Chapter5 Forced Convection
Chapter5 Forced Convection
CHA
The subject of convection heat transfer requires an energy balance along with an
analysis of the fluid dynamics of the problems concerned. Our discussion in this
chapter will first consider some of the simple relations of fluid dynamics and
boundary layer analysis that are important for a basic understanding of convection
heat transfer. Next, we shall impose an energy balance on the flow system and
determine the influence of the flow on the temperature gradients in the fluid.
Finally, having obtained knowledge of the temperature distribution, the heat-
transfer rate from a heated surface to a fluid that is forced over it may be
determined.
VISCOUS FLOW
Consider the flow over a flat plate as shown in Figures 5-1 and 5-2. Beginning at
the leading edge of the plate, a region develops where the influence of viscous
forces is felt. These viscous forces are described in terms of a shear stress τ
between the fluid layers. If this stress is assumed to be proportional to the normal
velocity gradient, we have the defining equation for the viscosity,
Where
u∞ = free-stream velocity, m/s
x = distance from leading edge, m
ν = μ/ρ = kinematic viscosity, m2/s
Consider the flow in a tube as shown in Figure 5-3. A boundary layer develops at
the entrance, as shown. Eventually the boundary layer fills the entire tube, and the
flow is said to be fully developed. If the flow is laminar, a parabolic velocity
profile is experienced, as shown in Figure 5-3a. When the flow is turbulent, a
somewhat blunter profile is observed, as in Figure 5-3b. In a tube, the Reynolds
number is again used as a criterion for laminar and turbulent flow. For the flow is
3
Consider the elemental control volume shown in Figure 5-4. We derive the
equation of motion for the boundary layer by making a force-and-momentum
balance on this element.
To simplify the analysis we assume:
1. The fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady.
2. There are no pressure variations in the direction perpendicular to the plate.
3. The viscosity is constant.
4. Viscous-shear forces in the y direction are negligible.
We apply Newton’s second law of motion,
The above form of Newton’s second law of motion applies to a system of constant
mass. In fluid dynamics it is not usually convenient to work with elements of mass;
rather, we deal with elemental control volumes such as that shown in Figure 5-4,
4
where mass may flow in or out of the different sides of the volume, which is fixed
in space. For this system the force balance is then written
This is the momentum equation of the laminar boundary layer with constant
properties.
[5 -14]
If the velocity profile were known, the appropriate function could be inserted in
Equation (5-14) to obtain an expression for the boundary-layer thickness. For our
approximate analysis we first write down some conditions that the velocity
function must satisfy:
5
Or in dimensionless form
Where
Then, for the element shown, the energy balance may be written as;
The convective and conduction energy quantities are indicated in Figure 5-6, and
the energy term for the viscous work may be derived as follows. The viscous work
may be computed as a product of the net viscous-shear force and the distance this
force moves in unit time. The viscous-shear force is the product of the shear-stress
and the area dx,
And the distance through which it moves per unit time in respect to the elemental
control volume dx dy is
7
Writing the energy balance corresponding to the quantities shown in Figure 5-6,
assuming unit depth in the z direction, and neglecting second-order differentials
yields
This is the energy equation of the laminar boundary layer. The left side represents
the net transport of energy into the control volume, and the right side represents the
sum of the net heat conducted out of the control volume and the net viscous work
done on the element. The viscous-work term is of importance only at high
velocities since its magnitude will be small compared with the other terms when
low-velocity flow is studied. This may be shown with an order-of-magnitude
analysis of the two terms on the right side of Equation (5-22). For this order-of-
magnitude analysis we might consider the velocity as having the order of the free-
stream velocity u∞ and the y dimension of the order of δ. Thus
Then the viscous dissipation is small in comparison with the conduction term. Let
us rearrange Equation (5-23) by introducing
Where, Pr is called the Prandtl number, which we shall discuss later. Equation (5-
23) becomes
9
This value indicating that the viscous dissipation is small for even this rather large
flow velocity of 70 m/s. Thus, for low-velocity incompressible flow, we have
There is a striking similarity between Equation (5-25) and the momentum equation
for constant pressure
The solution to the two equations will have exactly the same form when α = ν.
Thus we should expect that the relative magnitudes of the thermal diffusivity and
kinematic viscosity would have an important influence on convection heat transfer
since these magnitudes relate the velocity distribution to the temperature
distribution. This is exactly the case, and we shall see the role that these parameters
play in the subsequent discussion.
So that we need only find the temperature gradient at the wall in order to evaluate
the heat-transfer coefficient. This means that we must obtain an expression for the
10
Where θ =T −Tw. There now remains the problem of finding an expression for δt,
the thermal-boundary-layer thickness. This may be obtained by an integral analysis
of the energy equation for the boundary layer.
Consider the control volume bounded by the planes 1, 2, A-A, and the wall as
shown in Figure 5-8. It is assumed that the thermal boundary layer is thinner than
the hydrodynamic boundary layer, as shown. The wall temperature is Tw, the free-
11
stream temperature is T∞, and the heat given up to the fluid over the length dx is
dqw. We wish to make the energy balance.
To calculate the heat transfer at the wall, we need to derive an expression for the
thermal boundary layer thickness that may be used in conjunction with Equations
(5-29) and (5-30) to determine the heat-transfer coefficient. For now, we neglect
the viscous-dissipation term; this term is very small unless the velocity of the flow
field becomes very large. The plate under consideration need not be heated over its
entire length. The situation that we shall analyze is shown in Figure 5-9, where the
hydrodynamic boundary layer develops from the leading edge of the plate, while
heating does not begin until x=x0. Inserting the temperature distribution Equation
(5-30) and the velocity distribution Equation (5-19) into Equation (5-32) and
neglecting the viscous-dissipation term, gives
Where
13
has been introduced. The ratio ν/α is called the Prandtl number after Ludwig
Prandtl, the German scientist who introduced the concepts of boundary-layer
theory.
When the plate is heated over the entire length, x0 =0, and
In the foregoing analysis the assumption was made that ζ<1. This assumption is
satisfactory for fluids having Prandtl numbers greater than about 0.7. Fortunately,
most gases and liquids fall within this category. Liquid metals are a notable
exception, however, since they have Prandtl numbers of the order of 0.01.
called the Nusselt number after Wilhelm Nusselt, who made significant
contributions to the theory of convection heat transfer. Finally,
Or, for the plate heated over its entire length, x0 = 0 and
14
Equations (5-41), (5-43), and (5-44) express the local values of the heat-transfer
coefficient in terms of the distance from the leading edge of the plate and the fluid
properties. For the case where x0 = 0 the average heat-transfer coefficient and
Nusselt number may be obtained by integrating over the length of the plate:
For a plate where heating starts at x = x0, it can be shown that the average heat
transfer coefficient can be expressed as
Assuming the heated section is at the constant temperature Tw. For the plate heated
over the entire length,
Or
Where
The foregoing analysis was based on the assumption that the fluid properties were
constant throughout the flow. When there is an appreciable variation between wall
and free-stream conditions, it is recommended that the properties be evaluated at
the so-called film temperature Tf, defined as the arithmetic mean between the wall
and free-stream temperature,
15
For the constant-heat-flux case it can be shown that the local Nusselt number is
given by
which may be expressed in terms of the wall heat flux and temperature difference
as
The average temperature difference along the plate, for the constant-heat-flux
condition, may be obtained by performing the integration
Or
16
17
18
We have already seen that the temperature and flow fields are related. Now we
seek an expression whereby the frictional resistance may be directly related to heat
transfer.
The shear stress at the wall may be expressed in terms of a friction coefficient Cf :
Equation (5-52) is the defining equation for the friction coefficient. The shear
stress may also be calculated from the relation
and making use of the relation for the boundary-layer thickness gives
So that
Upon comparing Equations (5-54) and (5-55), we note that the right sides are alike
except for a difference of about 3 percent in the constant, which is the result of the
approximate nature of the integral boundary-layer analysis. We recognize this
approximation and write
The reason for using the bulk temperature in the definition of heat-transfer
coefficients for tube flow may be explained as follows. In a tube flow there is no
easily discernible free stream condition as is present in the flow over a flat plate.
Even the centerline temperature Tc is not easily expressed in terms of the inlet flow
variables and the heat transfer. At any x position, the temperature that is indicative
of the total energy of the flow is an integrated mass-energy average temperature
over the entire flow area. The numerator of Equation (5-102) represents the total
energy flow through the tube, and the denominator represents the product of mass
flow and specific heat integrated over the flow area. The bulk temperature is thus
representative of the total energy of the flow at the particular location.
21
Summery
Velocity is constant across a reaction flow between infinite parallel walls uniform
heat flux from both walls (q/A), solution of the convection equation:-
2t 2t 2t t t
K 2 2 2 .Cp. u.
x y z x
t
For steady state: 0
For fully developed temperature Profile and constant heat flux, the temperature
gradient constant with x-direction
t 2t
Constant 0
x x 2
t 2t
0 0
z z 2
2t t
K 2 .Cp.um .
y x
2 t .Cp t
.um . Constant=A
y 2
K x
2t
A
y 2
t
Ay B.........1
y
Ay 2
t By C........2
2
Boundary condition
t
1-at y 0 0 B 0
y
2-at y 0 t tc c tc
t
Ay .............1
y
23
Ay 2
t tc ............2
2
t
3-at the wall q k .
y y b
q k Ab k. A.b
q
A
k .b
q y2
t . tc .............3 Temperature profile is parabolic
kb 2
.C p .u.t.dy
tm tb 0
a
.C
0
p .u.dy
t.dy
tb 0
b
dy
0
b
q
2kb . y tc dy
2
q 2
tb 0
b
.b tc
6kb
dy
0
qb
tb t m tc
6k
At y b t tw
24
q b2 qb
t w . tc tc
kb 2 2k
1 qb
t w tb
3 k
q ht w tm
q q k
h 3
tw tb 1 qb b
3 k
h.d e
Nu
k
42b.w
de If w b
2w 4b
8bw
de
2w
3k 4b
Nu
b k
Nu 12
Example (2)
Viscous laminar flow :-( Flow in acicular pipe, fully developed flow) .
t 2t
Fully developed temperature: Constant and 0
x x 2
t
Steady state 0
2
u r
The velocity distribution 1
uc R
25
2t 1 t 2t t t
k 2 . 2 .C p . u.
r r r x x
1 t .C p t r 2 r 2
. r. . .uc .1 A1
r r r k x R R
t r3
. r. Ar 2
r r R
t r2 r4
r. A 2 B
r 2 4R
t r r3 B
A 2 .................1
r 2 4R r
r2 r4
t A B ln r C...............2
2
4 16R
Boundary conditions
t
At r 0, 0, B 0
r
At r 0, t tc ,C tc
t
At the wall r R, qw k .
r r R
r r 3
qw k A 2
2 4 R r R
R
qw k . A.
4
26
4q
A w
kR
4qw r2 r4
T
4 16R 2 Tc
kR
q . R r 2 1 r
4
T w Tc
k R 4 R
R R
.C .u.t.2r.dr u.t.r.dr
p
Tb 0
R
0
R
.C .u.2r.dr
0
p u.r.dr
0
t tw at rR
qR R 1 R
2 4
tw tC
k R 4 R
tC .................4
3 qw R
tw *
4 k
3 qw R 7 q R
tw tb * tC * w tC
4 k 24 k
11 qw R
tw tb *
24 k
qw qw 24 k
h *
tw tb 11 qw R 11 R
24 k
hd
Nu
k
27
24 k 2 R
Nu * *
11 R k
48
Nu
11
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Assume that the heat transfer coefficient (h) depends on the following parameters:-
Now; assume that the heat transfer coefficient (h) is directly proportion to
the listed above items raised to different powers, as;
a b d e f
H M L c M H H
L θT C . . .L . . . …. [3]
L θ L .θ M . T L .θ . T
2 3
28
a e
hL ρ.u.L μ.C p
C. . .......[6]
k μ k
Or
Nu = C . (Re)a . (Pr)e