What is Networking and Communication?

              Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or
more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network
that allows computers to exchange data.
The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the internet.
 What are the types of Computer Networks?
                  In computer networks, the data is passed in the form of packets. The devices that
transmit or receive this data, such as a phone or a computer, are referred to as nodes. There
are three main types of networks:
1. Local Area Network (LAN): It is usually a small network that is restricted to a small
geographic area. A computer network available only to the residents of a building can be
called a LAN.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN): As the name implies, these networks cover a broad range of
geographic area. WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together so
that users and computers can communicate with computers in other regions. An example of a
WAN is the much-used and loved, Internet.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN is a network that connects the users with
computer resources in a geographic area that is larger than LAN but not quite as large as
WAN.
What are the basic components of Computer Networks?
1.Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating
system. Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are
many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example,
there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers, database servers,
print servers, fax servers and web servers, to name a few.
2.Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network
resources. Client computers are basically the customers(users) of the network, as they request
and receive services from the servers.
3.Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect
computers in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable.
Transmission media are sometimes called channels, links or lines.
4.Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such as data files,
printer access programs and e-mail.
5.Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals are hardware
resources provided to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include data
files, printers, software, or any other items used by clients on the network.
6.Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special expansion card called
a network interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares(formats) and sends data, receives data, and
controls data flow between the computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC
passes frames of data on to the physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link.
On the receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical layer and processes
the message based on its contents.
7.Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal computers to access
files, print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are
located on the computer.
8.Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program that runs on
computers and servers, and allows the computers to communicate over the network.
9.Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a
distribution center. When a computer request information from a network or a specific
computer, it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request
and transmit it to the entire network. Each computer in the network should then figure out
whether the broadcast data is for them or not.
10.Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network
components. It uses physical device addresses in each incoming message so that it can deliver
the message to the right destination or port.

Signaling
Signaling refers to the exchange of information between call components required to provide
and maintain service.
As users of the PSTN, we exchange signaling with network elements all the time. Examples
of signaling between a telephone user and the telephone network include:
dialing digits, providing dial tone
accessing a voice mailbox
sending a call-waiting tone
dialing *66 (to retry a busy number), etc.
Signaling Network Architecture
If signaling is to be carried on a different path from the voice and data traffic it supports, then
what should that path look like? The simplest design would be to allocate one of the paths
between each interconnected pair of switches as the signaling link. Subject to capacity
constraints, all signaling traffic between the two switches could traverse this link. This type
of signaling is known as associated signaling, and is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Associated Signaling

The North American Signaling Architecture

The North American signaling architecture defines a completely new and separate signaling
network. The network is built out of the following three essential components, interconnected
by signaling links:

signal switching points (SSPs)

SSPs are telephone switches (end offices or tandems) equipped with SS7-capable software
and terminating signaling links. They generally originate, terminate, or switch calls.

signal transfer points (STPs)

STPs are the packet switches of the SS7 network. They receive and route incoming signaling
messages towards the proper destination. They also perform specialized routing functions.

signal control points (SCPs)

SCPs are databases that provide information necessary for advanced call-processing
capabilities.

To enable signaling network architectures to be easily communicated and understood, a

standard set of symbols was adopted for depicting SS7 networks. Figure 2 shows the symbols
that are used to depict these three key elements of any SS7 network.
 Figure 2. Signaling Network Elements

STPs and SCPs are customarily deployed in pairs. While elements of a pair are not generally
co-located, they work redundantly to perform the same logical function. When drawing
complex network diagrams, these pairs may be depicted as a single element for simplicity, as
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. STP and SCP Pairs

Basic Signaling Architecture

Figure 4 shows a small example of how the basic elements of an SS7 network are deployed
to form two interconnected networks.
 Figure 4. Sample Network

The following points should be noted:

1. STPs W and X perform identical functions. They are redundant. Together, they are
referred to as a mated pair of STPs. Similarly, STPs Y and Z form a mated pair.
2. Each SSP has two links (or sets of links), one to each STP of a mated pair. All SS7
signaling to the rest of the world is sent out over these links. Because the STPs of a
mated pair are redundant, messages sent over either link (to either STP) will be
treated equivalently.
3. The STPs of a mated pair are joined by a link (or set of links).
4. Two mated pairs of STPs are interconnected by four links (or sets of links). These
links are referred to as a quad.
5. SCPs are usually (though not always) deployed in pairs. As with STPs, the SCPs of a
pair are intended to function identically. Pairs of SCPs are also referred to as mated
pairs of SCPs. Note that they are not directly joined by a pair of links.
6. Signaling architectures such as this, which provide indirect signaling paths between
network elements, are referred to as providing quasi-associated signaling.

SS7 Link Types

SS7 signaling links are characterized according to their use in the signaling network.
Virtually all links are identical in that they are 56 杒 bps or 64 杒 bps bidirectional data links
that support the same lower layers of the protocol; what is different is their use within a
signaling network. The defined link types are shown in Figure 5 and defined as follows:
 Figure 5. Link Types

A Links

A links interconnect an STP and either an SSP or an SCP, which are collectively referred to
as signaling end points ("A" stands for access). A links are used for the sole purpose of
delivering signaling to or from the signaling end points (they could just as well be referred to
as signaling beginning points). Examples of A links are 2?, 3?, and 5?2 in Figure 5.

Signaling that an SSP or SCP wishes to send to any other node is sent on either of its A links
to its home STP, which, in turn, processes or routes the messages. Similarly, messages
intended for an SSP or SCP will be routed to one of its home STPs, which will forward them
to the addressed node over its A links.

C Links

C links are links that interconnect mated STPs. As will be seen later, they are used to enhance
the reliability of the signaling network in instances where one or several links are
unavailable. "C" stands for cross (7?, 9?0, and 11?2 are C links). B links, D links, and B/D
links interconnecting two mated pairs of STPs are referred to as either B links, D links, or
B/D links. Regardless of their name, their function is to carry signaling messages beyond
their initial point of entry to the signaling network towards their intended destination. The
"B" stands for bridge and describes the quad of links interconnecting peer pairs of STPs. The
"D" denotes diagonal and describes the quad of links interconnecting mated pairs of STPs at
different hierarchical levels. Because there is no clear hierarchy associated with a connection
between networks, interconnecting links are referred to as either B, D, or B/D links (7?1 and
7?2 are examples of B links; 8? and 7?0 are examples of D links; 10?3 and 9?4 are examples
of interconnecting links and can be referred to as B, D, or B/D links).

E Links

While an SSP is connected to its home STP pair by a set of A links, enhanced reliability can
be provided by deploying an additional set of links to a second STP pair. These links, called
E (extended) links provide backup connectivity to the SS7 network in the event that the home
STPs cannot be reached via the A links. While all SS7 networks include A, B/D, and C links,
E links may or may not be deployed at the discretion of the network provider. The decision of
whether or not to deploy E links can be made by comparing the cost of deployment with the
improvement in reliability. (1?1 and 1?2 are E links.)

F Links

F (fully associated) links are links which directly connect two signaling end points. F links
allow associated signaling only. Because they bypass the security features provided by an
STP, F links are not generally deployed between networks. Their use within an individual
network is at the discretion of the network provider. (1? is an F link.)

Basic Call Setup Example

Before going into much more detail, it might be helpful to look at several basic calls and the
way in which they use SS7 signaling (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Call Setup Example

In this example, a subscriber on switch A places a call to a subscriber on switch B.

1. Switch A analyzes the dialed digits and determines that it needs to send the call to
switch B.
2. Switch A selects an idle trunk between itself and switch B and formulates an initial
address message (IAM), the basic message necessary to initiate a call. The IAM is
addressed to switch B. It identifies the initiating switch (switch A), the destination
switch (switch B), the trunk selected, the calling and called numbers, as well as other
information beyond the scope of this example.
3. Switch A picks one of its A links (e.g., AW) and transmits the message over the link
for routing to switch B.
4. STP W receives a message, inspects its routing label, and determines that it is to be
routed to switch B. It transmits the message on link BW.
5. Switch B receives the message. On analyzing the message, it determines that it serves
the called number and that the called number is idle.
6. Switch B formulates an address complete message (ACM), which indicates that the
IAM has reached its proper destination. The message identifies the recipient switch
(A), the sending switch (B), and the selected trunk.
7. Switch B picks one of its A links (e.g., BX) and transmits the ACM over the link for
routing to switch A. At the same time, it completes the call path in the backwards
direction (towards switch A), sends a ringing tone over that trunk towards switch A,
and rings the line of the called subscriber.
8. STP X receives the message, inspects its routing label, and determines that it is to be
routed to switch A. It transmits the message on link AX.
9. On receiving the ACM, switch A connects the calling subscriber line to the selected
trunk in the backwards direction (so that the caller can hear the ringing sent by switch
B).
10. When the called subscriber picks up the phone, switch B formulates an answer
message (ANM), identifying the intended recipient switch (A), the sending switch
(B), and the selected trunk.
11. Switch B selects the same A link it used to transmit the ACM (link BX) and sends the
ANM. By this time, the trunk also must be connected to the called line in both
directions (to allow conversation).
12. STP X recognizes that the ANM is addressed to switch A and forwards it over link
AX.
13. Switch A ensures that the calling subscriber is connected to the outgoing trunk (in
both directions) and that conversation can take place.
14. If the calling subscriber hangs up first (following the conversation), switch A will
generate a release message (REL) addressed to switch B, identifying the trunk
associated with the call. It sends the message on link AW.
15. STP W receives the REL, determines that it is addressed to switch B, and forwards it
using link WB.
16. Switch B receives the REL, disconnects the trunk from the subscriber line, returns the
trunk to idle status, generates a release complete message (RLC) addressed back to
switch A, and transmits it on link BX. The RLC identifies the trunk used to carry the
call.
17. STP X receives the RLC, determines that it is addressed to switch A, and forwards it
over link AX.
18. On receiving the RLC, switch A idles the identified trunk.