Colors to

Mix and
Match
Explain how each of the
colors in the shadows
is formed.

➥ Look at the text

on page 384 for
the answer.
CHAPTER

16
Light

ight and sound are two ways you receive information about WHAT YOU’LL LEARN
L the world around you. Of the two, light seems to provide the
greater variety of information. The human eye can detect tiny
changes in the size, position, brightness, and color of an object. Our
• You will understand the fun-
damentals of light, including
its speed, wavelength range,
eyes can usually distinguish shadows from solid objects and some- and intensity.
times distinguish reflections of objects from the objects themselves. • You will describe the inter-
Our major source of emitted light is the sun. Other natural actions between two or more
sources of emitted light include flames, sparks, and even fireflies. In light waves and between
the past hundred years, humans have been able to produce several light waves and matter.
other kinds of emitted light. Incandescent bulbs, fluorescent lamps,
television screens, lasers, and tiny light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are
each a result of humans using electricity to produce light.
WHY IT’S IMPORTANT
Although there are a variety of emitted light sources, most of • Light is a primary sensor to
how the universe behaves.
the light waves that reach our eyes are reflections from objects in
From learning about the
the environment. Light is reflected not only by mirrors, shiny
biological patterns on Earth
metals, and white paper, but also by the moon, flowers, and even
to discovering the astronomi-
black cloth. In fact, it is difficult to find an object that does not cal rules of outer space, sci-
reflect at least a small amount of light. entists rely upon detecting
Emission and reflection are just two of the ways that light inter- light waves.
acts with matter. In the next few chapters, you will learn the prin-
ciples that govern how light moves through matter. You will also
learn the effects that mirrors and lenses can have on light.
Although light is only a small portion of the entire range of electro-
magnetic waves, your study of light will be, in many ways, a study
PHYSICS
of the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. To find out more about light, visit
the Glencoe Science Web site at
science.glencoe.com

373
 16.1 Light Fundamentals
E arly scientists considered light to be a stream of
particles emitted by a light source. However, not all
of the properties of light could be explained by this
theory. Experiments showed that light also behaves like
OBJ ECTIVES a wave. Today, the nature of light is explained in terms of both particles
• Recognize that light is the and waves. In this chapter, you will apply what you have learned about
visible portion of an entire mechanical waves to the study of light.
range of electromagnetic
frequencies. The Facts of Light
• Describe the ray model of What is light? Light is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic
light. waves that stimulates the retina of the eye. Light waves have wavelengths
• Solve problems involving from about 400 nm (4.00  107 m) to 700 nm (7.00  107 m). The
the speed of light. shortest wavelengths are seen as violet light. As wavelength increases,
the colors gradually change to indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
• Define luminous intensity,
finally, red, as shown in Figure 16–1.
luminous flux, and
illuminance. Light travels in a straight line in a vacuum or other uniform medium.
How do you know this? If light from the sun or a flashlight is made vis-
• Solve illumination problems.
ible by dust particles in the air, the path of the light is seen to be a
Color Conventions
straight line. When your body blocks sunlight, you see a sharp shadow.
Also, our brains locate objects by automatically assuming that light
• Light rays are red. travels from objects to our eyes along a straight path.
The straight-line path of light has led to the ray model of light. A ray
is a straight line that represents the path of a narrow beam of light. The
use of ray diagrams to study the travel of light is called ray optics or geo-
FIGURE 16–1 The visible spec- metric optics. Even though ray optics ignores the wave nature of light, it
trum is a very small portion of the is useful in describing how light is reflected and refracted.
whole electromagnetic spectrum.

Red (7 x 10 –7m) Violet (4 x 10 –7m)

Wavelength (λ ) in meters
Light
10 4 10 2 1m 10 –2 10 – 4 10 – 8 10 –10 10 –12 10 –14
10 – 6
Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Gamma rays

Microwaves X rays

AM TV, FM

10 4 106 10 8 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 10 20 10 22

Frequency (f ) in hertz

374 Light
 FIGURE 16–2 Roemer mea-
sured the time of an eclipse of
one of Jupiter’s moons, Io. During
successive eclipses, the moon
Io
J
would come around faster or
slower, depending on whether
Earth was moving toward or away
from Jupiter. (not to scale)

vEarth

vEarth

The Speed of Light

Before the 17th century, most people believed that light travels instan-
taneously. Galileo was the first to hypothesize that light has a finite speed
and to suggest a method of determining it. His method, however, was not
sensitive enough, and he was forced to conclude that the speed of light is
too fast to be measured at all over a distance of a few kilometers.
Danish astronomer Ole Roemer (1644–1710) was the first to determine
that light does travel with a measurable speed. Between 1668 and 1674,
F.Y.I.
Roemer made 70 careful measurements of the 42.5-hour orbital period Ole Roemer made his
of Io, one of the moons of Jupiter. He recorded the times when Io measurements in Paris as
emerged from Jupiter’s shadow, as shown in Figure 16–2. part of a project to improve
He found that the period varied slightly depending on when the maps by calculating the
measurement was made. The variation was as much as 14 seconds longer longitude of locations on
when Earth was moving away from Jupiter and 14 seconds shorter when Earth. This is an early
Earth was approaching Jupiter. example of the needs of
technology resulting in
What might cause this discrepancy in Io’s orbital period? Roemer con-
scientific advances.
cluded that as Earth moved away from Jupiter, the light from each new
appearance of Io took longer to travel the increasing distance to Earth.
Thus, the measured period increased. Likewise, as Earth approached
Jupiter, Io’s orbital period would seem to decrease. Based on these data,
in 1676 Roemer calculated that light took 22 minutes to cross the diam-
eter of Earth’s orbit.
Roemer had successfully proved that light moved at a finite speed.
Using the present value of the diameter of Earth’s orbit, Roemer’s
value of 22 minutes gives a speed of light of about 220 million meters
per second. This is only three quarters of what is now accepted as the
correct value. Today we know that light takes 16 minutes, not 22, to
cross Earth’s orbit. Nevertheless, the speed of light was found to be
finite but so fast that a light beam could circle the globe seven and a
half times in one second.

16.1 Light Fundamentals 375

 Although many laboratory measurements of the speed of light have
been made, the most notable was a series performed by American physi-
cist Albert A. Michelson (1852–1931), shown in Figure 16–3. Between
1880 and the 1920s, he developed Earth-based techniques to measure the
speed of light. In 1926, Michelson measured the time required for light
to make a round-trip between two California mountains 35 km apart.
Michelson’s best result was 2.997996  0.00004  108 m/s. For this
work, he became the first American to receive a Nobel prize in science.

The speed of light defined The development of the laser in the

1960s provided new methods of measuring the speed of light. As you
learned in Chapter 14, the speed of a wave is equal to the product of its
frequency and wavelength. The speed of light in a vacuum is such an
FIGURE 16–3 Albert A.
Michelson became the first important and universal value that it has its own special symbol, c.
American to win a Nobel prize Thus, c  f. The frequency of light can be counted with extreme preci-
in science. sion using lasers and the time standard provided by atomic clocks.
Measurements of its wavelength, however, are much less precise. As a
result, in 1983 the International Committee on Weights and
Measurements decided to make the speed of light a defined quantity. In
principle, an object’s length is now measured in terms of the time
required by light to travel from one end of the object to the other. The
committee defined the speed of light in a vacuum to be exactly c  299
HELP WANTED 792 458 m/s. For most calculations, however, it is sufficient to use c 
PHOTOGRAPHER 3.00  108 m/s.
A large advertising agency
is looking for a talented
staff photographer. Your Practice Problems
technological knowledge of
cameras, lenses, sources of 1. What is the frequency of yellow light,   556 nm?
light, various types of film 2. One nanosecond (ns) is 109 s. Laboratory workers often esti-
and the processes for devel-
mate the distance light travels in a certain time by remember-
oping them can be the
result of formal or on- ing the approximation “light goes one foot in one nanosec-
the-job training. ond.” How far, in feet, does light actually travel in exactly 1 ns?
Because of the variety of 3. Modern lasers can create a pulse of light that lasts only a few
our accounts, your subjects femtoseconds.
will range from products to a. What is the length of a pulse of violet light that lasts 6.0 fs?
people to places. Proof of
b. How many wavelengths of violet light (  400 nm) are
your qualifications is in
your portfolio, so send
included in such a pulse?
yours for our review. For 4. The distance to the moon can be found with the help of mir-
information contact: rors left on the moon by astronauts. A pulse of light is sent to
Professional Photographers the moon and returns to Earth in 2.562 s. Using the defined
of America, Inc. speed of light, calculate the distance from Earth to the moon.
229 Peachtree Street NE
5. Use the correct time taken for light to cross Earth’s orbit,
Suite 2200
Atlanta, GA 30303 16 minutes, and the diameter of the orbit, 3.0  1011 m, to
calculate the speed of light using Roemer’s method.

376 Light
Light Ray Paths
Problem
How do light waves travel?

Materials
4 unlined index cards (4  6)
clay
40-watt lightbulb (nonfrosted) in a fixture
4–6 flat mirrors, approx. 10 cm  15 cm
medium nail
ruler beam to the next person’s mirror. Be
careful not to reflect the light beam into
someone’s eye.
Procedure
9. When you have completed the lab,
1. Draw two diagonals on each index card,
recycle the index cards and save the clay
using the ruler. Mark the center of
for use again.
each card.
2. Punch the center of three of the cards
with the nail.
Data and Observations
1. Decide how to place the mirrors so that
3. Stand one of the punched cards so that
you can reflect the light onto the back of
its longer edge is parallel to a desk or
the card without the hole.
tabletop. Use two pea-sized lumps of clay
to secure the card to the table. 2. Draw a diagram showing your mirror
setup. Use arrows to mark the path of
4. Stand the remaining cards on the table so
light between the mirrors and the card.
they are about 10 cm apart. Place the card
without the hole last. Use clay to secure all 3. Describe how the brightness of the light
the cards. shining on the first mirror compares with
the brightness of the light reflected from
5. Arrange the cards so their outside edges
the last mirror.
are in a straight line. Use the ruler to
check the alignment. Once your setup is
complete, dim the room lights. Analyze and Conclude
6. Ask your partner to hold the light fixture 1. Analyzing Data How can you describe
so the light shines through the hole in the the path of light from one mirror to
first card. the next?
7. Check the alignment of the two other 2. Critical Thinking What explanation can
punched cards so you can see the light you give for your observations concerning
shining on the fourth card. the relative brightness of the reflections?
8. Place a mirror in front of the fourth card
so the light shines on it. Give each person Apply
in your group a mirror, and have them 1. Use your observations to draw a diagram
hold it in a position that reflects the light showing how a shadow forms.

16.1 Light Fundamentals 377

 Sources of Light
What’s the difference between sunlight and moonlight? Sunlight, of
course, is much, much brighter. But there is an important fundamental dif-
ference between the two. The sun is a luminous body, while the moon is
an illuminated body. A luminous body emits light waves; an illuminated
body simply reflects light waves produced by an outside source, as illus-
trated in Figure 16–4. An incandescent lamp, such as a common light-
bulb, is luminous because electrical energy heats a thin tungsten wire in
the bulb and causes it to glow. An incandescent object emits light as a
result of its high temperature. A bicycle reflector, on the other hand, works
as an illuminated body. It is designed to reflect automobile headlights.
FIGURE 16–4 The bridge is Humans register the sensation of light when electromagnetic waves
illuminated while the city lights
of the appropriate wavelength(s) reach our eyes. Our eyes have different
are luminous.
sensitivities to different wavelengths.

Digital Versatile Discs

In 1982, when CDs (compact discs) were tighter. Thus, more pits can fit on the surface
introduced, they revolutionized the audio elec- providing DVDs with more than six times the
tronics industry. A few years later, CD-ROMs storage capability of a CD. Because the smaller
(CD-read only memory) began to do the same pits are shallower on a DVD than a CD, a
thing for the personal computer industry. The shorter wavelength laser is required. DVDs use
high-quality sound and images, large storage a red, 640-nm laser as opposed to CDs with
capacity, durability, and ease of use made CDs an infrared, 780-nm laser.
and CD-ROMs popular with consumers. Another boost to storage is layering tech-
CDs, CD-ROMS, and DVDs are all exam- nology. Advances in aiming and focusing of
ples of optical storage technology. Information the laser allow data to be recorded on two
is stored on the disc in a spiral of microscopic layers. To read the second layer, the laser is
pits. These pits store a digital code that is read simply focused a little deeper into the disc
by a laser. The primary difference between CD where the second layer of data is stored. Not
and DVDs is the amount of information that only are the two layer discs possible, but
each can hold. Today’s CD can store 0.68 giga- so are double-sided discs. The possibility of
bytes of data whereas DVDs have the ability to four layers gives DVDs a storage capability
store from 4.7 to 17 gigabytes. of 17 gigabytes.
How are DVDs made to obtain a higher
storage capacity? Storage capacity depends on Thinking Critically What would be the result
the number of pits. Manufacturers of DVDs of using even smaller pits and even shorter-
increase the number of pits by shrinking pit wavelength blue or green lasers to read
size and by recording data on as many as four optical storage discs? Evaluate the impact that
layers. Reducing pit size allows the pits to be research to improve DVDs has on society.
closer together and the spiral track to be

378 Light
Luminous flux The rate at which visible light is emitted from a luminous flux
P = 1750 lm
source is called the luminous flux, P. The unit of luminous flux is the
lumen, lm. A typical 100-watt incandescent lightbulb emits approxi-
mately 1750 lm. Imagine placing the bulb at the center of a sphere, as 1 m2

shown in Figure 16–5. The bulb emits light in almost all directions. The
1750 lm of luminous flux characterize all of the light that strikes the
S 1m
inside surface of the sphere in a given unit of time.
Often, we may not be interested in the total amount of light emitted
by a luminous object. We are more likely to be interested in the amount
of illumination the object provides on a book, a sheet of paper, or a
highway. The illumination of a surface is called the illuminance, E, and illuminance
is the rate at which light falls on a surface. Illuminance is measured in 1750 lx
E = ———
lumens per square meter, lm/m2, or lux, lx. 4 πr 2

Consider the 100-watt lightbulb in the middle of the sphere. What is FIGURE 16–5 Luminous flux
the illumination of the sphere’s surface? The area of the surface of a is the rate that light is emitted
from a bulb, whereas illuminance
sphere is 4r2. Figure 16–5 shows that the luminous flux striking each is the rate that light falls on
square meter of the sphere is as follows. some surface.
1750 lm 1750
2   lx
4r m 2 4r2
At a distance of 1 m from the bulb, the illumination is approximately
140 lx.

An inverse-square relationship What would happen if the sphere

surrounding the lamp were larger? If the sphere had a radius of 2 m, the
luminous flux would still total 1750 lm, but the area of the sphere
would then be 4(2 m)2  16 m2, four times larger. Consequently, the
illumination on the surface would be reduced by a factor of four to 35 lx.
Thus, if the distance of a surface from a point source of light is doubled,
the illumination provided by the source on that surface is reduced by a
factor of four. In the same way, if the distance is increased to 3 m, the
illumination would be only (1/3)2 or 1/9 as large as it was when the
light source was 1 m away. Notice that illumination is proportional
to 1/r2. This inverse-square relationship, as shown in Figure 16–6, is
similar to that of gravitational force, which you studied in Chapter 8.

1/16

1/9

1/4

1
FIGURE 16–6 The illuminance
S of a surface varies inversely as
Point 1m 2m 3m 4m the square of its distance from a
light source Distance from source (d) light source.

16.1 Light Fundamentals 379

 Luminous intensity Some light sources are specified in candela, cd,
or candle power. A candela is not a measure of luminous flux, but of
luminous intensity. The luminous intensity of a point source is the
luminous flux that falls on 1 m2 of a sphere 1 m in radius. Thus, lumi-
Pocket Lab nous intensity is luminous flux divided by 4. A bulb with 1750 lm flux
has an intensity of (1750 lm)/4  139 cd. A flashlight bulb labeled
An Illuminating
1.5 cd emits a flux of 4 (1.5 cd)  19 lm. The candela is the official SI
Matter unit from which all light intensity units are calculated.
Which is more efficient, or has
the highest lm/W, a lower- or How to illuminate a surface There are two ways to increase the illu-
higher-power lightbulb? To find
mination on a surface. You can use a brighter bulb, which increases
out, look at your lightbulbs at
home and record the power luminous flux, or you can move the surface closer to the bulb, decreas-
and lumens for at least three ing the distance. Mathematically, the illuminance, E, directly under a
different bulbs. small light source is represented by the following equation.
Graph Your Results Make a
graph of power (horizontal axis) P
Illuminance E  
versus lumens (vertical axis). 4d2
Summarize your results.
P represents the luminous flux of the source, and d represents its dis-
tance from the surface. This equation is valid only if the light from the
source strikes the surface perpendicular to it. It is also valid only for
sources that are small enough or far enough away to be considered
point sources. Thus, the equation does not give accurate values with
long fluorescent lamps, or with incandescent bulbs in large reflectors
that are close to the illuminated surface.

Example Problem
Illumination of a Surface
What is the illumination on your desktop if it is lighted by a
1750-lm lamp that is 2.50 m above your desk?
P
Sketch the Problem
• Assume that the bulb is the point source.
• Diagram the position of the bulb and desktop. Label P and d. d

Calculate Your Answer

Known: Unknown:
luminous flux, P  1750 lm illuminance, E  ?
d  2.50 m

Strategy: Calculations:
The surface is perpendicular P
E  
to the direction the light ray 4d2
is traveling, so you can use 1750 lm
the illuminance equation. E    22.3 lm/m2  22.3 lx
4(2.5 0 m)2

380 Light
 Check Your Answer
• Are the units correct? lm/m2  lx, which the answer agrees with.
Math Handbook
• Do the signs make sense? All quantities are positive, as they
should be.
• Is the magnitude realistic? Answer agrees with quantities given.
T o review ratios, rates, and
proportions, see the Math
Handbook, Appendix A,
page 739.

Practice Problems

6. A lamp is moved from 30 cm to 90 cm above the pages of a

book. Compare the illumination on the book before and after
the lamp is moved.
7. What is the illumination on a surface 3.0 m below a 150-watt
incandescent lamp that emits a luminous flux of 2275 lm?
8. Draw a graph of the illuminance from a 150-watt incandescent
lamp between 0.50 m and 5.0 m.
9. A 64-cd point source of light is 3.0 m above the surface of a
desk. What is the illumination on the desk’s surface in lux?
10. The illumination on a tabletop is 2.0  101 lx. The lamp
providing the illumination is 4.0 m above the table. What
is the intensity of the lamp?
11. A public school law requires a minimum illumination of
160 lx on the surface of each student’s desk. An architect’s
specifications call for classroom lights to be located 2.0 m
above the desks. What is the minimum luminous flux the
lights must deliver?

16.1 Section Review

1. How far does light travel in the time it 4. Which provides greater illumination of a
takes sound to go 1 cm in air at 20°C? surface, placing two equal bulbs instead
2. The speed of light is slower in air and of one at a given distance or moving
water than in a vacuum. The frequency, one bulb to half that distance?
however, does not change when light 5. Critical Thinking A bulb illuminating
enters water. Does the wavelength your desk provides only half the
change? If so, in which direction? illumination it should. If it is currently
3. Research and describe the history of the 1.0 m away, how far should it be to
measurement of the speed of light. provide the correct illumination?

16.1 Light Fundamentals 381

 16.2 Light and Matter
O bjects can be seen clearly through air, glass, some
plastics, and other materials. These materials, which
transmit light waves without distorting images, are
transparent materials. Materials that transmit light but
OBJ ECTIVES do not permit objects to be seen clearly through them are
• Explain the formation translucent materials. Lamp shades and frosted lightbulbs are examples
of color by light and by of translucent objects. Materials such as brick, which transmit no light but
pigments or dyes. absorb or reflect all light incident upon them, are opaque materials. All
• Explain the cause and give three types of materials are illustrated in Figure 16–7.
examples of interference
in thin films.
• Describe methods of
producing polarized light.

FIGURE 16–7 Materials can

be transparent, translucent,
or opaque.

Color
One of the most beautiful phenomena in nature is a rainbow. Artificial
rainbows can be produced when light passes through water or glass. How
is the color pattern of a rainbow produced? In 1666, the 24-year-old Isaac
Newton did his first scientific experiments on the colors produced when a
narrow beam of sunlight passed through a prism, shown in Figure 16–8.
Newton called the ordered arrangement of colors from violet to red a
spectrum. He thought that some unevenness in the glass might be pro-
ducing the spectrum.

FIGURE 16–8 White light, when

passed through a prism, is sepa-
rated into a spectrum of colors.

382 Light
 FIGURE 16–9 A second prism
can recombine the colors sepa-
rated by the first prism into white
white light light again.
Red Red White Spot

Viol et
et Viol

prism 1
Screen
Pocket Lab
prism 2
Hot and Cool Colors
Some artists refer to red and
To test this assumption, he allowed the spectrum from one prism to fall orange as hot colors and green
on a second prism. If the spectrum were caused by irregularities in the and blue as cool colors. But does
glass, he reasoned, then the second prism should have increased the emitting red or orange light really
indicate that an object is hotter
spread in colors. Instead, the second prism reversed the spreading of col- than one emitting blue or green?
ors and recombined them to form white light, as shown in Figure 16–9. Try this to find out. Obtain a pair
After more experiments, Newton concluded that white light is composed of prism glasses or a piece of
of colors. We now know that each color in the spectrum is associated with diffraction grating from your
teacher. Find a lamp with a
a specific wavelength of light, as represented in Figure 16–1, page 374.
dimmer switch and turn off
the light. Next, slowly turn the
Color by addition White light can be formed from colored light in a dimmer so that the light gets
variety of ways. For example, if correct intensities of red, green, and blue brighter and brighter. To get the
light are projected onto a white screen, as in Figure 16–10, the screen will best effect, turn off all the other
appear to be white. Thus, red, green, and blue light added together form lights in the room.
white light. This is called the additive color process. A color television tube Analyze and Conclude Which
colors appeared first when the
uses the additive process. It has tiny dotlike sources of red, green, and blue light was dim? Which colors
light. When all have the correct intensities, the screen appears to be white. were the last to appear? How
For this reason, red light, green light, and blue light are called the primary do these colors relate to the
colors of light. The primary colors can be mixed by pairs to form three dif- temperature of the filament?
ferent colors. Red and green light together produce yellow light, blue
and green light produce cyan, and red and blue light produce magenta.
The three colors yellow, cyan, and magenta are called the secondary
colors of light. FIGURE 16–10 The additive
mixture of blue, green, and red
light produces white light.

Blue
Magenta

Cyan
White

Red

Green Yellow

16.2 Light and Matter 383

Colors to Mix In the chapter-opening photograph, each shadow occurs when the
girl blocks one color of light, leaving the secondary colors. Thus, in
and Match order from the right, the yellow shadow is illuminated by red and green
➥ Answers question from lights, the cyan shadow by blue and green lights, and the magenta
shadow by red and blue lights. Smaller shadows showing the primary
page 372.
light colors appear where two lights are blocked. Where there is a black
shadow, all three lights are blocked.
Yellow light can be made from red light and green light. If yellow
light and blue light are projected onto a white screen with the correct
intensities, the surface will appear to be white. Thus, yellow and blue
light combine to form white light, and consequently, yellow light is
called the complementary color to blue light. Yellow light is made
up of the two other primary colors. In the same way, cyan and red are
complementary colors, as are magenta and green.

Colors by subtraction A dye is a molecule that absorbs certain wave-

lengths of light and transmits or reflects others. A tomato is red because
it reflects red light to our eyes. When white light falls on the red block in
Figure 16–11, dye molecules in the red block absorb the blue and green
light and reflect the red. When only blue light falls on the block, very
little light is reflected and the block appears to be almost black.
Like a dye, a pigment is a colored material that absorbs certain colors
and transmits or reflects others. The difference is that a pigment particle
is larger than a molecule and can be seen with a microscope. Often, a pig-
ment is a finely ground inorganic compound such as titanium(IV) oxide
CHEMISTRY (white), chromium(III) oxide (green), or cadmium sulfide (yellow).
CONNECTION Pigments mix in a medium to form suspensions rather than solutions.
The absorption of light forms colors by the subtractive process. Pigments
and dyes absorb certain colors from white light. A pigment that absorbs
only one primary color from white light is called a primary pigment.
Yellow pigment absorbs blue light and reflects red and green light. Yellow,
cyan, and magenta are the primary pigments. A pigment that absorbs two
primary colors and reflects one is a secondary pigment. The secondary
pigments are red (which absorbs green and blue light), green (which
absorbs red and blue light), and blue (which absorbs red and green light).
Note that the primary pigment colors are the secondary light colors. In the
same way, the secondary pigment colors are the primary light colors.

FIGURE 16–11 The dyes in the

blocks selectively absorb and
reflect various wavelengths of
light. Illumination is by white light
in (a), red light in (b), and blue
light in (c). a b c

384 Light
 FIGURE 16–12 The primary
pigment colors are yellow, cyan,
and magenta. In each case, the
pigment absorbs one of the
primary light colors and reflects
the other two.

The primary pigment yellow absorbs blue light. If it is mixed with the
secondary pigment blue, which absorbs green and red light, all light will
be absorbed. No light will be reflected, so the result will be black. Thus,
yellow and blue are complementary pigments. Cyan and red, as well as
magenta and green, are also complementary pigments. The primary pig-
ments and their complementary pigments are shown in Figure 16–12.

Formation of Colors in Thin Films

Have you ever seen a spectrum of colors produced by a soap bubble
or by the oily film on a water puddle in a parking lot? These colors are
not the result of separation of white light by a prism or of absorption of
colors in a pigment. In fact, the colors you see cannot be explained in
terms of a ray model of light; they are a result of the constructive and
destructive interference of light waves, or thin-film interference.
If a soap film is held vertically, as in Figure 16–13, its weight makes
it thicker at the bottom than at the top. The thickness varies gradually
from top to bottom. When a light wave strikes the film, part of it is
reflected, as shown by R1, and part is transmitted. The transmitted wave
travels through the film to the back surface, where, again, part is
reflected, as shown by R2. If the thickness of the film is one fourth of the
wavelength of the wave in the film (/4), the round-trip path length in

R1 1/4 λ

R2

FIGURE 16–13 Each color is

reinforced where the soap film
R1 3/4 λ
is 1/4, 3/4, 5/4, and so on of the
wavelength for that color. Because
R2
each color has a different wave-
length, a series of color bands is
reflected from the soap films.

16.2 Light and Matter 385

 the film is /2. In this case, it would appear that the wave returning from
the back surface would reach the front surface one-half wavelength
behind the first reflected wave and that the two waves would cancel by

Pocket Lab the superposition principle. But, as you learned in Chapter 14, when a
transverse wave is reflected from a more optically dense medium, it is
inverted. As a result, the first reflected wave, R1, is inverted on reflection.
Soap Solutions
The second reflected wave, R2, is reflected from a less-dense medium
and is not inverted. Thus, when the film has a thickness of /4, the wave
reflected from the back surface returns to the front surface in sync with
Dip a ring into soap solution
and hold it at a 45° angle to the the first reflected wave. The two waves reinforce each other as they leave
horizontal. Look for color bands the film. Light with other wavelengths suffers partial or complete
to form in horizontal stripes. destructive interference. At any point on the film, the light most
Analyze and Conclude Why strongly reflected has a wavelength satisfying the requirement that the
do the bands move? Why are film thickness equals /4.
the bands horizontal? What type
of pattern would you see if you
Different colors of light have different wavelengths. As the thickness
looked through the soap with a of the film changes, the /4 requirement will be met at different loca-
red filter? Try it. Describe and tions for different colors. As the thickness increases, the light with the
explain your results. shortest wavelength, violet, will be most strongly reflected, then blue,
green, yellow, orange, and finally red, which has the longest wavelength.
A rainbow of color results.
Notice in Figure 16–13 that the spectrum repeats. When the thick-
ness is 3/4, the round-trip distance is 3/2, and constructive interfer-
ence occurs again. Any thickness equal to an odd multiple of quarter
wavelengths—/4, 3/4, 5/4, 7/4, and so on—satisfies the conditions
for reinforcement for a given color. At the top of the film, there is no
color; the film appears to be black. Here, the film is too thin to produce
constructive interference for any color. Shortly after the top of the film
becomes thin enough to appear black, it breaks.

Polarization of Light
Have you ever looked at light reflected off a road through Polaroid
sunglasses? As you rotate the glasses, the road first appears to be dark,
then light, and then dark again. Light from a lamp, however, changes
very little as the glasses are rotated. Why is there a difference? Part of the
reason is that the light coming from the road is reflected. A second part
is that the reflected light has become polarized.
Polarization can be understood by considering the rope model of
light waves, as shown in Figure 16–14. The transverse mechanical
waves in the rope represent the transverse electromagnetic waves of
light. The slots represent what is referred to as the polarizing axis of the
Polaroid material. When the rope waves are parallel to the slots, they
pass through. When they are perpendicular to the slots, the waves are
blocked. Polaroid material contains long molecules that allow electro-
magnetic waves of one direction to pass through while absorbing the
waves vibrating in the other direction. One direction of the Polaroid
material is called the polarizing axis. Only waves vibrating parallel to
that axis can pass through.

386 Light
 FIGURE 16–14 In the wave
model of light, waves are polar-
ized in relation to the vertical
plane (a). Vertically polarized
waves cannot pass through a
horizontal polarizer (b).

a b
Pocket Lab
Light Polarization
Obtain a polarizing filter from
Ordinary light contains electromagnetic waves vibrating in every your teacher to take home. Look
direction perpendicular to its direction of travel. Each wave can be through the filter at various
resolved into two perpendicular components in a manner similar to an objects as you rotate the filter.
Make a record of those objects
acceleration or velocity vector. On the average, therefore, half the waves that seem to change in bright-
vibrate in one plane, while the other half vibrate in a plane perpendic- ness as the filter is rotated.
ular to the first. If polarizing material is placed in a beam of ordinary Recognize Cause and Effect
light, only those waves vibrating in one plane pass through. Half the What seems to be the pattern?
light, passes through, and the intensity of the light is reduced by half.
The polarizing material produces light that is polarized in a particular
plane of vibration. The material is said to be a polarizer of light and is
called a polarizing filter.
FIGURE 16–15 The arrows
Suppose a second polarizing filter is placed in the path of the polar- show that unpolarized light
ized light. If the polarizing axis of the second filter is perpendicular to vibrates in many planes. Polarized
the direction of vibration of the polarized light, no light will pass light from a polarizer is absorbed
by an analyzer that is perpen-
through, as shown in Figure 16–15a. If the filter, however, is at an
dicular to the plane of the polar-
angle, the component of light parallel to the polarizing axis of the filter ized light (a). Polarized light
will be transmitted, as shown in Figure 16–15b. Thus, a polarizing fil- from a polarizer is only partially
ter can determine the orientation of polarization of light and is often absorbed by an analyzer that is
at an angle to the plane of the
called an “analyzer.”
polarized light (b).

Polarizer Polarizer
Unpolarized Unpolarized
Light Light

Analyzer
a b Analyzer

16.2 Light and Matter 387

 Light also can be polarized by reflection. If you look through a polar-
izing filter at the light reflected by a sheet of glass and rotate the filter, you
will see the light brighten and dim. The light was partially polarized when
it was reflected. That is, the reflected ray contains a great deal of light
vibrating in one direction. The polarization of light reflected by roads is
the reason why polarizing sunglasses reduce glare. The fact that the inten-
sity of light reflected off a road varies as Polaroid sunglasses are rotated
suggests that the reflected light is partially polarized. Photographers can
use polarizing filters to block reflected light, as shown in Figure 16–16.
Light also is polarized when it is scattered by molecules in the air. If you
look through Polaroid sunglasses along the horizon when the sun is over-
head and rotate the glasses, you will see the brightness change, showing
that the light is polarized.

The Ray and Wave Models of Light

You have learned that many characteristics of light can be explained
with a simple ray model. An understanding of the interaction of light
FIGURE 16–16 A polarizing with thin films that produce colors, however, requires the use of a
filter over the lens of a camera can model of light that involves waves. This model also is used to explain
block the glare from reflecting
surfaces.
polarization. In the next chapter, you’ll find that the ray model is suit-
able for explaining how lenses and mirrors form images. In Chapter 18
you’ll learn about other aspects of light that can be understood only
through the use of the wave model. But both the ray and wave models
of light have been found to be inadequate to explain some other inter-
actions of light with matter. For such phenomena, we will need yet
another model, which is much closer to the ray model than to the wave
model. This model, often referred to as the particle theory of light, will
be discussed in Chapter 27.

16.2 Section Review

1. Why might you choose a window a. white light?
shade that is translucent? Opaque? b. green and red light?
2. What light color do you add to blue c. blue light?
light to obtain white light?
5. Critical Thinking Describe a simple
3. What primary pigment colors must experiment you could do to deter-
be mixed to get red? mine whether sunglasses in a store
4. What color will a yellow banana were polarizing. How does the ability
appear to be when illuminated by of light to be polarized impact the
photography industry?

388 Light
CHAPTER 16 REVIEW
Summary
16.1 Light Fundamentals • White light can be
Key Terms • Light is an electromagnetic wave that formed by adding
stimulates the retina of the eye. Its together the primary
wavelengths are between 400 and light colors: red, blue,
16.1 and green.
• light 700 nm.
• Light travels in a straight line through • The subtractive primary colors—cyan,
• ray model magenta, and yellow—are used in
any uniform medium.
• luminous • In a vacuum, light has a speed of pigments and dyes to produce a wide
• illuminated 3.00  108 m/s. variety of colors.
• The luminous flux of a light source is • Colors in soap and oil films are caused
• luminous flux
the rate at which light is emitted. It is by the interference of specific wave-
• lumen lengths of light reflected from the front
measured in lumens.
• illuminance and back surfaces of the thin films.
• Illuminance is the rate at which light
• lux falls on a unit area. It is measured in lux. • Polarized light consists of waves vibrat-
• candela ing in a particular plane.
16.2 Light and Matter
• luminous
intensity • Materials may be characterized as being
transparent, translucent, or opaque, Key Equation
16.2 depending on the amount of light they
• transparent 16.1
reflect, transmit, or absorb.
P
• translucent • White light is a combination of the E  
spectrum of colors, each having differ- 4d2
• opaque
ent wavelengths.
• spectrum
• primary color
• secondary color Reviewing Concepts
• complementary Section 16.1 8. What are the units used to measure
color each of the following?
1. Sound does not travel through a
• dye vacuum. How do we know that a. luminous intensity
• pigment light does? b. illuminance
• primary pigment 2. What is the range of wavelength, from c. luminous flux
shortest to longest, that the human 9. What is the symbol that represents
• secondary
eye can detect? each of the following?
pigment
3. What color of visible light has the a. luminous intensity
• thin-film
shortest wavelength? b. illuminance
interference
4. What was changed in the equation c. luminous flux
• polarized v = f in this chapter?
Section 16.2
5. Distinguish between a luminous body
and an illuminated body. 10. Distinguish among transparent,
6. Look carefully at an ordinary, frosted, translucent, and opaque objects.
incandescent bulb. Is it a luminous or 11. Of what colors does white light
an illuminated body? consist?
7. Explain how we can see ordinary, 12. Is black a color? Why does an object
nonluminous classroom objects. appear to be black?

Chapter 16 Review 389

CHAPTER 16 REVIEW

13. Name each primary light color and its b. When you hold it between your eye and a
secondary light color. white light, it looks red. Explain.
14. Name each primary pigment and its secondary c. Now, what happens to the blue and
pigment. green light?
15. Why can sound waves not be polarized? 26. A soap film is transparent and doesn’t absorb
any color. If such a film reflects blue light, what
kind of light does it transmit?
Applying Concepts 27. You put a piece of red cellophane over one
16. What happens to the wavelength of light as the flashlight and a piece of green cellophane over
frequency increases? another. You shine the light beams on a white
17. To what is the illumination of a surface by a wall. What color will you see where the two
light source directly proportional? To what is it flashlight beams overlap?
inversely proportional? 28. You now put both the red and green cellophane
18. A point source of light is 2.0 m from screen A pieces over one of the flashlights in problem 27.
and 4.0 m from screen B. How does the illumi- If you shine the flashlight beam on a white wall,
nation of screen B compare with the illumina- what color will you see? Explain.
tion of screen A? 29. If you have yellow, cyan, and magenta pigments,
19. You have a small reading lamp 35 cm from the how can you make a blue pigment? Explain.
pages of a book. You decide to double the dis- 30. Describe what happens when white light inter-
tance. Is the illumination on the book the acts with a thin film. Now consider a thin film
same? If not, how much more or less is it? of gasoline floating on water. The speed of light
20. Why are the insides of binoculars and cameras is slower in gasoline than in air, and slower in
painted black? water than in gasoline. Would you expect the
21. The eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light. /4 rule to hold in this case? Explain.
Its sensitivity to red and blue light is less than
ten percent as great. Based on this knowledge,
what color would you recommend that fire Problems
trucks and ambulances be painted? Why? Section 16.1
22. Some very efficient streetlights contain sodium 31. Convert 700 nm, the wavelength of red light,
vapor under high pressure. They produce light to meters.
that is mainly yellow with some red. Should a 32. Light takes 1.28 s to travel from the moon to
community having these lights buy dark-blue Earth. What is the distance between them?
police cars? Why or why not? 33. The sun is 1.5  108 km from Earth. How long
23. Suppose astronauts made a soap film in the does it take for the sun’s light to reach us?
space shuttle. Would you expect an orderly 34. Radio stations are usually identified by their
set of colored lines, such as those in frequency. One radio station in the middle of
Figure 16–13? Explain. the FM band has a frequency of 99.0 MHz.
24. Photographers often put polarizing filters over What is its wavelength?
the camera lens to make clouds in the sky more 35. What is the frequency of a microwave that
visible. The clouds remain white while the sky has a wavelength of 3.0 cm?
looks darker. Explain this based on your knowl- 36. Find the illumination 4.0 m below a
edge of polarized light. 405-lm lamp.
25. An apple is red because it reflects red light and 37. A screen is placed between two lamps so that
absorbs blue and green light. Follow these steps they illuminate the screen equally. The first
to decide whether a piece of transparent red cello- lamp emits a luminous flux of 1445 lm and is
phane absorbs or transmits blue and green light: 2.5 m from the screen. What is the distance of
a. Explain why the red cellophane looks red in the second lamp from the screen if the lumi-
reflected light. nous flux is 2375 lm?

390 Light
 CHAPTER 16 REVIEW

38. A three-way bulb uses 50, 100, or 150 W of elec-

trical power to deliver 665, 1620, or 2285 lm in Extra Practice For more
its three settings. The bulb is placed 80 cm practice solving problems, go
above a sheet of paper. If an illumination of at to Extra Practice Problems,
least 175 lx is needed on the paper, what is the Appendix B.
minimum setting that should be used?
39. Two lamps illuminate a screen equally. The first
lamp has an intensity of 101 cd and is 5.0 m Critical Thinking Problems
from the screen. The second lamp is 3.0 m 45. Suppose you illuminated a thin soap film with
from the screen. What is the intensity of the red light from a laser. What would you see?
second lamp? 46. If you were to drive at sunset in a city filled
40. Ole Roemer found that the maximum with buildings that have glass-covered walls,
increased delay in the disappearance of Io from you might be temporarily blinded by the set-
one orbit to the next is 14 s. ting sun reflected off the building’s walls.
a. How far does light travel in 14 s? Would polarizing glasses solve this problem?
b. Each orbit of Io takes 42.5 h. Earth travels
the distance calculated in a in 42.5 h. Find
the speed of Earth in km/s.
Going Further
A hanging soap film (Figure 16-13) gets thicker
c. See if your answer for b is reasonable.
at a rate of 150 nm for each centimeter from
Calculate Earth’s speed in orbit using the
the top of the film. Use a calculator or computer
orbital radius, 1.5  108 km, and the
to find the distances from the top of the film of
period, one year.
the first three reflected fringes of each of the
41. Suppose you wanted to measure the speed of
colors blue, green, yellow, and red. The color is
light by putting a mirror on a distant moun-
most strongly reflected when the thickness is
tain, setting off a camera flash, and measuring
an odd number of quarter wavelengths of that
the time it takes the flash to reflect off the mir-
color (/4, 3 /4, 5 /4, etc.) The wavelength,
ror and return to you. Without instruments, a
however, is that of the light within the soap
person can detect a time interval of about 0.1 s.
film. This wavelength is 3/4 of the wavelength
How many kilometers away would the mirror
in air. Use the following wavelengths in air:
have to be? Compare this distance with that of blue 460 nm, green 550 nm, yellow 600 nm,
some known objects. red 660 nm. Plot these locations on a sheet of
42. A streetlight contains two identical bulbs 3.3 m paper and compare with Figure 16-13.
above the ground. If the community wants to
save electrical energy by removing one bulb,
how far from the ground should the streetlight
be positioned to have the same illumination
on the ground under the lamp?
43. A student wants to compare the luminous flux
from a bulb with that of a 1750-lm lamp. The
two bulbs illuminate a sheet of paper equally.
The 1750-lm lamp is 1.25 m away; the
unknown bulb is 1.08 m away. What is its
PHYSICS
luminous flux? To review content, do the
44. A 10.0-cd point source lamp and a 60.0-cd interactive quizzes on the
point source lamp cast equal intensities on a Glencoe Science Web site at
wall. If the 10.0-cd lamp is 6.0 m from the science.glencoe.com
wall, how far is the 60.0-cd lamp?

Chapter 16 Review 391