CHAPTER 4

Forest
Measurement
 CHAPTER 4
Forest Measurement
Summary of Content Learning Outcomes
Knowledge of:
• Introduction to forest • Define the terminology of forest
measurement. measurement.
• Distance measurement. • Describe the important of forest
measurement.
• Tree diameter, height • Understand the concept distance
measurement.
and volume
• Explain how to measure tree
measurement. diameter, height and volume.
• Introduction to GIS • Define the terminology of GIS.
• Explain how important of GIS in
Malaysia forest management system.
 Outline
• Introduction
– Scope
– Measuring things
– Accuracy, precision, bias
• Part 1 (Distance measurement)
– Pacing measurement
– Taping or “chaining”
– Horizontal distance measurement
 Outline
• Part 2 (Tree Measurement)
– Tree diameter measurement
– Tree height measurement
– Instrument and measuring challenges
• Part 3 (Geographical Information System)
– Component of GIS
– Raster data model
– Vector data model
 Introduction
• Mensura means “measure” in Latin word. Forest Mensuration is that branch
of forestry which deals with the determination of dimensions (i.e. distance,
diameter, height, volume), form, age and increment of single trees, stands or
whole woods, either standing or after felling.
• The measurement of trees and forests is fundamental to the practice of
forestry and forest science throughout the world. Measurements (or
mensuration as it is called in forestry) are used to understand how forests
grow and develop.
• Measure tree growth provides understanding of the potential of their site and
a basis for planning the management and marketing of products and services.
• The foresters must know how to measure trees and forests for timber
production.
• It also includes how to measuring distance, measure tree diameter, height,
stand basal area and calculate tree and stands volume.
• It concerns with linear, area, volume and weight (biomass) measurements.
• Quantitative sciences such as mathematics and statistics are used in the
measurement of trees and forests.
 Measuring Things
• Measurement of things is a fundamental part of any scientifically based
discipline.
• Some things are simple to measure, like the length of a piece of string or
the time taken by a pedestrian to cross the road. Other things are very
difficult to measure, like the size of an atom or the distance to Jupiter.
• Some things cannot be measured directly at all, like the volume of wood
that might be harvested from a large forest area of thousands of hectares.
• When something is difficult to measure, or cannot be measured directly
at all, methods of measurement are used to approximate or estimate it.
These methods often involve measuring parts of the thing, parts which
can be relatively easily measured.
• Then, more or less complicated mathematical procedures are used to
convert the measurements of the parts to make an estimate of the size of
the whole thing.
 Accuracy
• Accuracy is defined formally as ‘the difference
between a measurement or estimate of something
and its true value’.
• In simple terms, it can be thought of as how closely
one is able to measure or estimate something, given
the measuring equipment or estimation method
available.
• Accuracy is expressed by saying that a measurement
or estimate has been made to the nearest part of
some unit of measurement.
 Precision
• Precision is defined as ‘the variation in a set of repeated
measurements or estimates of something’.
• The variation arises because of the limitations in the
measurement or estimation technique, when it is used at
different times and under varying circumstances, and
limitations of the people taking the measurements.
• Precision is measured by the amount of variation in the
results of a repeated set of measurements of the same thing.
• The range of values in the set of estimates is one measure of
precision.
 Bias
• Bias is defined as ‘the difference between the average of a
set of repeated measurements or estimates of something
and its true value’.
• In essence, if something is difficult to measure, it may not
matter how many times we attempt to take the
measurement, nor how many different types of measurement
equipment we use, we may simply always get the wrong
answer.
• By ‘the wrong answer’ is meant that the results of the many
attempts at measurement will be consistently larger or
smaller than the true value of whatever it is that is being
measured.
• If this is the case, the measurement or estimation method is
said to be biased.
 Accuracy, Precision & Bias
❑ The term BIAS refers to the
tendency of measures to
systematically shift in one
direction from the true value

❑ The term ACCURACY refers to

the closeness of a measurement
or estimate to the TRUE value.
❑ The term PRECISION (or
variance) refers to the degree of
agreement for a series of
measurements.
Measuring Distance
Pacing
 Intro Pacing
• Measuring distance and angles with simple instruments are two of the
most common surveying procedures used in forestry. Even though the
instruments may be simple, a sufficient level of accuracy for many
measuring jobs can be achieved with practice and careful work. In this
chapter, you will become acquainted with the basic methods and
techniques of measuring distances.
• One of the decisions that must be made when preparing to measure a
distance is selecting the method or device to use.
• Several methods and devices can be used for measuring distance. The
principal ones are:
– Pacing
– Taping or “chaining”
 Intro Pacing
• First, it will be helpful to review the common units of distance
(displacement).
• The common English units are as follows:
– 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
– 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
– 1 rod = 16.5 feet (ft) = 5.5 yards (yd)
– 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft) = 1760 yards (yd) = 320 rods
• In the SI system, the units are:
– 1 meter (m) = 1,000 millimeters (mm)
– 1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters (m)
• The unit's cancellation method is very useful for converting from one unit
of measure to another.
 Pacing
• Pacing is the simplest and easiest method for measuring distance. Pacing
is the process of walking the distance and counting the number of steps
“paces” to cover the distance.
• The distance is determined by multiplying the number of steps taken
between two points by one’s pace factor. A person’s pace factor is
determined by pacing (walking) a measured distance, usually 300 to 500
ft, several times and determining the average length of pace (step).
• A person must learn to adopt a pacing step that is different from their
normal walking step because many factors can cause variations in the
length of a person’s pace.
• Three of these are the roughness of the surface, the slope of the ground,
and the type of vegetation. Care must be taken to ensure that a consistent
pace factor is used.
• One advantage of pacing for measuring distance is that it doesn’t require
any specialized equipment.
• The biggest disadvantage is that it requires being able to walk the route. It
is not very useful for measuring distance in rough terrain, across swamps
or any other terrain where an individual could not walk the distance or
walk in a straight line.
• Pacing saves time but is not as accurate as using a tape measure. Good
pacing can only be accomplished by practice. Knowing the distance of
one's pace will help to ensure accuracy and precision of pacing distances.
• A pace is a unit of length consisting either of one normal walking step
(approximately 0.75 meters or 30 inches - US), or of a double step,
returning to the same foot (approximately 1.5 meters or 60 inches -
others).
• The normal pace length decreases with age and some health conditions.
The word "pace" is also used for units' inverse to speed, used mainly for
walking and running, commonly minutes per kilometer.
• The following figure depicts 6 footprints: feet together, right, left, right,
left. These footprints record 4 steps (each time a foot touches down) or 2
paces (each time the same foot touches down).
• A pace is equal to two steps. When standing with your feet side by side
stepping forward with the right foot then the left foot is one pace.
Counting paces is easier then counting steps simply because the numbers
do not get as high, and you can count more slowly.
• Forester usually lead with their right foot and count each time their left
foot touches down while walking along a traverse, thereby counting the
number of paces taken. This is called pacing. If you know how many paces
you have taken, and you know the average length of your pace, then you
can calculate the distance that you have walked:

Distance Walked = (Number of Paces) x (Length of Pace)

Steps and paces
Measuring Distance
Taping or “chaining”
 Taping
• In surveying, the distance between two points is understood to mean the
horizontal distance, regardless of the relative elevation of the two points.
• Frequently, the lay of the land between the two points is not uniform, or
the elevation of the two points is very different. Special equipment and
techniques may be needed to obtain an accurate determination of the
distance.
• Various methods of determining distance are available along with special
and different types of equipment. The degree of precision required is
another factor which is required to be considered before a measurement
of distance is undertaken so that the correct type of equipment and
method of measurement may be done.
• The common method of determining distance is by direct measurement
with a tape. The tape is called a "chain" and is usually 100 ft in length. The
term "chain" comes from the form of the early tapes which were
composed of 100 links, each one foot long.

Surveyor’s chain
 Equipment
• Tapes
– Tapes are made in a variety of materials, lengths, and weights. Those more commonly
used are the heavy steel tape.
• Makers
– Steel chaining pins are used to mark the end of the tape during the chaining process
between two points which are more than a tape length apart. These pins are used only
as temporary points.
• Range poles
– Range poles are wooden, metal, or fiberglass poles usually 8 ft in length. These poles are
used as temporary markers to indicate the location of a point or the direction of a line
which is required to be seen from a relatively long distance.
• Plumb bobs
– A plumb bob is a brass weight with a pointed end which is suspended by a string 5 to 6 ft
long. The plumb bob is used to vertically project a point and may be used at one or both
ends of the tape to keep the tape horizontal.
• Hand levels
– The hand level is a small sight tube of low magnification with a bubble level which may
be held in the hand.
 Procedure
• TAPING OVER SMOOTH, LEVEL GROUND
– When the ground is fairly smooth and the ground cover vegetation is light and
low, the effort required to measure the distance between two points or to set
a point ahead of some required distance is very minimal.
– There is a definite procedure to be followed in measuring the distance
between two points.
– The person moving ahead or away from the instrument is called the head
chainman. The head chainman takes the zero end of the tape or the end of
the tape with the graduated foot, and moves on the line toward the distance
point.
– The person remaining behind to hold the end of the tape on the last
established point of beginning is called the rear chainman. The rear chainman
does not handle the tape as the head chainman moves ahead.
– During this time, the rear chainman is responsible for keeping the head
chainman on line. The rear chainman also watches the movement of the tape
to make sure the tape does not snag or kink which could result in damage to
the tape.
 Procedure
• TAPING OVER HILLY, SLOPING GROUND
– If the ground is not too rough and hilly and in general considered as gently
rolling, the taping procedure required would be slightly more difficult than
that required for taping on flat ground.
– If the plumb bob is used to keep the tape horizontal, the procedure is more
difficult. If the terrain is very rough and the slopes are steep with considerable
undergrowth or vegetation, the chainmen is required to break tape in addition
to plumbing the tape.
– A one hundred foot distance may require the setting of many intermediate
points before the full distance is successfully measured. In any case, the head
chainman and rear chainman responsibilities and the orientation of the tape
remain the same as was used for taping over level ground.
 Horizontal distance
• Surveying practice usually use horizontal distances rather than slope
distances. This is necessary because the horizontal distance between two
points does not change even if the ground is disturbed.
• If the surveyor used slope distances, then the distance between objects
and places would change every time the grade changed.
• The slope distance is always greater than the horizontal distance.
Obviously, the greater the slope, the greater the difference between
horizontal and slope distance.
• If great precision is not required and the slopes are not steep, then you
may use the slope distance. Naturally it is easier to lay the tape on the
ground than to use plumb-bobs to measure distances.
• Taping on sloping ground often requires use of the “breaking tape”
procedure. Where a 100-foot length cannot be held horizontal without
plumbing above chest height, you must measure shorter distances.
 Horizontal distance
measurement

Procedure of
breaking tape
Holding plumb bob on the tape.

Methods of supporting a tape.

 Taping Error
• Error is defined as the difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity. Errors result from instrument imperfections,
personal limitations, and natural conditions affecting the measurement.
An error is either systematic or random. Errors in taping may also be
caused by one or more of the following reasons:
– The tape is not the standard length.
– Poor alignment of the tape.
– Tape not horizontal.
– Tape twisted or not straight.
– Human error of observations.
– Variations in temperature.
– Variations in tension.
– Tape Sag.
Accidental errors occur when the tape is (a) misaligned or (b) off level.

A steel tape always tends to sag between supports, no matter how hard it is pulled.
 Measurement of Trees
• Standing trees are commonly measured for
diameter, height, and age.
• Diameter and Height measurements are used
to estimate the volume (or weight) and value
of individual trees; ages are used in assessing
site quality and predicting growth.
Measuring Trees
Diameter
 Intro diameter
• Determining the size of trees is not difficult, and it is
important information to know. A key part of determining tree
size is knowing the tree’s diameter.
• The simplest, most common and, arguably, the most
important thing measured on trees in forestry is the diameter
of their stems.
• The tree diameter measurement allows to quantify the size of
trees, monitor tree growth (by re-measuring the same tree
over time), and make informed management decisions.
• Tree volume can be determined by combining tree diameter
with tree height and knowing tree volume can have economic
implications.
Measuring Stem Diameter
DBH Measurement for irregular stems
 Measuring Stem Diameter (D-Tape)
• They are calibrated in units of the mathematical constant pi (𝜋), which is
the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter and has a value
of approximately 3.142. That is, a unit shown as 1 cm long on a diameter
tape is 3.142-cm long; when the tape is wrapped around the girth of a
tree, the corresponding diameter can be read directly from the tape.
• To use a diameter tape correctly, it should be wrapped firmly around the
stem, perpendicular to its axis. Any loose bark should be brushed gently
off the stem before making the measurement.
Tape must be perpendicular to tree
 Measuring Stem Diameter (Calipers)
• A second instrument used commonly to measure diameter is a caliper.
Calipers are particularly useful when measuring trees of small diameter
(say, less than about 5 cm), when the stiffness of a diameter tape can
make it difficult to wrap the tape around the stem.
• However, calipers are used also to measure trees of larger diameter, the
size of the calipers being chosen to suit the size of the trees being
measured. Calipers are often quicker to use than diameter tapes.
• However, they measure stems only across one diameter of their cross-
section, whereas a diameter tape measures the average diameter
corresponding to the girth of the tree. To allow for this, it is usual when
using calipers to take two diameter measurements, at right angles to each
other.
• Much less commonly than diameter tapes or calipers, the other
instruments are used to measure tree diameters, such as Biltmore sticks
or Wheeler pentaprism. There are available also optical instruments, with
which stem diameters can be measured high up on the tree stem.
Using Calipers
Measuring Trees
Tree Diameter Tools
 Biltmore Sticks

Held 25” from eye

Wheeler Pentaprism – optical caliper
Spiegel Relaskop
Relaskop screen
Criterion Dendrometer
Measuring Trees
Height
 Intro height
• In forestry, tree height is defined as the vertical distance from ground
level to the highest green point on the tree (which will be referred to
here as the tip of the tree).
• It might seem odd that tree height is not defined in terms of stem
length (since it is usually the wood-containing stem of the tree with
which forestry is most concerned) or as the height to the top of the
stem itself.
• The highest green point of a tree is much easier to identify than its
stem length, care must be taken to ensure that the tree is viewed from
sufficiently far away so that its tip can be seen clearly.
• In dense forest it is often difficult to see the tip amongst the crowns of
other trees; care must be taken to ensure the tip one can see is indeed
that of the tree being measured.
• If the tree is leaning, its height is still defined in forestry as the height
to the highest green point, rather than by its stem length.
 Height by Trigonometric Methods
• A vertical tree of height hT = AC is standing on flat ground. An observer is
standing a measured distance d = GC away from the tree and measures, at
eye level O with some viewing device, the angles from the horizontal to the
tip of the tree, aT , and to the base of the tree, aB . Angles measured above
the horizontal should have a positive value, whilst those below the
horizontal should be negative.
• Using straightforward geometry and trigonometry, the height of the tree can
be calculated from these measurements as

hT=d[tan(aT)+tan(-aB)]

• where ‘tan’ is the trigonometric expression for the tangent of the angle.
Principle of tree height measurement using trigonometric methods
• In dense forest, it can often be difficult for the observer to see the tip of
the tree. Observer needs to move around the tree and adjust the distance
from which it is being viewed to make sure that the tip of the tree can be
clearly seen.
• These problems are exacerbated if the wind is blowing the tips about. If
the day is too windy, it simply becomes impractical to undertake height
measurements.
• A tape may be used to measure the distance from the observer to the
center of the base of the tree. The angles may be measured with a hand-
held clinometer or, more precisely, with a theodolite. Theodolites are far
slower to use and would only be countenanced if a very precise height
measurement was required.
• Also available are various optical/mechanical instruments (Haga altimeter,
Suunto hypsometer , Blume-Leiss hypsometer, Abney level and Spiegel
relaskop), which incorporate a clinometer.
• These devices have scales which are calibrated so that the observer can
read the tree height directly from the scale without having to do the
computations required.
• For routine tree height measurements, convenient electronic instruments
are available today. These combine a clinometer with a distance
measuring device.
• Some use the time of travel of sound waves to measure the distance,
whilst the most recent use a laser. In both cases, a target is pushed into
the stem of the tree to reflect back to the instrument the sound wave or
laser light.
• Because the velocity of sound varies appreciably with air temperature, the
instruments which use sound need to be calibrated regularly throughout
the day as temperature changes.
• Once distance has been measured, the instrument is aimed at the base
and tip of the tree and the inbuilt clinometer measures the required
angles.
• The tree height is then calculated electronically by the device and
displayed to the user.
Measuring Trees
Tree Height Tools
 Suunto Clinometer

Degree and Topographic Scales

 Suunto Clinometer

Degree and Percent Scale

Haga Altimeter
Abney Level
Blume-Leiss Altimeter
 Laser Hypsometers

Line of site limitations, expensive

Measuring Rod
Merritt Hypsometer
Clinometer on the cheap
 Ultrasonic

Not Limited by Line of Sight like Laser or Optical

Apps
iHypsometer Lite
Introduction to Geographical
Information System (GIS)
- Introduction
- Component of GIS
- Data types in GIS
- Raster & Vector data model
- Conclusion
 Intro GIS
• Geographic Information System (GIS) is an
integrated system of computer Hardware and
Software, coupled with procedures and human
analyst which together support the capture,
management, manipulation, analysis, modeling
and display of spatially referenced data.
• GIS can store many different types of data on one
map.
• This enables people to more easily see, analyze
and understand patterns and relationships.
 Component of GIS
Method: a successful GIS
operates according to a
Hardware: it consists of well-design plan and
a computer system on business rules, which are
which the GIS software the models and operating
will run. practices unique to each
organizations.

Data: Geographic data

Software: GIS software and related tabular
provides the functions and data that can be
tools needed to store, collected in-house.
analyze, and display Digital map forms the
geographic information. basic data input for GIS.
People: GIS users range from
technical specialists who design
and maintain the system to those
who use it to help them perform
their everyday work.
 Data Types in GIS
• The data in a GIS can be classified into two
main categories:
1. Spatial data
Describe the absolute and relative location of geographic
features.
2. Attribute data or Non-spatial data
Describe characteristics of the spatial features. These
characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in
nature.
 The Data Model
• Data model is a conceptual description (mental
model) of how spatial data are organized for use
by the GIS.
• The data model represents a set of guidelines to
convert the real world (called entity) to the
digitally and logically represented spatial objects
consisting of the attributes and geometry.
• The attributes are managed by thematic or
semantic structure while the geometry is
represented by geometric-topological structure.
• There are two major types of geometric data model;
vector and raster model.
a. Vector Model
Vector model uses discrete points, lines and/or areas
corresponding to discrete objects with name or code number
of attributes.
b. Raster Model
Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific
sequence. All element of the grid cell is called a pixel (picture
cell).
The conventional sequence is row by row from the left to the
right and then line by line from the top to bottom. Every
location is given in two-dimensional image coordinates; pixel
number and line number, which contains a single value of
attributes.
Concept of Vector & Raster
 Raster Data Model
• The term raster implies a regularly spaced grid. Raster data
consists of row and columns of cell (or pixels). In this
format a single value is stored against each cell. Raster data
can be representing a multiplicity of things including:
• Visual images (that is color and/or hue)
• Discrete value, such as land use
• Continuous value, such as rainfall
• Null values if not data is available.
 Cell Size of Raster Data
• The level of detail represented by a raster is
often dependent on the cell (pixel) size or
spatial resolution of the raster.
• The cell must be small enough to capture the
required detail but large enough so computer
storage and analysis can be performed
efficiently.
Smaller cell size Larger cell size
• Higher resolution • Lower resolution
• Higher feature spatial • Lower feature spatial
accuracy accuracy
• Slower display • Faster display
• Slower processing • Faster processing
• Large file size • Smaller file size
 Advantages of Raster
• It is a simple data structure
• It has the ability to represent continuous
surfaces and perform surface analysis
• The ability to uniformly store points, lines,
polygons and surfaces
• The ability to perform fast overlays with
complex datasets.
 Disadvantages of Raster
• There can be spatial inaccuracies due to limits
imposed by raster dataset cell dimension.
• Raster datasets are potentially very large.
Resolution increases as the size of cell
decreases. Accordingly cost and disk space
used also increases.
• There is also a loss of precision that
accompanies restructuring data to a regularly
space raster cell boundary.
 Vector Data Model
• Vectors are graphical objects
that have geometrical primitives
such as points, lines and
polygons to represent
geographical entities in the
computer graphics.
• A vector refers to a geometrical
space which has a precise
direction, length and shape.
• Points, lines and polygons can be
defined by the coordinate
geometry.
• A vector spatial data model uses
two-dimensional Cartesian (x, y)
coordinate system to store the
shape of a spatial entity.
• In vector world the point
is the basic building
block from which all
spatial entities are
constructed.
• The simplest spatial
entity, the point, is
represented by a single
(x, y) coordinate pair.
• Line and area entities are
constructed by
connecting a series of
points into chains and
polygons.
 Point
• A point is a o dimensional object and has only
the property of location (x, y).
• Points can be used to Model features such as
a well, building, power pole, sample location
etc.
• Other names for a point are vertex, node, o-
cell.
 Line
• A line is a one-dimensional object that has the
property of length.
• Lines can be used to represent road, streams,
faults, dikes, marker beds, boundary, contacts
etc.
• Lines are also called an edge, link, chain, arc,
1-cell.
• Connected multiple lines are called polylines.
 Polygon
• Polygon features are made of one or more
lines that encloses an area.
• A polygon is a two-dimensional object with
properties of area and perimeter represented
by a closed sequence of lines.
• A polygon can represent a city, geologic
formation, dike, lake, river, etc.
Vector Data Model
 Advantages of Vector
• Requires less disk storage space.
• Efficient for topological relationship.
• Graphical output more closely resembles
hand-drawn maps.
• Easy to edit.
• Accurate map output.
• Efficient projection transformation.
 Disadvantages of Vector
• Complex data structure.
• Less compatibility with remotely sensed data.
• Expensive software and hardware.
• Not appropriate to represent continuous data.
• Overlaying multiple vector are often time
consuming.
Difference between Raster & Vector
Raster Vector
• It is a simple data structure. • More complex data
• Overlay operations are structure.
easily and efficiently • Overlay operations are
implemented. more difficult to implement.
• High spatial variability is • The representation of high
efficiently represented in a spatial variability is
raster format. inefficient.
• The raster format is more or • Manipulation and
less required for efficient enhancement of digital
manipulation and images cannot be
enhancement of digital effectively done in the
images. vector domain.
• The raster data structure is • Vector provides a more
less compact. compact data structure.
• Topological relationships • Provides efficient encoding
are more difficult to of topology.
represent. • The vector data model is
• The output of graphics is better suited to supporting
less aesthetically pleasing graphics that closely
because boundaries tend to approximate hand-drawn
have a blocky appearance maps.
rather than the smooth
lines of hand drawn maps.
This can be overcome by
using very large number of
cells, but it may result in
unacceptably large files.
 Conclusion
• Geographic Information System is a computer system
for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data
related to positions on Earth’s surface.
• A data model in GIS is a mathematical construct for
representing geographic object or surfaces as data.
• The two basic data models of GIS are Raster and
Vector. Raster consists of matrix of cells organized
into rows and columns whereas Vector represents
data using points, lines, and polygons.