pressure. This method allows reservoir
well in an onshore field that includes wells that cement squeeze on existing perforations and liquids to enter the wellbore at a higher flow rate.
have been producing for more than 60 years. recomplete the well—which had been drilled and

Autumn 2013 27
 Section: 31/2 in. and 9 5/8 in. PipeView Multifinger Caliper Tool EM Pipe Scanner Casing Inspection Tool

31/2-in. Tubing Thickness

Maximum
Internal Radius
1.4 in. 1.9
Minimum Total Metal Loss
Internal Radius
1.4 in. 1.9 Tubing Plus Casing
Thickness
Nominal Internal Radius
0 in. 9
1.4 in. 1.9 3 1/2-in. Tubing Metal Loss 9 5/8-in. Casing Metal Loss
Nominal Total Thickness
Well Schematic Nominal Outer Radius Tubing Pseudothickness 0.649 in. Outer Casing Thickness
Radii Minus Average
Depth, ft

1.4 in. 1.9 0.2 in. 0.4 0 in. 1

Casing Collar Double Coil B
Locator Depth Average Internal Radius Normal Tubing Thickness Long-Spacing Phase Baseline of Outer Casing Thickness
–8 V 1 1.4 in. 1.9 –0.8 in. 0.8 0.254 in. 0 degree 360 0.395 in.

X,000

Y,000 100%
metal loss

Z,000

> Side-by-side comparison. Logs from the PipeView multifinger caliper tool and the EM Pipe Scanner casing inspection tool run through the interval that
contained 3 1/2-in. and 9 5/8-in. casing strings showed damage and holes in the 3 1/2-in. tubing and showed metal loss (Tracks 4, 5 and 6, green shading) on the
9 5/8-in. casing, including one section that suffered 100% metal loss.

metal loss on the 3 1/2-in. tubing and the 7-in. and casing strings at the outset and subtracting the Based on these findings, KOC pulled the tub-
9 5/8-in. casing strings, the operator considered metal loss from the tubing, engineers were able to ing to confirm the damage. The processed caliper
pulling the tubing out of the hole and performing attribute any metal loss to the casing strings. log and a photograph of the damage from the tub-
pressure tests on the casing. However, this would The logging was divided into three sections ing show a direct correlation between the corro-
have added significant cost and taken the well according to casing design: The first section con- sion measurements and the location of the
off-line for several weeks. sisted of 3 1/2-in. and 9 5/8-in. casings; the second damage (next page, left). The results of this sur-
KOC engineers decided instead to evaluate section of 3 1/2-in., 7-in. and 9 5/8-in. casings; and the vey gave KOC confidence that it could accurately
the integrity of the tubing and casing strings using third section consisted of a 7-in. casing. The cali- measure corrosion and identify a leaking interval
the PipeView and EM Pipe Scanner tools. The log- per logs showed tubing damage in the interval of behind the tubing in wells in the future without
ging plan consisted of running the PipeView cali- the well with 3 1/2-in. and 9 5/8-in. casings, indicat- having to pull the tubing out of the hole.
per tool to assess the metal loss of the tubing and ing the presence of holes (above). Also in the first Qatar Petroleum also implemented a com-
using the EM Pipe Scanner tool to measure the section, the EM Pipe Scanner average thickness bined corrosion measurement strategy in a well
total thickness of the casing strings. By knowing measurement revealed metal loss in the outer in an offshore field. The well, which was drilled in
the total combined thickness of the tubing and string of the 9 5/8-in. casing.

28 Oilfield Review
 Eccentricity
0 in. 1

Average Internal Radius

2 in. 3
20-in.
Maximum Internal Radius casing shoe
2 in. 3

Minimum Internal Radius

2 in. 3

Excentralization Radii Minus Average

0 in. 1
13 3/8-in.
Nominal Outer Radius Relative Bearing casing shoe
Multifinger Caliper Display
2 in. 3 0 degree 360

3 1/2-in. tubing

Collar

9 5/8-in. casing
shoe

3 1/2-in. Tubing Thickness 7-in. liner shoe

Maximum Internal Radius > Casing program. The subject well in a field
Minimum Internal Radius Internal Radius offshore Qatar contained 3 1/2-in. tubing, a 7-in.
Minus Average PMIT-A liner and concentric strings of 9 5/8-in., 13 3/8-in.
Nominal Internal Radius
and 20-in. casing.
Nominal Outer Radius –0.08 in. 0.08

Average Internal Radius Radii Minus Average

1.4 in. 1.9 –0.16 in. 0.44

1998, contained 9 5/8-in., 13 3/8-in. and 20-in. casing

strings, a 7-in. liner and a 3 1/2-in. production tub-
ing string (above). In 2011, the operator observed
that the 13 3/8-in. casing had subsided at the well-
Holes visible in 3D image and log head. A pressure test designed to check the
integrity of each casing string demonstrated fluid
flow in the annular space between the 9 5/8-in. and
13 3/8-in. strings and in the annular space separat-
ing the 13 3/8-in. and 20-in. strings. This indicated
a leak in the 13 3/8-in. casing string.
Caliper, in. Qatar Petroleum engineers implemented a
1.500 1.625 1.750 workover operation, which they began by evaluat-
ing the integrity of the cement and presence of
> Processed caliper log. The field logs from the PipeView multifinger caliper tool of the interval with corrosion for the 7-in. liner and 9 5/8-in. casing. An
3 1/2-in. and 9 5/8-in. casing (top) correlated precisely with the visual damage observed in the retrieved ultrasonic inspection test identified the top of
tubing (bottom right). The caliper log (top left) includes measurements for eccentricity (dashed red the cement behind the 9 5/8-in. casing and con-
line), average internal radius (solid black line), maximum internal radius (solid red line), minimum firmed that the 7-in. liner and 9 5/8-in. casing were
internal radius (solid blue line), excentralization (dashed black line) and nominal outer radius (dashed
green line). The caliper log (top center) is composed of three traces that indicate casing collars used free from any significant corrosion or a hole in
for depth correlation (horizontal red line). The image log (top right) in the casing indicates thickness the casings that might allow fluids communica-
losses. Dark blue indicates scale, blue to white indicates 0% to 20% metal loss, white to pink is 20% to tion. Based on the location of the top of the
40% loss and orange to red indicates 40% to 80% loss. Red (circled) indicates 100% loss and a hole cement, which was identified by the USI tool
in the casing. A 3D processing image (bottom left) based on multifinger caliper data also indicates
strong correlation with the damage observed in the retrieved tubing, as do the processed logs cement log, Qatar Petroleum engineers were able
(bottom center). to determine the interval to cut for casing

Autumn 2013 29
 Water Water

Annulus Annulus
Ultrasonic Azimuth
Wave Amplitude Casing Casing
0 degree 0.5 Minus Maximum
Maximum Internal Maximum Internal Bonded
Cable Speed Radius Radius
Microdebonding
0 ft/h 1,000 –6 dB 0.5 5 in. 3.5 5 in. 3.5
Liquid
Wave Maximum Maximum Internal Minimum Internal Minimum Internal
Motor Speed Amplitude Radius Radius Radius Microdebonding Ratio

6 RPM 8 0 dB 100 4.2 in. 4.7 5 in. 3.5 5 in. 3.5 Minimum Thickness 1 0
Amplitude of Wave Minimum Average Internal Average Internal Average Internal 0.1 in. 0.6 Cement
Eccentricity Amplitude Radius Radius Radius Measurements/Total
Maximum Thickness
Depth, ft

0 in. 0.5 0 dB 100 4.2 in. 4.7 5 in. 3.5 5 in. 3.5 Internal Radii Average Cement Acoustic 1 0
Minus Average 0.1 in. 0.6 Casing Thickness Impedance Microdebonding
Casing Collar Wave Average Minimum Internal Average External Average External Gas
Locator, Ultrasonic Amplitude Radius Radius Radius Average Thickness Measurements/Total

–20 in. 20 0 dB 100 4.2 in. 4.7 5 in. 3.5 5 in. 3.5 –0.08 0.08 0.1 in. 0.6 –0.08 0.08 0 Mrayl 8.0 1 0 –2.0 Mrayl 8.0

300

310

320

330

340

350
No severe metal
360 loss detected Top of cement

370

380

390

400

410

420

430

440

> Top of cement. Engineers used logs from the USI tool to accurately locate the top of the cement behind the 9 5/8-in. casing (Tracks 10 and 11); standard USI
tool data indicated that the 7-in. liner and the 9 5/8-in. casing were free of significant corrosion.

retrieval (above). They could then directly evalu- data and pinpointed the precise location of the Qatar Petroleum had performed several work-
ate the 13 3/8-in. casing for corrosion defects. hole in the 13 3/8-in. casing. A PipeView multi- overs on another offshore well in the field and is
Engineers next deployed the EM Pipe Scanner finger imaging tool log was then run to evaluate using the well as a dump flooder, in which pro-
tool to evaluate the external casing strings. the 13 3/8-in. casing; the log showed that the casing duced water is injected into another formation.
Despite the fact that measurements were made was corroded and completely parted at the same Because the injected water is untreated, the pro-
outside of the recommended specifications, the depth where the EM Pipe Scanner tool had duction casing regularly experiences corrosion.
tool identified an anomaly at a depth above the detected the metal loss (next page). These mea- The well was originally cased with three sets
seabed; the amplitude level across the anomaly surements provided Qatar Petroleum with a clear of steel casing: a 20-in. surface casing, a 13 3/8-in.
was high, and the phase level was low, both of understanding of the location and extent of the intermediate casing and a 9 5/8-in. production cas-
which suggested that less metal was present at corrosion damage such that company engineers ing. After corrosion problems were detected in
the anomaly than would be expected under nor- could plan a strategy to retrieve the 13 3/8-in. cas- 2002, engineers overlapped the production cas-
mal circumstances. This information reinforced ing and perform a casing patch operation. ing with 7-in. casing. The well is perforated in one
the interpretation of the annular pressure test formation from 6,290 to 6,320 ft [1,918 to 1,926 m]

30 Oilfield Review
and in another from 6,523 to 7,030 ft [1,988 to Caliper, in.
2,143 m]. Produced water from both formations 6.250 6.359 6.469 6.578 6.688
is injected into a formation from 7,492 to 7,690 ft 74
[2,284 to 2,344 m]. Metal Loss
78
As part of regular operational monitoring and Double Coil B
assessment of the well, Qatar Petroleum engi- Long-Spacing Phase 82
20-in. casing
neers deployed the EM Pipe Scanner tool to eval- 40 degree 400
86
13 3/8-in. casing
uate the well for corrosion. The tool’s findings Double Coil B
9 5/8-in. casing Long-Spacing Amplitude 90
indicated significant metal loss across the 7-in. Depth, ft –60 dB 0
94
and the 9 5/8-in. sections. At approximately 6,250 ft

Depth, ft
[1,900 m], the tool indicated a thickness of about 98
90
0.28 in. [0.71 cm], much less than the expected 102
nominal thickness of 0.797 in. [2.03 cm], which
106
implied a metal loss of approximately 65%. The
well’s history and the operator’s local experience 110
6.688
in the field suggested that the entire 9 5/8-in. cas- 100

Caliper, in.
6.578 114
ing was completely corroded and the 7-in. casing 6.469
118
was partially corroded with about 10% metal loss. 6.359
6.250 122
The EM Pipe Scanner tool’s high-frequency
image measurement confirmed that the 7-in.
inner casing was not fully penetrated by corro-
sion, which indicated that the inside wall of the
pipe was in good condition.

Improved Corrosion Mitigation

Through Management
Downhole corrosion monitoring tools help engi-
neers understand the physical condition of tub-
ing and casing strings. Operators can then make
more-informed and cost-effective mitigation and
repair decisions. But as companies continue to
search for more streamlined and holistic meth-
ods for protecting their assets and extending the
producing life of their wells, service providers > Significant metal loss. Even though the EM Pipe Scanner tool was run outside of its specified range
have worked to improve monitoring capabilities. for amplitude and phase, it detected significant metal loss across the three casing strings (dashed red
For example, the advent of online, near real- box, top left). The 3D (top center) and 2D (top right) visualizations produced from the PipeView
multifinger caliper tool log run in the 13 3/8-in. casing indicate the casing had corroded to the point
time measurement capabilities has brought that it had parted (bottom left and right) at the depth where the EM Pipe Scanner tool had detected
about a natural progression to developing corro- metal loss.
sion monitoring workflows and software plat-
forms that maximize the usefulness of recorded
data. These platforms use advances in informa- fluids in the reservoir, the Petrel software helps data recorded from various monitoring tech-
tion and communication technology to improve guide well planners in making well decisions to niques and analyzes such data for their impact
oil and gas E&P efforts with the objectives of opti- ensure a high-integrity wellbore constructed of on production. The software flags those areas
mizing field operations and avoiding nonproduc- appropriate alloys. with higher corrosion rates or a history of corro-
tive time. The Techlog wellbore software platform fur- sion-related events, and as a result, the operator
Schlumberger engineers are working to inte- ther advances this evaluation by providing well- can prioritize corrosion mitigation efforts and
grate corrosion measurement data gathering into bore-centered workflows to identify corrosion implement suitable preventive measures.
overall field operations. These efforts are focused risks. These workflows incorporate fluid compo- As the industry moves into more-aggressive
in three software-based management platforms. sition and flow rate data to flag any potential corrosion environments and technically demand-
The Petrel E&P software platform provides oper- corrosion-induced wellbore problems, allowing ing production regions, corrosion monitoring
ators and service companies with a reservoir- the operator to make construction and comple- advances such as these must continue to expand
level view of field optimization by allowing asset tion decisions that minimize corrosion’s impact. and evolve if operators are to remain both profit-
teams to build collaborative workflows based on The Avocet production operations software plat- able and environmentally responsible. — TM
geomechanical, geochemical and reservoir fluid form combines well operations and production
properties. Along with information such as the data management systems to deliver a clear and
reservoir temperature and pressure and the comprehensive picture of operations at the sur-
expected corrosive characteristics of production face. The Avocet software accepts corrosion

Autumn 2013 31
 Geomagnetic Referencing—The Real-Time
Compass for Directional Drillers

Andrew Buchanan To pinpoint the location and direction of a wellbore, directional drillers rely on
Eni US Operating Company Inc.
Anchorage, Alaska, USA measurements from accelerometers, magnetometers and gyroscopes. In the past,
high-accuracy guidance methods required a halt in drilling to obtain directional
Carol A. Finn
Jeffrey J. Love measurements. Advances in geomagnetic referencing now allow companies to use
E. William Worthington
US Geological Survey real-time data acquired during drilling to accurately position horizontal wells,
Denver, Colorado, USA decrease well spacing and drill multiple wells from limited surface locations.
Fraser Lawson
Tullow Ghana Ltd.
Accra, Ghana
For a variety of reasons, operating companies
Stefan Maus need to know where their wells are as they are
Magnetic Variation Services LLC being drilled. Many of today’s deviated and hori-
Boulder, Colorado zontal wells no longer simply penetrate a reser-
voir zone but must navigate through it laterally to
Shola Okewunmi contact as much of the reservoir as possible.
Chevron Corporation Precise positioning of well trajectories is required Drift indicator disk
Plumb bob
Houston, Texas, USA to optimize hydrocarbon recovery, determine 6°
where each well is relative to the reservoir and
Benny Poedjono 4°
avoid collisions with other wells.
Sugar Land, Texas 2°
To accomplish these objectives, drillers require
directional accuracy to within a fraction of a degree. Disk
Oilfield Review Autumn 2013: 25, no. 3.
Copyright © 2013 Schlumberger. To achieve this level of accuracy, they use measure-
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Essam
Adly, Muscat, Oman; Goke Akinniranye, The Woodlands, ment-while-drilling (MWD) tools that include accel-
Texas; James Ashbaugh and Robert Kuntz, Pennsylvania erometers and magnetometers that detect the
General Energy Company, LLC, Warren, Pennsylvania,
USA; Nathan Beck, Anchorage; Luca Borri, Jason Brink Earth’s gravitational and magnetic fields; they also
Punch marks show
and Joseph Longo, Eni US Operating Co. Inc., Anchorage; use sophisticated procedures to compensate for
Daniel Cardozo, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada; Pete 3.5° inclination
Clark, Chevron Energy Technology Company, Houston; measurement perturbation. As drillers have found
Clock
Steve Crozier, Tullow Ghana Ltd., Accra, Ghana; Mike success with these tools and become more depen-
Hollis, Chesapeake Energy, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma,
USA; Christopher Jamerson, Apache Corporation, Tulsa; dent on them for well guidance, the need for accu-
Xiong Li, CGG GravMag Solutions, Houston; Ross Lowdon, rately quantified positional uncertainty that takes
Aberdeen; Diana Montenegro Cuellar, Bogotá, Colombia;
Ismail Bolaji Olalere, Shell Nigeria, Port Harcourt, Nigeria; into account all measurement error has also
Irina Shevchenko, Michael Terpening and John Zabaldano, increased. For some applications, the uncertainty is
Houston; Tim White, US Geological Survey, Denver; and the
Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Department of as important as the position itself.
Natural Resources, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. This article reviews aspects of wellbore sur- > Mechanical drift indicator. This downhole
PowerDrive is a mark of Schlumberger. veying, focusing on modern techniques for mag- device measures drift, or deviation from vertical,
1. Borehole orientation may be described in terms of using a pendulum, or the “plumb bob,” principle.
inclination and azimuth. Inclination refers to the vertical
netic surveying with MWD tools. To understand The sharp-tipped pendulum is lowered onto a
angle measured from the down direction—the down, the operation of and uncertainty associated with disk into which it punches two holes that mark
horizontal and up directions have inclinations of 0°, 90° an initial measurement then a verification
and 180°, respectively. Azimuth refers to the horizontal
magnetic tools, we examine important aspects of
the Earth’s magnetic field and its measurement. measurement. In this example, the inclination is
angle measured clockwise from true north—the north,
east, south and west directions have azimuths of 0°, 90°, 3.5°. The technique gives no indication of azimuth
180° and 270°, respectively. For more on borehole
Examples from the USA, Canada, offshore Brazil but may be reliable for surface hole intervals and
orientation: Jamieson AL: Introduction to Wellbore and offshore Ghana illustrate the application of shallow vertical wells in which dogleg severity
Positioning. Inverness, Scotland: University of the and inclination are not significant. [Adapted from
Highlands and Islands, 2012, http://www.uhi.ac.uk/en/
new techniques that improve measurement accu-
Gatlin C: Petroleum Engineering Drilling and Well
research-enterprise/wellbore-positioning-download racy and thus effect considerable reduction in
(accessed June 18, 2013). Completions. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA:
magnetic tool survey error. Prentice-Hall, Inc. (1960): 143.]
2. Griswold EH: “Acid Bottle Method of Subsurface Well
Survey and Its Application,” Transactions of the AIME 82,
no. 1 (December 1929): 41–49.

32 Oilfield Review
Historical Perspective makes it easier and less expensive to complete directional driller stopped drilling to measure
Traditionally, wellbores were drilled vertically wells and produce hydrocarbons. However, the wellbore inclination and azimuth.1
and were widely spaced. Well spacing decreased introduction of horizontal drilling and closer well- The oldest survey method entailed lowering a
as fields matured, regulations tightened and res- bore spacing has intensified the need for accurate glass bottle of acid downhole and holding it station-
ervoirs were targeted in remote areas. Over time, wellbore positioning and for processes to prevent ary long enough for the acid to etch a horizontal ring
drilling multiple horizontal wells from a single collisions between the bit and nearby wellbores. in the bottle. The ring’s position was interpreted for
pad became common practice. Today, more than Before the introduction of modern steerable inclination once the device was retrieved.2
a dozen wells may fan out into the reservoir from downhole motors and advanced tools to measure Another simple survey tool is the single shot
a single offshore platform or onshore drilling pad. hole inclination and azimuth, directional or hori- mechanical drift indicator (previous page).
Pad drilling—grouping wellheads together at zontal drilling was much slower than vertical Magnetic single shot (MSS) and multishot (MMS)
one surface location—necessitates fewer rig drilling because of the need to stop regularly and surveys have also been used to record inclination
moves, requires less surface area disturbance and take time-consuming downhole surveys. The and magnetic azimuth. For those surveys, the tool

Autumn 2013 33
 West as the survey tool continuously traverses the well
P path. Surveying engineers also use them in gyro-
X compassing mode, in which the stationary tool
Geogra responds to the horizontal component of the
D north phic Earth’s rotation rate. The use of rate gyros has
Y I
reduced errors—such as geographic reference
East H
errors and unaccountable measurement drift—
M that are associated with conventional gyros.
F nor agneti
th c Unfortunately, because they are taken while the
tool is stationary, gyro surveys carry operational

Mag
neti
risk and rig time cost associated with wellbore

c fi
conditioning when drilling is stopped.6

eld
In some intervals, significant magnetic inter-

vect
ference from offset wellbores makes accurate

or
magnetic surveying impossible. To address this
Z
limitation, scientists developed gyro-while-
Down drilling methods. Tool design engineers are
extending the operational limits of some com-
mercial gyro-while-drilling survey systems to the
> Magnetic field orientation. At any point P, the magnetic field vector (red) is
commonly described in terms of its direction, its total magnitude, F, in that full range of wellbore inclinations.
direction and H and Z, the local horizontal and vertical components of F. The For some situations, surveying engineers
angles D and I describe the orientation of the magnetic field vector. The combine gyroscopic and magnetic surveying. One
declination, D, is the angle in the horizontal plane between H and of the combined techniques—inhole referenc-
geographic north. The inclination, I, is the angle between the magnetic field
vector and the horizontal plane containing H. Of these measurements, D and ing—makes use of highly accurate gyroscope
I are required to convert the compass orientation of a wellbore to its measurements in shallow sections to align subse-
geographic orientation. The absolute magnitudes of F, Z or H are used for quent data obtained using magnetic surveys in
quality control and calibration. deeper sections.7 In highly deviated and
extended-reach wells, this approach delivers lev-
els of accuracy comparable to those acquired
took photographs, or shots, of compass cards Triaxial accelerometers measure the local with wireline gyroscopic surveys without incur-
downhole while the pipe was stationary in the gravity field along three orthogonal axes. These ring the added time and costs. In these inhole
slips. Photographs were taken every 27 m [90 ft] measurements provide the inclination of the tool referencing systems, gyroscopic measurements
during active changes of angle or direction and axis along the wellbore as well as the toolface are used in shallow near-vertical wellbore sec-
every 60 to 90 m [200 to 300 ft] while drilling relative to the high side of the tool.4 Similarly, tri- tions in the vicinity of casing until MWD mag-
straight ahead. The introduction of downhole mud axial magnetometers measure the strength of the netic surveys can be obtained free of interference
motors in the 1970s and the development of rug- Earth’s magnetic field along three orthogonal and in longer-reach sections in which inclina-
gedized sensors and mud pulse telemetry of MWD axes. From these measurements and the acceler- tions increase. An additional benefit of using
data enabled the use of continuously updated digi- ometer measurements, the tool determines azi- both gyro and MWD surveys is the detection of
tal measurements for near real-time trajectory muthal orientation of the tool axis relative to gross error sources in either tool.
adjustments. Most wells are now drilled using sur- magnetic north. Conversion of magnetic mea-
vey measurements from modern MWD tools. surements to geographic orientation is at the Positional Uncertainty
heart of MWD wellbore surveying. The key mea- Drillers use positional uncertainty estimates to
Well Survey Basics surements are magnetic dip (also called mag- determine the probability of striking a geologic
Today, directional drillers rely primarily on real- netic inclination), total magnetic field and target and of intersecting other wellbores.8 They
time MWD measurements of gravitational and magnetic declination (above).5 base the estimates on tool error model predic-
magnetic fields using ruggedized triaxial acceler- A variety of tools exploit gyroscopic princi- tions, which themselves depend on quality con-
ometers and magnetometers. Other categories of ples. These systems are unaffected by ferromag- trol (QC) of survey data. Survey tool quality
survey tools include magnetic multishot tools, netic materials, giving them an advantage over checks help identify sources of error, often with
inclination-only tools and a family of tools based magnetic tools in some drilling scenarios. Some redundant surveys as independent cross-checks.
on the use of gyroscopes, or gyros.3 Unlike MWD tools take measurements at discrete intervals of For most survey tools, the outputs are azi-
tools, many of these specialty tools are run as measured depth (MD) along the well path when muth, inclination and measured depth. Errors in
wireline services, thus requiring cessation of the the survey tool is stationary; others operate in a each measurement may occur because of both
drilling process. Increasingly, however, gyro- continuous measurement mode. North-seeking the tool and the environment. Accuracies avail-
scopic tools are also being incorporated into gyrocompasses (NSGs) make use of gyroscopes able from stationary measurements made with
downhole steering and surveying instruments for and the rotation of the Earth to automatically standard MWD tools are on the order of
use while drilling. find geographic north. Rate gyros provide an out- ±0.1° for inclination, ±0.5° for azimuth and
put proportional to the turning rate of the instru- ±1.0° for toolface.
ment and may be used to determine orientation

34 Oilfield Review
 A surveying engineer’s ability to determine 1,000 ft
1,000 ft
borehole trajectory depends on the accumulation
of errors from wellhead to total depth. Rather 200 ft

than specifying a point in space, surveying engi-

neers consider wellbore position to be within an
ellipsoid of uncertainty (EOU). Typically, the
uncertainty in the lateral direction is larger than
in the vertical or along-hole directions. When dis-
played continuously along the wellbore, the EOU
presents a volume shaped like a flattened cone
surrounding the estimated borehole trajectory
(right). The combined effects of accumulated
error may reach values of 1% of measured well
depth, which could be unacceptably large for
long wellbores.9
The Industry Steering Committee for Wellbore
Survey Accuracy, ISCWSA—now the SPE
Wellbore Positioning Technical Section, WPTS—
has promoted development of a rigorous mathe-
matical procedure for combining various error
sources into one 3D uncertainty ellipse.10
External effects on accuracy include axial mis-
alignment, BHA deflection, unmodeled geomag-
X
netic field variations and drillstring-induced Y Z
interference. The latter two factors dominate the
performance of magnetic tools and their error
models; such models depend on the resolution of
the geomagnetic reference model in use.11
> Planned well trajectories showing slices of the ellipsoids of uncertainty
The Geomagnetic Field (EOUs) obtained from standard MWD (blue) and from higher accuracy MWD
(red) surveys. The azimuthal and inclination uncertainties are in the XY plane
To make use of magnetic measurements for find- perpendicular to the borehole. The depth uncertainty is along the Z-axis of
ing direction, it is necessary to take into account the borehole. When shown at a dense series of points along the well
the complexity of the geomagnetic field. The geo- trajectory, they form a “cone of uncertainty.” The high-accuracy method
magnetic field surrounds the Earth and extends delivers a wellbore with smaller positional uncertainty. (Adapted from
Poedjono et al, reference 32.)
into nearby space.12 The total magnetic field mea-
sured near the Earth’s surface is the superposition
of magnetic fields arising from a number of time-

3. This family includes conventional gyros, rate gyros, horizontal and up directions have dips (inclinations) of 9. For typical well depths and step-out, or horizontal reach,
north-seeking gyros, mechanical inertial gyros and ring 90°, 0° and –90°, respectively. Declination is defined the dimensions of the uncertainty envelope may be on
laser inertial gyros. For more on gyros: Jamieson AL: similarly to hole azimuth. For more on magnetic field the order of 100 ft [30 m] or more unless action is taken
“Understanding Borehole Surveying Accuracy,” orientation: Campbell WH: Introduction to Geomagnetic to correct error sources and run high-accuracy surveys.
Expanded Abstracts, 75th SEG Annual International Fields, 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University This may exceed the size of the target and increase the
Meeting and Exposition, Houston (November 6–11, 2005): Press, 2003. risk of unsuccessful wellbore steering. For more on the
2339–2340. 6. Gyro surveys conducted on wireline in openhole sections calculation, extent and causes of positional uncertainty:
Jamieson, reference 1. carry the risk of stuck survey tools. Surveys made Jamieson, references 1 and 3.
4. Gravity, or high side, toolface is the orientation of the through drillpipe when the drilling is stopped carry the 10. For more on tool error model selection and the accepted
survey instrument in the borehole relative to up. risk of stuck drillpipe. Additionally, operators usually industry standard ISCWSA error models for magnetic
Magnetic toolface is the orientation of the survey perform a hole conditioning cleanup cycle after drilling is tools: Williamson HS: “Accuracy Prediction for
instrument relative to magnetic north, corrected to a stopped. These combined operations may require many Directional Measurement While Drilling,” SPE Drilling &
chosen reference of either grid north or true north. Most hours of rig time. Completion 15, no. 4 (December 2000): 221–233.
MWD systems switch from a magnetic toolface to a high 7. Thorogood JL and Knott DR: “Surveying Techniques with For more on error models for gyroscopic tools:
side toolface once the inclination exceeds a preset a Solid-State Magnetic Multishot Device,” SPE Drilling Torkildsen T, Håvardstein ST, Weston JL and Ekseth R:
threshold typically set between 3° and 8°. For more on Engineering 5, no. 3 (September 1990): 209–214. “Prediction of Wellbore Position Accuracy When
instrument orientation: Jamieson, reference 1. 8. Ekseth R, Torkildsen T, Brooks A, Weston J, Nyrnes E, Surveyed with Gyroscopic Tools,” paper SPE 90408,
5. By international agreement, magnetic field orientation Wilson H and Kovalenko K: “High-Integrity Wellbore presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
may be described in terms of dip (also referred to as Surveying,” SPE Drilling & Completion 25, no. 4 Exhibition, Houston, September 26–29, 2004.
inclination) and declination. Dip is measured positively (December 2010): 438–447. 11. Williamson, reference 10.
downward from the horizontal direction—the down, 12. Love JJ: “Magnetic Monitoring of Earth and Space,”
Physics Today 61, no. 2 (February 2008): 31–37.

Autumn 2013 35
 Axis of Earth’s rotation varying physical processes that are grouped into
Axis of magnetic poles four general components: the main magnetic field,
the crustal field, the external disturbance field
and local magnetic interference.13 The significance
of these contributions to direction, strength and
stability of the total magnetic field varies with geo-
graphic region and with magnetic survey direction.
The importance of accounting for each component
S
in the measurement depends on the purpose and
required accuracy of the survey.
Physicists have determined that the Earth’s
Line in orbital plane main magnetic field is generated in the Earth’s
fluid outer core by a self-exciting dynamo pro-
N
cess. Approximately 95% of the total magnetic
field measured at Earth’s surface comes from this
main field, a significant portion of which may be
described as the field of a dipole placed at the
Earth’s center and tilted approximately 11° from
the Earth’s rotational axis (left). The magnitude
of the main magnetic field is nearly 60,000 nT
near the poles and about 30,000 nT near the
> Simplified geomagnetic field. The Earth’s main geomagnetic field is equator.14 However, there are significant non-
portrayed as the ideal magnetic field of a geocentric tilted dipole with poles dipole contributions to the main magnetic field
at the core of the Earth (brown shading). Lines of magnetic flux (red)
that complicate its mathematical and graphical
emanate outward through the surface of the Earth near the geographic
south pole and reenter near the geographic north pole. Those positions representation (below left). As an additional
along the axis of the dipole are the magnetic south and north poles, although complication, the main field varies slowly
the polarity of the internal dipole is the opposite. The geographic north and
13. Akasofu S-I and Lanzerotti LJ: “The Earth’s
south poles lie on the Earth’s axis of rotation. Both axes are tilted relative to Magnetosphere,” Physics Today 28, no. 12 (December
the plane of the Earth’s rotational orbit. 1975): 28–34.
Jacobs JA (ed): Geomagnetism, Volume 1. Orlando,
Florida, USA: Academic Press, 1987.
Jacobs JA (ed): Geomagnetism, Volume 3. San Diego,
California, USA: Academic Press, 1989.
Merrill RT, McElhinny MW and McFadden PL: The
Magnetic Field of the Earth: Paleomagnetism, the Core,
and the Deep Mantle. San Diego, California: Academic
Press, International Geophysics Series, Volume 63, 1996.
Campbell, reference 5.
Lanza R and Meloni A: The Earth’s Magnetism: An
Introduction for Geologists. Berlin: Springer, 2006.
10
–10 Auster H-U: “How to Measure Earth’s Magnetic Field,”
Physics Today 61, no. 2 (February 2008): 76–77.
Love, reference 12.
14. The symbol B is often used for magnetic induction,
10 the quantity that is sensed by magnetometers. The
SI unit for B is the Tesla (T), and the centimeter-gram-
second (cgs) unit is the Gauss (G); the common unit is
10 the gamma, which is 10 –9 T = 1 nT.
–20
–10 10 15. Time variations, called secular variations, necessitate
–20 periodic updating of magnetic field maps and models.
–30 These variations are caused by two types of processes
20 –40 in the Earth’s core. The first is related to the main dipole
–20 field and operates on time scales of hundreds or
30 thousands of years. The second is related to nondipole
field variations at time scales on the order of tens of
years. For more on secular variations: Lanza and Meloni,
reference 13.
16. Remanent magnetism of rocks results from exposure of
> Values of declination along lines of equal declination (isogonic lines) of the Earth’s magnetic field. In magnetic materials in the rocks to the Earth’s magnetic
the areas surrounded by red lines, or the lines of equal positive declination, a compass points to the field when the rocks were formed. Igneous rocks retain
thermoremanent magnetization as they cool. In some
east of true north. Lines of equal negative declination, for which the compass points to the west of rocks, remanent magnetization arises when magnetic
true north, are blue. Along the green, agonic lines, for which declination equals zero, the directions to grains are formed during chemical reactions.
magnetic north and true north are identical. The field shown is the International Geomagnetic Sedimentary rocks retain remanent magnetization when
Reference Field for the year 2010. [Adapted from “Historical Main Field Change and Declination,” magnetic grains align with the magnetic field during
CIRES Geomagnetism, http://geomag.org/info/declination.html (accessed June 24, 2013).] sediment deposition. Remanent magnetism also occurs
in ferromagnetic materials, such as the steel in casing
or drillpipe, as a result of exposure to the Earth’s
magnetic field or industrial magnetic field sources.

36 Oilfield Review
 400

150

90
70
Alaska
50
C A N A D A

Total intensity anomaly, nT

30
20
10
0
–10
–20
P a c –30
i f i
c –40
O
c –60
e
a –80

n
Year 2010 –125
–175
> Variation of the position of the northern
–300
magnetic pole between 1990 and 2010. Magnetic
declination (red and blue lines) from the > Geomagnetic crustal field. Airborne measurements of the strength of the magnetic field provide data
International Geomagnetic Reference Field that are used to determine the anomalous contribution from earth crustal materials. The total intensity
model is shown for 2010. The green dot anomaly (TIA) is the difference between the magnitude of the total field and that of the main magnetic
represents the position of the magnetic dip pole field. The TIA field over western Canada; Alaska, USA; and the northwest continental US varies from
in 2010; the yellow dot represents the position of –300 nT (blue) to +400 nT (pink). The mean total field strength is about 55,000 nT in this region. The
that pole in 1990. The agonic lines, for which crustal field shows local intensity ridges, with variation on a much finer spatial scale than that of the
declination equals zero in 2010, are highlighted in main magnetic field. [Adapted from “Magnetic Anomaly Map of North America,” USGS, http://mrdata.
green. If a compass at any location points to the usgs.gov/geophysics/aeromag-na.html (accessed July 23, 2013).]
right of true north, declination is positive, or east
(red contours), and if it points to the left of true
north, declination is negative, or west (blue
contours). [Adapted from “Historical Magnetic
Declination,” NOAA National Geophysical Data
Center, http://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/
historical_declination/ (accessed June 24, 2013).] Magnetopause
Magnetosheath
Bow shock

Magnetic field lines

because of changes within the Earth’s core. The
relative strengths of nondipole components
change, and the magnetic dipole axis pole posi-
tion itself wanders over time (above).15
The magnetic field associated with the
Earth’s crust arises from induced and remanent Solar wind
Earth
magnetism.16 The crustal field—also referred to Van Allen
radiation belts
as the anomaly field—varies in direction and
strength when measured over the Earth’s sur-
Magnetotail
face (above right). It is relatively strong in the
vicinity of ferrous and magnetic materials, such
as in the oceanic crust and near concentrations
of metal ores, and is the focus of geophysical
mineral exploration.
The disturbance field is an external magnetic
field arising from electric currents flowing in the
ionosphere and magnetosphere and “mirror-cur- > Distortion of the Earth’s magnetosphere from the solar wind. The sun emits a flux of particles, called
rents” induced in the Earth and oceans by the the solar wind, which consists of electrons, protons, helium [He] nuclei and heavier elements. The
external magnetic field time variations. The dis- Earth’s magnetic field is confined by the low-density plasma of the solar wind and the interplanetary
turbance field is associated with diurnal field magnetic field (IMF) that accompanies it. These distort the Earth’s magnetic field away from its dipolar
shape in the magnetosphere, the extensive region of space bounding the Earth. The field becomes
variations and magnetic storms (see “Blowing in compacted on the sunward side and elongated on the opposite side. The solar wind produces a
the Solar Wind: Sun Spots, Solar Cycles and Life variety of effects, including the magnetopause, radiation belts and the magnetotail. Time-varying
on Earth,” page 48). This field is affected by solar interactions of the magnetosphere with the solar wind produce magnetic storms and the external
activity (solar wind), the interplanetary mag- disturbance field.
netic field and the Earth’s magnetic field (right).

Autumn 2013 37
 Magnetic Field Measurements,
Instrumentation and Models
Physicists have developed a variety of sophisti-
cated instruments for measuring magnetic
fields.18 Of particular interest for geomagnetic
referencing are the instruments that scientists
use within magnetic observatories on the Earth’s
Bm
surface and those that surveying engineers use in
the oil field for downhole MWD surveying.
Bc
Proton precession and Overhauser magne-
Bobserved tometers, which measure the Earth’s magnetic
B int
field, are based on the phenomenon of nuclear
B int paramagnetism and the tendency of atomic
nuclei with a magnetic spin to orient along the
dominant magnetic field. During this process, a
current-induced magnetic field is applied and
removed intermittently, and then the frequency
of precession is measured as protons in the sen-
sor fluid precess under the influence of the
Earth’s magnetic field. The Overhauser magne-
tometer makes use of additional free electrons in
> Contributions to the total observed magnetic field. During periods of solar the sensing fluid and the application of a strong
quiet, the discrepancy between the observed field, Bobserved (red), and the radio frequency polarizing field to enable contin-
main magnetic field, Bm (green), is largely due to the local crustal field Bc uous measurement of the precession frequency.
(blue) and the drillstring interference, Bint (yellow). At other times, the
The 14 US-based US Geological Survey (USGS)
external disturbance field also makes a contribution. (Adapted from
Poedjono et al, reference 30.) magnetic observatories use Overhauser magne-
tometers to provide absolute measurements of
magnetic field intensity.19 These magnetometers
achieve absolute accuracy on the order of 0.1 nT.
The external magnetic field exhibits varia- magnetic storms, arise and show impulsive and Fluxgate magnetometers operate by driving
tions on several time scales, which may affect the unpredictable rapid time variations. the cores of magnetic circuits into saturation and
applicability of magnetic reference models.17 Very On the local scale, nearby structures such as measuring slight asymmetries that arise from the
long-period variations are related to the solar rigs and wells may induce magnetic interference. additional contribution of the Earth’s magnetic
cycle of about 11 years. Short-term variations Drillstring remanent magnetization and mag- field. These instruments give nonabsolute mag-
arise from daily sunlight variation, atmospheric netic permeability contribute to perturbations of netic measurements along a particular direction,
tides and diurnal conductivity variations. the measured magnetic field (above). Operators with resolution as fine as 0.01 nT.20 The instru-
Irregular time variations are influenced by the may use nonmagnetic drill collars to reduce ments are used in surface observatories and in
solar wind. Perturbed magnetic states, called these effects along with software techniques to ruggedized downhole MWD equipment, although
compensate for them. some instruments are temperature sensitive and
require stabilization through mechanical design.
Magnetic field models provide values for mag-
netic declination, magnetic inclination and total
Model Organization Order Resolution, km Update Interval magnetic field at points on the surface of the
WMM NOAA, NGDC and BGS 12 3,334 5 years Earth; scientists use these models to transform
IGRF IAGA 13 3,077 5 years magnetic measurements to directions in the geo-
BGGM BGS 50 800 1 year graphic coordinate system. Various organizations
EMM and HDGM NOAA and NGDC 720 56 5 years and 1 year have developed geomagnetic reference models
using global magnetic field measurements taken
> Magnetic field reference models. Several groups and organizations have
from satellite, aircraft and ships. These organiza-
developed reference models of differing resolution; the models are updated
at various intervals. In the Order column, order increases with the tions include the US National Oceanic and
complexity of the model and in this case refers to spherical harmonic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the NOAA
models. These models construct the global magnetic field as a sum of terms National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), the
of varying order and degree. Terms of order “n” have a total of n circular British Geological Survey (BGS) and the
nodal lines on the sphere at which the magnetic field contribution is zero.
The orientation of the lines depends on the combination of order and International Association of Geomagnetism and
degree. Resolution corresponds to the wavelength of the highest order term. Aeronomy (IAGA). The models differ in their
resolution in space and time (left).

38 Oilfield Review
 The World Magnetic Model (WMM) character- Improving Well Position Accuracy sufficient data, the method determines a robust
izes the long-wavelength portion of the magnetic To place wellbores accurately when using mag- correction of the BHA disturbance to be applied
field that is generated in the Earth’s core; it does netic guidance, surveying engineers must account for each particular well orientation.
not represent the portions that arise either in the for or eliminate two important sources of survey Multistation analysis is an improvement over
crust and upper mantle or from the disturbance error: interference caused by magnetized ele- the earlier technique of single station analysis in
field generated in the ionosphere and magneto- ments in the drillstring and local variations which compensation is estimated and applied to
sphere.21 Consequently, magnetic measurements between magnetic north and true, or geographic, each survey station independently. Now com-
may show discrepancies when referenced to the north. Analysis of data from multiple wellbore sur- monly used in the industry, MSA generally
WMM alone. Local and regional magnetic declina- vey stations, or multistation analysis (MSA), has reduces directional uncertainty and aids in pen-
tion anomalies occasionally exceed 10°, and decli- become the key to addressing drillstring interfer- etration of smaller reservoir targets than were
nation anomalies on the order of 4° are not ence. Surveying engineers use geomagnetic refer- previously achievable. The technique can elimi-
uncommon but are usually of small spatial extent. encing, which accounts for the influence of the nate some gyrocompass runs, thus reducing oper-
To account for secular variation, the WMM is crustal field and the time-varying disturbance ational costs. Service companies have developed
updated every five years. An international task force field as well as secular variations in the main mag- data requirements and acceptance criteria that
formed by the IAGA has released International netic field. have to be fulfilled when applying MSA, and an
Geomagnetic Reference Field IGRF-11, a series of Multistation analysis—MSA is a technique industry standard has been proposed.26
mathematical models of the Earth’s main magnetic that helps compensate for drillstring magnetic Geomagnetic referencing—Another tech-
field and its rate of change. These models have reso- interference, which can affect downhole mag- nique for improving wellbore position accuracy,
lution that is comparable to that of the WMM.22 netic surveys.25 Drillstring components generate geomagnetic referencing provides the mapping
Directional drilling requires higher resolu- local disturbances to the Earth’s magnetic field between magnetic north and true north that is
tion models than WMM or IGRF alone. The BGS because of their magnetic permeability and necessary to convert magnetically determined
Global Geomagnetic Model (BGGM), widely used remanent magnetization. Using tools manufac- orientations to geographic ones on a local scale.
in the drilling industry, provides the main mag- tured with nonmagnetic materials to isolate The mapping must account for secular variations
netic field at 800-km [500-mi] resolution and is directional sensors from magnetized drillstring in the main magnetic field model and include an
updated annually.23 The Enhanced Magnetic components is beneficial, but the use of such accurate crustal model. Furthermore, it must
Model (EMM) improves greatly on this spatial tools may be imperfect or impractical because incorporate the time-varying disturbance field
resolution. The EMM and a successor, the High- they may impact the cost or performance of the when it is significant. The Schlumberger geomag-
Definition Geomagnetic Model (HDGM), resolve BHA. An alternative is to characterize the magni- netic referencing method builds a custom model
anomalies down to 56 km [35 mi], an order of tude of the disturbance associated with the BHA of the geomagnetic field, with all its magnetic
magnitude improvement over previous models. so that its influence is predictable. field components, to minimize the error in the
By accounting for a larger waveband of the geo- The MSA technique assesses the magnetic mapping between magnetic and true north.27
magnetic spectrum, the HDGM improves the signature of the BHA by comparing the Earth’s Annually updated magnetic field models such
accuracy of the reference field, which in turn main magnetic field with magnetic data acquired as the BGGM or HDGM accurately track secular
improves the reliability of wellbore azimuth at multiple survey stations. The magnitude of the variations of the main magnetic field. Surveying
determination and enables high-accuracy drill- perturbation depends on the orientation of the engineers employ such models as the foundation
string interference correction.24 tool relative to the magnetic field direction. With for a custom model. They use various techniques
17. During quiet periods of solar activity, daily field 22. For more on the International Geomagnetic Reference 25. Brooks AG, Gurden PA and Noy KA: “Practical
variations, called diurnal variations, can have Field (IGRF) model: Glassmeier K-H, Soffel H and Application of a Multiple-Survey Magnetic Correction
magnitudes of about 20 nT at midlatitudes and up to Negendank JFW (eds): Geomagnetic Field Variations. Algorithm,” paper SPE 49060, presented at the SPE
about 200 nT in equatorial regions. During periods of Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2009, http://www.ngdc.noaa. Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
heightened solar activity, magnetic storms may persist gov/IAGA/vmod/igrf.html (accessed July 21, 2013). Orleans, September 27–30, 1998.
for several hours or several days with deviations in 23. For more on the BGS Global Geomagnetic Model Lowdon RM and Chia CR: “Multistation Analysis and
magnetic intensity components on the order of several (BGGM): “BGS Global Geomagnetic Model,” British Geomagnetic Referencing Significantly Improve
tens to hundreds of nT at midlatitudes. In auroral Geological Survey, http://www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/ Magnetic Survey Results,” paper SPE/IADC 79820,
regions, the disturbances occasionally reach 1,000 nT, data_service/directionaldrilling/bggm.html (accessed presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
and the declination angle can vary by several degrees July 16, 2013). Amsterdam, February 19–21, 2003.
or more. For more on magnetic reference models: Lanza
Macmillan S, McKay A and Grindrod S: “Confidence Chia CR and de Lima DC: “MWD Survey Accuracy
and Meloni, reference 13 and Campbell, reference 5.
Limits Associated with Values of the Earth’s Magnetic Improvements Using Multistation Analysis,” paper
18. Campbell, reference 5. Field Used for Directional Drilling,” paper SPE/IADC IADC/SPE 87977, presented at the IADC/SPE Asia Pacific
Lanza and Meloni, reference 13. 119851, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference Drilling Technology Conference and Exhibition, Kuala
Auster, reference 13. and Exhibition, Amsterdam, March 17–19, 2009. Lumpur, September 13–15, 2004.
19. Love JJ and Finn CA: “The USGS Geomagnetism 24. For more on the Enhanced Magnetic Model (EMM): 26. Nyrnes E, Torkildsen T and Wilson H: “Minimum
Program and Its Role in Space Weather Monitoring,” Maus S: “An Ellipsoidal Harmonic Representation of Requirements for Multi-Station Analysis of MWD
Space Weather 9, no. 7 (July 2011): S07001-1–S07001-5. Earth’s Lithospheric Magnetic Field to Degree and Magnetic Directional Surveys,” paper SPE/IADC 125677,
Order 720,” Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 11, presented at the SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling
20. Auster, reference 13.
no. 6 (June 2010): Q06015-1–Q06015-12. Technology Conference and Exhibition, Manama,
21. For more on the World Magnetic Model (WMM): Bahrain, October 26–28, 2009.
For more on the High-Definition Geomagnetic Model
Maus S, Macmillan S, McLean S, Hamilton B,
(HDGM): Maus S, Nair MC, Poedjono B, Okewunmi S, 27. For a detailed description of crustal magnetic modeling,
Thomson A, Nair M and Rollins C: “The US/UK World
Fairhead D, Barckhausen U, Milligan PR and Matzka J: including construction of the vector crustal magnetic
Magnetic Model for 2010–2015,” Boulder, Colorado,
“High Definition Geomagnetic Models: A New field using downward continuation and trilinear
USA: US NOAA technical report, National Environmental
Perspective for Improved Wellbore Positioning,” interpolation: Poedjono B, Adly E, Terpening M and Li X:
Satellite, Data, and Information Service/National
paper IADC/SPE 151436, presented at the IADC/SPE “Geomagnetic Referencing Service—A Viable
Geophysical Data Center, 2010.
Drilling Conference and Exhibition, San Diego, California, Alternative for Accurate Wellbore Surveying,”
March 6–8, 2012. paper IADC/SPE 127753, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
February 2–4, 2010.

Autumn 2013 39
 extensions of this technique, incorporating
remote observatory data to account for time vari-
ations. Surveying engineers use these techniques
to extend the main magnetic field model and pro-
vide the best estimate of the local magnetic field,
which is critical for geomagnetic referencing and
multistation drillstring compensation. These
techniques allow magnetic surveying even at
high latitudes, where the local magnetic field
exhibits extreme variations.
Schlumberger has introduced the geomagnetic
referencing service (GRS) as a cost-effective alter-
native to conducting gyroscopic surveys in real-
time drilling applications.28 GRS provides accurate
data on wellbore position and enables timely cor-
> Plan view of wellbore trajectories, looking down. PGE used a multiwell rections to wellbore trajectory. Surveying engi-
pad design for 14 wells drilled into the Marcellus Shale from a single pad. neers use a proprietary algorithm, a 3D crustal
The plan shows initial uncertainty disks at true vertical depths of 2,500 ft
model and a time- and depth-varying geomagnetic
(red) and 5,000 ft (yellow). As expected, uncertainty grows larger with
increasing distance from the surface location and can impact the drilling reference to correct MWD measurements for mag-
program. None of the red disks intersect each other, nor do the yellow netic drillstring interference, calculate tool orien-
disks, indicating that the wellbores (blue) are clear of each other at those tation from the corrected measurements and
depths. (Copyright 2010, SPE Eastern Regional Meeting. Reproduced with
permission of SPE. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.) advise the directional driller on course adjust-
ments. Coordination between the operator, direc-
tional drilling contractor, MWD survey provider,
for local crustal magnetic mapping, including able to incorporate disturbances caused by diur- geomagnetic observatory and survey engineer is
land, marine or aeromagnetic surveys. Fortu- nal solar activity and magnetic storms into survey essential for managing this survey technique.
nately, the crustal magnetic field needs to be data processing. Examples from the USA, Canada, offshore Brazil
characterized only once in the life of the reser- The technique of infield referencing (IFR) and offshore Ghana illustrate a range of geomag-
voir. The disturbance field, however, varies rap- makes use of data from local magnetic surveys netic referencing applications.
idly over time. Because data are available from near a wellsite to characterize the crustal mag-
magnetic observatories, surveying engineers are netic field. Service companies have developed Avoiding Collision in the Marcellus Shale
Pennsylvania General Energy (PGE) has under-
taken field development in the Marcellus Shale
that illustrates the benefits of multiwell planning
and the need for quantifying positional uncer-
tainty and assuring collision avoidance. PGE and
its service providers sought to optimize pad
design for multiwell drilling.29 Historically, opera-
tors have developed the Marcellus Shale and
other resources in the Appalachian basin using
inexpensive vertical wells with minimal quality
control on well surveys conducted by gyro and
steering tools. Currently, however, more opera-
tors are turning to multiwell pads and horizontal
drilling to improve logistics and economic and
environmental impact during the development of
shale gas reservoirs.
Operators now are drilling up to 14 wells per
pad on 7-ft [2-m] centers by constructing devi-
ated wells. First, a 17 1/2 -in. surface hole is air
drilled to a depth of about 1,000 ft [300 m] and
then surveyed. A 12 1/4 -in. section for a water pro-
> Pad design and well trajectories. PGE drilled 14 wells into two reservoirs during Phases 1 (magenta) tection string is then air drilled to a true verti-
and 2 (blue) of the drilling campaign. The graphical size of each wellbore corresponds to the size of cal depth (TVD) of 2,500 ft [760 m] using
the EOUs as defined in the survey program. The drilling team confirmed the anticollision condition. At gyro-while-drilling tools to guide the separation
the reservoir entry point, each well needed to have a minimum 200-ft [60-m] separation from its
counterpart drilled in the opposite direction. (Copyright 2010, SPE Eastern Regional Meeting. of wells on the pad. The directional driller uses
Reproduced with permission of SPE. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.)

40 Oilfield Review
a north-seeking gyro until the well reaches a
depth that is free of external magnetic interfer-
ence from nearby wellbores. The deeper, devi-
ated 8 3/4 -in. section is simultaneously drilled
and surveyed to total depth (TD) with a rotary
steerable system (RSS) and MWD.
Because accurate surveying and anticollision Y-axis
0m
monitoring are imperative, PGE took a proactive 0m
approach to the multiwell pad design and drilling –400 m

by using a recently proposed anticollision stan- –800 m –400 m

dard.30 Following this procedure, the operator
–1,200 m
defined uncertainty areas at three TVDs: 1,000 ft, –800 m
–1,600 m
2,500 ft and 5,000 ft [1,500 m]. Well planners per-
–1,200 m
formed anticollision analysis of trajectories to –2,000 m

ensure wellbores were properly separated at –2,400 m –1,600 m

these depths. Visualization of wellbore trajecto- –2,800 m
ries, with uncertainty areas plotted at intermedi- –2,000 m
–3,200 m
Z-axis
ate and deeper depths, confirmed that the –2,400 m
–3,600 m
drilling plan was unlikely to lead to wellbore col-
lision (previous page, top). –2,800 m
6,000 m
The selection of slots in the multiwell pad was 5,000 m –3,200 m
an important aspect of the PGE pad design X-axis 4,000 m
–3,600 m
because of the constraints on surface hole loca-
3,000 m
tions and target coordinates. PGE drilled seven 6,000 m
wells into each of two stacked reservoirs. The 5,000 m
4,000 m
drilling engineer completed the final pad design 3,000 m
after surface holes were drilled and surveyed; 2,000 m Y-axis
then they replanned all wells, recalculated 1,000 m
0m
uncertainty areas and reassessed anticollision
conditions (previous page, bottom). As a result,
the plan reduced the risk of wellbore collision
and its associated costs.

Reaching Difficult Targets Offshore Canada

Geomagnetic referencing techniques have helped
an operator efficiently and safely reach its objec-
> Hitting distant targets with an extended-reach well in the Jeanne d’Arc basin, offshore Canada. This
tives in the Jeanne d’Arc basin offshore eastern
well trajectory (center) extends approximately 7,000 m [23,000 ft] before dropping to hit two targets
Canada.31 Weather conditions are often severe in (red) at about 4,000 m [13,000 ft]. Insets (top and bottom) show close-up views of the targets and the
this remote area of the North Atlantic, leading ellipsoids of uncertainty (EOUs) for two survey methods. The positional uncertainty (green) of the
operators to develop strategies for minimizing the magnetic surveys without GRS (top) is so large that the well may be outside the targets. With GRS
extent of their offshore installations. The con- (bottom), the positional uncertainty (blue) is well within the size of the targets. (Adapted from Poedjono
et al, reference 27. The images in this figure are copyright 2010, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and
struction of multiple extended-reach wells drilled Exhibition. Reproduced with permission of SPE. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.)
from slots on gravity-based platforms leverages the
use of infrastructure but creates a crowded sub-
surface, placing a premium on collision avoidance For a successful drilling program, the opera- 28. Lowdon and Chia, reference 25.
and precise wellbore positioning. tor required an accurate description of positional 29. Poedjono B, Zabaldano J, Shevchenko I, Jamerson C,
As a further challenge, the geology of the area uncertainty and a small error ellipsoid. The GRS Kuntz R and Ashbaugh J: “Case Studies in the
Application of Pad Design Drilling in the Marcellus
is complex. The sedimentary basin consists of guided drilling program met these requirements Shale,” paper SPE 139045, presented at the SPE Eastern
thick, layered sandstones separated by shales and and provided extended drillability, reduced drill- Regional Meeting, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA,
October 12–14, 2010.
subdivided by faults into large compartments or ing time and improved chances of hitting the geo- Kuntz R, Ashbaugh J, Poedjono B, Zabaldano J,
blocks. The reservoir is in a fault-bounded sector logic target (above). Shevchenko I and Jamerson C: “Pad Design Key for
Marcellus Drilling,” The American Oil & Gas Reporter,
in which the target zones are smaller than the seis- 54, no. 4 (April 2011): 111–114.
mic resolution. The operator needed to employ High Precision in High Latitudes 30. Poedjono B, Lombardo GJ and Phillips W: “Anti-Collision
sophisticated drilling and surveying techniques to Geomagnetic referencing brings significant Risk Management Standard for Well Placement,” paper
SPE 121040, presented at the SPE Americas E&P
hit these small targets while maintaining tight advantages but encounters its greatest challenge Environmental and Safety Conference, San Antonio,
restrictions on wellbore trajectory designs. when applied at high latitude, where the magni- Texas, USA, March 23–25, 2009.
31. Poedjono et al, reference 27.
tude of geomagnetic disturbance field variations
Kuntz et al, reference 29.

Autumn 2013 41
 is large. The Eni US Operating Co. Inc. Nikaitchuq
Start
field in the Beaufort Sea off the North Slope of
Alaska, USA, is one such location. Continuity of
the reservoir is broken by several faults, and drill-
Real-time raw MWD ers need to consider local reservoir compartmen-
survey data
QA/QC by Schlumberger talization in well planning.32 Wellbore positioning
Crustal data must be precise and accurate.
•cube coordinates At these high latitudes, the external distur-
bance field varies dramatically over time.33 This
DED observatory Geomagnetic QA/QC QA/QC disturbance represents the major source of noise
•adjusted data referencing •remove data with •calibration?
•QA/QC by USGS processing external interference •failed sensor? in magnetic data used for well guidance.
Amplitude variations are as large as 1,000 nT, and
No Yes measured declination angles may vary by several
Pass Nearby well?
QA/QC? degrees during magnetic storms. To account for
Real-time GRS these perturbations, GRS applies time-varying
•azimuth correction Yes No
to drill ahead reference data from a nearby observatory to
No End of Yes Total depth No MWD measurements.
bit run? reached? In 2009, the USGS launched a joint public-
private partnership with Schlumberger to begin
Final GRS Yes
•definitive surveys Sectional GRS planning for installation and maintenance of a
•definitive surveys
•final GRS report new observatory, called Deadhorse Geomagnetic
Observatory (DED), at the town of Deadhorse, on
Stop New bit run the North Slope of Alaska. The newest of the 14
observatories, DED is now operated by
> Geomagnetic referencing workflow. The workflow starts with raw MWD and magnetic observatory Schlumberger under USGS guidance and follows
data streams (shown here as from the DED observatory) and combines them with crustal magnetic field Intermagnet standards.34
data then progresses through geomagnetic processing, data adjustment and quality control. Instrumentation at the observatory includes a
Processing continuously generates directional drilling corrections and provides definitive surveys at
the end of bit runs. (Adapted from Poedjono et al, reference 32.) triaxial fluxgate magnetometer for vector field
measurements, an Overhauser magnetometer
for total field intensity measurements and a
single-axis fluxgate declination-inclination mag-
netometer (DIM) on a nonmagnetic theodolite.
Data Specialists use DIM and Overhauser data to cali-
58,239 Reference brate the fluxgate variational data weekly. USGS
58,039
scientists have developed specialized data pro-
57,839
cessing algorithms to produce adjusted and defin-
nT

57,639 itive versions of real-time data streams received

57,439 remotely at the USGS Geomagnetism Program
57,239 headquarters in Golden, Colorado, USA.35
57,039 The workflow for geomagnetic referencing
10,500 11,776 13,052 14,328 15,605 16,881 18,157 19,433 20,710
includes simultaneous acquisition and quality
Depth, ft
control of two data streams—MWD survey data
Data at the rig site and real-time magnetic data at the
58,826 Reference
58,479 observatory (above left).36 Schlumberger wellsite
58,132
engineers perform QC of the raw MWD data.
USGS experts execute automated QC and daily
nT

57,785
inspection of data from the DED observatory and
57,438
apply sensor calibration factors to produce
57,091
adjusted observatory data representing the time-
56,744
10,500 11,776 13,052 14,328 15,605 16,881 18,157 19,433 20,710 varying disturbance field correction. GRS pro-
Depth, ft cessing combines the time-stamped disturbance
> Time-varying reference data. Raw magnetic MWD survey data (top, blue) initially exceeded the data field data, crustal field data and main magnetic
quality acceptance limits (red) at several depths, but the data passed when referenced to DED field model data. The algorithm applies the com-
observatory data (bottom). Initial acceptance limits were based on a static reference value (top, green) bined magnetic field data to the raw MWD sensor
for the local magnetic field strength, whereas the DED data provided actual time-varying values data at each survey depth and performs multista-
(bottom, green) to which the limits could be referenced. (Adapted from Poedjono et al, reference 32.)
tion processing and geomagnetic referencing,

42 Oilfield Review
yielding geographic hole orientation. During Williston Basin
additional processing stages, the algorithm
implements data acceptance logic and computes
a correction to drilling direction. The directional
driller applies the drill-ahead correction until a
new set of surveys is completed and a new drill-
ahead correction is available. At the completion
of each BHA run, surveying engineers apply BHA
deflection corrections and compile the final
definitive survey for that run. 1 mi
The use of time-varying reference data was

1 mi
essential for drilling engineers to plan and exe-
cute drilling in the Nikaitchuq field. Magnetic
MWD survey raw data initially failed the data
quality acceptance limits at several depths but
improved to an acceptable range when refer-
enced to DED observatory data (previous page,
bottom). Because the company used GRS, drill-
ing activities continued without the need for
t
0f
dedicated and costly surveying operations beyond
95

the standard MWD survey stations.

High-Density Wells in the Williston Basin

ConocoPhillips Company has demonstrated that
improved wellbore survey accuracy contributes
to increased oil production. Better survey accu-
racy enables closer well separation and longer
Early producer well spacing:
horizontal wells essential for boosting the effi- one well per 640 acres
ciency of water injection programs designed to
> Field development plan. In a field in Montana and North Dakota, USA, operators started field
enhance oil recovery. Operating in two fields near development with one well per 1-mi2 [640-acre, 2.6-km2] parcel. Alternate rows of injector (blue) and
the Cedar Creek anticline along the border producer wells (gray) show planned down-spacing to an interwell spacing of 950 ft [290 m] (red box).
between Montana and North Dakota, USA, the Positional uncertainty needs to be minimized to keep the well trajectories parallel and reduce the risk of
company has systematically studied the accuracy premature breakthrough of water from the injectors. (Adapted from Landry et al, reference 37.)
of existing wellbore survey data and examined
the causes of MWD errors. By developing
improved methodologies for magnetic data col-
lection and reducing those errors, the company
reduced positional uncertainty and contributed To assess the accuracy of MWD surveys, the determined that the principal cause of azimuthal
to both the safety and viability of the horizontal operator conducted several statistical surveys in error was BHA-induced magnetic interference.
drilling program.37 which the positions of wells drilled using MWD Other factors included local magnetic field varia-
Initially, the operators in these fields placed were compared with positions determined from tions and drillstring sag.
horizontal wells on a 640-acre [2.6-km2] spac- postdrilling gyro surveys. Results showed that Understanding and minimizing BHA-induced
ing. They subsequently reduced well spacing to while the average azimuth deviation between the magnetic interference proved to be the key to
320 acres [1.3 km2] and reconfigured the well MWD and gyro data was about 1°, the differences improving survey accuracy. Surveying engineers
pattern for a line-drive waterflood, in which were larger for a significant number of wells. used specialized software to estimate the contri-
rows of injection wells alternated with rows of After evaluating the data, surveying engineers bution of drillstring interference to azimuth error
producers (above right). Reservoir modeling
32. Poedjono B, Beck N, Buchanan A, Brink J, Longo J, 35. Love and Finn, reference 19.
suggested that reducing well spacing to Finn CA and Worthington EW: “Geomagnetic 36. For more on the workflow at the DED observatory and on
160 acres [0.65 km2] would be beneficial. Referencing in the Arctic Environment,” paper SPE the geomagnetic referencing: Poedjono et al,
149629, presented at the SPE Arctic and Extreme reference 32.
However, before proceeding, the operator Environments Conference and Exhibition, Moscow,
37. Landry B, Poedjono B, Akinniranye G and Hollis M:
needed to assess the accuracy of wellbore place- October 18–20, 2011.
“Survey Accuracy Extends Well Displacement at
33. Merrill et al, reference 13. Minimum Cost,” paper SPE 105669, presented at the
ment, because inadvertent convergence of bore-
34. For more on Intermagnet: “International Real-time 15th SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference,
holes could adversely affect waterflood sweep Magnetic Observatory Network,” INTERMAGNET, Bahrain, March 11–14, 2007.
efficiency, reducing hydrocarbon production http://www.intermagnet.org/index-eng.php (accessed
October 16, 2013).
and increasing lifting and disposal costs.

Autumn 2013 43
 and evaluate the benefits and tradeoffs of placing
Plan View Well-to-well separation nonmagnetic material between the magnetome-
at surface location ters and the rest of the BHA. Because separating
Surface location Surface location
Well 1 Well 3 sensors from the bit can compromise real-time
steering, the operators minimized nonmagnetic
components and instead employed single station
Surface location
Well 2 and multistation processing techniques to correct
the surveys in real time. Postdrilling comparisons
of MWD drilled trajectories with gyro surveys con-
Survey Program B firmed that discrepancies had been reduced sta-
Separation at
provides separation at TD. measured depth tistically, including for instances in which the
real-time magnetic interference corrections were
large. Taking the reduced EOUs into account,
drilling engineers were able to stagger wellhead
positions and optimize wellhead spacing to pre-
vent water breakthrough (left).

Crustal Variations
Uncertainty of Survey Program A In some situations, the main concern is not the
Separation for Survey
Survey Program A Program A relative to the Uncertainty of Survey Program B time-varying field but the crustal correction.
does not provide offset at TD of Well 3
separation at TD.
Such was the case for one operator in a deepwa-
ter heavy-oil field offshore Brazil.38 The project
lies in 1,100 m [3,600 ft] of water in the northern
> Strategies for ensuring optimal spacing to prevent water breakthrough. Survey Program B (pink)
Campos basin. The operator had drilled several
delivers higher accuracy than Survey Program A (blue). Had Wells 1 and 2 been drilled from adjacent
surface locations using Survey Program A, the wells may have collided at TD. Survey Program B, with wells using MWD and had observed discrepancies
compensation for magnetic interference, ensures noncollision and allows the wells to be extended to between downhole tool readings and those
planned total depth. By staggering one wellhead to the surface location of Well 3, the operator could expected from the BGGM. To improve magnetic
increase well separation at total depth, drill wells with the desired orientation and spacing and prevent
surveying here, it was necessary to develop a bet-
early water breakthrough. The operator chose to use both Survey Program B and wellhead staggering.
(Adapted from Landry et al, reference 37.) ter model of the local magnetic field so that well-
bore trajectories would attain their targets. The
company needed to employ a highly accurate geo-
magnetic model to avoid field acceptance criteria
–23.4
–23.8 failures in real-time drilling. Such failures may
–20°48’ –23.4
lead to unnecessary tool retrieval operations
because of suspected tool failure.
–22 To resolve the survey discrepancies, a
–21°12’
research team composed of representatives from
Magnetic field declination, degree

the operator, Schlumberger, other contractors

–23.4
and academia developed a method for mapping
–21°36’ –23.2
the magnetic variations using the High-Definition
–22.2
Field Geomagnetic Model (HDGM2011), which had
–23 recently been developed at the US NGDC. The
Latitude

–22°00’ –23 team integrated this large-scale magnetic field

model with data from a local aeromagnetic sur-
–23.2 –23 vey to extend the spatial spectrum of the mag-
–22°24’ –23.2
netic field from regional scales down to the
kilometer scale (left).
–23.6 The team used two independent methods to
–23.2
–22°48’ analyze the crustal magnetic model.39 Method 1
–24 combined the BGGM with aeromagnetic survey
–40°00’ –39°36’ –40°00’ –39°36’ –40°00’ –39°36’ data and employed an equivalent source method
Longitude
for downward continuation of the field to reser-
> Magnetic field declination maps offshore Brazil. The standard model (left) shows smooth, large- voir depth. Method 2 combined the aeromagnetic
scale variations in magnetic field declination in the vicinity of the hydrocarbon field (red polygon). The
higher resolution HDGM (center) includes more detail. The combined HDGM and aeromagnetic survey
model (right) contains the highest resolution information of all three models. All maps show declination
at mean sea level. Differences of nearly 1° in declination are observed between the standard and
highest resolution models near the field. (Adapted from Poedjono et al, reference 38.)

44 Oilfield Review
survey with a long-wavelength crustal field model Crustal Contribution at Sea Level
provided by the German CHAMP satellite survey
and created a 3D magnetic model for the lease
2.0
area. The team established the validity of
Method 2 by comparing the results with marine 1.8

magnetic profiles taken from the US NOAA/NGDC 1.6

archive. Magnetic field model attributes com- 0.4
0.6
0.2 1.4
puted with these two methods closely agreed 0.8
with each other when compared at mean sea

Magnetic field declination, degree

1.2
level and at the 5,000-m [16,400-ft] reservoir
1.0
depth (right).
The team discovered that intermediate-wave- 0.8
length anomalies caused by large-scale magneti-
0.6

10,000 m
zation of the oceanic crust had a significant
impact on local magnetic declination. The 0.4

higher-resolution geomagnetic reference models 0.2

enabled more-refined multistation compensation
for drillstring interference. By comparing predic- 0 0

tions of horizontal and vertical magnetic field –0.2

components with those from MWD tool readings,
–0.4
the team established validity of the broadband
models. Data points affected by drillstring inter- –0.6

ference were outside quality control acceptance

10,000 m
bands when processed with the BGGM but were
consistent with the other data when processed Crustal Contribution at 5,000 m
with a high-resolution model.
The team evaluated the importance of the
time-varying disturbance field using data from 2.0

the nearby Vassouras Magnetic Observatory in 0.8 1.8

Brazil. Results showed small variations in decli- 0.6
0.4 1.6
nation, dip and total field intensity. Diurnal varia-
0.2 1.2
tions were insignificant at the wellbore positions 1.4
during times of low solar activity, and data from 1.4

Magnetic field declination, degree

1.2
the high-resolution static models were sufficient
for these times. Operator representatives con- 1.0

cluded that multistation analysis improved when 0 0.8

they used the high-resolution geomagnetic mod-
10,000 m

0.6
els compared with the BGGM magnetic field pre-
dictions. Significant localization improvements –0.2 0.4
occurred when they used GRS to correct MWD
0.2
raw readings. Estimated wellbore bottomhole
locations shifted significantly, and the sizes of 0

the ellipsoids of uncertainty and the TVD uncer- –0.2

tainty consistently decreased.
–0.4
38. Poedjono B, Montenegro D, Clark P, Okewunmi S, 0.6
Maus S and Li X: “Successful Application of –0.6
Geomagnetic Referencing for Accurate Wellbore
Positioning in a Deepwater Project Offshore Brazil,” 10,000 m
paper IADC/SPE 150107, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference and Exhibition, San Diego, California,
March 6–8, 2012. > Crustal contribution to the magnetic field declination at two depths in the vicinity of a field
39. Two proprietary processing methods developed for offshore Brazil. The crustal field contribution to the magnetic declination is shown in plan
analyzing the crustal field are discussed in Poedjono et view at mean sea level (top) and at a depth of 5,000 m (bottom). Values were calculated using
al, reference 38. Method 1 was developed by Fugro a method that combined an aeromagnetic survey with a long-wavelength crustal field model
Gravity & Magnetic Services Inc, now part of CGG.
Method 2 was developed by Magnetic Variation
provided by the German CHAMP satellite survey; the method then created a 3D magnetic
Services LLC. model for the lease area. The 3D magnetic field changes with depth, in large part because of
the magnetic properties of the Earth’s crust underlying the sediments offshore Brazil.
(Adapted from Poedjono et al, reference 38.)

Autumn 2013 45
 Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements Survey Tool Box
Main File Launch Help

EDI Calculator Reference Check Benchmark Rotation Shot BHA Survey Frequency

Units Survey Data Geomagnetic Reference

Meters GeoMag Field Geographic Region
GridAzimuth 270.00 deg Declination 4.5900 deg
Feet
Inclination 90.00 deg Grid Convergence 0.2100 deg Total lBl 49895 nT Dip 61.75 deg
Azimuth Reference
Check Reference DEM Total Correction 4.3800 Region
True North

Grid North Minimum Number of Surveys Required for DMAG 25

BHA Collar Size Nonmagnetic Spacing of BHA Elements

Small (4.75” OD or Less)
D2 100.51 ft MP 52.78 ft D1 36.02 ft
Medium (6.75” and all Medium sizes) NMR

Large (8” OD or More) L2 ft S2 ft L1 ft S1 ft

BHA Configuration Type

PowerDrive Rotary Steerable 1 D2

MP
Steerable Motor Assembly 2
D1
NonMag Steerable Motor 3
Drill Collars or Other BHA 4
Stabilizer + Bit Only Below MWD
Steel
Results
NonMag
Azimuth Error: 4.22 deg
Add Nonmagnetic Spacing
Interfering Field: 1746 nT
Above MWD 0.0 ft Add ..
Calculate Delta FAC dlBl 33 nT

Report Below MWD 0.0 ft Undo Last

Delta FAC dDip 0.07 deg

Open Save Save As .. Clear Exit

> Quantifying magnetic measurement sensitivity to toolstring interference. Modeling codes are used
to simulate the extent of magnetic interference for various survey orientations and BHA designs.
This simulation, taken from the Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements Survey Tool Box, shows the
large azimuthal error (red) that would occur at this particular wellbore grid azimuth of 270° and
inclination of 90° if the driller did not add nonmagnetic spacing material to the BHA in addition to
that included in the initial design (blue). Drilling engineers use these simulations to determine the
length of nonmagnetic material above or below the MWD measure point necessary to reduce the
error sufficiently.

Deepwater Success the magnetic measurement to wellbore trajectory magnetic field processing yielded an updated
Accurate real-time magnetic surveys allow direc- and to the inclusion of nonmagnetic collars for magnetic field from sea level to a depth of 4,500 m
tional drillers to stay on path and to reduce the BHA variations (above). [14,800 ft] using downward continuation of the
number of required confirmatory gyro surveys. An aeromagnetic survey provided the basis for scalar TMI anomaly. Subsequent processing
Tullow Ghana Ltd. used geomagnetic referencing the custom-built geomagnetic model. This 80-km × determined the east, north and vertical
to achieve its objectives to hit distant geologic 80-km [50-mi × 50-mi] survey was centered at the components of the magnetic field and transformed
targets accurately and within budget while devel- Jubilee field at an altitude of 80 m [260 ft] and them into declination and inclination
oping the Jubilee field offshore Ghana.40 included presurvey test flights for calibration and perturbations relative to the main magnetic field.
The operator wanted to drill all wells safely use of a base station as reference for time-varying
40. Poedjono B, Olalere IB, Shevchenko I, Lawson F,
and successfully in the shortest possible time changes in the magnetic field. Analysts computed Crozier S and Li X: “Improved Drilling Economics and
because rig spread costs are exceptionally high in a total magnetic intensity (TMI) anomaly grid Enhanced Target Acquisition Through the Application
of Effective Geomagnetic Referencing,” paper SPE
this area. To enable accurate GRS, Schlumberger using the total magnetic field measured in the 140436, presented at the SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual
surveying experts conducted numerical aeromagnetic survey combined with the 2010 Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria,
May 23–26, 2011.
simulations, which quantified the sensitivity of BGGM main magnetic field model.41 Crustal 41. For more on the processing workflow: Poedjono et al,
reference 32.

46 Oilfield Review
 512,000 m

X-axis 515,000 m
511,800 m X-axis
514,000 m
513,000 0m
Y-axis
512,000511,600 m

0 –400 m

–400 –800 m

–800 –1,200 m

–1,200 –1,600 m
512,000 m
Z-axis
–1,600 –2,000 m
X-axis
511,800 m

–2,000
–2,400 m

511,600 m
–2,400
–2,800 m

–2,800 m
–3,200 m

–3,200 m 515,000 m
514,000 m
Y-axis 513,000 m
512,000 m X-axis

> An extended-reach well in the Jubilee field offshore Ghana. The Tullow Ghana Ltd. Well 4 has a long step-out and tangent
profile to hit the target (red). The EOU from standard MWD (top left, green) is larger than the rectangular geologic target.
Because of the smaller EOU from GRS (center left, blue), the operator was able to drill the well with high confidence that the
wellbore would penetrate the target. (Adapted from Poedjono et al, reference 40. The images in this figure are copyright
2011, SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition. Reproduced with permission of SPE. Further reproduction
prohibited without permission.)

For the initial wells in the Jubilee field, stan- Reaching the Target aid processing for drillstring interference com-
dard MWD surveys yielded small enough EOUs These examples illustrate a range of new and pensation and enhance measurement quality
to hit the geologic targets with confidence. exacting requirements for wellbore guidance and control by employing customized acceptance
These initial well paths had relatively shallow the geomagnetic measurement technology that criteria. Geomagnetic referencing improves
inclination angles. For more-distant targets has been developed to satisfy those require- well placement accuracy, reduces positional
with higher inclination angles and longer tan- ments. Challenges have included avoiding well- uncertainty and mitigates the danger of colli-
gent sections, the uncertainty associated with bore collision, reducing drillstring magnetic sion with existing wellbores. When used in real-
standard MWD surveys was unacceptably large. interference and accounting for geomagnetic time wellbore navigation, GRS saves rig time,
However, uncertainty was considerably smaller field variations associated with crustal magne- reduces drilling costs and helps drillers reach
for GRS processed magnetic data, and drillers tism and temporal magnetic field variations. their targets. —HDL
reached their objectives with high confidence. Directional drillers now place wellbores
Using GRS, the operator was able to drill the within increasingly demanding targets by relying
well with guaranteed placement of the wellbore on real-time wellbore surveys and small EOUs.
inside the target (above). High-resolution geomagnetic reference models

Autumn 2013 47
 Blowing in the Solar Wind: Sun Spots,
Solar Cycles and Life on Earth

The Sun regularly experiences eruptions that shower space with energetic ions. In
1859, a massive solar event occurred with a magnitude that surpassed that of all other
recorded events, and the Earth was directly in the path of the storm. Hours after the
eruption, sparks began to fly from telegraph wires, fires were ignited by downed
wires, equipment operators felt electrical shocks from their telegraph keys and ticker
tapes burst into flames. A century and a half later, should a similar solar event occur,
more than wires and paper would be at risk.

Anatoly Arsentiev Those of us in the energy industry owe our liveli- erful surges of electricity, which administered
Irkutsk, Russia hoods to the Sun. The hydrocarbons we search for electrical shocks to the operators. Some reports
and produce were formed from organic matter described telegraph paper bursting into flames
David H. Hathaway that stored ancient energy that originated within and machines that continued to receive informa-
National Aeronautics and Space Administration the Sun. In the not too distant past, the Sun was tion, even after the operators had disconnected
(NASA) Marshall Space Flight Center an object of reverence because of its control over their battery power. Disturbances in the Earth’s
Huntsville, Alabama, USA
our lives. Today, familiarity with and understand- magnetic field from the effects of the CME caused
ing of the Sun has removed much of our sense of compass needles to behave erratically. The
Rodney W. Lessard
Houston, Texas, USA veneration; however, we understand that our very effects were seen not just on the Earth’s surface;
existence is based on a relationship to the seem- auroras, which are normally restricted to Earth’s
Oilfield Review Autumn 2013: 25, no. 3. ingly unchanging presence of the solar system’s higher latitudes, lit the sky as far south as the
Copyright © 2013 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to shining star. Caribbean region.
Don Williamson. On occasion, however, the Sun’s apparent sta- Most experts consider the superstorm of
1. Cliver EW: “The 1859 Space Weather Event: Then and bility is interrupted by powerful displays of its 1859, referred to as the Carrington event, to be
Now,” Advances in Space Research 38, no. 2 (2006):
119−129.
dynamism. One such example occurred on the the largest recorded solar storm to directly
2. Boteler DH: “The Super Storms of August/September morning of September 1, 1859. From his private impact the Earth. Data from ice cores dating
1859 and Their Effects on the Telegraph System,” observatory, amateur astronomer Richard back 500 years show evidence of geomagnetic
Advances in Space Research 38, no. 2 (2006): 159−172.
3. Stephens DL, Townsend LW and Hoff JL: “Interplanetary
Carrington observed a cluster of large spots on storms of varying intensity, but none reached the
Crew Dose Estimates for Worst Case Solar Particle the surface of the Sun. Suddenly, a brilliant flash magnitude of that singular episode.3
Events Based on Historical Data for the Carrington Flare
of 1859,” Acta Astronautica 56, no. 9−12 (May−June 2005):
of white light—a solar flare—erupted from the Modern infrastructure has become dependent
969−974. area of the spots.1 This particular flare was the on a multitude of interconnected systems and
harbinger of a gigantic coronal mass ejection devices that are sensitive to electromagnetic and
(CME), which spewed solar plasma into inter- geomagnetic forces. Scientists are concerned that
planetary space. another Carrington-type CME directed toward
This massive cloud of charged particles Earth would wreak havoc, overwhelming electri-
arrived at Earth in less than 18 hours. It pro- cal power grids and control systems, destroying
ceeded to disrupt the most advanced technology telecommunications satellites, disrupting global
of the day—the telegraph.2 The interaction positioning systems (GPSs) and plunging whole
between the CME and the Earth’s magnetic field continents into darkness and disarray. In 1989, a
induced electrical currents in exposed telegraph much smaller geomagnetic storm caused a black-
wires. Current raced through the wires, causing out that pitched the province of Quebec, Canada,
some of them to overheat, fall to the ground and into darkness and disrupted power in many loca-
set off fires. Telegraph machines were hit by pow- tions in the Northeast US.

48 Oilfield Review
Autumn 2013 49
 250
Quebec blackout

200 Carrington event

Sunspot number

150

100

50

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0
1750 1770 1790 1810 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010
Date
> Sunspot cycles. Scientists have systematically recorded the number of sunspots and numbered the sunspot peaks dating from the 1700s. In several
recent cycles, sunspot counts approached or exceeded 200; the current cycle average count is less than 100.

According to solar scientists, predicting the A Not So Benign Sun the surface—the convection zone (next page, top
next Carrington-class event, or any solar storm, is About 5 billion years ago, a cloud of dust and gas right). From the convection zone, the photons
practically impossible. When solar flares and approximately 1.6 trillion km [1 trillion mi] in eventually leave the Sun. Traveling at the speed
CMEs occur, scientists have found it difficult to diameter coalesced to form our solar system.5 The of light, photons cover the 150 million km [93 mil-
determine whether the Earth lies directly in the source of that cloud is believed to be a mix of pri- lion mi] between the Earth and Sun in about
path of these streaming ions. In the past few mordial gas and material from older stars that eight minutes.
years, the ability to issue alerts about potential exploded in massive supernovae.6 Gravity collapsed The photons emitted by the Sun cover a broad
damaging solar storms has been improved by the the cloud in upon itself, and mutual attraction of band of the electromagnetic spectrum—from
deployment of satellites strategically positioned the particles accelerated the collapse to form a high-energy X-rays to radio waves. The Earth is
to monitor the Sun’s activity. dense central core. Rotation of the cloud acceler- constantly bombarded by this energy, but because
Although scientists are not able to forecast ated with contraction, while centrifugal forces flat- the atmosphere shields it from most of the emis-
exactly when solar flares and CMEs will occur, tened the cloud toward the edges, leaving a bulge sions, only a few specific frequencies—mostly
they have discovered a correlation between an near the center from which the Sun evolved. those of ultraviolet light, visible light and radio
increase in the number of sunspots and the fre- As the central core of the Sun continued to col- waves—reach Earth’s surface.
quency and intensity of solar events. Sunspots lapse, the compression generated heat, which A self-generated magnetic field is a by-product
are dark regions on the Sun, and they follow an melted and vaporized the dust. About 10 million of the Sun’s fusion reactor, rotation and con-
11-year cycle. During sunspot cycle minima, years after the collapse began, the rate of collapse stantly moving mass of plasma in the convection
there may be no visible spots; during maxima the slowed because the pull of gravity was balanced by zone. Magnetic field lines are generally aligned
number may be greater than 200. Each cycle is the pressure of hot gases. The rising core tempera- with the axis of rotation of the Sun. The field
numbered, dating to 1755, when observers began ture initiated nuclear reactions, and the heat and exhibits a dipolar nature analogous to that of the
to systematically record sunspot activity (above). pressure stripped away electrons, leaving mostly Earth, with its north and south magnetic poles.
The Carrington event occurred at the peak of plasma—a mixture of protons and electrons. The However, unlike Earth’s magnetic field, the Sun’s
Cycle 10. The US National Oceanic and gravitational pull of the Sun continued to com- magnetic field reverses polarity on a regular
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Space press the plasma in its core to densities nearly ten basis, coinciding with the midpoint of the 11-year
Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) predicts that times that of lead and heated the plasma to nearly sunspot cycle peak.
Cycle 24 will peak in 2013.4 The Sun has been 16 million °C [29 million °F], at which point fusion The Sun’s rotating magnetic field also gener-
relatively quiet during Cycle 24, but the potential reactions can occur. ates a current sheet that extends billions of kilo-
always exists for the Sun to unleash another In the Sun’s fusion reaction, hydrogen atoms meters from the Sun out into space. When the
Carrington-like event. fuse and form helium. During the reaction, some magnetic polarity reversal occurs—a process
This article discusses the concepts of solar of the original mass is converted into heat and that started in the summer of 2013 for Cycle 24—
cycles, solar events, CMEs, space weather, solar photons. The photons radiate outward, first trav- the current sheet becomes highly contorted. The
monitoring and the potential effects of solar eling through the radiative zone and then, after Earth dips in and out of the current sheet while
storms on modern infrastructure, and it reviews millions of collisions, arrive at the region near orbiting the Sun, potentially creating stormy
current warning systems. space weather conditions.7

50 Oilfield Review
 On the surface of the Sun, magnetic field lines
emerge to form sunspots. Magnetic field lines
may encompass volumes that are quite large—
the planet Jupiter, which is 150,000 km Convection zone
Radiative zone
[90,000 mi] in diameter, could easily fit inside Core
some of them (below right). Coronal loops also
form at the surface, following the magnetic field
lines. During solar sunspot peaks, the number of
coronal loops increases and magnetic field lines Photosphere
often become twisted. This twisting stores mas-
sive amounts of energy that is eventually released Prominence Sunspots
in the form of solar flares, CMEs and other events.
Space weather is punctuated by bursts of energy
from these magnetic disturbances.

Space Weather
Space weather is defined as the physical condi- Flare

tions in the space environment that have the

Coronal hole
potential to affect space-borne or ground-based
technology systems.8 Space weather is greatly Chromosphere
influenced by the energy carried from the Sun
by the solar wind, and it can disturb conditions
immediately around the Earth. Charged parti-
cles—mainly protons and electrons—make up
the solar wind. These particles are emitted in all Corona
directions from the Sun. Solar wind speed, den-
sity and composition determine associated
> The Sun’s structure. Fusion reactions take place in the Sun’s central core. The pull of gravity
effects on the Earth.9 Geomagnetic storms, iono-
accelerates hydrogen nuclei inward, toward the Sun’s center, where they fuse and form helium;
spheric disturbances and aurora emissions are the reaction releases energy. The energy—in the form of photons and other elementary particle
all manifestations of space weather. Coronal by-products—rises through the Sun’s radiative and convection zones and then exits from the photosphere.
mass ejections and associated shock waves are The corona is the Sun’s outer atmosphere, a layer of plasma surrounding the chromosphere. Features
the most violent components of space weather, displayed on the Sun’s surface seen here include a prominence, solar flares, sunspots and a coronal
hole. [Illustration courtesy of the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).]
and they tend to compress the Earth’s magneto-
sphere and trigger geomagnetic storms.
Earth’s magnetosphere is a bullet-shaped
bubble that protects the planet’s surface from
harmful radiation. The magnetosphere shields
the Earth from fast-moving ions by deflecting
and concentrating them at the Earth’s north
and south poles. The Van Allen radiation belts
trap charged particles that leak through the
magnetosphere, further protecting Earth’s sur-
face from harmful electromagnetic radiation.
4. “NOAA: Mild Solar Storm Season Predicted,” National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (May 8, 2009),
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090508_
solarstorm.html (accessed September 4, 2013).
5. Friedman H: The Astronomer’s Universe: Stars, Galaxies
and Cosmos. New York City: Ballantine Books, 1991.
6. Naturally occurring heavy elements found on Earth, such
as uranium and plutonium, could have come only from an
extremely violent nuclear reaction such as a supernova.
7. Phillips T: “The Sun’s Magnetic Field Is About to Flip,”
NASA (August 5, 2013), http://www.nasa.gov/content/
goddard/the-suns-magnetic-field-is-about-to-flip
(accessed August 28, 2013).
8. Hanslmeier A: The Sun and Space Weather, 2nd ed.
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2007.
9. Feldman U, Landi E and Schwadron NA: “On the Sources > The Sun’s magnetic field lines. Convoluted magnetic field lines (green) may
of Fast and Slow Solar Wind,” Journal of Geophysical extend thousands of kilometers out from the surface of the Sun. (Image
Research 110, no. A7 (July 2005): A07109.1–A07109.12.
courtesy of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization
Studio.)

Autumn 2013 51
 The region of the magnetosphere away from the
Interplanetary magnetic field lines Sun is elongated by the pressure of the solar
wind, and the shape varies with space weather
Magnetosheath conditions (left).
Bow shock Space weather has the potential to cata-
strophically disrupt the near-Earth environment.
Magnetopause The World Meteorological Organization (WMO),
an agency of the United Nations, established the
Interprogramme Coordination Team on Space
Plasmasphere Magnetotail Weather (ICTSW) to address concerns of poten-
tial disruptions to life on Earth caused by space
Solar wind Plasma sheet weather.10 Experts from twenty countries and
seven international organizations participate in
the program. In the US, NOAA is responsible for
Van Allen
radiation belts
monitoring terrestrial as well as space weather.
The NOAA SWPC constantly monitors data about
the Sun and forecasts solar and geophysical
events that may impact satellites, navigation sys-
tems, power grids, communications networks
and other technology systems.11 Because of the
correlation of increases in sunspot numbers with
solar storms, scientists are on high alert during
> Earth’s magnetosphere. The magnetosphere, the area of space around the Earth created by Earth’s solar maxima.
magnetic field, is a dynamic structure that responds to variations in solar activity and space weather.
Solar wind, which compresses the sunward side of the magnetosphere, determines its shape. A Sunspots
supersonic shock wave—the bow shock—forms on the sunward side of Earth. Most of the solar wind About 2,800 years ago, Chinese astronomers
particles are slowed at the bow shock and directed around the Earth in the magnetosheath. The solar made the first recorded observation of sunspots.12
wind pulls at the magnetosphere on the Earth’s night side, extending the length of the magnetosphere
up to 1,000 Earth radii, creating what is known as the magnetotail. The outer boundary of Earth’s The invention of the telescope in the 1600s made
confined geomagnetic field is called the magnetopause. Trapped charged particles—the Van Allen it possible to study and record the ever-changing
radiation belts, the plasmasphere and the plasma sheet—reside within the magnetosphere. (Adapted face of the Sun more closely. Reliable and system-
from an image courtesy of Aaron Kaase, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.)
atic records of sunspots date back to the 1700s.
In the mid-1800s, German astronomer Samuel
Heinrich Schwabe first identified a 10-year pat-
tern of the rise and fall of sunspots—the sunspot
cycle. Swiss astronomer Johann Rudolf Wolf later
characterized the 11-year period for the cycle
Penumbra and developed a formula for quantifying sunspot
activity, the Wolf number, which is still in use
today.13 The cycle is not exactly 11 years but has
Penumbra Umbra varied from 9 to 14 years.
Sunspots form where concentrated magnetic
Umbra field lines project through the hot gases of the
photosphere and correspond to regions that are
cooler than the surrounding surface. Although
they appear darker than the rest of the solar disk,
removed from the Sun, they would be brighter
than anything else in the solar system (left). The
importance of the complex magnetic fields to the
activity of the Sun has been realized only within
the past 100 years. American astronomer George
Ellery Hale first reported solar magnetism in
1908. He determined the presence of magnetic
> Sunspots. Regions on the Sun that appear darker than the rest of the disk, sunspots are formed by fields by measuring changes to intensity and
concentrated magnetic fields that project through the hot gases of the photosphere out to the Sun’s polarization of light emitted from atoms in the
surface. These magnetic fields create cooler, darker regions called sunspots. The dark center of a
Sun’s atmosphere.14 Hale and his colleagues dem-
sunspot is called the umbra; the light area around the umbra is the penumbra. Sunspots occur in
groups and frequently in pairs. The two spots in a pair have opposite magnetic polarities. onstrated that sunspots contain strong magnetic
(Photographs courtesy of NASA.)

52 Oilfield Review
fields and that all the sunspot groups in a given
solar hemisphere have the same magnetic polar-
ity signature. Furthermore, sunspot polarity cor-
relates to the Sun’s magnetic field orientation in
a specific solar cycle, which reverses with each Prominence
cycle. The hemisphere that has a north magnetic
polarity at one solar minimum has a south mag-
netic polarity at the next solar minimum.
Sunspots typically range in size from 2,500 to
50,000 km [1,500 to 30,000 mi] and cover less
than 4% of the Sun’s visible disk. In comparison,
the Earth’s diameter is about 12,700 km
[7,900 mi]. Sunspots typically have a lifetime of a
few days to a few weeks and tend to be concen-
trated in two midlatitude bands on either side of
the Sun’s equator. During the early part of the
solar cycle, sunspots are most commonly seen
around latitudes of 25° to 30° north and south of
the equator. Later in the cycle, they appear at
latitudes of 5° to 10°. Sunspots rarely occur at
latitudes above 50°.
The intense magnetic fields associated with
sunspots often create arching columns of plasma
called prominences that appear above sunspot
regions (right). Some prominences may hang sus- > Solar prominence photographed on September 23, 1999. The space-based Solar and Heliospheric
pended above the solar surface for several days. Observatory (SOHO) captured this image of an eruptive prominence using extreme ultraviolet
When these massive loops of energy become frequencies. The release of energy from twisted magnetic field lines flings plasma above the Sun’s
surface. [Photograph courtesy of the SOHO Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) consortium.]
twisted, they store energy that can violently erupt
and blast coronal material outward from the Sun
as a solar flare or a CME.

Solar Flares and CMEs

The energy source for solar flares originates in
the tearing and reconnecting of magnetic field
lines, and the strong magnetic fields in active
sunspot regions often give rise to solar flares
(right). These intense, short-lived releases of
energy are our solar system’s most explosive
events. During a solar flare, temperatures soar to
5 million °K, and vast quantities of particles and
radiation can be blasted into space, but a flare
usually ends within 20 minutes.
10. For more on WMO and ICTSW: “WMO Scientific and
Technical Programs,” World Meteorological
Organization, http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/
(accessed August 1, 2013).
11. For more on the SWPC: NOAA National Weather Service
Space Weather Prediction Center, http://www.swpc.
noaa.gov/AboutUs/index.html (accessed August 13, 2013).
12. Clark DH and Stephenson FR: “An Interpretation of the
Pre-Telescopic Sunspot Records from the Orient,”
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 19,
no. 4 (December 1978): 387−410.
13. Hathaway DH: “The Solar Cycle,” Living Reviews in
Solar Physics 7 (2010): 1–65.
14. Alexander D: The Sun. Santa Barbara, California, USA:
Greenwood Press, 2009.
> Solar flare. The NASA Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) captured this image of a solar flare on
May 22, 2013. The image captures light in the 13.1-nm wavelength, which highlights material heated to
intense temperatures during a flare. The teal coloration is typical of images using this wavelength.
(Photograph courtesy of the NASA SDO.)

Autumn 2013 53
> Auroras at high latitudes. Charged particles from solar wind and geomagnetic storms follow the Earth’s magnetic field lines and can ionize gases in Earth’s
upper atmosphere. Ionized oxygen molecules emit green to brownish-red light; ionized nitrogen emissions are blue or red. The aurora borealis (left) was
photographed from the International Space Station over the Midwest US on January 25, 2012. The photograph of the aurora australis (right) captured by the
NASA IMAGE satellite on September 11, 2005, was taken four days after a solar flare. The aurora encircles the South Pole and would appear as a curtain of
light if observed from ground level. (Photographs courtesy of the NASA International Space Station and IMAGE Science Center.)

During the peak of the sunspot cycle, several 8 minutes. A day or two later, high-energy parti- During some solar flares, a more violent reac-
flares may occur daily. When a flare erupts, ultra- cles may also arrive at the Earth, producing auro- tion may occur—a coronal mass ejection (below
violet and X-ray radiation from the flare travel at ras—lights in the polar night skies—and left). When the twisted magnetic field lines cross,
the speed of light, arriving at the Earth in about affecting radio communications (above).15 their stored energy explodes outward with tre-
mendous force. A CME occurs when the force of
the released energy flings a mass of superheated
plasma from the Sun’s surface into space.
CMEs vary in intensity and magnitude. A large
CME can contain 9 × 1012 kg [20 × 1012 lbm] of
matter that may be accelerated into space at sev-
eral million kilometers per hour. The speed at
which the plasma travels depends on the original
energy release. A high-energy CME can arrive at
the Earth in as little as 16 hours, but lower-energy
releases may take days to make the journey.
Upon impact by a CME, the Earth’s magneto-
sphere temporarily deforms, and the Earth’s
Sun’s
magnetic field is distorted. During these disrup-
diameter tions, Earth-orbiting satellites are exposed to
ionized particles, compass needles can behave
erratically and electrical currents may be
induced in the Earth itself. These events—geo-
magnetic storms—can disrupt technical infra-
structure on a global scale. Because of the risks
associated with solar storms and CMEs, scien-
tists constantly monitor space weather.
At a solar minimum, the estimated occur-
rence of a CME is about one event every five days
> CME image captured from space on October 22, 2011. The Large Angle and Spectrometric compared with about 3.5 per day at a solar maxi-
Coronagraph (LASCO), on board the NASA SOHO satellite, captured this image in which plasma was mum. Although this may appear to put the planet
hurled in the direction of Mars. The Sun is obscured by a disk that allows the instrument’s sensor to
in frequent jeopardy, the probability that a CME
focus on the emissions from the Sun’s surface, which enhances the observation of the corona by
blocking direct light from the Sun. The white circle on the disk represents the size and location of the will be directed toward Earth is small. In com-
Sun’s surface. (Photograph courtesy of the SOHO EIT consortium.) parison to the Sun and the expanse of the solar

54 Oilfield Review
 L4

Moon
Earth

L3 L1 L2

Sun

L5

> Lagrange points. Scientists have identified five points (L1 through L5) associated with Earth’s orbit of
the Sun where satellites can maintain stable orbits. These locations, called Lagrange points (green),
are shown here with the gravitational potential lines (gray lines) established by the Sun-Earth system.
These positions in space correspond to regions where the gravitational forces of attraction (red
arrows) and repulsion (blue arrows) are in balance. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) is located around position L2, which is about 1.5 million km [930,000 mi] from the Earth.
The WMAP spacecraft aligns with the Sun-Earth axis, similar to a geostationary orbit, but course
corrections are required to maintain its relative position. The illustration is not to scale. (Illustration
courtesy of the NASA WMAP Science Team.)

system, the Earth is tiny; most solar storms fire Forecasting Space Weather About 1.6 million km [1 million mi] from the
harmlessly away from Earth or deliver only a Technologies that are sensitive to changes in the Earth, in the general direction of the Sun, a group
glancing blow. near-Earth electromagnetic environment caused of NASA satellites monitors the Sun and solar
But CMEs do strike the Earth. The Carrington by geomagnetic storms include satellite commu- wind at the L1 Lagrange point (above).17 In what
event is not the only CME that has directly nication systems, global positioning systems is analogous to a geostationary orbit, spacecraft
impacted Earth. In 1984, US President Ronald (GPSs), computer networks, electric grids and remain in fixed positions with the Earth’s orbit
Reagan was airborne in the presidential plane cell phone networks. Civilization has become relative to the Sun. The Solar and Heliospheric
Air Force One over the Pacific Ocean during a increasingly dependent on these technologies,
15. Comins NF and Kaufmann WJ: Discovering the Universe,
solar storm. The storm disrupted high-frequency and space weather has the potential to disrupt 9th ed. New York City: W. H. Freeman and Company, 2012.
radio communication for several hours and effec- them. Thus the need for accurate space weather 16. National Research Council of the National Academies:
“Severe Space Weather Events—Understanding
tively isolated Air Force One from the rest of the forecasts has become imperative. The NOAA Societal and Economic Impacts: A Workshop Report,”
world. In July 1989, a portion of Quebec, Canada, SWPC serves as the primary warning center for Washington, DC: National Academies Press, May 2008.
was blacked out for more than nine hours the US and provides information to the 17. The Lagrange points, named for Italian-French
mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange, are the five
because a solar storm overloaded circuit break- International Space Environment Service (ISES). positions where a small mass can maintain a constant
ers on the power grid. More than 200 related ISES—a collaborative network of space weather pattern while orbiting a larger mass. The L1 point lies in
a direct line between the Earth and Sun.
events were reported across North America. The providers—monitors space weather, provides For more on the Lagrange points: “The Lagrange
US National Academy of Sciences reported that forecasts and issues alerts from regional warning Points,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/mission/observatory_l2.html
had the storm been a Carrington-class event, cost centers. Using a wide array of terrestrial and (accessed August 1, 2013).
could have ranged from US$ 1 to 2 trillion in dam- space-based sensors, scientists continually moni-
age to critical infrastructure, and recovery could tor the space environment for events that might
have taken 4 to 10 years.16 impact Earth.

Autumn 2013 55
 Observatory (SOHO), the Advanced Composition
Explorer (ACE) and other space-bound assets
monitor the Sun’s surface and track CMEs from
this position.18 Hours before a CME impact, satel-
lite sentinels at the L1 point can anticipate its
arrival at the Earth’s magnetosphere (left).
The SOHO satellite, launched in 1995, allows
scientists to constantly monitor the Sun (below
left). This satellite is one of the most reliable
NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) fore-
casting tools, providing scientists with data to
help them forecast space weather and estimate
potential consequences. The Large Angle and
Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO), one of 12
instruments on board SOHO, records images of
CMEs launched from the Sun. Using LASCO data,
the SWPC has two to three days of advanced
warning for the onset of geomagnetic storms.
The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), devel-
oped at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in
Greenbelt, Maryland, USA, and launched on
February 11, 2010, is part of a five-year NASA mis-
> The NASA Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE). Launched on August 25, 1997, the ACE satellite, a sion to study the Sun and its influence on space
crucial component of the NASA space weather monitoring fleet, is stationed at Lagrange point L1. weather (next page).19 Several devices are on
From this position, the satellite records radiation emitted from the Sun, the solar system and the board the satellite, including the Extreme
galaxy. When bursts of solar material stream toward Earth, instruments on board ACE record the Ultraviolet Variability Experiment and the
increase in the number of particles and transmit this information to scientists on Earth who use these
Atmospheric Imaging Assembly. The helioseismic
data to warn of impending space weather events. Alerts and warnings are issued to relevant
organizations and posted online by the NOAA SWPC. (Illustration courtesy of NASA.) and magnetic imager provides real-time maps of
magnetic fields on the surface of the Sun and mea-
sures their strength and orientation. Changes and
realignment of the Sun’s magnetic fields are early
indications of potential eruptions and are crucial
for the prediction of space weather and geomag-
netic storms. Instruments on board the satellite
can also characterize the interior of the Sun,
where the magnetic fields originate. From SDO
data, scientists are gaining a better understanding
of solar activity and space weather.

Geomagnetic Storms Brewing

Geomagnetic storms that disrupt activities on
Earth are infrequent, although their conse-
quences are significant; solar storms have the
potential to disturb the entire planet. The tech-
nologies that define modern society are suscep-
Relative size tible to the effects of space weather. Induced
of Earth currents can disrupt and damage modern elec-
trical power grids and cripple satellites and
communication systems. For the oil and gas
industry, geomagnetic storms can adversely
affect pipelines and supervisory control systems
> Space weather monitoring by SOHO. The SOHO satellite (right) was launched in December 1995. and disrupt surveying and geosteering opera-
SOHO is a joint project between the European Space Administration (ESA) and NASA to study the Sun tions while drilling.
from its deep core to the outer corona and the solar wind. The satellite weighs about 17.8 kN [2 tonUS],
and its solar panels extend about 7.6 m [25 ft]. This solar eruption (left), which lasted four hours, was
photographed on December 31, 2012, by the Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) in 30.4-nm
emission. Most of the plasma fell back to the Sun’s surface. The Earth is shown for scale. (Solar
photograph courtesy of the SOHO EIT consortium; satellite image courtesy of Alex Lutkus.)

56 Oilfield Review
 Filament

Magnetic field lines

> The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). The SDO satellite (left) was launched in February 2010 as part of the NASA Living with a Star Program, which
studies solar variability and potential impacts on Earth and space. By examining the solar atmosphere on small scales and capturing emissions at many
wavelengths simultaneously, the study hopes to determine how the Sun’s magnetic field is generated and structured and how stored magnetic energy is
converted and released into the heliosphere and space. This image of the Sun’s magnetic field lines (right), captured on June 4, 2013, was taken in extreme
ultraviolet light and highlights the bright coils of magnetic field lines rising up in the background above an active region. A filament, which appears as a
darker region on the Sun’s surface, can also be seen. (Photograph and image courtesy of the NASA SDO.)

The most crippling effects of geomagnetic above that required to overload electrical grids.21 Several factors dictate the susceptibility of a
storms come from geomagnetically induced cur- In the event of a severe GIC incident, the time given electrical power grid system to disruption
rents (GICs) that flow through electrical power required to restore damaged equipment and and damage from solar storms. A power grid’s
grids. At the most benign level, GICs can trip cir- bring large populations back online might be proximity to Earth’s polar latitudes generally
cuit breakers, but stronger events can destroy measured in weeks, months or even years. increases its risk for failure or malfunction. In
transformers and trigger component meltdown When the charged plasma cloud of a CME col- addition, sites located in regions of low ground
throughout large geographic areas. lides with Earth’s atmosphere, transient mag-
18. For more on SOHO: http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/
GICs damage transformers by driving them netic waves alter Earth’s normally stable (accessed August 13, 2013).
into half-cycle saturation—the core of the trans- magnetic field; the effects can last for several For more on ACE: http://www.srl.caltech.edu/ACE/
(accessed August 13, 2013).
former is magnetically saturated on alternate days. These magnetic disturbances may cause
19. For more on SDO: http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/ (accessed
half cycles. A GIC-induced voltage level of as voltage variations along the Earth’s surface, August 13, 2013).
little as 1 to 2 volts per kilometer or current of inducing electrical currents between grounding 20. For more on detrimental effects on power grids:
Barnes PR, Rizy DT, McConnell BW, Tesche FM and
5 amperes is sufficient to drive transformers into points because of the voltage potential differ- Taylor ER Jr: “Electric Utility Industry Experience with
saturation in one second or less.20 Engineers have ences. GICs in this form are particularly detri- Geomagnetic Disturbances,” Oak Ridge, Tennessee,
USA: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL-6665,
measured GIC currents as high as 184 amperes mental to transformers typically found in power September 1991.
during geomagnetic storms; these levels are far plants and electrical distribution substations. 21. Odenwald S: The 23rd Cycle: Learning to Live with a
Stormy Star. New York City: Columbia University
Press, 2001.

Autumn 2013 57
 Typical auroral
zone location

Region
CANADA conductivity, S/m
1 to 10
10–1 to 1
10–2 to 10–1
Auroral zone extreme 10–3 to 10–2
on March 13, 1989 10–4 to 10–3

UNITED STATES

CANADA

MEXICO

UNITED
STATES

Highest risk
Medium risk
Connected power grids
MEXICO

> Power system susceptibility. Power systems in areas with the lowest ground conductivity (left, red and darkest yellow) are the most vulnerable to the
effects of intense geomagnetic activity. The high ground resistance beneath these areas facilitates the flow of geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) in
power transmission lines. Auroral zones for North America are susceptible to GICs because of their proximity to polar regions. (Data from the American
Geophysical Union and the Geological Survey of Canada.) For the US, scientists produced a map based on scenarios for existing power systems to
determine their vulnerability to geomagnetic storms (right). Should a storm 10 times larger than the 1989 storm that disrupted power systems in Quebec
arrive at Earth, the systems most at risk have been identified (red). The blue lines encircle the largest population centers served by at-risk systems.
(Adapted from the National Research Council of the National Academies, reference 16.)

conductivity, such as igneous rock provinces, are in the New England region of the US was inter- of the Earth. However, SPEs can cause significant
more susceptible to GIC effects (above). rupted before power companies could bring other damage to equipment located outside Earth’s
The interconnectivity of power grids can reserves online.22 protective shield.
exacerbate the potential for large-scale prob- Damage caused by energized particles emit- When high-energy charged particles collide
lems. During the July 1989 solar storm, many ted from the Sun is not limited to terrestrial sys- with satellites, electrons create a dielectric
related events were reported. These events tems. Satellites, space exploration vehicles and charge within the spacecraft. This static charge
included a transformer failure at the Salem manned space missions can be affected by solar can destroy electronic circuit boards, alter and
nuclear plant in New Jersey, USA; New York emissions, some of which are too weak to enter scramble stored data and affect control instruc-
Power losing 150 MW the moment the Quebec Earth’s magnetic field. For instance, weak solar tions stored in computer memory. Although these
power grid went down; and the New England flares and CMEs may produce solar proton events effects may result in a complete satellite failure,
Power Pool, an association of power suppliers, (SPEs) that are mostly unnoticed on the surface damage may often be corrected by simply reboot-
losing 1,410 MW. Service to 96 electrical utilities ing onboard computers.

58 Oilfield Review
 If the solar arrays that provide power to satel- 264
lites are struck by high-energy protons from SPEs
and CMEs, the silicon atoms in the solar cell
matrix may shift positions, which increases the 263
internal resistance of the solar cells and reduces Magnetic
storm
electrical output. A single solar storm event can
decrease panel life expectancy by years. If atti-

Azimuth, degree
262
tude control systems on satellites used to correct
their orientation and position are damaged by
high-energy particle events, a satellite can lose
its orbital control, which may result in an 261

unplanned and premature reentry into Earth’s Drilling azimuth

atmosphere.23 Satellites play such a crucial role Corrected azimuth
in communications that a loss could affect televi- 260
sion, cable programming, radio service, weather
data, cell phone service, automated banking ser-
vices, commercial airline systems and GPS and 259
navigation services. Routine losses as a result of 3,600 3,700 3,800 3,900 4,000 4,100 4,200 4,300 4,400 4,500 4,600 4,700
satellite malfunction and premature asset failure Depth, ft
caused by solar storms are estimated in the bil- > Geomagnetic storms and directional drilling. Directional drillers use MWD tools to determine drillbit
lions of US dollars. orientation and position; these measurements depend on data derived from magnetometers and
accelerometers. During geomagnetic storms, magnetometers may provide erroneous readings. A solar
Consequences of solar storms may not be storm occurred while an operator drilled a North Sea well, and the MWD drilling azimuth measurement
limited to electrical damage. The July 1989 (blue) was affected by the geomagnetic storm. Engineers corrected the data using a technique
solar storm caused compression of the Earth’s developed by the British Geological Survey that adjusts for space weather. The results provided a more
magnetosphere, reducing its typical depth of accurate well location (green). (Adapted from Clark and Clarke, reference 28.)
more than 54,000 km [33,500 mi] to less than
30,000 km [18,640 mi], well inside the Earth’s
geosynchronous region where satellites orbit.
As the Earth’s atmosphere was bombarded by effectiveness of the cathodic protection, which the interplanetary magnetic field and the Earth’s
energetic particles and compressed by the solar may increase long-term corrosive effects.26 The magnetic core. Well placement engineers must
wind, the density of the upper atmosphere level of impact is affected by the specifics of pipe be acutely aware of geomagnetic disturbances
increased by a factor of 5 to 10. The increased construction materials, pipeline diameter, bends, and variations in Earth’s magnetic field to ensure
drag on low-Earth orbit satellites caused orbital branches, insulated flanges and the integrity of proper borehole placement.28 (See “Geomagnetic
decay—the U.S. Air Force Space Command insulation materials. Referencing—The Real-Time Compass for
reported losing track of more than 1,300 orbit- Operators are also concerned about the large Directional Drillers,” page 32.)
ing objects that fell to lower altitudes.24 In a percentage of modern oil and gas wells that are The Earth’s climate is also susceptible to
separate event, on March 13, 1989, NOAA drilled directionally. Drillers must use strict well space weather and to particle emissions from the
reported the loss of the GOES-7 weather satel- trajectory plans to control borehole position rela- Sun. Although the Sun appears to be a constant
lite. Circuit problems caused by a shower of tive to the reservoir and to avoid collision with energy source, scientists have demonstrated
energized particles rendered most of its systems nearby wellbores. Directional drilling relies on
22. North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC):
useless. Critical solar power arrays on GOES-7 instruments that make real-time measurements “Effects of Geomagnetic Disturbances on the Bulk
lost 50% of their efficiency. Engineers with to determine and track the subsurface location of Power Systems,” Atlanta, Georgia, USA: NERC
(February 2012).
NASA reported many other satellites experi- the drilling assembly. Triaxial magnetometers 23. Odenwald, reference 21.
enced electrical failures that temporarily shut measure the strength of the Earth’s magnetic 24. Alexander, reference 14.
down onboard computers.25 The storm disrupted field, and triaxial accelerometers are used to 25. Odenwald, reference 21.
communications on the Earth and between correct magnetometer data for position, motion 26. Zurich Financial Services Group: “Solar Storms:
Potential Impact on Pipelines,” http://www.zurich.com/
ground controllers and orbital satellites. and orientation. Gyrocompasses—using gyro- internet/main/SiteCollectionDocuments/insight/
Oil and gas pipeline and distribution systems scopes and the rotation of the Earth to find solar-storms-impact-on-pipelines.pdf (accessed
September 5, 2013).
are also vulnerable. In the event of a geomagnetic geographic north—are also deployed on wire- 27. Ekseth R and Weston J: “Wellbore Positions Obtained
storm, operators may immediately lose supervi- line to acquire precise directional surveys.27 While Drilling by the Most Advanced Magnetic
Surveying Methods May Be Less Accurate than
sory control and data acquisition (SCADA) sys- Disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field aris- Predicted,” paper IADC/SPE 128217, presented at the
tems. Operators must also consider the long-term ing from electric currents flowing in the iono- IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, February 2–4, 2010.
effects associated with increased pipeline corro- sphere and the magnetosphere can affect these
28. Clark TDG and Clarke E: “2001 Space Weather Services
sion rates. Cathodic protection systems used on measurements (above). Mirror currents may also for the Offshore Drilling Industry,” poster presentation in
pipelines to minimize corrosion maintain a nega- be induced in the Earth and oceans by variations Proceedings from the ESA Space Weather Workshop:
Looking Towards a Future European Space Weather
tive potential with respect to the ground. During in the Earth’s magnetic field. These external Program. Noordwijk, The Netherlands, December
solar storms, GIC events in a pipeline reduce the magnetic fields are affected by the solar wind, 17–19, 2001.

Autumn 2013 59
 400 Years of Sunspot Observed Data
250 Modern
Less-reliable observation data
200 Reliable observation data maximum

Sunspot numbers
150 Dalton
Minimum
Northern Hemisphere Temperatures over the Last 1,000 Years 100 Maunder
Minimum
50
Medieval warm period
0
1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
Temperature

Date
Mean temperature

Little Ice Age

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Date
> Sunspot cycles and terrestrial weather. Scientists have not reached consensus regarding the effects of solar activity on the Earth’s climate and weather.
Most, however, would agree that the Sun is the primary heat source for the Earth, thus the major driver of climate. Some scientists have tried to draw
a correlation between the absence of sunspots during the Maunder Minimum (top)—a 70-year period in the 17th century—and the Little Ice Age that
affected much of the Earth, especially Europe (bottom). The Dalton Minimum, another period of low sunspot occurrences around 1800, corresponded to
lower than average global temperatures, as well. The rise in total average number of sunspots (black) beginning in the 1900s appear to correspond to
increases in global temperatures. Although a close examination of the data points to other factors producing temperature variations, such as volcanic
eruptions and changes in CO2 levels, some observers propose solar activity as a major component in climate and temperature fluctuations. The activity of
Solar Cycle 24 is comparable to that in the cycles around 1800 rather than those of the 20th century. A century from now, scientists may be able to look back
and debunk or validate the causal relationship of sunspots to climate change.

that the base energy output of the Sun varies up change direction with each solar cycle. Studies asking questions: Will global climate effects be
to 0.5% on short timescales and 0.1% over the are underway to determine how this wind rever- similar to those of the Little Ice Age during the
11-year sunspot cycle. Considered significant by sal affects global circulation patterns, weather Maunder Minimum or is there no direct correla-
atmospheric scientists, these fluctuations can and climate.31 tion between sunspots and terrestrial climate?
affect Earth’s climate. Variations in plant growth Or is this just the quiet before the storm? Even
have been correlated with the 11-year sunspot The Next Big Event during a relatively low-amplitude solar cycle, a
cycle and 22-year magnetic period of the Sun, as Geomagnetic storms, although infrequent, can CME can be triggered that makes a direct hit on
evidenced in tree ring records.29 severely impair critical infrastructures of modern planet Earth.
Although the solar cycle has been relatively society. Because we are increasingly dependent The recurrence probability of the 1859
steady during the last 300 years, during a 70-year on susceptible technologies in our intercon- Carrington event is estimated at 1 in 500 years,
period in the 17th century, few sunspots were nected global economy, solar storms have the and the recurrence probability of the 1989
observed. This period, referred to as the Maunder potential to create havoc on a worldwide scale. Quebec storm is estimated at 1 in 150 years.33
Minimum, also coincided with the timing of the The scientific community is working to improve Although scientists, engineers and risk managers
Little Ice Age in Europe. Some scientists have its understanding of the technical aspects of this are concerned about the potential damage of
theorized that this is evidence of a Sun-Earth cli- threat and the related vulnerabilities in various another Carrington-type event, they have many
mate connection (above).30 Recently, scientists industry segments to better manage risk. more tools at their disposal to help them predict
have proposed a more direct link between the The science of space weather forecasting is and react when such an event occurs. These tools
Earth’s climate and solar variability. For instance, still in its infancy. Scientists cannot accurately allow the scientific community to remain vigilant
the stratospheric winds near the Earth’s equator forecast the number of sunspots before the start to the Sun’s activity and be prepared to act.
of a solar cycle or predict geomagnetic storm The list of solar storm consequences grows in
29. For recent research on solar cycles’ effects on Earth’s
weather: Meehl GA, Arblaster JM, Matthes K, Sassi F activity, although some organizations do make proportion to our dependence on electromagneti-
and van Loon H: “Amplifying the Pacific Climate System attempts. A decade ago, before the start of cally sensitive technology systems. The SWPC
Response to a Small 11-Year Solar Cycle Forcing,”
Science 325, no. 5944 (August 2009): 1114−1118. Cycle 24, some forecasters were predicting the and ISES, working with many national and inter-
30. Weng H: “Impacts of Multi-Scale Solar Activity on most intense solar maximum in 50 years and that national partners, continue to develop improved
Climate. Part I: Atmospheric Circulation Patterns and
Climate Extremes,” Advances in Atmospheric the cycle might result in devastating geomag- monitoring and space weather modeling capabili-
Sciences 29, no. 4 (July 2012): 867−886. netic storms.32 But those forecasts were wrong. ties. Advances in Earth-bound and satellite-based
31. Weng H: “Impacts of Multi-Scale Solar Activity on The sunspot activity of Solar Cycle 24 has data acquisition systems, along with modeling
Climate. Part II: Dominant Timescales in Decadal-
Centennial Climate Variability,” Advances in been the lowest in more than 100 years, barely and a better understating of our interlinked rela-
Atmospheric Sciences 29, no. 4 (July 2012): 887−908. half the activity level of Cycle 23. Some scientists tionship with the Sun, hold promise of reducing
32. “Solar Storm Warning,” NASA (March 15, 2006),
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/ speculate that the Sun is entering another quiet our exposure risk when the Earth is directly in
10mar_stormwarning.html (accessed August 18, 2013). period similar to the Maunder Minimum and are the path of the next great solar storm. —TS
33. Zurich Financial Services Group, reference 26.

60 Oilfield Review
 Contributors

Dalia Abdallah is a Senior Production Chemist for Abu Karam S. Al-Yateem, a Group Leader for the Saudi Syed Aamir Aziz is a Senior Production Engineer
Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO) Aramco Transformative Technology Think Tank in with Schlumberger in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, where
in Abu Dhabi, UAE. She joined the company in 2008 Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, began with the company in he conducts the processing and interpretation of
and has focused on mitigation strategies for scales and 2005 as a reservoir, testing and production engineer in production logs and well integrity monitoring. He
asphaltenes, corrosion issues, produced water treat- onshore and offshore field locations. He is a member of began his career in 2002 as a wireline field engineer
ment and effective stimulation strategies. Previously, the SPE International Production and Operation com- with National Petroleum Services in Saudi Arabia,
she worked as a Schlumberger fluid analysis engineer mittee, has authored or coauthored several technical where he later became a log analyst and geoscientist
in Abu Dhabi. Dalia, who holds two patents and is the papers and is an SPE Certified Petroleum Engineer. responsible for log processing and interpretation.
author of several articles, has a PhD degree in chemistry Karam earned a BS degree in petroleum engineering He joined Schlumberger in 2008 in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
from Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Aamir received BS and MS degrees in geology from the
Khaled Al-Hendi is a Drilling and Workover Supervisor Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and an MS degree with a specialty University of Karachi, Pakistan.
for Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) in Ahmadi, Kuwait. in smart oilfield technologies and management from Abderrahmane Benslimani is the Associate Well
He joined KOC in 2006 as a company representative the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA. Integrity Domain Champion for Schlumberger Wireline
overseeing the drilling and workover of wells affected Anatoly Arsentiev is the Schlumberger Drilling & in Ahmadi, Kuwait. He began his career in 2004 in the
by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Khaled holds a degree Measurements Electronic Team Leader and UAE as a logging field engineer and held field opera-
in petroleum engineering from Kuwait University, GeoMarket* Direction and Inclination (D&I) tions positions in Algeria, Libya and China before
Kuwait City. Calibration Champion in Irkutsk, Russia, respon- moving to Kuwait in 2012. Abderrahmane holds a
Adel Abdulla Al-Khalaf is a Senior Petroleum sible for preventive maintenance and repair of MWD diploma in electrical engineering from the National
Engineer and Petrophysicist with Qatar Petroleum and LWD tools and addressing D&I surveying tech- Polytechnic School of Algiers, Algeria, MS degrees in
in Doha, Qatar, working on well integrity in offshore nicalities. He started his career with Schlumberger electrical sciences and electrical engineering, both
fields. He previously worked for the company as assis- in 2006 as an electronics technician. Prior to that, from Université de Montpellier II, France, and an MS
tant petroleum engineer and then as reservoir engi- he worked with Insight LLC, an engineering medi- degree in mathematics and computer science from
neer in the Dukhan onshore field. Adel earned a BS cal company in Irkutsk. Anatoly holds a degree in Université Paris-Sud, France.
degree in petroleum and natural gas engineering from terrestrial physics from Irkutsk State University and Andrew Buchanan is the Senior Operations
West Virginia University, Morgantown, USA. did postgraduate research at the Institute of Solar- Geologist with Eni US Operating Company Inc. in
Terrestrial Physics, Irkutsk. Anchorage, where he has been since 2009. He previ-
Zaid Al-Kindi, who is a Well Integrity Domain
Champion for Schlumberger in Abu Dhabi, UAE, Khalid S. Asiri is a Gas Production Engineering ously worked for ASRC Energy Services as a geology
provides support and training for pipe integrity and Supervisor for Saudi Aramco in Udhailiyah, Saudi consultant. Andrew earned a BS degree in geol-
zonal isolation projects in Egypt, Oman, Pakistan and Arabia; he is responsible for the unconventional gas ogy from the University of Regina, Saskatchewan,
the UAE. With the company since 1994, he has held production engineering unit and all unconventional Canada. He currently serves as Past President of the
positions in service quality and account management. stimulation activities in tight gas reservoirs. He has Petroleum Club of Anchorage.
Previously, he worked in technical sales for Galadari also worked in several areas in the company, includ- Mohamed Fahim is a Petroleum Engineering Expert
Heavy Equipment Company and as a project engineer ing gas production engineering, gas well completion for the Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations
in the UK. Zaid received a BS degree in mechanical and services, reservoir engineering and gas drilling Technical Services division in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
engineering from King’s College London. engineering. Before joining Saudi Aramco in 2002, he Previously, Mohamed worked as a senior petroleum
worked with the Saudi Arabia Ministry of Petroleum engineer for the Gulf of Suez Petroleum Company in
Abdulmohsen S. Al-Kuait is a General Supervisor of
and Mineral Resources. Khalid received a BS degree Egypt. He holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering
the Saudi Aramco Safaniya production engineering
in petroleum engineering from King Saud University, and is an SPE Certified Petroleum Engineer.
division in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. During more than
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He is a member of the SPE,
25 years at Saudi Aramco, he has worked on numerous Carol A. Finn is the Geomagnetism Group Leader for
the SPE Saudi Arabia Section and Saudi Council
projects with a focus on production engineering and the US Geological Survey (USGS) Geologic Hazards
of Engineers.
producing operations. Abdulmohsen obtained a BS Science Center in Denver, where she has worked since
degree from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Nausha Asrar is a Senior Materials Scientist and 2006. She is responsible for operations and mainte-
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Manager of Materials Support and Failure Analysis nance of 13 USGS geomagnetic observatories in the US
for Schlumberger in Sugar Land, Texas. He currently and its territories. Before joining the USGS, she served
Mohannad Al-Muhailan is Team Leader Deep Drilling
specializes in failure analysis of downhole tools and 10 years with the US Air Force Technical Applications
Engineering for Kuwait Oil Company in Ahmadi,
materials testing and evaluation. Before joining Center as a research geophysicist and was a geodesist
Kuwait. He has 15 years of experience in conventional
Schlumberger in 2005, he was a materials and cor- with the US Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/
drilling and high-pressure, high-temperature drilling,
rosion specialist with Shell Global Solutions. He also Topographic Center. Carol received an MS degree in
workover operations and drilling management and
worked for Saudi Basic Industries Corporation and geophysics from St. Louis University, Missouri, USA,
finances. Mohannad has also worked in underbal-
Saline Water Conversion Corporation in Saudi Arabia and a BS degree in geology from Southwest Missouri
anced, managed pressure and cluster drilling opera-
and for the Steel Authority of India. Nausha obtained State University, Springfield.
tions. He has a degree in petroleum engineering from
an MS degree in chemistry from Aligarh Muslim
Kuwait University in Kuwait City. M. Aiman Fituri is the Schlumberger Wireline Well
University, Uttar Pradesh, India, and a PhD degree
Hassan B. Al-Qahtani is a Supervisor of the Saudi from Lomonosov Moscow State University. Integrity Domain Champion in Doha, Qatar. Before his
Aramco Safaniya production engineering division in current position, he supported petrophysical openhole
Mohammed A. Atwi is General Supervisor for the logging and cementing evaluation. He joined the com-
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. In more than 17 years as a
Saudi Aramco Engineering Division at South Ghawar pany in 2000 in Oman and held operations positions in
petroleum engineer for Saudi Aramco, he has worked
Production in Udhailiyah, Saudi Arabia. During his India, Sudan and Egypt before moving to Qatar. Aiman
on reservoir management best practices, production
10-year career with Saudi Aramco, he has worked in obtained a BS degree in computer engineering from
engineering and field development. Hassan holds a
gas production engineering, well completion opera- Al-Fateh University, Tripoli, Libya.
BS degree from King Fahd University of Petroleum
tions, deep gas drilling engineering and reservoir man-
and Minerals, Dhahran, and an MS degree from The David H. Hathaway is an Astrophysicist who served
agement. Mohammed has a BS degree in petroleum
University of Texas at Austin, USA. He is a gradu- as the head of the solar physics group at the National
engineering from The University of Tulsa.
ate of the Saudi Aramco Petroleum Engineering Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Technologist Development Program with a specialty Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama,
in improved oil recovery. USA, from 1996 to 2010. He was a postdoctoral fellow
at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in

Autumn 2013 61
Boulder, Colorado, USA, and a research associate and fracture stimulation water quality. Tim received a Andes in Mérida, Venezuela. After completing his PhD
and an assistant astronomer at the National Solar BS degree in chemical physics from the University of degree in chemical engineering at Rice University in
Observatory, Sunspot, New Mexico, USA, before coming California, Riverside, and a PhD degree in chemistry Houston, he joined Schlumberger as a senior chemical
to Huntsville in 1984. He holds a BSc degree in astron- from the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena. engineer. Since then, he has held several operational,
omy from the University of Massachusetts in Amherst, Rodney W. Lessard, who joined Schlumberger in engineering and technology management positions
USA, and an MSc degree in physics and a PhD degree in 2001 after completing postdoctoral work at Purdue within Schlumberger in North and South America.
astrophysics from the University of Colorado, Boulder. University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, is Senior Alejandro holds several patents and has authored
David has written more than 150 papers and has three Production Simulation and Optimization Scientist various publications on interfacial phenomena and
US patents, including two for the NASA Invention of in Houston. He has coauthored several papers on reservoir stimulation technology.
the Year in 2002. very high-energy gamma rays, astronomy and oilfield Alexandre Z. I. Pereira is a Petrobras Advisor in
Ram Jawale is a Drilling Engineer for Kuwait Oil portfolio management. Rod has BSc and MSc degrees the Well Engineering Group in Rio de Janeiro and is
Company in Ahmadi, Kuwait. He began his career with in physics from the University of Calgary and a PhD a Specialist in chemical treatments. He worked in
Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation in Gandhinagar, degree in experimental physics from the National the Campos Basin Operational Unit when he joined
Gujarat, India, as a drilling engineer for the Kingston University of Ireland, Dublin. Petrobras in 1987 and then moved to the Rio de
Group Offshore high-pressure, high-temperature proj- Jeffrey J. Love, who joined the USGS in 2001, is Janeiro Operational Unit, where he develops projects
ect. In that capacity, he performed engineering plan- a Research Geophysicist and USGS Advisor for in completion, corrosion, scaling and stimulation at
ning and execution for exploratory drilling. Ram has Geomagnetic Research in Denver. He also teaches the Petrobras Research and Development Center. A
a degree in petroleum engineering from Maharashtra geophysics at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden. member of the SPE, Alexandre holds a BS degree in
Institute of Technology, Pune, India. He has held research positions at the University of chemical engineering and an MA degree in chemistry
Oscar Jiménez Bueno, who is based in Villahermosa, Leeds, England; Scripps Institution of Oceanography, from the Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
Mexico, joined Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) in 1984 as La Jolla, California; and Institut de Physique du Globe Benny Poedjono is the Schlumberger Surveying
a reservoir engineer. Within the company, he has held de Paris. Jeffrey earned a BA degree in physics and and Risk Management Manager for North America
multiple engineering positions, working on asset develop- applied mathematics from the University of California, Offshore and a Petro-Technical Engineer Advisor
ment, reservoir stimulation and production optimiza- Berkeley, and a PhD degree in geophysics from for Wellbore Positioning, in Sugar Land, Texas. He
tion. He has been responsible for well completions with Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. started his career with the company in 1982 as a
production of more than 3,180 m3/d [20,000 bbl/d]. Oscar Stefan Maus is the Director of Magnetic Variation Wireline field engineer and has held operations,
obtained a BS degree in petroleum engineering and an Services LLC and is a Senior Scientist at the University management, technical support and business devel-
MSc degree in reservoir engineering from Universidad of Colorado, Boulder; he also maintains a laboratory at opment positions in 22 countries. In the past 10
Nacional Autónoma de México in Mexico City. the US National Geophysical Data Center in Boulder. years, he has been concentrating on advanced well
J.J. Kohring has been the Well Integrity Domain Previously, he was a scientist at GFZ Potsdam, surveying and collision avoidance management. He
Champion for Schlumberger in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Germany, and a lecturer at the Free University, Berlin. holds several patents and trade secrets and has pub-
since 2010. He began his career with Schlumberger Stefan holds a BSc degree in mathematics and an MSc lished more than 30 technical papers. Benny has a BS
Wireline in 1979 and for the past 15 years has special- degree in geophysics, both from Ludwig Maximilian degree in electronics engineering from the Bandung
ized in borehole production and well integrity. Jim is a University of Munich, Germany, and a PhD degree Institute of Technology, Indonesia.
Principal Production Engineer with experience in the in geophysics from Osmania University, Hyderabad, Mahmut Sengul is a Schlumberger Production
Middle East, the US, Nigeria and Indonesia. He holds a Andhra Pradesh, India. Technology Advisor in Houston. He joined the company
BS degree from the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, USA. Fred Mueller is the North America Engineering in 1997 as a reservoir solutions manager in the UAE,
Fraser Lawson is a Well Engineering Supervisor for Director for Network of Excellence in Training where he was involved in enhanced oil recovery project
Tullow Ghana Ltd. in Accra, Ghana. He has 29 years of (NExT, a Schlumberger company) in College Station, design. He then became vice president of Schlumberger
well engineering experience, including extended-reach Texas. In 1980, he joined Dowell, which is now part of Carbon Services in the Middle East. Prior to his
drilling and deepwater projects. Fraser earned a BSc Schlumberger, as a field engineer. He spent many years Schlumberger career, Mahmut worked for the Turkish
degree (Hons) in civil engineering from Heriot-Watt with Schlumberger technical support systems for pro- Petroleum Corporation, Mobil and ADCO. Mahmut
University, Edinburgh, Scotland, and an MSc degree in duction enhancement and optimization and was a Well received a BS degree in petroleum engineering and
petroleum engineering from the University of Strathclyde, Services technical manager in California and South an MS degree in reservoir engineering, both from the
Glasgow, Scotland, and is a Chartered Engineer. Texas. Fred has experience in the technical and opera- Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.

Bruno Lecerf, based in Sugar Land, Texas, is a tional aspects of cementing and hydraulic fracture Fernanda Tellez Cisneros is a Schlumberger Senior
Product Engineering Manager with the Pressure design for tight gas and shale formations. He received a Design Engineer for matrix acidizing, acid fracturing
Pumping and Chemistry group within Schlumberger BS degree in engineering technology from Texas A&M and hydraulic fracturing in Villahermosa, Mexico. She
Engineering, Manufacturing and Sustaining. Previously, University, College Station. began her career as a Well Services field engineer
he was a project manager at the Novosibirsk Shola Okewunmi worked as a directional drilling in 2007. Fernanda earned a BS degree in chemical
Technology Center, Russia, and prior to that, a subject matter expert with Chevron Energy Technology engineering from Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios
solutions engineer for acidizing at the Integrated Company in Houston and now works in Jakarta as a Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico.
Productivity and Conveyance Center in Sugar Land. Senior Drilling and Completions Engineer for deepwa- E. William Worthington is a Geophysicist in
Bruno obtained an MS degree in chemistry from Ecole ter development projects. He has more than 20 years of Geomagnetic Observatory Operations with the
Supérieure de Chimie Physique Electronique de Lyon, experience in drilling and measurements, geosteering USGS Geologic Hazards Science Center in Golden,
France, and an MS degree in chemical engineering and formation evaluation. Shola obtained a BS degree Colorado. He has worked for the USGS since 1988.
from the University of Houston. in mechanical engineering from Obafemi Awolowo During his career, he has been a visiting scientist at
Tim Lesko is a District Technical Engineer with the University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, an MBA degree from the the Soviet Academy of Sciences, a researcher with
Schlumberger Disruptive Advances for Sustainable University of Houston-Victoria and a PhD degree in the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska,
Unconventional Stimulation project in Conway, engineering management from Kennedy Western Fairbanks, and chief of the USGS College Magnetic
Arkansas, USA. He began his Schlumberger career University, Wyoming, USA. Observatory in Fairbanks. Bill received his BS degree
in 2004 as a product development engineer with the Alejandro Peña is a Global Chemistry and Materials in geosciences from the University of Arizona, Tucson,
Pressure Pumping and Chemistry group in Sugar Portfolio Manager for Schlumberger in Sugar Land, USA, and MS and PhD degrees in geophysics from the
Land, Texas. In 2006, he transferred to the Novosibirsk Texas. He oversees the corporate strategy for innova- Colorado School of Mines, Golden.
Technology Center in Russia, where he worked with tion in chemistry-enabled well stimulation technolo-
An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
the MaxCO3 Acid* team. He has worked on projects gies. He earned his BS degree in chemical engineering
such as fiber diversion in shales, proppant conductivity and was an assistant professor at Universidad de Los

62 Oilfield Review
DEFINING PRODUCTION LOGGING

Principles of Production Logging

Parijat Mukerji
Production Logging Advisor

The term production logging covers a wide array of sensors, measurements computer modeling techniques, which present the fluid velocity profile
and interpretation techniques. Operators use production logs to evaluate across the pipe diameter.
fluid movement in and out of wellbores, quantify flow rates and determine Pressure is a versatile measurement with several applications for reser-
fluid properties at downhole conditions. Completion engineers can evaluate voir and production engineers. Strain, sapphire and quartz gauges are the
production and perforation efficiency and plan remediation or modify future main devices used to measure pressure. Engineers may also measure pres-
completion designs based on the interpretation of production logs. Reservoir sure using a manometer—a device that converts mechanical displacement
and production engineers can use these logs to help manage and optimize to pressure. From wellbore pressure data, engineers can determine well
well and reservoir performance. stability at the time of logging, estimate reservoir pressure from multirate
Production logging traces its origin to the 1930s and the measurement of logging surveys, calculate fluid density and obtain key reservoir parameters
wellbore temperature. Over the decades, other measurements—including by performing transient rate analyses.
pressure, fluid density, flow velocity and holdup (volume fraction of pipe Temperature is an integral measurement for all production logging.
occupied by fluid)—have been added to the service. Although measure- Engineers use temperature data to make qualitative conclusions about fluid
ments of pressure, temperature and flow rate can be obtained at the sur- entries, particularly in low–flow rate scenarios in which a spinner may not
face, surface measurements do not necessarily reflect what is happening in be sensitive enough to detect movement. Gas entries create cooling anoma-
the reservoir. Comprehensive production log evaluation requires that mea- lies that are easily detected using temperature logs. Temperature measure-
surements be acquired downhole. ments are also used in fracture treatment evaluation and to evaluate
injection well performance. Using temperature data, engineers may be able
Production Logging Measurements to evaluate the integrity of well completions, detect casing leaks and iden-
Production logging consists of several measurements, many of which are tify flow through channels behind pipe. Resistance temperature detectors,
used in a complementary capacity to determine fluid and flow properties the most common type of sensor, usually consist of a platinum wire or film
(below). Fluid velocity is commonly measured with a spinner flowmeter—a deposited on a nonconductive surface. Changes in temperature cause varia-
rotating blade that turns when fluid moves past it. In ideal conditions, the tions in resistance, which is calibrated and converted to temperature.
rotational speed of the blade in revolutions per second (RPS) is propor- Fluid density measurements differentiate oil, gas and water. Service
tional to the fluid velocity. Friction in the spinner bearings and effects from companies have developed tools based on a variety of physical principles to
fluid viscosity result in nonlinear velocity responses, requiring calibration of obtain fluid density measurements:
the measurement. This calibration is accomplished by making upward and • differential pressure across two ports separated by a known distance
downward passes at varying logging speeds. Before absolute fluid velocity is • Compton scattering of gamma rays
computed, spinner speed is corrected for relative tool speed. Because of • pressure gradient relation to density
friction near the pipe wall, absolute fluid velocity is not the same as the • flow vibration relation to density and viscosity.
average velocity of fluid moving through the pipe. After applying correction In the case of two-phase flow, engineers can use fluid density—in con-
factors, engineers convert the spinner velocity to an average velocity using junction with other measurements such as fluid viscosity—to compute
holdup. Where multiphase flow is present, they must employ tools with
probes distributed across a wellbore to directly measure the fluid holdup.
One type of tool senses differences in optical reflectance to obtain holdup,
which involves measuring the amount of light reflected back from a fluid.
Another type of tool differentiates water from oil and gas using probes that
measure electrical properties of the fluids.
Auxiliary measurements commonly acquired by production logging
Basic Measurement Sonde Spinner Flowmeter
strings are casing collar logs, gamma ray logs, caliper and deviation. Casing
Batteries, recorder, casing collar Caliper, water holdup,
locator and sensors to measure bubble count, collar and gamma ray logs provide depth control and correlation with com-
gamma ray, temperature and pressure relative bearing, centralizer pletion components. Caliper and deviation data are used in production mod-
> Production logging toolstring. This production logging toolstring eling programs.
consists of a fullbore spinner, fluid holdup and bubble count probes, a Production logs can be difficult to interpret because fluid flow may
pipe diameter caliper and centralizer, a relative bearing sensor, not be uniform, and multiple passes result in large amounts of data,
pressure gauges, a temperature sensor, a gamma ray tool and a casing some of which may produce conflicting answers. Computer programs
collar locator. When engineers run the tool in memory mode, batteries
have been developed to assist engineers in understanding downhole
and a data recorder are used. Surface readout tools use a telemetry and
power section. conditions; computer-generated interpretations remove some of the

Oilfield Review Autumn 2013: 25, no. 3.

Copyright © 2013 Schlumberger.

Autumn 2013 63
DEFINING PRODUCTION LOGGING

ambiguities associated with the interpretation process (below). The

Near-Vertical Well Deviated Well Near-Horizontal Well
interpretation product can often help the engineer identify more-pro-
ductive intervals, detect water entry and determine intervals that do not
contribute to production.

Flow Regimes
To analyze production logging data, production engineers must be aware of
downhole flow regimes. Knowledge of expected flow regimes allows opera-
tors to choose measurements suitable for the downhole conditions.
Single-phase flow—when only oil, gas or water is produced—is the sim- • Oil and water mixed • Highly complex flow • Almost stratified flow
across the section of structures structures
plest flow to evaluate; however, it is uncommon in most wells. Two- and the pipe • Water phase at the • Oil at the top, water
three-phase flow—mixtures of two or three fluid types—can exhibit a wide bottom of the pipe at the bottom and a
variety of flow regimes and are complicated by deviated wellbores (right). • Dispersed oil phase in mixture of the two in
the uppermost level of the middle of the pipe
In such cases, gravity ensures that the lighter phase travels at a higher the pipe
velocity than the denser phases. The velocity difference between the differ-
ent fluids is the slip velocity. > Fluid flow. Theoretical work and flow loop experiments have helped
As fluids migrate uphole, the flow regime usually changes. For instance, engineers understand multiphase flow in vertical, deviated and
horizontal wellbores. The parameters of interest include pipe diameter
oil with dissolved gas can enter the wellbore as a single phase. The hydro- and inclination and fluid density, viscosity and flow rate. Each case
static pressure decreases as the oil rises, and gas bubbles begin to form in shows the variation in water and oil holdup based on well deviation.
the oil. The flow regime is then bubble flow. Pressure is further reduced as
the mixture moves uphole; more bubbles form and smaller bubbles aggre-
gate to create larger bubbles. Large bubbles, or gas slugs, travel faster than
both small bubbles and liquids. Gas slugs may initiate slug flow. Slugs tend oil, and both fluids are traveling at essentially the same velocity. This simpli-
to unite and move to the center of the pipe, forcing most of the oil to flow fied example becomes complex in deviated wellbores or when fluids of vari-
along the pipe walls. This flow regime is called froth flow. Eventually, a ous phases enter the wellbore from multiple zones. Modeling programs
mist flow regime may be reached, in which the gas is carrying droplets of attempt to resolve these complexities using production log data.

Cable
Reservoir Surveillance and Management
Speed
Gamma Fluid Fluid Well Water Cumulative
Production logs help engineers diagnose problems that occur during the life
Perforations

60 ft/min
Ray Spinner Density Temperature Pressure Holdup Production Production of a single well and are also used for management and surveillance of mul-
Depth, ft

90 ft/min
1,200 ft/min Oil Water Oil Water tiple wells or of the entire reservoir. A common challenge faced by operators
–120 120 0 gAPI 250 –15 RPS 350 0 g/cm3 1.1 194 °F 196 3,600 psi 3,710 0.8 1.0 0 bbl/d 3,000 0 bbl/d 5,000
in mature fields is identifying zones that produce excessive amounts of
water. Produced water impacts surface handling operations because water
must be separated from the flow stream for disposal. Produced water may
X,900
also affect well performance by limiting the volume of hydrocarbons being
produced. After identifying water-producing zones, production engineers
may perform remediation to reduce or eliminate water production.
Operators may also use production logs to calibrate reservoir simulation
models. During full-field reservoir model history-matching, engineers can
Y,000
use production log data to help identify or match zonal contributions, fine-
> Production log. This log shows data typically provided by downhole tune parameters and align the model with the empirical performance data.
sensors in a production logging survey. Two intervals have open
perforations (Track 1, red). Engineers make multiple passes at different Lifetime Logging
logging speeds (Track 2); negative cable speeds represent down passes
and positive logging speeds are up passes. Color-coding based on Production logs provide reservoir and production engineers with a diag-
logging speed helps differentiate datasets. Gamma ray data (Track 3) nostic aid for understanding the downhole wellbore environment. These
provide correlation with openhole logs. From spinner data (Track 4), in situ measurements acquired under dynamic conditions are a snapshot
engineers identify changes in fluid velocity associated with inflow from of the existing situation. But that snapshot captures the situation only
production, outflow from thief zones or outflow from injection. The fluid
density data (Track 5) indicate water (1.0 g/cm3) below the perforations for that moment in time. Whether by fluid extraction or injection, oil
(the sump), which then transitions to mainly oil (0.75 g/cm3). Temperature and gas production changes reservoir conditions. Production logs help
data (Track 6) indicate heating or cooling effects caused by inflow of operators understand well and reservoir dynamics over the life of a well
fluids. Steady well pressure (Track 7) is a characteristic of stable flow
and create a roadmap for future remediation, production enhancements
during acquisition. Holdup data (Track 8) indicate water and oil fraction
within the wellbore. The software computes incremental and cumulative and reservoir development programs.
flow rates (Tracks 9 and 10). The two intervals are producing oil; the
lower interval is also producing a trace amount of water (Track 9).

64 Oilfield Review
SCHLUMBERGER OILFIELD REVIEW AUTUMN 2013 VOLUME 25 NUMBER 3