Diffraction at single and double slit

Superposition principle:
The principle of superposition states that when two waves of the same kind meet at a
point in space, the resultant displacement at that point is the vector sum of the displace-
ments that the two waves would separately produce at that point.

Suppose E1 = E0 cos(kx − ωt) and E2 = E0 cos(kx − ωt + φ) are the electric fields

of the two waves propagating along x direction, and φ is the phase difference between
them. Then, the resultant electric field is

E = E1 + E2 = E0 [cos(kx − ωt) + cos(kx − ωt + φ)],

= 2E0 cos(kx − ωt + φ/2) cos(φ/2) (1)

Therefore the resultant intensity is

I ∝ hE 2 i = 4E02 cos2 (φ/2), (2)

where h...i represents the time average.

(a) Constructive Superposition: When two waves are traveling in the same direction
and crest of both the waves hits the observation surface at the same instant then it is
constructive superposition, which corresponds to

φ = mπ (3)

where m is an integer. And

I = 4E02 (4)

In constructive superposition, amplitude is doubled, and hence intensity is quadrupled.

(b) Destructive Superposition: When two waves are traveling in the same direction
and crest of one wave and trough of other wave hits the observation surface at the same
instant then it is destructive superposition, which corresponds to

φ = (m + 1/2)π, (5)

and

I = 0. (6)

In destructive superposition, amplitude is zero, and hence intensity is also zero.

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Huygens’ Principle:
Every point on a propagating wavefront serves as the source of spherical secondary
wavelets, such that the wavefront at some later time is the envelope of (surface tan-
gent to) these wavelets. If the propagating wave has a frequency f and is transmitted
through the medium at a speed v, then the secondary wavelets will have the same fre-
quency and speed. According to Huygens’ principle of diffraction as shown in figure 1 for
the light passing through an aperture (an opening within a barrier), every point of the
light wave within the aperture can be viewed as creating a circular wave which propagates
outwards from the aperture. The aperture, therefore, is treated as creating a new wave
source and propagates in the form of a circular wavefront. The center of the wavefront
has greater intensity, with a fading of intensity as the edges are approached. This explains
the diffraction observed, and why the light through an aperture does not create a perfect
image of the aperture on a screen. The edges “spread out” based upon this principle.

Figure 1: Diffraction of light passing through an aperture using Huygens’ construction.

Single slit diffraction:

In simplest words, diffraction is defined as the bending of light around corners such that
it spreads out and illuminates the areas where a shadow is normally expected. In the
experiment, we will study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by a slit of width
a. A plane wave is assumed to fall normally on the slit, and we wish to calculate the
intensity distribution produced on the screen. We assume that the slit consists of a
large number of equally spaced point sources and that each point on the slit is a source
of Huygens’ secondary wavelets which interfere with the wavelets emanating from other
secondary points. Let the point sources be at A1 , A2 , A3 . . ., and let the distance between

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the consecutive points be ∆, (see figure 2). Thus, if the number of point sources is n,
then
a = (n − 1)∆ (7)
We now calculate the resultant field produced by these n point sources at point P on the

Figure 2: Single slit diffraction

screen. Since the slit actually consists of a continuous distribution of sources, we will, in
the final expression, let n go to ∞ and ∆ go to zero such that n∆ → a. Now at point
P, the amplitudes of disturbances reaching from A1 , A2 . . . will be very nearly the same
because the point is at a distance which is very large in comparison to a. However, because
of even slightly different path lengths at the point P, the field produced by A1 will differ
in phase from the field produced by A2 and so on. For an incident plane wave, the points
A1 A2 . . . are in phase, and therefore, the additional path traversed by the disturbance
emanating from the point A2 will be A2 A02 , where A02 is the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from A1 on A2 A02 . This follows from the fact that the optical paths A1 P and A02 P
are the same. If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal to the slit the path
difference would be
A2 A02 = ∆ sin θ (8)
The corresponding phase difference would be given by
2π
φ= ∆ sin θ. (9)
λ
Thus, if the field at the point P due to disturbance emanating from the point A1 is
E0 cos(ωt), then the field due to the disturbance emanating from A2 would be emanating

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E0 cos(ωt − φ). Now, the difference in phase of the disturbance reaching from A2 and A3
will also be φ, and thus the resultant field at the point P would be given by

E = E0 [cos ωt + cos(ωt − φ) . . . . . . + cos(ωt − (n − 1)φ], (10)

= Eθ cos(ωt − (n − 1)φ/2), (11)

where Eθ , amplitude of the resultant field, is

sin(nφ/2)
Eθ = E0 . (12)
sin(φ/2)
Try to derive Eq. (11) starting from Eq. (10).
In the limit of n → ∞ and ∆ → 0 in such a way that n∆ → a, we have
2π 2πn∆ sin θ
φ = ∆ sin θ = → 0, (13)
λ λn
nφ π
→ a sin θ, (14)
2 λ
sin(nφ/2) sin( πa sin θ ) sin β
Eθ ≈ E0 → nE0 π λ =A , (15)
φ/2 λ
a sin θ β
πa sin θ
where we have used sin(φ/2) ≈ φ/2 for φ → 0, A = nE0 , and β = λ
. Thus
sin β
E=A cos(ωt − β). (16)
β
The corresponding intensity distribution is given by
sin2 β
I = I0 , (17)
β2
where I0 represents the intensity at θ = 0.

Can you think of the reason, why is the intensity in Eq. (17) independent of time in
contrast to Eq. (16)?

Positions of the maxima and minima:

The variation of the intensity with β is shown in figure 3(a). From Eq. (17) it is obvious
that the intensity is zero when

β = mπ, m = ±1, ±2, ±3 . . . (18)

or

a sin θ = mλ, m = ±1, ±2, ±3 . . . (minima). (19)

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Figure 3: (a) Variation of intensity as a function of β, (b) Graphical method for solution
of equation tan β = β.

Figure 4: Intensity minima due single slit diffraction

Thus in figure 4 P1 is the location of the first order minima.

The condition to obtain minima can be arrived at trivially without resorting to formal-
ism given here!
In order to determine the position of the maxima, we differentiate Eq. (17) w.r.t. β

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and set it to zero. This gives
tan β = β (maxima). (20)
The root β = 0 of this equation corresponds to the central maximum. The other roots
can be found by determining the points of intersections of the curves y = β and y = tan β
[figure 3(b)]. The intersections occur at β = 1.43π,β = 2.46π, etc. and are known as the
first maximum, the second maximum, etc. the intensity of the first maximum is about
4.96 of the central maximum. Similarly, the intensities of the second and third maxima
are about 1.68 and 0.83 of the central maximum, respectively.

Double slit diffraction:

In this section we will study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by two parallel
slits (each of width a) separated by a distance d. We would find that the resultant
intensity distribution is a product of single slit diffraction pattern, and the interference
pattern produced by two-point sources separated by a distance d.
In order to calculate the diffraction, we use a method similar to that used for the case of
a single slit and assume that the slits consists of a large number of equally spaced point
sources and that each point on the slit is a source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Let
the point sources be at A1 , A2 , A3 . . . (in the first slit) and at B1 , B2 , B3 . . . (in the second
slit) (see figure 5). As before, we assume that the distances between two consecutive
points in either of the slit is ∆. If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal
to the plane of the slits, then the path difference between the disturbances reaching the
point P from two consecutive point in a slit will be ∆ sin θ. The field produced by the
first slit at the point P will, therefore, be given by (see Eq. 16).
sin β
E1 = A cos(ωt − β) (21)
β
Similarly, the secondary slit will produce a field
sin β
E2 = A cos(ωt − β − φ) (22)
β
at the point P, where
2π
φ= d sin θ (23)
λ
represent the phase difference between the disturbance from two corresponding points on
the slits; by corresponding points we imply a pair of points like (A1 , B1 ), (A2 , B2 ), . . .,
which are separated by a distance d. Hence, the resultant field will be
sin β
E = E1 + E2 = A [cos(ωt − β) + cos(ωt − β − φ)], (24)
β
sin β
= 2A cos γ cos(ωt − β − φ/2), (25)
β

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 Figure 5: Double slit diffraction

which represents the interference of two waves each of amplitude A sinβ β and differing
in phase by φ [compare this expression with Eq. (1)]. Here γ = φ/2. The intensity
distribution will be of the form
sin2 β
I = 4I0 cos2 γ, (26)
β2
2
where I0 sinβ 2 β represents the intensity distribution produced by one of the slits. As a can
be seen, the intensity distribution is a product of two terms, the first term represents
the diffraction produced by a single slit of width a, and the second term represents the
interference pattern produced by two point sources separated by a distance d (see figure
6).

Positions of Maxima and Minima:

Equation (26) tells us that the intensity is zero wherever

β = ±π, ±2π, ±3π . . . or γ = ±π/2, ±3π/2, ±5π/2 . . . (27)

The corresponding angles of diffraction will be given by

a sin θ = mλ, where m = 1, 2, 3 . . . (28)

d sin θ = (m + 1/2)λ, where m = 1, 2, 3 . . . (29)

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 Figure 6: Double slit diffraction pattern

And interference maxima occur when

γ = 0, ±π, ±2π . . . (30)

or when

d sin θ = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ . . . (31)

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Aim: To determine the wave length of laser light by
using Single slit diffraction.
Apparatus:
• Diode Laser.
• Single slit disk and slit holder
• Track and screen from the Basic Optics System.
• White paper to cover screen
• Meter scale.

Formula Used:
When diffraction of light occurs as it passes through a slit, the angle to the minima in
the diffraction pattern is given by a sin θ = mλ (m = 1,2,3 where a is the slit width, θ
is the angle from the center of the pattern to the mth minimum, λ is the wavelength of
the light, and m is the order (1 for the first minimum, 2 for the second minimum, . . .
counting from the center out).:)

Procedure:
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optics bench and place the Single Slit Disk in its
holder about 3 cm in front of the laser. As shown in below figure.

2. Cover the screen with a sheet of paper and attach it to the other end of the bench
so that the paper faces the laser.
3. Select the single slit with 0.04 mm slit width by rotating the slit disk until the
desired single slit is centered in the slit holder. Adjust the position of the laser
beam from left-to-right and up-and-down by using adjusting screws in back side of
laser source until the beam is centered on the single slit.

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 4. Determine the distance from the slits to the screen (D). Note that the slits are
actually offset from the center line of the slit holder. Record the screen position,
slit position, and the difference between these (the slit-to-screen distance) in Table.

5. Turn off the room lights and mark the positions of the maxima in the interference
pattern on the screen.

6. ) Turn on the room lights and measure the distance between the first order (m =
1) mark and record this distance in Table. Also measure the distance between the
second order (m= 2) mark and record in Table.

7. Make a sketch of the interference pattern to scale.

Observation Table
D =. . . cm (Perpendicular distance between slit and paper screen)

Average λ = . . . nm

Y: distance between central maxima and interested minima and for small values of θ,
Y
sinθ tan θ = D

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Result and calculation:
1. Divide the distances between side orders by two to get the distances from the center
of the pattern to the first and second order maxima. Record these values of Y.

2. Using the average wavelength of the laser (650 nm) for the Diode Laser), calculate
the slit width twice, once using first order and once using second order. Record
these results.

3. Calculate the percentage differences between the experimental slit separation and
standard value. Record it.

Error:
Standard V alue − Calculated value
× 100 (32)
Standard value

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Aim:To determine the slit separation by using Double
slit diffraction.
Apparatus:
• Diode Laser.
• Double slit disk and slit holder
• Track and screen from the Basic Optics System.
• White paper to cover screen
• Meter scale.

Formula Used:
When light passes through two slits, the two light rays emerging from the slits inter-
fere with each other and produce interference fringes. The angle to the maxima (bright
fringes) in the interference pattern is given by

d sin θ = mλ where m=1,2,3. . .

where d is the slit separation, θ is the angle from the center of the pattern to the
mth maximum, λ is the wavelength of the light, and m is the order (0 for the central
maximum, 1 for the first side maximum, 2 for the second side maximum,. . . counting from
the center out). While the interference fringes are created by the interference of the light
coming from the two slits, there is also a diffraction effect occurring at each slit due to
Single Slit diffraction

Procedure:
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optics bench and place the Single Slit Disk in its
holder about 3 cm in front of the laser. As shown in below figure.

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 2. Cover the screen with a sheet of paper and attach it to the other end of the bench
so that the paper faces the laser.

3. Select the single-double slit comparison by rotating the slit disk until the desired
slit set is centered in the slit holder. Adjust the position of the laser beam from
left-to-right and up and-down until the beam is centered on the slit set so that both
the single slits and the double slit are illuminated simultaneously. The patterns
from the single and double slits should be vertical and side-by-side on the screen.

4. Select the double slit with 0.04 mm slit width and 0.25 mm slit separation by rotating
the slit disk until the desired double slit is centered in the slit holder. Adjust the
position of the laser beam from left-to-right and up-and-down until the beam is
centered on the double slit.

5. Determine the distance from the slits to the screen. Note that the slits are actually
offset from the center line of the slit holder. Record the screen position, slit position,
and the difference between these (the slit-to-screen distance) in Table.

6. Turn on the room lights and measure the distance between the first order (m = 1)
marks and record this distance in Table. Also measure the distance between the
second order (m = 2) marks and record in Table.

7. Make a sketch of the interference pattern to scale.

8. Change to another double slit with a slit width of 0.08 mm and the original slit
separation (0.25 mm) and make a sketch to scale of this new interference pattern.

9. Change to a new double slit with the same slit width (0.08 mm) but different slit
separation (0.50 mm) and make a sketch to scale of this new interference pattern

Observation Table
D =. . . cm (Perpendicular distance between slit and paper screen)
Wavelength of the given laser λ = . . . nm

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Mean slit separation, d = . . .
Y: distance between central maxima and interested minima and for small values of θ,
Y
sinθ tan θ = D

Result and calculation:

1. Divide the distances between side orders by two to get the distances from the center
of the pattern to the first and second order maxima. Record these values of Y.

2. Using the average wavelength of the laser (650 nm) for the Diode Laser), calculate
the slit separation twice, once using first order and once using second order. Record
these results.

3. Calculate the percentage differences between the experimental slit separation and
standard value. Record it.

Error:
Standard V alue − Calculated value
× 100 (33)
Standard value

Precaution:
1. Adjustment of slit, laser must be made properly so that fringe is bright and distinct.

2. Make sure that slit is vertical position.

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Reference
1. Fundamentals of Optics by Francis A. Jenkins & Harvey E. White

2. ”OPTICS by Ajoy Ghatak

3. Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and

Diffraction of Light by Max Born

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