EXPERIMENT NO.: 5.

To study Balanced Three- Phase

Circuit
 Polyphase System
Single phase system Domestic application
Lighting, Motor, Mixer, Fan, Cooler, Refrigerator,AC, etc
Limitations
1.Single ph is suitable up to 1-5 kW.
2.Electric furnace – two phase system
3.Industry – Three phase system
4.Generation, transmission and distribution –
three phase system
Polyphase - more phases – more circuits – more winding
Two phase -Two single phases-
Same magnitude and frequency
Displaced by 900 electrical in space
 Three phase – Three single phases
Same magnitude and frequency
Displaced by 1200 electrical in space
Balanced 3-ph supply - Equal in magnitude, frequency
and phase angle of 1200 electrical

Balanced 3 ph load - Same impedance and angle

Single phasing = Any one phase is out or not available
Advantages of polyphase system
1. Constant Power:
In 3 ph total power delivered is constant,
In single phase it is pulsating with double frequency.
2. Greater Output:
Rating of machine increases with increase in no. of
phases
3. Rotating Magnetic Field:
Single ph produces pulsating field
Three ph produces Rotating magnetic field
4. Starting Torque:
Single ph induction motors have no starting torque
Three ph IMs have starting torque
5. Power factor and Efficiency:
3- ph motor is having better pf than single ph motor.
3-ph motor is having higher efficiency than 1-ph motor.
6. Economics:
Three ph transmission is cheaper
Three ph motors are cheaper
7. Reliable:
Polyphase system is more reliable
8. Parallel Operation:
Parallel operation of 3 ph generator is simple
as compared to
1 ph generator due to pulsating reaction
Disadvantages
1. For domestic 3 ph is not as practical.
2. Lighting load needs single ph supply.
Single phase Generation
Consider single phase
Alternator or Generator
Single phase Generation
Consider single phase
Alternator or Generator Flux is set up by N & S
poles
Flux is cut by the coil
As per Faraday’s, emf or
voltage is induced in the
coil
Apply Flemings RHR for
GenR
Under N pole cross
Under S pole dot
v

t
Single phase Generation
Consider single phase
Alternator or Generator

DC supply is
given to
field wdg
R2 R1
Flux is
set up

Rotate the arm

By prime mover
Single phase Generation
Consider single phase
Alternator or Generator

DC supply is
given to
field wdg
R2 R1
Flux is
set up

Rotate the arm

By prime mover
Single phase Generation v
Consider single phase t
Alternator or Generator

DC supply is
given to
field wdg
R2 R1
Flux is
set up

Rotate the arm

By prime mover
Single phase Generation
Consider single phase
Alternator or Generator

DC supply is
given to
R2 field wdg
R1
Flux is
set up

Rotate the arm

By prime mover
Single phase Generation v
Consider single phase t
Alternator or Generator

DC supply is
given to
R2 field wdg
R1 VR
Flux is
set up

Rotate the arm

The emf induced is given by By prime mover
eR=Vm sin ωt
Two phase Generation v
Consider TWO phase t
Alternator or Generator

Y2
DC supply is
given to
R2 field wdg
R1
Flux is
set up
Y1
Rotate the arm
By prime mover
Two phase Generation v
Consider TWO phase t
Alternator or Generator
The emf induced in R1R2 is given by
Y2 eR=Vm sin ωt
DC supply is
VR given to
R2 field wdg
R1 -90
Flux is
VY set up
Y1
The emf induced in Y1Y2 is given by Rotate the arm
eY=Vm (sin ωt -90 ) By prime mover
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator

B1 Y2
R2 R1
Y1 B2
Three phase Generation v
Consider THREE phase t
Alternator or Generator

B1 Y2
R2 R1
Y1 B2
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator

B1 Y2

R2 R1

Y1 B2

High rating generator, Pole = rotor, Phase coils = stator.

Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
v
t
B1 Y2

VB
R2 R1
+120
-240 VR
Y1 B2 -120
VY

High rating generator, Pole = rotor, Phase coils = stator.

Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator R Y B
v
t
B
eB=Vm (sin ωt -240 )
VB e =V (sin ωt +120 )
B m
R

VR
eR=Vm sin ωt
Y
Clockwise rotation generates VY
Phase sequence R Y B eY=Vm (sin ωt -120 )
High rating generator, Pole = rotor, Phase coils = stator.
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator R B Y
v
t
B
eY=Vm (sin ωt -240 )
VY e =V (sin ωt +120)
Y m
R

VR
eR=Vm sin ωt
Y
Anticlockwise rotation VB
Phase sequence R B Y eY=Vm (sin ωt -120 )
High rating generator, Pole = rotor, Phase coils = stator.
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
Draw three phase waveform

t
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
Draw three phase waveform

t
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
Draw three phase waveform

v R Y B

t
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
Draw three phase waveform

v R Y B

t
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
Draw three phase waveform

v R Y B

t
Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
Draw three phase waveform

v R Y B

t
 Three phase Generation
Consider THREE phase
Alternator or Generator
It can be proved that the sum of three emfs, at every
instant is ZERO.
1. Resultant = eR+eY+eB
=Vm sin ωt + Vm sin (ωt-120) +Vm sin (ωt-240)
=Vm [sin ωt + 2sin (ωt-180) cos 60]
=Vm [sin ωt - 2sin ωt cos 60] =0
2. Refer 3-ph wave diagram
2. Refer 3-ph wave diagram
Consider any instant, ie P
PL is +ve, PM is +ve, PN is -ve,
PL +PM - PN =0
v R Y B
M
L
t
P

N
3. Refer phasor diagram VB
Add any two phasors, ie VR and VY
VR + VY = -VB
VR
VR + VY + VB =0
VR + VY = VR2 +VY 2+ 2VR VY cos 120
VY -VB
= VB
4. Use complex algebra
Take VR as a reference phasor
VR = V 0 =V + j0
VY = V -120 =V (-0.5 - j0.866)
VB = V -240 =V (-0.5 + j0.866)
VR+VY+VB = 0
Some Concepts:
1. Phase Sequence:
The order of coming of maximum +ve value is called as
phase sequence or phase order.
Phase sequence is R Y B
If direction of rotation is reversed, then phase sequence is R B Y
v R Y B

t
Some Concepts:
2. Naming of Phase Sequence:
Phase sequence may be numbered, 1 2 3
or lettered A B C
But usual practice is use natural colours.
R = Red
Y = Yellow
B = Blue
3. Double Subscript Notation:
The voltage VAB means A is +ve w r t B
The current IAB means current flows from A to B
So VAB = - VBA and
IAB = - IBA and
Inter – Connection of Three Phases:
Each phase TWO terminals, one START and second FINISH
Non- interlinked three phase system has SIX terminals
R
iR
1 Individual phase current,
LOAD Vph
iR IP =
ZL
2
iB 5 Total conductors = 6
B iY 3
iB Y iY 4 Very complicated
6 Expensive
Not used in practice
Two methods of connecting phases
1. STAR (WYE) 2. DELTA (MESH)
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:
R

VRY = VL
L
=V

VRN = Vph Y is obtained by joining

similar START points or
RB

N
V

VYN = Vph similar FINISH points.

B The common point is called
VBN = Vph Y VYB = VL as NEUTRAL or star point.
NEUTRAL point is EARTH connected.
Under balanced condition, current at neutral is ZERO.
This is 3 phase 3 wire system
If fourth wire is connected to neutral then the system is called as
3 phase 4 wire system
Voltage between any line and neutral is called as PHASE voltage
Voltage between any two lines is called as LINE voltage
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection: VRY
R VRN
+

VRY = VL
L
=V

VRN = Vph IR
θ
-
RB

N
V

IB
VYN = Vph θ VYB
B Y θ
VBN = Vph VYB = VL VYN
VBN IY

For inductive load, draw VBY

phasor diagram R
VRY = VR - VY VYB = VY - VB VRY
VBR= VB - VR
N
+ve emf VBY
from neutral point outward
B VYB Y
Same +ve current
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection: VRY
R VRN

VRY = VL
L
=V

VRN = Vph IR
θ
RB

N
V

IB
VYN = Vph θ VYB
B Y θ
VBN = Vph VYB = VL VYN
VBN IY

Note the points: VBY

1. Three phase voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by
1200 from one another
Three line voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by
1200 from one another
Such system is called as BALANCED supply system
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection: VRY
R VRN

VRY = VL
L

300
=V

VRN = Vph IR
θ
RB

N
V

IB
VYN = Vph θ VYB
B Y θ
VBN = Vph VYB = VL VYN
VBN IY

VBY
2. The voltage at neutral point is ZERO
Phasor addition of 3 phase voltages is zero
3. The angle between VRN and -VYN is 600
The Line Voltage VRY = VR2 + VY2 + 2 VR VY cos60
= VR = VR sin (ωt+ 300 )
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:
Refer triangular diagram, the Line Voltage VBY = 2 cos 30 VB = VB
= VY = VR sin (ωt- 2100 )
4. As per wave diagram, at any one instant one is +ve and other
two may be –ve.
5. For balanced load, neutral wire will carry ZERO current
6. Line voltages are 300 ahead of respective phase voltage
7. Line currents and phase currents are EQUAL,
+ve current from N (source) to R,Y or B
8. Angle between line currents and corresponding line voltages
are 30 ± θ, + for lagging and – for leading
9. Total Apparent power = 3 Vp Ip = V L IL
10. Total power output = 3 Vp Ip cos θ = VL IL cos θ
Total power constant, not pulsating
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:

Total power
v R Y B
Average power/phase

t
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:
Connection of 3 phase load R Y B
R
IR
Z
Z Z Z
N N
IY Z Z
B Y N
Balanced Y Load
IB
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:
Connection of 3 phase load R Y B
R
IR
Z
Z Z Z
N N
IY Z Z
B Y N
Balanced Y Load
IB
R R1
B2 R Y B
IR R1 Y1 B1
Z Z
N
Z Z Z
IY B1 R2
B Y Z
Y2 Y1
I Balanced Δ Load R2 Y2 B2
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:
Connection of 3 phase load
Balanced Load
Impedance has same magnitude and pf
All phase current or line current are equal in magnitude
and 1200 apart in space
All voltages are equal in magnitude
and 1200 apart in space
So 3 ph balanced load can be solved by considering
single phase only.
Current through neutral wire is zero.
In unbalanced load, neutral wire current is not zero but equal to
phasor sum of all three currents.
1. STAR or WYE(Y) Connection:
Connection of single phase load
If neutral wire is available, then single phase load can be
connected between any one phase.
R

IR
Z
N
IR
B Y
2. DELTA (Δ) or MESH Connection:
R IR
R
VBR
VRY
IBR IRY
IYB IY
B Y
VYB Y IB
B

Delta or Mesh or Closed Circuit.

It is formed when
dissimilar ends are joined together or
when START of one is connected to FINISH of second
It is 3 phase 3 wire system
2. DELTA (Δ) or MESH Connection:
R IR VBR
R IR
VBR - IRY
VRY
IBR IRY IYB IBR
IYB IY VYB
B Y IB
VYB Y IB
B IRY IY
Phasor diagram.
VRY
IR = IBR - IRY IY = IRY - IYB IB = IYB - IBR
The angle between IBR and -IRY is 600.
The Line Current IR = IBR2 +IRY2 + 2 IBR IRY cos60 = IBR
Similarly, Line Current IY = IRY = IPh

and Line Current IB = IYB

2. DELTA (Δ) or MESH Connection:
R IR VBR
R IR
VBR VRY = VL = Vph - IRY
VRY
IBR IRY IYB IBR
IYB IY VYB
B Y IB
VYB Y IB
B IRY IY
Line Voltage
VRY
Only one phase is between two lines
Line Voltage VL = Phase Voltage VP R
cos θ =
Power Z
Power output per phase = Vp Ip cos θ
θ is impedance angle and not the angle between VL and IL
2. DELTA (Δ) or MESH Connection:
R IR VBR
R IR
VBR VRY = VL = Vph - IRY
VRY
IBR IRY IYB IBR
IYB IY VYB
B Y IB
VYB Y IB
B IRY IY
Total Power output = 3 Vp Ip cos θ
VRY
= VL IL cos θ
Apparent power = 3 VP IP = VL IL
Thus for a balanced load, for star or delta, the expression for
total power is same.
2. DELTA (Δ) or MESH Connection:
R IR VBR
R IR
VBR - IRY
VRY
IBR IRY IYB IBR
IYB IY VYB
B Y IB
VYB Y IB
B IRY IY
Note the points:
VRY
1. For delta no neutral. 3 phase 3 wire system
2. Line voltage = phase voltage, Line current = phase current
3. Phase currents are displaced by 1200
4. For balanced load, no circulating current.
5. For balanced load, resultant emf in closed circuit = 0
2. DELTA (Δ) or MESH Connection:
R IR VBR
R IR
VBR - IRY
VRY
IBR IRY IYB IBR
IYB IY VYB
B Y IB
VYB Y IB
B IRY IY
Note the points:
VRY
6. Apparent Power = V L IL
7. Total power = VL IL cos θ
Conversion of balanced load from STAR to DELTA

Z
Z Z

Z Z
Z
For star
VP VL
Per phase impedance, ZP or ZS = =
IP IL (1)
For delta
VP VL
Per phase impedance, ZP or ZD = =
IP IL (2)
1/2 gives
ZS = ZD or ZD = 3 ZS
Comparison between STAR and DELTA

Z
Z Z

Z Z
Z
1. Similar ends are connected dissimilar ends are connected
together together
2. Line Voltage VL = VP VL = VP
3. Line Current IL = IP IL = IP
4. 3 phase 4 wire 3 phase 3 wire
Suitable for lighting
5. Neutral can be connected to No neutral
earth for protection
 Circuit Diagram
Wattmeter
2.5A,300V I = I
IR M L ph L
AR 0
2.5A C V 2.8A
RR 110 Vph
3-ph, 230V, 50Hz Supply

Switch Ω
R
2.5A
RY RB
OUTPUT

Y IY
INPUT

AY 2.8A 2.8A
110 110
B VL Ω
2.5A Ω
3-ph
IB
AB
Auto-transformer
 Apparatus Required
1. Loading Rheostats: Three, 2.8 amp, 110 ohms.
2. AC Ammeters: Three, 0 – 2 amp.
3. AC Voltmeters: Two, 0 – 300 volts or One Multimeter
4. Wattmeter: One, 2.5 amp, 300 volts
5. Three Phase Autotransformer: One, 300 volts
 Procedure
1. Make the connections as shown in Fig.
2. Put all the rheostats for maximum resistances.
3. Set the variac to zero output and switch on the supply.
4. Increase the voltage by variac, up to the voltage slightly less than
the rated voltage of rheostats.
5. Vary the resistances such that equal currents flow in the three
ammeters.
6. Note down the readings of wattmeter, two voltmeters and three
ammeters.
7. Increase the voltage by variac, up to the rated voltage of
rheostats, without exceeding current limits.
8. Repeat step 6.
 Observations
Star connected load
Sr. Phase Line Phase Power Total
No voltage, voltage, Current = W Power
Vph VL Line current, =3W
Iph = IL
 Results
Draw the phasor diagrams

VRY
VRN = Vph

IR

IB
VYB = VL
IY
VBN VYN

VBY

Fig.: Phasor Diagram

Conclusions
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 6.

To determine Voltage Regulation

and Efficiency of a Single Phase
Transformer by Direct Loading
 TRANSFORMER

Widely used.
Low or high voltage
Low or high current
Various range of sizes
Weight from grams to tonnes
Electrical, Electronics, measurement and control
 A transformer is
• a static electromagnetic device
or an alternating current device
It transfers electrical energy or power
1. from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit
2. without electrical connection
3. through the medium of magnetic field
4. without change in frequency
5. from higher voltage to lower voltage or from LV to HV
It also transfers voltage, current and impedance
Due to this it is called as TRANSFORMER
Primary winding
The electrical circuit which receives energy or power
from the supply mains is called as primary winding

Secondary winding
The other circuit which delivers energy or power to the
load is called as secondary winding

Construction
Mainly consists of
1. Magnetic circuit, magnetic sheets with limb, yoke
Sheets are of I, L, T, C, U and E type

Two L
YOKE
I and C
LIMB

LIMB

YOKE
Core
2. Electric circuit, two or more windings
3. Dielectric circuit, insulated magnetic sheet, conductor,
coils, windings

To reduce eddy current loss

4. Tank and accessories

If supply is Oil
connected If load is
L
O
A
connected
D

Primary Secondary
wdg wdg
Classification:
According to construction
1. Core Type
Considerable part of core is surrounded by windings

LV HV
2. Shell Type

Winding is surrounded by core

HV

HV
LV

LV
 According to Use and Application
1. Power Transformer
2. Distribution Transformer
3. Communication Transformer
4. Instrumentation Transformer
According to Winding
1. Single Phase Transformer
2. Three Phase Transformer
3. Auto - Transformer
According to Cooling
1. Natural Cooled 2. Forced Air Cooled 3. Water Cooled
4. Oil Cooled
• Symbol:
• Coil represents the winding
• Two vertical lines represent the
insulated core and
Strong magnetic coupling between
Secondary
Primary

windings

DEEWAR
Electromagnetic Induction

Michael Faraday
1791 - 1867
England – Chemist and Physicist
Initially worked as a Bookbinder
Worked with humphry Davy – Arc Lamp
 Experiments

When supply is connected, there is deflection in

galvanometer in one direction.
When supply is disconnected, there is deflection in
galvanometer in another direction.
So deflection in galvanometer is due to
Establishing current or interrupting current
No change in current – No deflection
Experiments

G
N

G
S
Experiments

G
N

G
S
Experiments

G
N

S
 Experiments

G
N

S
When coil is moved, or magnet is moved, there is deflection
in galvanometer.
When flux linking a conductor changes, emf is induced in conductor
This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
 Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law
1. First law
When the flux linking a conductor or coil changes,
an emf is induced in it.
2. Second law
The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is
directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.
The magnitude of emf is proportional to number of turns, N
dΦ
emf, e = N
dt
Lenz’s Law
The direction of induced emf is such that to oppose the cause of it
dΦ
emf, e = - N
dt
 Electromagnetic Induction
Induced emf:
There are two types of induced emf
1. Dynamically induced emf
2. Statically induced emf
1. Dynamically Induced emf
Flux stationery, Magnetic field stationery
Conductor or coil is moved
emf induced in this way is called Dynamically Induced emf
Conductor or coil is in dynamic or motion
For example: DC Generator
Field on stator
Coil or armature on rotor
R2 R1
Electromagnetic Induction
Induced emf:
Consider uniform magnetic field
Consider a conductor moving in same
direction of field
How much is flux cut?
No emf is induced
Now a conductor is moved
perpendicular to field
How much is flux cut?
So emf is induced
Suppose, v is velocity of conductor
l is length of conductor
dx is distance moved by conductor in dt time
Electromagnetic Induction
Ares swept by conductor = l x dx
Flux cut, dΦ = B x Area swept
= B l dx Wb
Rate of change of flux,
dΦ
= B l dx / dt = B l v
dt
emf, e = N B l v Volts
If condR moves at an angle θ with field
cos θ is parallel to field
No emf
sin θ is perpendicular to field
θ Responsible for emf
e = N B l v sin θ Volts
Electromagnetic Induction
2. Statically Induced emf
Conductor is stationery,
Flux is moving or changing
emf induced in this way is called Statically Induced emf
For example: transformer
 B1 Y2

R2 R1

Y1 B2
B

Y
 Electromagnetic Induction
2. Statically Induced emf
Conductor is stationery,
Flux is moving or changing
emf induced in this way is called Statically Induced emf
For example: transformer
Φm
This emf is sub-divided into
1. Self induced emf P L
O

2. Mutually induced emf N1 E1 A

D

1. Self induced emf

emf induced due to its own flux
For example: primary winding of transformer
voltage source V1 to primary, Current I flows
Alternating flux Φ is set up. emf E1 is induced wdg
 Electromagnetic Induction
Direction of emf is given by Lenz’s law
Opposite to supply, V1
V1 = - E1
This E1 opposes the change in current
The property of coil to oppose the change in current is called as
self inductance or inductance, L
When supply switch is closed
Initial current will rise from zero to some value
This will take fraction of second
This delay is due to E1 or inductance
That’s why lagging current
dΦ dmmf/S dNI/S 2 aμ0μr dI dI
e= - N = - N =-N =-N = - L dt
dt dt dt l dt
 Electromagnetic Induction
2. Mutually induced emf
emf induced due to flux produced by neighbouring coil
For example: secondary winding of transformer
voltage source V1 to primary, Current I flows
Alternating flux Φ is set up. emf E2 is induced secondary wdg

Φm

P S L
O

N1 E1 E2 N2
A
D
 Electromagnetic Induction
2. Mutually induced emf
emf induced due to flux produced by neighbouring coil
For example: secondary winding of transformer
voltage source V1 to primary, Current I flows
Alternating flux Φ is set up. emf E2 is induced secondary wdg
The flux common to both wdgs is called as mutual flux Φm
- N dΦm
em or E2= 2
dt
This E2 will oppose change in Φm
The I2 will oppose change in Φm
The property of two neighbouring coils to induce voltage in one
coil due to change in current in other is called as
mutual inductance, M dI1
em or E2= - M M = N1N2 a μ0 μr /l
dt
Operating Principle
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction

Φ
P S L
O

N1 E1 E2 N2
A
D

When primary wdg is connected to voltage source, V1

Current IΦ flows through N1 turns.
Mmf = N1IΦ Alternating flux Φ is set up. Magnetize the core
This flux Φ links with pri and sec wdgs.
emfs E1 and E2 are induced in respective wdgs
If load is connected across secondary, load current starts flowing
Ideal transformer (Reactor)
Assumptions:
1. Wdg resistances are zero, r1 = r2 = 0
2. No magnetic leakage, x1 = x2 = 0
3. B-H curve is linear
When V1 is given to pure inductive coil,
Current IΦ lags by 900 to V1
Voltage is sinusoidal
Current is sinusoidal
Flux is sinusoidal
Let the flux Φ be expressed as
Φ = Φmax sin ωt
This flux Φ links with both the wdgs.
Self induced emf in pri E1 and mutually induced emf in E2 sec .
Ideal transformer (Reactor)
dΦ
e1 = - N1 = - N1 ω Φmax cos ωt = N1 ω Φmax sin (ωt – 90)
dt
V1

e1 lags Φ by 900
IΦ Φ
E1MAX = N1 ω Φmax

e1 = E1MAX sin (ωt – π/2) E2

E1RMS = E1MAX / 2 ) = 2 π f N Φ
1 max / 2 E1

= 2 π f N1 Φmax = 4.44 f N1 Φmax = E1

Now, induced voltage in sec wdg

dΦ
e2 = - N2 dt = - N2 ω Φmax cos ωt = N2 ω Φmax sin (ωt – 90)
= E2MAX sin (ωt – π/2) e2 lags Φ by 900

E2RMS = 2 π f N2 Φmax = 4.44 f N2 Φmax = E2

 Secondary (HV)
Ideal transformer (Reactor)

Primary (LV)
For ideal transformer
V1 = E1 and E2 = V2
where V2 is terminal voltage
Voltage transformation Ratio, K
E1 4.44 f N1 Φmax N1 1
= = =
E2 4.44 f N2 Φmax N2 K

Secondary (LV)
N2 E2

Primary (HV)
K= =
N1 E1
1. If N2 > N1, K > 1 , then transformer is called as
step – up transformer
2. If N2 < N1, K < 1 , then transformer is called as
step – down transformer
Ideal transformer (Reactor)
For ideal transformer
No loss
Input VA = Output VA
V 1 I1 = V 2 I2

V1 I2 1
= =
V2 I1 K
Hence the currents are in the reverse ratio of the voltage
transformation ratio, K.
 Voltage Regulation
■ The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the ratio
arithmetical difference in the secondary terminal voltage
between no load (I2=0) and full rated load (I2=Ifl) to the full
load voltage at a given power factor with the same value of
primary voltage for both no load and rated load.

■ It is expressed as either per unit or a percentage of the

rated load voltage.

■ The rated voltage is usually taken to be the nameplate value.

 Voltage Regulation
■ The numerical difference between no load and full load
voltage is called inherent voltage regulation.

■ where V2nl = E2 = no load secondary voltage &

■ V2fl =V2’= rated secondary full load voltage

■ with the same value of primary voltage for both no load and full
load (These are magnitudes, not phasors).
 Voltage Regulation
■ Full Load

■ any Load

■ = ±5%.
 Voltage Regulation
■ The transformers are designed to operate at practically
constant voltage.
■ But the load terminal voltage changes because of the voltage
drop (I2Z2)in the internal impedance of the transformer
Z2=(r2+r1’)+j(x2+x1’)=R2+jX2.
■ Secondary wdg resistance, r2
■ Primary wdg resistance referred to secondary, r1‘
■ Secondary wdg leakage reactance, x2
■ Primary wdg leakage reactance referred to secondary, x1‘
■ The change in terminal voltage depends on the magnitude
and the power factor of the current, in other words, it
depends on the load impedance (its magnitude as well as its
angle).
 Voltage Regulation
■ Calculation of Voltage Regulation using Circuit Parameters

By KVL
No Load Voltage,

Since I2Z2 depends

on the load power
factor θL= θ2, the regulation
depends on the load power factor θL= θ2.
 Voltage Regulation
■ at Lagging Power factor

I2 E2

V2 I 2Z 2

X
2
jI
2
θ2
I2R2
I2
 Voltage Regulation
■ at Lagging Power factor

■ Take V2 as a reference phasor E2

V2 I 2Z 2

X
2
jI
2
θ2
I2R2
I2
■ For lagging power factor, cosθ2
 Voltage Regulation
■ at Lagging Power factor

small compared with the term

The approximate voltage regulation is given by
 Voltage Regulation
■ at Leading Power factor

E2 jI
2 X
I2 2

I 2Z 2
θ2 V2 I2R2
 Voltage Regulation
■ at Leading Power factor

E2 jI
2 X
I2 2

I 2Z 2
θ2 V2 I2R2

■ For leading power factor cosθ2

 Voltage Regulation
■ at Leading Power factor

small compared with the term

The approximate voltage regulation is given by

Due to – X2pu sinθ2 , regulation decreases

So Better regulation. (0 for Leading p f)
 Voltage Regulation
■ at Unity Power factor

The expression for E2 at unity power factor can also be obtained

from the expression for E2 at lagging power factor by putting
θ2=0. The voltage regulation is given by
 Voltage Regulation
■ Condition for Zero Voltage Regulation
The approximate voltage regulation is given by

For zero voltage regulation,

The negative sign indicates that zero voltage regulation occurs

when the load is capacitive that is when the p f is leading.
 Voltage Regulation
■ Condition for Maximum Voltage Regulation

R2
Z2
Maximum voltage regulation occurs at
lagging p f of the load. Z2 X2
R2 θ2= θl
load power factor =
Z2 R2
load p f angle θ2= Leakage impedance angle θl of transformer
 Voltage Regulation
The magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is
 Voltage Regulation

The magnitude of maximum voltage regulation is equal to the

per unit value of equivalent leakage impedance of the
transformer Z2pu
If Z2pu =0.054pu, then magnitude of max VR is 5.4%
 Voltage Regulation
Thus as the load on transformer increases, voltage drop due to
leakage impedance increases and output voltage decreases.
Voltage regulation increases
E2
Vs

Vs
%R %R

Output
Vs & % R verses Output Curve
 LOAD
LOAD
LOAD
LOAD
LOAD
Φ LOAD
M

Height =
L
O
A
Voltage
D

Φl1 Φl2

leakage impedance increases Z2

 Efficiency
■ The ratio of the output power to the input power in a
transformer is known as transformer efficiency η.
■ At any load, η is

■ The efficiency at full load is

I2fl
I2fl I2fl2
 η

Efficiency

■ Transformer is a static device,

■ No rotational losses such as windage and frictional losses
(f & w loss) .
■ In a well designed transformer the efficiency can be as
high as 99%.

0.8 1.0 Output

 η
Efficiency

■ It is seen that the efficiency is low at small loads.

■ It reaches a maximum value for a certain load.
■ The efficiency then decreases as the load is increased.
■ The full load operating point is after the maximum efficiency
point.

0.8 1.0 Output

 η
Efficiency

■ Generally the maximum efficiency occurs when the load on

the transformer is from
80 to 90% of full load.
■ The efficiency for a given power factor is a maximum when
the variable copper loss is equal to the constant iron loss.

0.8 1.0 Output

 η
Efficiency
■ Current and kVA at Maximum Efficiency
■ For maximum efficiency,
variable copper loss = constant iron loss

80

0.8 1.0 Output

 η
Efficiency
■ Efficiency Curves
■ The efficiency curve depends on load and its power factor.
■ The maximum efficiency occurs at the same load current
value I2max regardless of the power factor of the load.
■ The maximum efficiency for any power factor occurs at the
same load and
■ the highest possible efficiency occurs at unity power factor .

I2max 0.8 1.0 Output

η
Efficiency
Efficiency Curves

Maximum Efficiency
Pf=1.0

Rated Output
Pf=0.9

Pf=0.8

Pf=0.7

0.8 1.0 Output

 Voltage Regulation & Efficiency

■ In direct loading method, the transformer is loaded directly to

its full load and
■ then the voltage regulation and efficiency are calculated
depending on actual operating conditions and
■ hence actual results are obtained.
 Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
■ Is there any indirect loading method?
■ YES or NO
■ In indirect loading method, open circuit and short circuit tests
are performed.
■ The transformer parameters are calculated as per equivalent
circuit diagrams and
■ then the voltage regulation and efficiency can be calculated at
different loads.
 Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
■ It is obvious that the more power is wasted in direct loading
test as compared to O. C. and S. C. tests as for as time is
considered.
Circuit Diagram
 Apparatus Required

1. Single Phase Transformer, rating: 2.5 kVA, 230/400 V.

2. Single Phase Variac suitable for transformer.
3. Ammeters: Two, 20Amps. 4. Voltmeters: Two, 300Volts.
 Apparatus Required

5. Wattmeters: Two, 300V, 20A. 6. Load (Resistive): One, 5kW, 220V.

 Procedure

1. Make the connection as shown in Fig.

2. Put all the switches of loading rheostat in OFF position. Set
the variac to zero output and switch on the supply.
3. Increase the voltage by variac, up to the rated voltage of the
transformer.
4. Note down the meter readings under no load condition.
 Procedure
5. Increase the load by switching on one switch of loading rheostat and
note down the meter readings.
6. Stepwise increase the load and note down the meter readings. Increase
the load up to rated current of transformer.
Observations

E2
 Results

E2
Vs

Vs %η
%R %R

Output Output
Fig.: Vs & % R verses Fig.: Effn verses Output Curve
Output Curve
 Conclusions
■ 1. The output voltage decreases
E2 as the output increases.
Vs ■ 2. Regulation increases as the
output increases
Vs
%R %R

Output
Fig.: Vs & % R verses
Output Curve
 Conclusions
■ 3. The efficiency is zero at no load. It
increases as the load increases and is
maximum when variable losses are
%η equal to constant losses. Then it
decreases.
■ 4. The efficiency at rated output is less
0.8 to 0.9 1.0 than the maximum value and the rated
Output operating point is after the maximum
efficiency point
■ 5. Maximum efficiency occurs when the load on the transformer
is from 80 to 90% of full load.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7.

To study the speed control of DC

Shunt Motor by varying.

a) armature voltage with field current kept

constant.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1.

To study the speed control of DC

Shunt Motor by varying.

a) armature voltage with field current kept

constant.
b) field current with armature voltage kept
constant
 The speed of the d. c. shunt
motor is given by the relation

The speed of the d. c. shunt motor can be varied

by varying
a) the applied voltage V
b) the voltage applied to the armature Va= V – Ia ra
c) the field flux Φ.
 The voltage equation of motor is given by
V = Eb + Iara
where Eb is back emf and is given by

At the time of start,

the speed N = 0, so Eb = 0
armature current Ia= (V - Eb) / ra = V / ra
ra is very small ≈ 0.1 to 0.3 Ω
So
Ia is very high and more than rated
armature current.
Therefore additional resistance is required to
limit the current.
This additional resistance is inserted in
between Line and Armature by the use of
STARTER.

Three Point Starter

L = Line
A = Armature
F = Field
• Hence STARTER is needed to
start the dc shunt motor.
• During start, move the handle of
the starter SLOWLY from off to
on.
• For stopping the motor, simply
DISCONNECT the supply.
• Do not TOUCH the handle.
• After disconnecting the
supply, handle will come
automatically to its off position
(due to spring action)
• When the motor is at rest, high starting
torque is required to start the motor.
• The torque of dc motor is given by
Te=Kt IaIf.
• For high starting torque, Ia and If
should be maximum.
• Ia is maximum due to zero speed at
start. So keep armature rheostat at
MAXIMUM position.
• In order to make If maximum, keep field
rheostat at MINIMUM position.
Types of Rheostats
1. Single Core Rheostat or Single Bar Rheostat
Sliding Contact

Terminal core

Resistive Conductor or
Alloy
Types of Rheostats
1. Single Core Rheostat or Single Bar Rheostat
Sliding Contact
Maximum
Minimum
Resistance

Terminal core

Resistive Conductor or
Alloy
Types of Rheostats
1. Single Core Rheostat or Single Bar Rheostat
Sliding Contact
Maximum
Resistance

Terminal Core

Resistive Conductor or Constant

Alloy Resistance

Maximum
Minimum
Resistance
Types of Rheostats
2. Double Core Rheostat or Double Bar Rheostat

Output Output
MINIMUM MAXIMUM
Resistance Resistance

Sliding contact Sliding contact

Near to terminals Away from terminals
Circuit Diagram
 Procedure
1. Make the connection as shown in Fig. 2.
2. Set up the armature rheostat to maximum
value and field rheostat to minimum
value.
3. Switch on the dc supply with the help of
main switch or MCB. Move the handle of
starter slowly and start the dc motor.
4. Adjust the field current to rated value
(approximately 1 Amp.)
5. Note the voltage across armature and the
speed with the help of tachometer.
6. Keeping the field current constant (1 Amp),
very the resistance of armature rheostat to
change the armature voltage and note
down the speed.
7. Write down the armature voltage and
speed in observation table.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for another value of
field current (0.9 amp).
9. Now keep the armature voltage constant (190
Volts) and note down the field current and speed.
10. Keeping the armature voltage constant (190
Volts), vary the resistance of field rheostat to
change the field current and note down the speed.

11. Write down the field current and speed in

observation table (b) below.

12. Repeat steps10 and 11 for another value of

armature voltage (180 Volts).
 Observations
• a) Armature Voltage variation
• 1) Field current (constant) = 1 Amp

Sr. Armature Voltage Speed

No. Va Volts r. p. m
1. 150 .

2. 160 ..

… … …
 Observations
• a) Armature Voltage variation
• 2) Field current (constant) = 0.9 Amp

Sr. Armature Voltage Speed

No. Va Volts r. p. m
1. 150 .

2. 160 ..

… … …
 Observations
• b) Field Current variation
• 1) Armature Voltage Va (constant) = 190 V

Sr. Field Current Speed

No. If Amp r. p. m
1. 1 .

2. 0.9 ..

… … …
 Observations
• b) Field Current variation
• 2) Armature Voltage Va (constant) = 180 V

Sr. Field Current Speed

No. If Amp r. p. m
1. 1 .

2. 0.9 ..

… … …
 Results
Plot the variation of Va Vs N & If Vs N

p
Am V
Speed N rpm

Speed N rpm
a2 =1
0.9

90
V
If =

p V
A m a1 =1
= 1 80
If V

Armature Voltage Va If
 Conclusions
1. The speed of dc shunt motor is directly
proportional to the armature voltage
(N α Va).
2. The speed of dc shunt motor is inversely
proportional to the field current (N α 1/If).
3. Thus in order to increase the speed the
armature voltage should be increased and
/ or field current should be decreased.
Write down all the precautions
which are listed in Laboratory
and attach after Index page
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
“In 1819, it was discovered by a Danish
Language Netherlands Physicist, Hans
Christian Oersted that an electric current is
always accomplished by a certain magnetic
effects. He found that when a current is
passed through a conductor placed above
the magnetic needle, the needle turns in a
certain direction.”
which is also called as Motor Rule.
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)

Hans Christian Oersted Right Hand Rule

 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)

“Whenever a current carrying conductor is

placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
force whose direction is given by Fleming’s
Left Hand Rule”
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)

N S
+ ●

Pole Field Conductor Field

 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
Addition

N + S
N

Opposite

N S
+

Force
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
Addition Opposite

N + S N S

Opposite Addition
Force

N S S
+
N

Force
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)

N ARM S S
●
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
MNA
+

N ARM S S
●

MNA is perpendicular to field flux.

 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
MNA
+

N ARM S S
●

When supply is given to armature,

current flows through armature conductors.
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
MNA
+

N ARM S S
●

Due to + and ● polarities, flux direction changes .

S
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
MNA
+

N S S
●

New MNA

New MNA shifts towards the direction opposite to the direction

S
of rotation.
So shift the brush axis in a direction opposite to the direction
of rotation due to which there is less spark.
 Working Principle
(Principle of Operation)
MNA
+

N S S
●

New MNA

New MNA shifts towards the direction Sopposite to the direction

of rotation.
 DC Motor Starting
Necessity of Starter
When motor is at rest, Speed, N=0, Back emf, Eb=0,
The starting armature current, Ia(start)= V/ra, for shunt motor,
= V/(ra+rse), for compound
motor
= Very High, as value of
resistance is from 0.01 to 1Ω

For example: P=10kW, 250V, shunt motor, ra=0.2Ω

Ia(start)= 250/0.2 = 1250A,
Rated armature current Ia(rated)=10k/250=40A.
Thus, Ia(start) is 1250/40=31.25 times Ia(rated),
 DC Motor Starting
Necessity of Starter
Such a heavy inrush current, may result in
1. Burning of winding, overheating of insulation.
2. Heavy sparking at the commutator.
3. Damaging the rotating part due to high torque.
4. Large voltage dip in the supply voltage.
Hence for protection, during starting period (5 to 10 seconds),
external resistance is added in series with armature.
As motor accelerates, N, Eb increases and Ia decreases.
Now, there is no need of external resistance,
so external resistance is decreased gradually.
If external resistance is not decreased and is left in arm ckt, then
it would result in
1. Reduced speed,
2. Additional energy loss,
3. Reduced efficiency.
For very small motors (in automobiles), starter is needed? NO.
The reasons are:
1. The resistance and inductance are high due to thin
wires which limit the starting current .
2. Due to low inertia, speed increases quickly.
3. Eb increases, and Ia decreases.
Maximum allowable starting current Ia(start)max < (1.5 to 2.0)xIa(rated).
Starter of DC shunt and Compound Motors.
The primary function of the starter is to limit the starting current in
the armature during starting.
Thus the simplest form of starter consists of a RHEOSTAT
connected in series with the armature.
+ This simple starter is modified by including
1. No voltage or under voltage release coil,
Starting NVRC or UVRC.
Rheostat 2. Over-current or over load release coil,
A F
OCRC or OLRC.
There are two types of starter
FF 1. Three Point starter. 2. Four Point starter.
AA
-
 1. Three Point starter.
Three Points are: L, A, F, L=line, A= arm, F=field.
Starter consists of: 1. Studs: 1. Circular 2. Square
3. Rectangular
2. Handle
with spring to bring it to original
+ position or OFF position.
with soft iron keeper to hold it at ON
Starting
or RUN position:
Rheostat
A F 3. Starting resistances, radd.
4. NVRC or UVRC
FF 5. OCRC or OLRC with movable soft iron
AA to short NVRC.
-
1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
r3
Studs 2 3 r4
1 4
0 5
Handle
Soft iron keeper
Spring
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
r3
Studs 2 3 r4
1 4
Insulated conductor 0 5
Handle
Soft iron keeper
Spring
OCRC b a
+ A
Movable soft iron

AA
-
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Studs 2 3 r4
START 1 4
Insulated conductor 0 5
Handle ON / RUN
NVRC
Soft iron keeper b
Spring
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
Movable soft iron

Three Point Starter FF AA

-
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
At rest, START 1 4
0 5
handle is at ON / RUN
OFF =0 Stud NVRC
No supply to b
motor.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
As soon as H
moves to 1,
OCRC, radd, A & NVRC, F are connected to FF
supply. AA
-
 Ia1=V/(radd +ra)=IaMax
Max Ia N=N1
Variation Eb=Eb1
Ia
1. Three Point starter. Min Ia of Ia
Ia1’=(V-Eb1)/
r1 r2 t
OFF/ r (radd +ra)=IaMin
Operation: 3
r4
2 3
At rest, START 1 4
0
handle
N is at Variation
5
ON / RUN
OFF =0Eb1Stud of SpeedNVRC
No supply to b
motor. t1 t
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
As soon as H Motor runs at
moves to 1, low speed N1
OCRC, radd, A & NVRC, F are connected to FF
supply. AA
-
 Ia2=(V-Eb1)/(radd +ra- r1)=IaMax

1. Three Point starter.

r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
Handle is START 1 4
0 5
moved at ON / RUN
stud 2. NVRC
b
r1 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A

Resistance decreases, Ia increases, FF

Te increases, speed increases. AA
-
 Ia2=(V-Eb1)/(radd +ra- r1)=IaMax
Max Ia
Variation N=N2,
Ia r1 c Eb=Eb2
ut Min Ia of I a
1. Three Point starter. t Ia2’=(V-Eb2)/
r1 r2 (radd+ra-r1)=IaMin
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
Handle isE START 1 4Variation
N b2 0 5
movedEb1 at of ON
Speed
/ RUN
stud 2. NVRC
t1 t2 t b
r1 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
N increases
Resistance decreases, Ia increases, to N2
FF AA
Te increases,
- speed increases.
 Ia3=(V-Eb2)/(ra+r3 +r4)=IaMax

1. Three Point starter.

r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
Handle is START 1 4
0 5
moved at ON / RUN
stud 3. NVRC
b
r2 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A

Resistance decreases, Ia increases, FF

Te increases, speed increases. AA
-
 Ia3=(V-Eb2)/(ra+r3 +r4)=IaMax
Max Ia
Variation N=N3,
Ia r1 c Eb=Eb3
ut r2 cu Min Ia of Ia
t
1. Three Point starter. t Ia3’=(V-Eb3)/
r1 r2 (ra+ r3+r4)=IaMin
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
Eb3 2 3
Handle isE START 1 4Variation
N b2 0 5
movedEb1 at of Speed
ON / RUN
stud 3. NVRC
t1 t2 t3 t b
r2 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
N increases
Resistance decreases, Ia increases, to N3
FF AA
Te increases,
- speed increases.
 Ia4=(V-Eb3)/(ra+ r4)=IaMax

1. Three Point starter.

r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
Handle is START 1 4
0 5
moved at ON / RUN
stud 4. NVRC
b
r3 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A

Resistance decreases, Ia increases, FF

Te increases, speed increases. AA
-
 MaxIa4I=(V-E
a b3
)/(ra+ r4)=IaMax
Variation N=N ,
Ia r1 c r3 c 4
r
ut 2 cu
t
ut Min Ia of Ia Eb=Eb4
t
1. Three Point starter. Ia4’=(V-Eb4)/(ra+r4)
Eb4 r2
r1 r3 =IaMin
Operation: Eb3OFF/
N START 2 3 Variation
r4
Handle isEb2 0
1 4
Eb1
moved at of Speed
5
ON / RUN
stud 4. NVRC
t1 t2 t3 t4 t
b
r3 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
N increases
Resistance decreases, Ia increases, to N4
FF AA
Te increases,
- speed increases.
 Ia5=(V-Eb4)/(ra)=IaMax

1. Three Point starter.

r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
Handle is START 1 4
0 5
moved at ON / RUN
stud 5. NVRC
b
r4 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A

Resistance decreases, Ia increases, FF

Te increases, speed increases. AA
-
 Max IaIa5=(V-Eb4)/(ra)=IaMax
VariationN=N5
Ia r1 c r
ut r2 cu 3 cut r4 cu
t t Min Ia of Ia Rated Speed,
t
1. Three Point starter. Eb=Eb5 Rated
Eb4 Eb5 r1 r2
Operation: Eb3OFF/ r3 Ia5’=(V-Eb5)/(ra)
2 3 r4
Variation
N
Handle isEb2 START 1 4
=Rated Current
Eb1 0 of Speed
5
moved at ON / RUN
stud 5. NVRC
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t
b
r4 is cut.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
N increases
Resistance decreases, Ia increases, to N5
FF AA
Te increases,
- speed increases.
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Operation: r4
2 3
START 1 4
0 5
Handle is held up at ON / RUN
stud 5 by magnet. NVRC
b
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A

FF AA
-
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Function of r4
2 3
NVRC START 1 4
0 5
1. In case of power failure, ON / RUN
Voltage of NVRC=0,
NVRC
Demagnetization, no b
magnet.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
Spring brings handle to OFF position.

FF AA
-
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3 Ia=V/ra
Function of r4
2 3
NVRC START 1 4
0 5
1. In case of power failure, ON / RUN
Voltage of NVRC=0,
NVRC
Demagnetization, no b
magnet.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
Spring brings handle to OFF position.
Due to power failure, speed =0
If H fails to return to OFF position
and if supply is restored, FF AA
high Ia- flows & motor may be damaged.
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3
Function of r4
2 3
NVRC START 1 4
0 5
2. If field becomes open, ON / RUN
Voltage of NVRC=0,
NVRC
coil is demagnetized, b
no magnet.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
Spring brings handle to OFF position.

FF AA
-
 1. Three Point starter. T=KIaIf
r1 r 2
OFF/ r3
Function of r4 Ia
2 3
NVRC START 1 4
0 5
2. If field becomes open, ON / RUN
Voltage of NVRC=0,
NVRC
coil is demagnetized, b
no magnet.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
Spring brings handle to OFF position.
If H fails to return to OFF position
Flux decreases, speed increases FF AA
For same- load torque, high I flows & motor may be damaged.
a
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3 Ia
Function of r4
2 3
OCRC START 1 4
0 5
If load increases, Ia increases, ON / RUN
OCRC becomes strong,
NVRC
movable soft iron moves b
upward.
a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
a & b are shorted, Vab=0, NVRC is demagnetized.
H returns to OFF position,
motor is disconnected from supply. FF AA
Thus motor
- is protected from heavy load condition.
 Brass Arc.
1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
r3
Under running OFF/ r4
Ia
2 3
condition START 1 4
0 5
radd, NVRC, field wdg are ON / RUN
in series. NVRC
Since radd<< Rf, effect of b
radd is negligible. a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
Sometimes brass arc is used to bypass radd.
But radd.is used to discharge the field energy
stored in field wdg when motor is FF AA
disconnected
- from supply.
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
r3
Under running OFF/ r4
Ia
2 3
condition, START 1 4
0 5
F, NVRC, radd, A are in ON / RUN
series. NVRC
When supply is b
disconnected a
OCRC b a F A
L
+ F A
For releasing H to 0, field energy is
dissipated in this series circuit,
and there is less spark. FF AA
-
 1. Three Point starter.
r1 r2
OFF/ r3 Ia
So under r4
2 3
running START 1 4
0 5
condition, ON / RUN
to stop the motor supply
NVRC
should be disconnected.
b
Otherwise willingly or
unwillingly, if H is a
moved towards 0FF b a F A
L
+ F A
Field energy is dissipated through the
contact of H and studs.
and there is more spark and burning of FF AA
studs. -
 1. Three Point starter. This is overcome in
r2 Four Point Starter.
Disadvantage OFF/ r 1 r3 Ia
2 3 r4
If speed is START 1 4
0 5
increased, ON / RUN
by decreasing field current NVRC
The force of NVRC may b
become less than spring
force. a
b a F A
L
+ F A
Handle H may return to OFF position
and the motor stops. This is not desirable.
So Three point starter can’t be used for wide FF AA
- speed control
range of
 With this, speed
2. Four Point starter. can be increased
L, L1,A, F r1 r2
OFF/ r3
r
without affecting
2 3
START 1 4
4
NVRC current.
NVRC is connected 0 5
in series with R- ON / RUN
current limiting NVRC
b So, suitable for
resistance and in wide range of
parallel with F. (b a speed control
to -) b a F A
L
+ 1, there are three
If H is at F A
R
parallel circuits (+ to -) L1
1. OCRC, radd, and A
FF AA
2. OCRC and F 3. OCRC, NVRC and R.
-
EXPERIMENT NO.:6.
To study the Speed Reversal of
Three Phase
Induction Motor
 Theory
1. Three-phase induction motor is the most
popular type of a. c. motor.
2. It is very commonly used for induction
drives since it is cheap, robust, efficient
and reliable.
3. It has good speed regulation and high
starting torque.
4. It requires little maintenance.
5. It has a reasonable overload capacity.
 The basic principle of operation is ‘induction’
and hence the name ‘Induction Motor’.

Induction is a phenomenon of an induced voltage

in a coil due to changing flux.

This flux is established by either another coil (as

a general case) or the same coil.
IM consists of: 1. stator 2. rotor.

Slot
Tooth

Rotor
Shaft

Stator core
or Stamping
IM consists of: 1. stator 2. rotor.
The stator is the stationary part and the
rotor is a rotating part. Slot
Tooth

Rotor
Shaft

Stator core
or Stamping
The stator is built up of high-grade alloy steel
laminations (cold rolled grain oriented silicon
steel sheets) to reduce eddy current losses.

Rotor
Shaft
The laminations are slotted on the inner
periphery and are insulated from each other.
The insulated stator conductors are placed
in these slots.

Rotor
Shaft
 The stator conductors are connected to form
a three-phase winding.
The phase winding may be either star or delta
connected.

Rotor
Shaft
 The clearance between the stator and the
rotor is called an air gap.
The air gap is kept as small as possible to
a) Reduce leakage reactance & no load current and
b) Improve the power factor.

Rotor
Shaft
 The rotor is built up of thin laminations of
the same material as that of stator.
The laminated cylindrical core is mounted directly
on the shaft or a spider carried by the shaft.

Rotor
Shaft
 The laminations are slotted on their outer
periphery to house the rotor conductors or
rotor bars.

Rotor
Shaft
 The stator laminations are supported in a stator
frame of cast-iron or fabricated steel plate.
Stator frame is connected to coverings.
The coverings are rested on bearings which are
mounted on shaft.

Rotor
Shaft
 Common constructional features for
ALL rotating electrical machines

Stator Core STATOR

Air Gap
Rotor Core Brushes
Φ
Shaft Slip rings
ROTOR Rotor wdg
Bearings
Stator Frame Stator wdg
STATOR

Base
 There are TWO types of induction motor depending
on the types of rotor.
1. Squirrel-cage rotor or simply cage rotor. (SCIM).
2. Phase wound or wound rotor or slip ring rotor (SRIM).

Rotor
Rotor End
(Slightly
Bars
(Slightly
Bars Rings
skewed)
skewed)
Fig. 1. Cage
Rotor
The slots nearly parallel to the shaft axis or skewed .
Each slot contains an uninsulated bar conductor of
aluminium or copper.
 There are TWO types of induction motor depending
on the types of rotor.
1. Squirrel-cage rotor or simply cage rotor. (SCIM).

Rotor
Rotor End
(Slightly
Bars
(Slightly
Bars Rings
skewed)
skewed)
Fig. 1. Cage
Rotor
At each end of the rotor, the rotor bar
conductors are short circuited by heavy end ring
of the same material.
 There are TWO types of induction motor depending
on the types of rotor.
1. Squirrel-cage rotor or simply cage rotor. (SCIM).
2. Phase wound or wound rotor or slip ring rotor (SRIM).

Rotor
Rotor End
(Slightly
Bars
(Slightly
Bars Rings
skewed)
skewed)
Fig. 1. Cage
The conductors and the end rings look like a ‘cage’ of a bird
Rotor

or form a cage of the type which was once commonly used for
keeping squirrel;

Hence this rotor is known as the squirrel cage rotor.

 The important features of this squirrel cage rotor are:
1. The skewed bar reduces harmonics.
2. This gives uniform torque and less noise.
3. The locking tendency is reduced.
4. It has a compact and rugged construction.
5. The end rings can be projected for fanning action for
cooling.
6. It requires no slip rings.
7. It has less loss and more efficiency as compared to SRIM

8. It is not possible to add extra rotor resistance to change

the torque and speed. This is the only disadvantage.
Ha Ha Ha, We are important in Electrical Machines
Squirrel Cage
Rotor
Parallel to
Shaft

Slightly shifted
Skewed
D
T H A
 Squirrel Cage
Rotor
Parallel to
Shaft

Slightly shifted
Skewed
D
T H A

1. Less Noise, 2. More Efficiency,

3. Better Power factor
2. Phase wound or wound rotor or slip ring rotor
(SRIM).

Rotor winding
In delta or Star

The wound rotor consists of a slotted armature.

Insulated conductors are put in the slots and connected to
form a three phase distributed double layer winding
similar to the stator winding.
2. Phase wound or wound rotor or slip ring rotor
(SRIM).

Rotor winding
In delta or Star

The rotor windings are connected in star or in delta.

The three ends of rotor windings are brought outside the
rotor and connected to three insulated slip rings.
The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with
brushes resting on them.
2. Phase wound or wound rotor or slip ring rotor
(SRIM).

Rotor winding
In delta or Star

The resistors enable to increase each rotor

phase resistance to serve the following purposes:
1. to increase the starting torque.
2. to decrease the starting current.
3. to improve the starting power factor.
4. to decrease the speed of the motor.
 Principle of Operation
Single Phase System
The mmf produced by single phase winding on the
stator or rotor is alternating or pulsating
Consider fundamental sine component only

Since current is sinusoidal, mmf is sinusoidal.

 At ωt1=0 or t1=0 At ωt2=900 or π/2
or t2= 5msec for
i 1= 0 50Hz frequency
i2= Imax

i Imax At ωt3=1800 or π
or t3= 10msec
i 3= 0

0 ωt
900 1800 2700 3600
At ωt4=2700 or 3π/2
or t4= 15msec
i4= -Imax
-Imax
At ωt5=3600 or 2π
or t5= 20msec
i =0
In the winding, in some conductors, current is
entering, which is represented by cross (X).
In some conductors, current is leaving,
which is represented by dot (●)
S mmf
If i=0, mmf is zero,
If i=Imax, mmf is maximum. Flux

Mmf is always along the

magnetic axis of winding a2 a1
or
along the magnetic axis of
current sheet.
N
In the winding, in some conductors, current is
entering, which is represented by cross (X).
In some conductors, current is leaving,
which is represented by dot (●)
S mmf
If i=0, mmf is zero,
If i=Imax, mmf is maximum. Flux

Mmf is always along the

magnetic axis of winding a2 α=0
a1
or
along the magnetic axis of
current sheet.
N
Thus if current is sinusoidal, mmf is sinusoidal.
α is space angle, along air gap periphery.
The variation of mmf, F along the air gap periphery
per pole, can be expressed as
4 Nph i
mmf, F = kw Cos α
π P
α is measured from the magnetic axis
mmf, F = F1 Cos α

For sinusoidal current

mmf, F = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α

 i=Imax Sin ωt F = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α
i
ωt4
mmf

i2
ωt ωt1 α
0 α=0
ωt2
ωt3

At ωt1=0, i1=0; F = F1=0; no mmf is produced

At ωt2, i is i2; F = F2= Fmax i2 Cos α
=F2m Cos α
At ωt3, i is imax; F = F3m Cos α
At ωt4, i is -imax; F = -F Cos α
3m
Polarity is reversed
 i=Imax Sin ωt F = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α
i
ωt4
mmf

i2
ωt ωt1 α
0 α=0
ωt2
ωt3

At ωt1=0, i1=0; F = F1=0; no mmf is produced

At ωt2, i is i2; F = F2= Fmax i2 Cos α
=F2m Cos α
At ωt3, i is imax; F = F3m Cos α
At ωt4, i is -imax; F = -F Cos α
3m
Polarity is reversed
 i=Imax Sin ωt F = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α
i
mmf

i2
ωt α
0 α=0

At ωt1=0, i1=0; F = F1=0; no mmf is produced

At ωt2, i is i2; F = F2= Fmax i2 Cos α
=F2m Cos α
At ωt3, i is imax; F = F3m Cos α
At ωt4, i is -imax; F = -F Cos α
3m
Polarity is reversed
The mmf, produced along the air gap periphery is
changing sinusoidally.
But not rotating,
It is stationary,
or standing,
or pulsating.

The general expression is F (α, t) = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α

In order to give physical significance, you sit on the axis of
single phase winding, at an angle α = 0.
 i=Imax Sin ωt F = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α
i
mmf

i2
ωt α
0 α=0
The mmf, produced along the air gap periphery is
changing sinusoidally.
But not rotating, similar to three phase system.
It is stationary,
or standing,
or pulsating.

The general expression is F (α, t) = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α

In order to give physical significance, you sit on the axis of
single phase winding, at an angle α = 0.
At time t1, at an angle zero, you will see, mmf= 0Fmax
At time t2, at an angle 30, you will see, mmf= 0.5Fmax
At time t3, at an angle 90, you will see, mmf= 1Fmax
At time t4, at an angle 270, you will see, mmf= -1Fmax
Thus you will see the mmf pulsating between + Fmax
to - Fmax
Now suppose you are sitting at 600 away from the
phase axis i. e. at α = 600.
Thus you will see the mmf pulsating between + Fmax
to - Fmax
Now suppose you are sitting at 600 away from the
phase axis i. e. at α = 600.
i
mmf

ωt α
0

α=60
Thus you will see the mmf pulsating between + Fmax
to - Fmax
Now suppose you are sitting at 600 away from the
phase axis i. e. at α = 600.
i
mmf

ωt α
0

α=60
Thus you will see the mmf pulsating between + Fmax
to - Fmax
Now suppose you are sitting at 600 away from the
phase axis i. e. at α = 600.
At time t1, ωt=00, mmf= 0Fmax
At time t2, ωt=300, mmf= 0.25 Fmax
At time t3, ωt=900, mmf= 0.5 Fmax
At time t4, ωt=2700, mmf= -0.5 Fmax
Thus you will see the mmf pulsating between + 0.5Fmax to
–0.5 Fmax
If you are sitting at 900 away from the phase axis i. e.
at α = 900.
 If you are sitting at 900 away from the phase axis i. e.
at α = 900.

i
mmf

ωt α
0
α=90
 If you are sitting at 900 away from the phase axis i. e.
at α = 900.

i
mmf

ωt α
0
α=90

Then you will see the mmf always zero all the
time.
Thus the mmf, produced along the air gap periphery
is changing sinusoidally.
In single phase it is not rotating.
It is stationary, or standing, or pulsating.

The general expression is F (α, t) = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α

Torque in single phase induction motor
mmf
S
Flux

a2 a1

N
Torque in single phase induction motor
mmf
S
Flux

a2 a1

i
N

0 ωt
Torque in single phase induction motor
In +ve half cycle mmf
S
If torque is +ve (due to + Fmax)
Rotor moves in clockwise direction. Flux
Now after 10msec
In the –ve half cycle a2 a1
Torque is -ve (due to - Fmax)
Rotor moves in
anticlockwise direction. i
N

+
Therefore, the average
torque over a complete
cycle is ZERO. ωt
0
Hence, 1-Φ IM is
not self starting -
 Two Phase System
B2
Consider TWO phase system
Two phase winding AB are displaced A2 A1
from each other by 900 electrical
space degrees along air gap periphery B1

Axis of phase A
Axis of phase B
 B2
Consider TWO phase system
Two phase winding AB are displaced A2 A1
from each other by 900 electrical
space degrees along air gap periphery B1

Axis of phase A
Axis of phase B

Now resultant magnetic flux due to TWO phases

Graphical Analysis
A
Graphical Analysis

+Φ A

ωt

-Φ
A
Graphical Analysis

B
A B
+Φ

ωt

-Φ
 1. Consider an angle 00
A ωt=0
Φa0= Φm Sin(ωt)=0
Φb0= Φm Sin(ωt-90)=-Φm
Φ0
B
A B
+Φ

0 90 180 270 360 ωt

-Φ
 1. Consider an angle 00
A ωt=0
B2
Φ0
A2 A1
Φ0
B
B1
A B
+Φ

0 90 180 270 360 ωt

-Φ A1= 0 & A2 =0
B1=- & B2 = +
 2. Consider an angle 900
A ωt=90
Φ90 Φ = Φ Sin(90)= Φ
a90 m m
Φb90= Φm Sin(90-90) =0
B
A B
+Φ

0 90 180 270 360 ωt

-Φ
 1. Consider an angle 900
A Φ90
Φ90 B2

A2 A1
B
B1
A B
+Φ

0 90 180 270 360 ωt

-Φ A1= + & A2= -

B1=0 & B2 = 0
 3. Consider an angle 1800
A ωt=180
Φa180= Φm Sin(180)= 0
Φb180= Φm Sin(180-90)=Φm
B
Φ180
A B
+Φ

0 90 180 270 360 ωt

-Φ
 3. Consider an angle 1800
A
B2
Φ180
A2 A1
B
Φ180 B1
A B
+Φ
Thus for Clockwise
AB,
Flux rotate
Clockwise, 0 90 180 270 360 ωt

Poles rotate Clockwise,

-Φ A1= 0 & A2= 0

B1=+ & B2 = -
 3. Consider an angle 1800
A
B2
Φ180
A2 A1
B
Φ180 B1
A B
For anticlockwise+Φ
AB,
Flux rotate
anticlockwise,
0 90 180 270 360 ωt
Poles rotate
anticlockwise,

-Φ Hence, 2-Φ IM is A1= 0 & A2= 0

self starting B1=+ & B2 = -
 Three Phase System
Consider three phase system
Three phase winding RYB are displaced
from each other by 1200 electrical
space degrees along air gap periphery
 Three Phase System
Consider three phase system R2
Y1 B1
Three phase winding RYB are displaced
from each other by 1200 electrical B2 Y2
space degrees along air gap periphery R1

Axis of phase B
Axis of phase R

Axis of phase Y
 S
Consider three phase system R2
Y1 B1
Three phase winding RYB are displaced
from each other by 1200 electrical B2 Y2
space degrees along air gap periphery R1

Axis of phase B N
Axis of phase R

Axis of phase Y
Now resultant magnetic flux due to three phases

Graphical Analysis
B
Graphical Analysis

R Y B

Y
B
Graphical Analysis

R Y B

Y
B
Graphical Analysis

R Y B

Y
B
Graphical Analysis

R Y B

Y
Φb Graphical Analysis

Φr

Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

-Φ
The resultant flux, at any instant, is equal to the
phasor sum of the fluxes due to 3-phases.
 1. Consider an angle 00
Φb
ωt=0
Φr0= Φm Sin(ωt)=0
Φy0= Φm Sin(ωt -120) =Φm Sin(-120)
Φr 3
=- Φm
2
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

-Φ
= 3 Φ
Φb0= Φm Sin(ωt-240)=Φm Sin(120)
2 m
 Φ0 S
Φb
R2
Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
R1
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
N
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

R1= 0 & R2 =0
-Φ Y1= – & Y2 =+
B1=+ & B2 = –
 Φ0 S
Φb
R2
30 Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
Φ0=2Φb0Cos(30) =2Φy0Cos(30) R1
3 3 Φ +Φ Φr Φy Φb
=2
2 2 m N
3 Φy
= Φm
2
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

R1= 0 & R2 =0
-Φ Y1= – & Y2 =+
B1=+ & B2 = –
 2. Consider an angle 600
Φb
ωt=60
Φr60= Φm Sin(60)= 3 Φm
2
Φy60= Φm Sin(60-120) =Φm Sin(-60)
Φr 3
=- Φm
2
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

-Φ
Φb60= Φm Sin(60-240) =Φm Sin(-180) =0
 2. Consider an angle 600
Φb
R2 S
Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
N R1
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

R1= + & R2 =-
-Φ Y1= – & Y2 =+
B1=0 & B2=0
 2. Consider an angle 600
Φb
R2 S
Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
Φ60=2Φr60Cos(30) =2Φy60Cos(30) R1
N
3 3 Φ +Φ Φr Φy Φb
=2
2 2 m
3 Φy
= Φm
2
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

R1= + & R2 =-
-Φ Y1= – & Y2 =+
B1=0 & B2=0
 3. Consider an angle 1200, ωt=120
Φb
Φr120= Φm Sin(120)= 3 Φm
2
Φy120= Φm Sin(120-120) =0
Φr

Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

-Φ
=- 3 Φ
Φb120= Φm Sin(120-240)
2 m
 3. Consider an angle 1200,
Φb
N
R2
Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
R1 S
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

R1= + & R2 =-
-Φ Y1=0 & Y2=0
B1=- & B2=+
 3. Consider an angle 1200,
Φb
N
R2
Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
R1 S
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 =2Φ
Φ120=2Φr120Cos(30) Cos(30)
60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt
b120
3 3 Φ
=2 R1= + & R2 =-
2 2 m
3 -Φ Y1=0 & Y2=0
= Φm
2 B1=- & B2=+
 4. Consider an angle 1800, ωt=180
Φb
Φr180= Φm Sin(180)= 0
Φy180= Φm Sin(180-120)= 3 Φm
2
Φr

Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

-Φ
=- 3 Φ
Φb180= Φm Sin(180-240)
2 m
 4. Consider an angle 1800, N
Φb
R2
Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
R1
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
S
Φy

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

R1=0 & R2=0

-Φ Y1=+ & Y2=-
B1=- & B2=+
 The resultant flux is = 3 Φm
N
Φb
2
and rotate clockwise for R2
clockwise RYB Y1 B1
```````
Φr B2 Y2
R1
Φr Φy Φb
+Φ
S
Φy

0 =2Φ
Φ120=2Φy180Cos(30) Cos(30)
60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt
b120
3 3 Φ
=2 R1=0 & R2=0
2 2 m
3 -Φ Y1=+ & Y2=-
= Φm
2c B1=- & B2=+
 S
B
R2
Y1 B1
```````
R B2 Y2
R1
R Y B
+Φ
N
Y

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt

For Clockwise RYB,

-Φ
Flux rotate Clockwise, Poles rotate Clockwise,
 y
S
B
R2
B1
Y1 Y1
B1
```````
R Y2
B2 B2
Y2
R1
R Y B
+Φ
N
B
Y
Now change the
phase sequence
of motor to RBY 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 ωt
With same supply
phase sequence

-Φ
For anticlockwise Flux rotate anticlockwise,
phase sequence, Poles rotate anticlockwise,
Torque in three phase induction motorS
R2
Y1 B1
```````
B2 Y2
R1

ωt
Torque in three phase induction motorS
For clockwise RYB,
R2
Clockwise rotating magnetic field B1
Y1
is set up ```````
Torque acts on rotor continuously B2 Y2
Rotor rotates continuously R1
in clockwise direction.
N

Thus Three-Phase Induction Motor is self starting.

Roto
r
Shaft
Rotor
Shaft
Give 3-ph Supply R
Winding

Bar

Rotor
Shaft

B Y
Give 3-ph Supply R
Winding

Bar

Rotor
Shaft

Y open

B Y
Give 3-ph Supply R

Rotor
Shaft

Y open

B
Give 3-ph Supply R

Rotor
Shaft

B open
Y open

B
Give 3-ph Supply R

Rotor
Shaft

B open
Y open
Thus 3-ph Induction R 1-ph Induction
Motor is self Motor is not
starting and self starting

Rotor
Shaft
Thus 3-ph Induction R 1-ph Induction
Motor is self Motor is not
starting and self starting

Rotor
Shaft
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR

ROTOR
R

Three phase supplyY is given to stator

Rotating magnetic field is set up
Flux rotates clockwise at
synchronous speed, Ns
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR

ROTOR
R

Y
This has the effect as the conductor moving in
…………………… direction
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR
M
ROTOR
R

Y
This has the effect as the conductor moving in
anticlockwise direction
Flux passes from stator to rotor
As per Fleming’s RHR, current is induced
in rotor Polarity is DOT
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR

ROTOR
R

Conductor carryingY current placed in a magnetic

field
Apply FLHR Force towards right
Conductor moves in the same direction as
that of rotating magnetic field
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR

ROTOR
R

Y
Hence rotor rotates
Three phase induction motor is self starting
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR

ROTOR
R

Y
As rotor rotates at synchronous speed,
No relative motion No flux cut
No current No Torque
No Rotation
Rotation of Induction Motor

B
Rotor Conductor
STATOR

ROTOR
R

Y run at syn speed

Therefore IM cannot
Rotor speed is slightly less than syn speed
Syn speed = Ns Rotor speed = Nr
Slip speed = Ns- Nr
Slip
It is defined as the ratio of slip speed to syn
speed. s = (Ns - Nr) / Ns
s = 2 to 5% Nr = (1 - s) Ns
ωr = (1 - s) ω s
Rotor frequency, f2

sf1
Transformer and IM
Primary Stator
Secondary Rotor (Shorted)
r1 x1 I1 I2 r2/s x2
I0
V1 Rl Xm
Il Im

Rotor rotates
slip
 Transformer and IM
Primary Stator
Secondary Rotor (Shorted)
r1 x1 I1 I2 x2
I0
V1 Rl Xm r2/s
Il Im

Stator Input

Rotor Input
Air gap power, Pg = I22r2/s
Torque – slip Characteristics
Mechanical
Torque = Te = Mechanical

= =

= =

Te =

For 3 ph IM
Te =
Torque – slip Characteristics
Stable
Te Unstable
TeMax T
L

TeST Teop

0 Speed Ns
1 Slip 0
Analysis of Single Phase Induction Motor
There are two theories
1. Double Revolving Field Theory
2. Cross Field Theory

1. Double Revolving Field Theory

The pulsating or stationary stator mmf wave is resolved into
Two counter rotating mmf waves
With equal magnitude and
Moving at synchronous speed.
The stator mmf is
F = Fmax Sin ωt Cos α

Since sinA cosB= [sin(A-B) + sin(A+B)]

 1 1
F= F max
Sin(ωt-α) + Fmax Sin(ωt+α)
2 2
The maximum value is 1 Fmax
2
Which is equal to half the original wave.
- α means wave toward right (waveform) and
+ α means wave toward left (waveform)
The 1st term is revolving field moving in +ve α direction.
The 2nd term is revolving field moving in -ve α direction.

The field moving in +ve α direction called as

Forward Rotating Field
Thus 1
Fmax Sin(ωt-α) is Forward Field
2
1
Fmax Sin(ωt+α) is Backward Field
2
Both fields rotate at synchronous speed ωs = 2πf,
in opposite direction.

For sinusoidal current, consider instant A, when ωt = 90 0

instant A Fmax Sin ωt

mmf
i Fmax
1
Fmax ω ω
2
Now at instant B, consider ωt1
instant B
ωt1 ωt1 mmf
Fmax Sin (ωt1+90)
i

1
Fmax
2
Now at instant B, consider ωt1
instant B
ωt1 ωt1 mmf
Fmax Sin (ωt1+90)
i

1 B ωt1 F
B F Fmax ωt1
2
ω ω

Resultant is again along winding axis

Now at instant C, consider ωt2
instant C
ωt2 ωt2
mmf
i Fmax Sin (ωt2+90)
1
Fmax
2
Now at instant C, consider ωt2
instant C
ωt2 ωt2
mmf
i Fmax Sin (ωt2+90)
1
Fmax
B F 2 ωt2 ωt2
F B

Both phasors rotate at speed ω

Resultant is again along winding axis

Forward field produces forward torque Tf
Backward field produces backward torque Tb
If rotor runs at a speed Nr, then relative speed w r t
forward field is (Ns - Nr)
Nr
The slip is given by s = (Ns - Nr) / Ns = sf = 1 - slip < 1
Ns
Nr
= 1- s
Ns
The relative speed wrt backward field is (Ns + Nr)

The slip is given by sb = (Ns + Nr) / Ns

Nr
= 1+ slip > 1
Ns
= 1+ 1- s
sb = 2- s
 Forward
Te
Tf

-Ns 0 Speed Ns
2 1 Slip 0

Backward
Tb

Torque speed characteristic of 1-ph IM

Resultant Torque speed characteristic can

be drawn by adding these two torques
 Forward
Te
Tf

TR

-Ns 0 Speed Ns
2 1 Slip 0

Backward
Tb

Motor runs in backward By hand produce torque

direction
Motor runs in forward
direction
Starting of Single Phase Induction Motor
We have seen that
Single phase winding produces pulsating flux.
So no starting torque is produced
We have also seen that
Two phase system produces rotating magnetic field
So two phase system produces starting torque.
In addition to main winding,
Second winding is designed with 900 elect phase displacement
which is called as Auxiliary winding or Starting winding.
Depending on auxiliary means, the 1-ph IMs are
classified as
Classified as
1. Split-Phase Starting or Split Phase Motor
2. Shaded Pole starting or Shaded Pole Motor
3. Repulsion Motor Starting and
4. Reluctance Starting
1. Split-Phase Starting or Split Phase Motor
This type is also called as Resistance Starting.
The single phase is splitted into TWO phases
The stator has TWO windings
1. Main Winding or Running Winding

2. Auxiliary winding or Starting Winding

These two windings are connected in parallel and
are displaced in space by 900 electrical.
 Main
winding

Rotor
Shaft

Auxiliary
winding
1. Resistance Split Phase Motor:
1. Main Winding or Running Winding (M)
Highly Inductive
in order to lag the current (IM) by nearly 900
with the Voltage
2. Auxiliary winding or Starting Winding (A)
Highly Resistive
to have current (IA) nearly in phase with the Voltage

These two windings are connected in parallel and

are displaced in space by 900 electrical.
1. Resistance Split Phase Motor:
CS (Centrifugal Switch)

RM
Single
Phase V IM IA
supply
XM
V
RA XA
I
ΦA CS V IA
A IA
IM β IM

ΦM
M Phasor Diagram
IA leads IM The angle is 30 to 400..
This angle is sufficient to produce the torque
(1.5 to 2 times FL torque) and to rotate the rotor.

The flux rotate clockwise from Auxiliary to Main wdg

Rotor starts rotating from auxiliary winding to main winding.
To reverse the direction of rotation, interchange any two
terminals either of auxiliary wdg or of main wdg.
V I
IA

β IM

Phasor Diagram
Single phase supply R
R N is given

R N

Auxiliary
winding
Rotor
CS
Shaft
Main
winding

N
Single phase supply R
R N is given Change the dirn
of rotation

R N

Auxiliary
winding
Rotor
CS
Shaft
Main
winding

N
Single phase supply R
R N is given Change the dirn
of rotation

R N

Auxiliary
winding
Rotor
CS
Shaft
Main
winding

N
The starting wbg is disconnected by means of CS at
70 to 80% of rated speed
The typical torque speed characteristics is shown below.

Auxiliary
Te Wdg
Fan Load
Operating
Te starting
Main Point
Wdg Ns
0
Speed

70%
Applications: Fans, Blowers, Pumps, Refrigerator,
Compressor. Washing Machine.

Rating: 10 to 200 Watts

2. Capacitor Split Phase Motor:
CS (Centrifugal Switch)

RM
Single
Phase V IM IA
supply C
XM
V
RA XA
I
ΦA CS V

A C IA
IA IM IM
β~
= 90
ΦM
M Phasor Diagram
IA leads IM The angle is nearly 900..
The line current is reduced.
The starting torque is more due to angle β. (3 to 4 times
FL torque)
But due to capacitor cost is more.
The starting wdg and capacitor are disconnected at 70 to
80% of rated speed.
The typical torque speed characteristics is shown below.

Auxiliary
Resistor split Wdg
Te
phase motor Fan Load
Te starting Operating
Main Point
Wdg Ns
0
Speed
70%
The value of capacitor varies from 20 to 30 μF for
100W and from 60 to 100 μF for 750W
AC electrolytic capacitors are economical.

Applications: Air conditioning, Compressor.

Reciprocating Pumps
Refrigerator,
3. Capacitor Start and Run Motor:

RM C2 C1
Single
Phase V IM
supply CS
XM
IA
V
C2 RA XA I
ΦA
CS V

A C1 IA
IM
IA IM
β = 90
ΦM Phasor Diagram
M Balanced two phase motor
C1 is large capacitor C2 is small capacitor (High Reactance)
The more starting torque is obtained with high capacitance

Best running performance is obtained with low capacitance

The starting current is more and running current is less.
Torque variation is less. Operation is quieter.
Power factor is improved Efficiency is increased.

C1 + C2 +
Te Both Wdgs
Torque –speed
characteristic
C2 + Both
Wdgs Ns
0
Speed
70%
Rating : 100 to 400W
C1 is electrolytic type.
C2 should be AC paper, oil type capacitor.
The motor is used for quite operation.
Used in office equipment, fans etc.
4. Capacitor Run Motor:

RM C
Single
Phase V IM
supply
XM
IA
RA V
XA I
ΦA
C V

A IA
IM
IA IM
β = 90
ΦM Phasor Diagram
M Balanced two phase motor
Permanent split capacitor motor
The capacitor is kept permanently in the circuit.
No need of centrifugal switch.
Capacitor and auxiliary wdg are designed to get 900 phase
displacement
Torque variation is less. Operation is quieter.
Power factor is improved Efficiency is increased.

Te
Torque –speed
characteristic

0 Ns
Speed
The value of capacitor varies from 2 to 3 μF.

C should be AC paper, oil type capacitor.

Applications: Offices, Class rooms

Theaters
Refrigerator,
5. Shaded Pole Motor: Main wdg

Shading Coil
Stator

Φm (main wdg flux)

ΦShaded pole

ESC=induced voltage in shaded coil ESC

ISC= current in shaded coil
ISC
Φ
Salient pole type
Shaded pole, carries short circuited ring (shading ring)
Made up of aluminium or copper.
Φm is leading to ΦSP
Rotating field rotates from Φm to ΦSP
Rotor rotates from un-shaded pole to shaded pole
Efficiency is low (20 to 50%)
Speed reversal is not possible.
Very cheap Te
Rating: 40W Torque –speed
characteristic

0 Ns
Speed
Applications: Small domestic fans
Tap - Record player
Movie projectors

Blowers,
Heaters,
 Starting of IM
There are principally TWO methods
1. Full voltage starting or Direct-on-Line starting
2. Reduced voltage starting
There are three methods of reducing voltage
1. Stator reactor (or resistor) starting
2. Auto-transformer starting
3. Star-delta starting
At this stage, for this experiment, Auto-transformer
starting is used
 Circuit Diagram
Switch
R
R Turn switches ON
Stator

Rotor

B Y
B

Y 3-ph
Auto-transformer
 Circuit Diagram
Switch
R
R Turn switches ON
Stator

Rotor

B Y
B

Y 3-ph
Auto-transformer
 Circuit Diagram
Switch
R
R Turn switches ON
Stator

Rotor

B Y
B

For supply RYB Clockwise,

Rotation of rotor is clockwise
3-ph Now make supply of and
Y
Auto-transformer interchange Y & B terminals
 Circuit Diagram
Switch
R
R Turn switches ON
Stator

Rotor

Y
B
B
B ph of IM is connected to Y ph of supply

Y ph of IM is connected to
Y 3-ph B ph of supply
Auto-transformer
 Circuit Diagram
Switch
R
R Turn switches ON
Stator

Rotor

Y
B
B
B ph of IM is connected to Y ph of supply
For supply RYB anti-clockwise,
Rotation of rotor is anti-clockwise
Y ph of IM is connected to
Y 3-ph B ph of supply
Auto-transformer
 Apparatus Required
Three Phase Induction Motor
Three Phase Autotransformer

Procedure
1. Make the connection as shown in Fig.
2. Set up the VARIAC to zero output and switch ON
the supply
3. Increase the voltage by variac and see the
rotation of rotor of induction motor
4. Decrease the voltage and switch OFF the supply
5. Interchange any TWO terminals of the IM
6. Increase the voltage by variac and see the
rotation of rotor of induction motor
 Observations
The rotation of rotor of IM is opposite to
earlier rotation of rotor of IM

Results & Conclusions

1. If the phase sequence of supply RYB is
clockwise, then FLUX of IM rotates in
clockwise direction and rotor of IM also
rotates in clockwise direction.
2. If the phase sequence of supply RYB is
anti-clockwise, then FLUX of IM rotates in
anti-clockwise direction and rotor of IM
also rotates in anti-clockwise direction.