CHAPTER -9

Biomass - Biogas and Bio-fuels

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Biomass is any organic matter encompasses a wide variety including not only wood, agricultural crops, seaweed,
animal wastes, marine plants, fisheries resources but also pulp sludge, alcohol fermentation stillage, industrial waste
etc— that can be used as an energy source. Biomass is probably our oldest source of energy after the sun. For
thousands of years, people have burned wood to heat their homes and cook their food. Biomass gets its energy from
the sun. All organic matter contains stored energy from the sun. During a process called photosynthesis, sunlight
gives plants the energy they need to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and sugars. These sugars, called
carbohydrates, supply plants and the animals that eat plants with energy. Biomass is a renewable energy source
because its supplies are not limited. We can always grow trees and crops, and waste will always exist. The bio-
mass is created from solar energy, water and CO2 and therefore does not increase the total earth volume of carbon
dioxide. Biogas is produced in the photosynthesis process which converts the solar energy into biomass energy. In
this respect, biogas is said to be “carbon neutral”, as shown in figure ……9.1. The photosynthesis can be produced
by a simple equation.

6CO2 + 6H2O + LIGHT C6H12O6 + 6O2

Biomass resources fall into three categories:

(i) Biomass in its traditional solid mass (wood and agricultural residues) and
(ii) Biomass in non-traditional form (converted into liquid fuels). The first category is to burn the biomass
directly and get the energy. In the second category, the biomass is converted into ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
and methanol (methyl-alcohol) to be used as liquid fuel in engines.
(iii) The third category is to ferment the biomass an aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called biogas.

Fig. 9.1 Utilization of Biomass Energy

9.2 AVAILABILITY OF BIOMASS

The earth has a huge amount of biomass covering wide regions including forests and the ocean. The total
biomass of the world is 1,800 billions on the ground and 4 billion tons in the ocean, and a comparative amount
of biomass exists in the soil. The total biomass on the ground is 33,000 EJ on the energy basis, which is
corresponds to 80 times or more of the annual enengy consumption of the world.;
There are wide variety of biomass, which are using today for multiple purposes like wood and agricultural
products, solid waste, landfill gas and biogas, and alcohol fuels, municipal solid waste (MSW) etc. Figure
…9.2…shows different biomass sources available.

Fig. 9.2…Different Biomass Sources

(I). Wood and Agricultural Products

Most biomass used today is home grown energy. Wood—logs, chips, bark, and sawdust—accounts for about
46 percent of biomass energy. But any organic matter can produce biomass energy. Other biomass sources
include agricultural waste products like fruit pits and corncobs. Wood and wood waste, along with agricultural
waste, are used to generate electricity. Much of the electricity is used by the industries making the waste; it is
not distributed by utilities, it is cogenerated. Paper mills and saw mills use much of their waste products to
generate steam and electricity for their use. However, since they use so much energy, they need to buy
additional electricity from utilities. Increasingly, timber companies and companies involved with wood
products are seeing the benefits of using their lumber scrap and sawdust for power generation. This saves
disposal costs and, in some areas, may reduce the companies’ utility bills. In fact, the pulp and paper
industries rely on biomass to meet 63 percent of their energy needs. Other industries that use biomass include
lumber producers, furniture manufacturers, agricultural businesses like nut and rice growers, and liquor
producers.

(II)Solid Waste

Burning trash turns waste into a usable form of energy. One ton (2,000 pounds) of garbage contains about as
much heat energy as 500 pounds of coal. Garbage is not all biomass; perhaps half of its energy content comes
from plastics, which are made from petroleum and natural gas. Power plants that burn garbage for energy are
called waste-to-energy plants. These plants generate electricity much as coal-fired plants do, except that
combustible garbage—not coal—is the fuel used to fire their boilers. Making electricity from garbage costs
more than making it from coal and other energy sources. The main advantage of burning solid waste is that it
reduces the amount of garbage dumped in landfills by 60 to 90 percent, which in turn reduces the cost of
landfill disposal. It also makes use of the energy in the garbage, rather than burying it in a landfill, where it
remains unused.

(III). Landfill Gas (LFG) and Biogas

• Landfill gas (LFG) is a natural byproduct of decomposing organic matter. It is approximately 50

percent methane (CH4) and 50 percent carbon dioxide (CO2). Landfills can be significant sources of
greenhouse gas emissions because they contain a significant amount of organic matter, and over time the
organic matter breaks down and releases its gases into the atmosphere. These emissions can be captured and
used to produce heat, power, electricity, and biofuels. Bacteria and fungi are not picky eaters. They eat dead
plants and animals, causing them to rot or decay. A fungus on a rotting log is converting cellulose to sugars to
feed itself. Although this process is slowed in a landfill, a substance called methane gas is still produced as the
waste decays. New regulations require landfills to collect methane gas for safety and environmental reasons.
Methane gas is colorless and odorless, but it is not harmless. The gas can cause fires or explosions if it seeps
into nearby homes and is ignited. Landfills can collect the methane gas, purify it, and use it as fuel.

Methane, the main ingredient in natural gas, is a good energy source. Most gas furnaces and stoves use
methane supplied by utility companies. In 2003, East Kentucky Power Cooperative began recovering methane
from three landfills. The utility now uses the gas at six landfills to generate enough electricity to power about
9,000 Kentucky homes.

Approximately 400 landfill gas-to-energy projects exist in the U.S. today (Riat, et al. 2006). Fairfax County,
Virginia, has been using LFG since 1989 to power three electricity generating facilities, one pollution control
plant, and the on-site landfill maintenance buildings. Today, a small portion of landfill gas is used to provide
energy. Most is burned off at the landfill. With today’s low natural gas prices, this higher-priced biogas is
rarely economical to collect. Methane, however, is a more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. It is
better to burn landfill methane and change it into carbon dioxide than release it into the atmosphere.

• Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such

asmanure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant material, and crops. Biogas comprises
primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or
oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a fuel in
any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. Biogas digesters are airtight containers or pits lined with
steel or bricks. Waste put into the containers is fermented without oxygen to produce a methane-rich gas. This
gas can be used to produce electricity, or for cooking and lighting. It is a safe and clean burning gas, producing
little carbon monoxide and no smoke. Biogas digesters are inexpensive to build and maintain. They can be
built as family-sized or community-sized units. They need moderate temperatures and moisture for the
fermentation process to occur. For developing countries, biogas digesters may be one of the best answers to
many of their energy needs. The Biogas plant is shown in figure…9.3
 Figure 9.3 .Dome type Biogas plant
They can help reverse the rampant deforestation caused by wood-burning, reduce air pollution, fertilize over-
used fields, and produce clean, safe energy for rural communities. A digester this size in India, where cows
weigh an average of between 225 to 330 kg each, would require access to manure from about 20 cows. This
system would produce an estimated 2277 m3 of biogas per year at a conversion efficiency of 25%

(IV). Alcohol Bio-fuels like Ethanol, bio-diesel etc

(a). Ethanol

Ethanol is an alcohol fuel (ethyl alcohol) made by fermenting the sugars and starches found in plants and then
distilling them. Any organic material containing cellulose, starch, or sugar can be made into ethanol. More
than 90 percent of the ethanol produced in the United States comes from corn. New technologies are producing
ethanol from cellulose in woody fibers from trees, grasses, and crop residues. Today nearly all of the gasoline
sold in the U.S. contains 10 percent ethanol and is known as E10. In 2011, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency approved the introduction of E15 (15 percent ethanol, 85 percent gasoline) for use in passenger
vehicles from model year 2001 and newer. Fuel containing 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline (E85)
qualifies as an alternative fuel. There are about seven million flexible fuel vehicles (FFV) on the road that can
run efficiently on E85. However, only six percent of these vehicles use E85. Vehicle maintenance for ethanol-
powered vehicles is similar to those using gasoline. Oil changes, in fact, are needed less frequently. Due to its
detergent properties, ethanol tends to keep fuel lines and injectors cleaner than gasoline. Because ethanol has a
tendency to absorb moisture, using ethanol fuel can help reduce the possibility of fuel-line freeze-up during the
winter.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has already evolved a standard (IS-15607) for Bio-diesel (B 100), which
is the Indian adaptation of the American Standard ASTM D-6751 and European Standard EN-14214. BIS has
also published IS: 2796: 2008 which covers specification for motor gasoline blended with 5% ethanol and
motor gasolineblended with 10% ethanol.

Environmental Impacts: Ethanol is both water soluble and biodegradable. If a fuel spill occurs, the effects are
less environmentally severe than with gasoline. Because ethanol contains oxygen, using it as a fuel additive
results in lower carbon monoxide emissions. The E10 blend results in 12 to 25 percent less carbon monoxide
emissions than conventional gasoline.

(b). Biodiesel:
Biodiesel is a fuel made by chemically reacting alcohol with vegetable oils, animal fats, or greases, such as
recycled restaurant grease. Most biodiesel today is made from soybean oil. Biodiesel is most often blended
with petroleum diesel in ratios of two percent (B2), five percent (B5), or 20 percent (B20). It can also be used
as neat (pure) biodiesel (B100). Biodiesel fuels are compatible with and can be used in unmodified diesel
engines with the existing fueling infrastructure. It is one of the fastest growing alternative transportation fuels
in the U.S. Biodiesel contains virtually no sulfur, so it can reduce sulfur levels in the nation’s diesel fuel
supply, even compared with today’s low sulfur fuels. While removing sulfur from petroleum-based diesel
results in poor lubrication, biodiesel is a superior lubricant and can reduce the friction of diesel fuel in blends
of only one or two percent. This is an important characteristic because the Environmental Protection Agency
now requires that sulfur levels in diesel fuel be 97 percent lower than they were prior to 2006.

Environmental Impacts: Biodiesel is renewable, nontoxic, and biodegradable. Compared to diesel, biodiesel
(B100) reduces sulfur oxide emissions by 100 percent, particulates by 48 percent, carbon monoxide by 47
percent, unburned hydrocarbons by 67 percent, and hydrocarbons by 68 percent. Emissions of nitrogen oxides,
however, increase slightly (10 percent). Biodiesel blends generally reduce emissions in proportion to the
percentage of biodiesel in the blend.

(V) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

The portion of MSW that is wood includes items such as discarded furniture, pallets, packaging materials,
processed lumber, and yard and tree trimmings. Of the 13 million dry tons of woody MSW generated
annually, approximately 8 million dry tons are available for recovery (McKeever, 2004). This material is
generally recycled as mulch or compost; sent to a landfi ll; or burned for heat, power, and electricity.

In recent years, small, portable wood chippers and bailing units that press yard debris into “logs” similar in
appearance to that of traditional fire wood have emerged. Some municipalities provide large yard debris carts,
which are collected weekly. Other areas work with local businesses to ensure collection options such as drop-
off bins and designated collection facilities.

Every year, about 55 million tones of municipal solid waste (MSW) and 38 billion litres of sewage are
generated in the urban areas of India. In addition, large quantities of solid and liquid wastes are generated by
industries. Waste generation in India is expected to increase rapidly in the future. As more people migrate to
urban areas and as incomes increase, consumption levels are likely to rise, as are rates of waste generation. It is
estimated that the amount of waste generated in India will increase at a per capita rate of approximately 1-
1.33% annually. This has significant impacts on the amount of land that is and will be needed for disposal,
economic costs of collecting and transporting waste, and the environmental consequences of increased MSW
generation levels
9.3 BIOGAS PLANTS

Composition of Biogas:
The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic digestion process. Methane (CH4) is the
primary component of natural gas has a heating value of 37.3 MJ/m3. Bacterial degradation of organic matter under
anaerobic condition (with out O2) releases a mixture of gases (Biogas), which usually consists of CH4, CO2, H 2, N2, and
numerous trace gases such has H2S that together constitute 0-1% of the gas volume. This gives raw biogas an energy
content of only 19-22 MJ/m3. CO2 and trace gases can be removed by chemical means, yielding gas of pipe line quality
37 MJ/m3. Biogas has a calorific value between 5000 to 5500 kcal/kg. The composition of biogas is shown in
Table…9.1……..
Table …9.1.Composition of Biogas

Anaerobic Digestion :
In a biogas process, large organic molecules (proteins, sugars and fats) are successively broken down into
methane and carbon dioxide, a gas mixture called biogas as shown in Figure..9.4.. The various stages of
decomposition and the microorganisms that are active at each stage are described below.

Stage 1. Hydrolysis : Hydrolysis is theoretically the first step of AD, during which the complex organic
matter (polymers) is decomposed into smaller units (mono- and oligomers). During hydrolysis, polymers like
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins are converted into glucose, glycerol, purines and pyridines.
Hydrolytic microorganisms excrete hydrolytic enzymes, converting biopolymers into simpler and soluble
compounds as it is shown below:

The products resulted from hydrolysis are further decomposed by the microorganisms involved and used for
their own metabolic processes.

Stage 2. Acidogenesis : During acidogenesis, the products of hydrolysis are converted by acidogenic
(fermentative) bacteria into methanogenic substrates. Simple sugars, amino acids and fatty acids are
degraded into acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen (70%) as well as into volatile fatty acids (VFA) and
alcohols (30%).

Stage 3, Acetogenesis: Products from acidogenesis, which can not be directly converted to methane by
methanogenic bacteria, are converted into methanogenic substrates during acetogenesis. VFA and alcohols are
oxidised into methanogenic substrates like acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. VFA, with carbon chains
longer than two units and alcohols, with carbon chains longer than one unit, are oxidized into acetate and
hydrogen.
Stage 4, Methanogenesis: During methanogenesis, hydrogen is converted into methane. The production of
methane and carbon dioxide from intermediate products is carried out by methanogenic bacteria. 70% of the
formed methane originates from acetate, while the remaining 30% is produced from conversion of hydrogen
(H) and carbon dioxide (CO2), according to the following equations:

The pH level should be kept between 5.5-8.5 and the temperature between 30-60°C, in order to maximise
digestion rates.

Fig…9.4..Anaerobic Digestion different stages in Biogas Plant

Anaerobic digestion is the degradation of organic material by microbial activity in the absence of air transforming it
into biomass and biogas, a mixture of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and some trace gases.

9.3.1 COMPONENTS OF BIOGAS PLANTS

A typical biogas plant has the following components:

9.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF BIOGAS PLANTS

Biomass fuels account for about one-third of the total fuel used in the country. It is the most important fuel
used in over 90% of the rural households and about 15% of the urban households. Using only local resources,
namely cattle waste and other organic wastes, energy and manure are derived. Thus the biogas plants are the
cheap sources of energy in rural areas. The comparison of direct burning of fresh dung and biogas produced
by 25kg of fresh dung is shown in the figure..9.5.The types of biogas plant designs popular are: floating drum
type, fixed dome-type and bag-type portable digester.

Fig…9.5. Comparison of direct burning and biogas produced by 25kg of fresh dung

9.4 Classification of Biogas Plants

▪ Fixed-dome plants
▪ Floating-drum plants
▪ Low-Cost Polyethylene Tube Digester
▪ Balloon plants

9.4.1 Fixed –dome Biogas Plant

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits on top of the digester. When gas
production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and
the height difference between the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.

The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant are relatively low. It is simple as no moving parts exist. There are also no rusting steel
parts and hence a long life of the plant (20 years or more) can be expected. The plant is constructed underground, protecting it
from physical damage and saving space. While the underground digester is protected from low temperatures at night and during
cold seasons, sunshine and warm seasons take longer to heat up the digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in the
digester positively influence the bacteriological processes.

The construction of fixed dome plants is labor-intensive, thus creating local employment. Fixed-dome plants are not easy to
build. They should only be built where construction can be supervised by experienced biogas technicians. Otherwise plants may
not be gas-tight (porosity and cracks). The basic elements of a fixed dome plant (here the Nicarao Design) are shown in the
figure 9.6…..
 Fig…9.6.. The Basic elements of a Fixed Dome Plant

• Function: A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an immovable, rigid gas-
holder and a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas is stored in the upper part of the digester.
When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with
the volume of gas stored, i.e. with the height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gas-
holder, the gas pressure is low.

• Digester: The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures, structures of cement and ferro-cement
exist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:

▪ Technical suitability (stability, gas- and liquid tightness);

▪ cost-effectiveness;
▪ availability in the region and transport costs;
▪ availability of local skills for working with the particular building material.
Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-tight. However, utilization of the gas is less
effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially. Burners and other simple appliances cannot be set in an optimal way. If the
gas is required at constant pressure (e.g., for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a floating gas-holder is necessary.

➢ Types of Fixed–dome Biogas Plant

▪ Chinese fixed-dome plant is the archetype of all fixed dome plants. Several million have been constructed in China. The
digester consists of a cylinder with round bottom and top.
▪ Janata model was the first fixed-dome design in India, as a response to the Chinese fixed dome plant. It is not constructed
anymore. The mode of construction lead to cracks in the gasholder - very few of these plant had been gas-tight.
▪ Deenbandhu, the successor of the Janata plant in India, with improved design, was more crack-proof and consumed less
building material than the Janata plant. with a hemisphere digester
▪ CAMARTEC model has a simplified structure of a hemispherical dome shell based on a rigid foundation ring only and a
calculated joint of fraction, the so-called weak / strong ring. It was developed in the late 80s in Tanzania.

9.4.1.1 Janata Model Biogas Plant

This was first developed by the Planning, Research and Action Division, Lucknow in 1978. It is an improved
version of the Chinese fixed dome type biogas plant. The foundation of Janata biogas plant is laid at the base
of the underground pit on a leveled ground which bears the load of slurry as well as digester wall. Digester is
cylindrical in shape, constructed with bricks and cement. It holds the dung slurry in the digester. The diameter
and height ratio of the digester is kept 1.75:1. The gas is stored in gas portion, which is an integral part of plant
between dome and digester where the usable gas is stored. The height of the gas portion is above the inlet and
outlet opening of dome, and is equal to maximum volume of the gas to be stored (30 – 40% of plant capacity)
and equal to volume of slurry to be displaced at inlet and outlet. The Janata Model is shown in Fig…9.7.;

Fig…9.7 ..Janata Model Biogas Plant

Dome is constructed over the gas portion, with volume of 60% of the plant capacity. It must be constructed
very carefully integrating it with digester and gas portion so that no leakage of gas can take place. The gas
outlet pipe is fixed at the top of dome for laying the line.
Inlet and outlet portions are constructed for putting the fresh slurry inside the plant and to take the digested
slurry out. The discharge of slurry out of the plant is due to pressure of the gas in the plant. Over the inlet
portion, an inlet mixing tank is also constructed to mix the dung and water.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Janata Model Bio-Gas Plant

Advantages

▪ Capital investment is low

▪ It has no corrosion trouble
▪ Heat insulation is better as construction is beneath the ground. Temperature will be constant
▪ Cattle and human excreta and by fibrous stalks can be fed
▪ No maintenance
Disadvantages
▪ No provision for stirring the slurry and hence scum problem is there.
 ▪ Gas production per m3 of digester volume is less
▪ It has variable gas pressure
▪ Construction of dome portion is a skilled job and requires thorough training of masons
▪ Requires more excavation work
▪ Location of defects in the dome and repairing are difficult

9.4.1.2 Deenbandhu Model Biogas Plant

The Deenbandhu Model Biogas Plant is shown in Fig…9.8……

Fig…9.8..Deenbandhu Model Biogas Plant

9.4.2 Floating-drum Biogas Plants

Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester and a moving gas-holder. The gas-holder floats either directly on the
fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas is collected in the gas drum, which rises or moves down, according to
the amount of gas stored. The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. If the drum floats in a water jacket, it
cannot get stuck, even in substrate with high solid content. The floating –drum biogas plant is shown in fig…9.9.

Drum: In the past, floating-drum plants were mainly built in India. A floating-drum plant consists of a cylindrical or dome-
shaped digester and a moving, floating gas-holder, or drum. The gas-holder floats either directly in the fermenting slurry or in a
separate water jacket. The drum in which the biogas collects has an internal and/or external guide frame that provides stabil ity
and keeps the drum upright. If biogas is produced, the drum moves up, if gas is consumed, the gas-holder sinks back.
 Fig…9.9… Floating –drum Biogas Plant

➢ Types of Floating –drum Biogas Plants

▪ KVIC model with a cylindrical digester, the oldest and most widespread floating drum biogas plant from India.
▪ Pragati model with a hemisphere digester
▪ Ganesh model made of angular steel and plastic foil
▪ floating-drum plant made of pre-fabricated reinforced concrete compound units
▪ floating-drum plant made of fibre-glass reinforced polyester
▪ low cost floating-drum plants made of plastic water containers or fiberglass drums: ARTI Biogas plants
▪ BORDA model: The BORDA-plant combines the static advantages of hemispherical digester with the process-stability of
the floating-drum and the longer life span of a water jacket plant.

9.4.2.1 KVIC Model Biogas Plant

Design which is patented by KVIC India under the name “Grah Luxmi” consists of two main parts –

(i) Digester or pit,

(ii) Gas holder or the gas collectors.
Digester : It consists of a digester or pit which is for fermentation and a floating drum for the collection of gas.
Digester is a well of masonry work, dug and built below the ground level, the depth of the well varies from 3.5
to 6 meters and diameter from 1.2 to 6 meters, depending upon the gas generating capacity and the quantity of
raw material fed each day. There is a partition wall in the centre which divides the digested well vertically into
two semi cylindrical compartments. The partition wall is lower than the level of the digester rim and hence it is
submerged in slurry when the digester is full. There are two slanting cement pipes which serves the purpose of
inlet and outlet. An inlet chamber near the digester at surface level serves for mixing dung and water (slurry) in
the ratio of 4:5, flows down the inlet pipe to the bottom of digester. This type of design can hold raw material
for 60 days. The outlet chamber which is also at nearly surface level or just a few cm below the level of the
inlet chamber. When more slurry is added and both compartments of the igester are full, then equivalent
amount of fermented slurry flows out at the outlet and discharges into a composed pit.

Gas holder: Gas holder of the digester is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets, cylindrical in shape with a
conical top radial support at the bottom. It fits into the digester like a stopper. It sinks into the slurry due to its
own weight and rests upon the ring constituted for this purpose. As the gas is generated the holder rises
andfloats freely on the surface of the slurry. A pipe is provided at the top of the holder, for flow of gas for
usage. A central guide pipe is provided to prevent the holder from tilting. It is fitted to the frame and is fixed at
the bottom in the masonry work. The holder also acts as a seal for the gas. The gas pressure varies between 10-
15 cm of water column. The gas before use is passed through a vessel containing soda lime so that it is dried.
Generally the pit is deep and narrow, but at places where the water level is low, the design has been modified
and the volume has been taken horizontally. The KVIC model of biogas plant is shown in figure …9.10
The floating drum is metallic and consumes about 40 per cent of the total cost of the plant. Besides, if not
properly maintained, the drum corrodes soon and the life of the plant very much gets reduced. However, the
construction is quite simple and the gas comes out at the constant pressure.

Fig…9.10 KVIS Model Biogas Plant

Advantages and Disadvantages of Floating drum Plant (KVIC)

Advantages
• Gas holder can be lifted off to facilitate removal of any build up of scum
• Gas holder can be rotated to give limited stirring
• Release of gas at constant pressure
• Inlet and outlet are straight to facilitate cleaning of blockages
• It has less scum troubles because solids are constantly submerged
 • No separate pressure equalizing device needed when fresh waste is added to the tank or digested
slurry is withdrawn
• Danger of mixing O2 with the gas to form an explosive mixture is minimized
• Higher gas productions / m3 of digester volume is achieved
• Floating drum has welded braces, which help in breaking the scum by rotation
• No problem of gas leakage

Disadvantages
• Higher cost as cost is dependent on steel and cement
• Heat is lost through metal gas holder, hence it troubles in colder regions and period
• Gas holder requires painting once or twice a year depending on the humidity of the location
• Flexible pipe joining the gas holder to the main gas pipe requires maintenance as it is damaged by
ultraviolet rays in the sun

9.4.3 Comparison Between KVIC (Floating Type) and Deenbandhu Model (Fixed Type )Biogas
plant

Comaprision between KVIC and Deenbandhu model biogas plant is shown in Table 9.1

Table 9.1 Comparison between KVIC and Deenbandhu model

▪
9.4.4 Low-Cost Polyethylene Tube Digester
Digester:

In the case of the Low-Cost Polyethylene Tube Digester model which is applied in Bolivia (Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Centro
America and Mexico), the tubular polyethylene film (two coats of 300 microns) is bended at each end around a 6 inch PVC
drainpipe and is wound with rubber strap of recycled tire-tubes. With this system a hermetic isolated tank is obtained (figure
td1). The Polyethylene tube digester is shown in Fig…9.11………….

Fig…9.11…….. Polyethylene Tube Digester

Advantages and Disadvantages of Polyethylene tube digester

• Advantages are that tubular polyethylene is produced in most countries. The choice of supplementary fittings and
related materials has been limited to those available locally on farms or in rural markets; they are the basic components of
sanitary installations which are similar all over the world. The polyethylene tubular film biodigester technology is a cheap and
simple way to produce gas.
• Disadvantages are the lower gas pressure (20 cm water column / 19,6 mbar) than in the fixed-dom system or floating
drum system. You can't walk or use the area over the digester like in the case of the underground plants. There is a need to
protect the tubular polyethylene against e.g. cows, because it could burst when the animal jumps into the digester.

9.4.5 Factors affecting Bio-digestion or Generation of Biogas

The following are the factors that affect generation of biogas:

Factors Affecting Biogas Generation

1. Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratio

: Carbon (as carbohydrates) and nitrogen (as protein, ammonium nitrates etc.) are the main food of anaerobic
bacteria. If the C/N ratio is very high, nitrogen will be consumed rapidly and the rate of reaction will be
decreased. On the other hand if the C/N ratio is very low, nitrogen will be liberated and accumulated in the
form of ammonia. The ammonia can kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria specially methane producers. In
general a ratio of in range of 20-30:1 is considered the best for anaerobic digestion.

2. pH value
: Both over acidic and over alkaline than certain limits are harmful to Methanogenesis organisms. The
optimum biogas production is achieved when the pH value of the input mixture to the digester is between 5.5
and 8.5.

3. Temperature:
Enzymatic activity of bacteria largely depends upon temperature, which is critical factor for methane
production. The bacteria work best at a temperature of 35°C to 38°C.
•

4. Loading Rate:
The digester load is primarily dependent upon four factors- substrate, temperature, volumetric burden and type
of plant. The correct rate of loading is important for efficient gas production.
•

5. Retention Time:
It depends on the type of feedstock and the temperature. The retention time is calculated by dividing total
capacity of the digester by the rate at which organic matter is fed into it.
•

6. Total Solid Content

: For proper solubility of organic materials, the ratio between solid and water should be 1:1 on unit volume
basis when the domestic wastes are used. If the slurry mixture is too diluted, the solid particles can precipitate
at the bottom of digester and if it is too thick, the flow of gas can be impeded. In both cases gas production will
be less than optimum production.
•

7. Toxicity:
Mineral ions, heavy metals and the detergents are some of the toxic materials that inhibit the normal growth of
the pathogens in the digester. Small quantity of mineral ions like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and
sulphur stimulates the growth of bacteria while very heavy concentration of these ions will have toxic effect.
•

8. Pressure:
It has been reported that better production of biogas takes place at lower pressures.

9. Nutrient Concentration: The main nutrients required by the bacteria in the biogas plant
digesters are Carbon (c), Hydrogen (H2),Nitrogen (N2), Phosphorus (P), and Sulphur (S). Out of these nutrients
N2 an P are always in short supply and therefore to maintain proper balance of nutrient an extra raw materials,
rich in P and N2, should be added along with cow dung to obtain maximum production of biogas. Fermentation
process become very fast if nutrient available is sufficient amount.

10.Digester Shape and Size: Diameter to depth ratio of the digester should be in between 0.66 to
1 to produce maximum production of biogas.

11. Type of feed stocks : Biogas production is also depend on the type of feed stocks available for
fermentation in the plant.
 12. Acid accumulation inside the digester: Biogas production is depend on the acid
(acetic, etc) generated in the biogas plant.

9.5 CONVERSION OF BIOMASS WASTE INTO USEABLE FUEL

There are a number of technological options available to make use of a wide variety of biomass types as a
renewable energy source. Conversion technologies may release the energy directly, in the form of heat or
electricity, or may convert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or combustible biogas. While for some
classes of biomass resource there may be a number of usage options, for others there may be only one
appropriate technology.

(a). Thermal conversion

Thermal conversion processes use heat as the dominant mechanism to convert biomass into another chemical
form. The basic alternatives of combustion, torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification are separated principally
by the extent to which the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed (mainly controlled by the
availability of oxygen and conversion temperature).
Energy created by burning biomass (fuel wood), also known as dendrothermal energy, is particularly suited for
countries where the fuel wood grow more rapidly, e.g. tropical countries. Some have been developed for use
on high moisture content biomass, including aqueous slurries, and allow them to be converted into more
convenient forms. Some of the applications of thermal conversion are combined heat and power (CHP) and co-
firing. In a typical dedicated biomass power plant, efficiencies range from 7–27% (HHV basis). Biomass
cofiring with coal, by contrast, typically occurs at efficiencies near those of the coal combustor (30–40%, HHV
basis).
• Solid Fuel Combustion:- Direct combustion of solid matter like wood, animal dung etc. Direct
combustion of solid matter where the biomass is fed into a furnace where it is burned. The heat is used
to boil water and the energy in the steam is used to turn turbines and generators.
• Gasification: - Exposing a solid fuel to high temperatures and limited oxygen produces biogas. Biogas
energy can serve as a feedstock for electricity generation or a building block for burning pruposes.
• Pyrolysis: -Heating the biomass can produce pyrolysis oil and phenol oil leaving charcoal. Heat is
used to chemically convert biomass to bio-oil.

(i). Pyrolysis Oil, is easier to store and transport than solid biomass material and can be burned like
petroleum to generate electricity.
(ii). Phenol Oil, a chemical used to make wood adhesives, molded plastics and foam insulation. Wood
adhesives are used to glue together plywood and other composite wood products.
The biomass gasification and thermal pyrolysis occurs according to the following reactions:

Biomass + O2 CO + H2 + Heat
Biomass + H2O CO + H2

(b). Chemical conversion

A range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to produce a fuel that
is more conveniently used, transported or stored, or to exploit some property of the process itself. Many of
these processes are based in large part on similar coal-based processes, such as Fischer-Tropsch synthesis,
methanol production, olefins (ethylene and propylene), and similar chemical or fuel feed stocks. In most cases,
the first step involves gasification, which step generally is the most expensive and involves the greatest
technical risk. Biomass is more difficult to feed into a pressure vessel than coal or any liquid. Therefore,
biomass gasification is frequently done at atmospheric pressure and causes incomplete combustion of biomass
to produce a combustible gas consisting of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and traces of methane. This gas
mixture, called a producer gas, can provide fuel for various vital processes, such as internal combustion
engines, as well as substitute for furnace oil in direct heat applications. Because any biomass material can
undergo gasification, this process is far more attractive than ethanol or biomass production, where only
particular biomass materials can be used to produce a fuel. In addition, biomass gasification is a desirable
process due to the ease at which it can convert solid waste (such as wastes available on a farm) into producer
gas, which is a very usable fuel.
(c). Biochemical conversion

Fig…9.12 A microbial electrolysis cell can be used to directly make hydrogen gas from plant matter

As biomass is a natural material, many highly efficient biochemical processes have developed in nature to
break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these biochemical conversion
processes can be harnessed. Fig…9.12 shows that a microbial electrolysis cell can be used to directly make
hydrogen gas from plant matter.

Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other micro-organisms to break down
biomass. In most cases micro-organisms are used to perform the conversion process: anaerobic
digestion, fermentation and composting. Other chemical processes such as converting straight and waste
vegetable oils into biodiesel is transesterification. Another way of breaking down biomass is by breaking down
the carbohydrates and simple sugars to make alcohol. However, this process has not been perfected yet.
Scientists are still researching the effects of converting biomass.
• Fermentation:-Bio-material that is used to manufacture Ethanol and Biodiesel by an anaerobic
biological process in which sugars are converted to alcohol by the action of micro-organisms, usually
yeast. Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels—
biofuels—for our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and trains). The two most
common types of biofuels are ethanol and biodiesel.
 (i). Ethanol is an alcohol, created by fermenting biomass high in carbohydrates. It is used as a fuel
additive to cut down carbon monoxide and other emissions.
(ii). Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, animal fat or other recycled cooking
grease and is also an additive to reduce emissions. When pure, biodiesel is a renewable alternative
fuel for diesel engines.
• Digestion: -Bacteria, in an oxygen-starved environment can produce methane. Anaerobic digesters
compost (or "digest") organic waste in a machine that limits access to oxygen encouraging the
generation of methane and carbon dioxide by microbes in the waste. This digester gas is then burned
as fuel to make electricity.

9.7 Various Application of Biogas

The following various seven options available for the use of biomass

(1) Direct combustion as cooking fuel or for the industrial usage

(2) Charcoal production and utilization
(3) Thermal power generation
(4) Production of producer gas
(5) Biogas production
(6) Alcohol production and its utilization
(7) Compaction of solid biomass in the form of briquettes and briquettes utilization

9.8 BIOMASS ENERGY AND COGENERATION IN INDIA

According to the standing committee report of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy in 2011-12, the
estimated potential of biomass including bagasse co-generation power in the country is 22000 MW and the
cumulative achievement is 3135 MW (as on 31.03.2012) only 14 percent of the estimated potential has been
exploited so far. Globally, India is in the fourth position in generating power through biomass and with a huge
potential, is poised to become a world leader in the utilization of biomass. For the last 15 years, biomass power
has become an industry attracting annual investment of over Rs. 1,000 billion, generating more than 09
billion unit of electricity per year. More than 540 million tons of crop and plantation residues are produced
every year in India and a large portion is either wasted, or used inefficiently. By using these surplus
agricultural residues, by conservative estimates more than 16,000 MW of grid quality power could be
generated through Biomass. In addition, about 6,000 MW if power can be produced, if all 550 sugar mills in
the country switch over to modern techniques of cogeneration. Thus the estimated biomass power potential is
about 22,000 MW.

The availability of biomass in India is estimated at about 540 million tons per year covering residues from
agriculture, forestry, and plantations. Principal agricultural residues include rice husk, rice straw, bagasse,
sugar cane tops and leaves, trash, groundnut shells, cotton stalks, mustard stalks, etc. It has been estimated that
about 70- 75% of these wastes are used as fodder, as fuel for domestic cooking and for other economic
purposes leaving behind 120- 150 million tons of usable agricultural residues per year which could be made
available for power generation. By using these surplus agricultural residues, more than 22,000 MW of grid
quality power can be generated with presently available technologies

9.9 BIOFUELS IN INDIA

The GOI recently mandated the blending of 10 percent fuel ethanol in 90 percent gasoline. This mandate as
created an approximately 3.6 billion-liter demand for fuel ethanol in blend mandate to the entire country. This
significant demand growth creates a tremendous manufacturing opportunity for the fuel ethanol industry
seeking to expand its investments internationally.

9.10 ESTIMATED POTENTIAL AND ACHIEVEMENTS BY RENEWAABLE ENEGY

Table…9.2 below demonstrates the renewable energy achievements in India as on 31.12.2009 and potential.

9.11 ADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS ENERGY

1) It’s a renewable source of energy means theoretically inexhaustible fuel source.

2) It’s a comparatively lesser pollution generating energy.
3) Biomass energy helps in cleanliness in villages and cities.
4) It provides manure for the agriculture and gardens.
5) There is tremendous potential to generate biogas energy.
6) Biomass energy is relatively cheaper and reliable.
7) It can be generated from everyday human and animal wastes, vegetable and agriculture left-over etc.
8) Recycling of waste reduces pollution and also spread of diseases. When direct combustion of plant mass is
 not used to generate energy (i.e. fermentation, pyrolysis, etc. are used instead), there is minimal
environmental impact
9) Heat energy that one gets from biogas is 3.5 times the heat from burning wood.
10) Because of more heat produced the time required for cooking is lesser.
11) Pressure on the surrounding forest and scrubs can be reduced when biogas is used as cooking fuel.
12) It is a more cost effective means of acquiring energy as compared to oil supplies. As oil supplies are
getting depleted day by day, it is becoming a costly commodity.
13) Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.

9.12 DISADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS ENEGY

1) Cost of construction of biogas plant is high, so only rich people can use it.
2) Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy.
3) Some people don’t like to cook food on biogas produced from sewage waste.
4) Biogas plant requires space and produces dirty smell.
5) Due to improper construction many biogas plants are working inefficiently.
6) It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.
7) Transportation of biogas through pipe over long distances is difficult.
8) Many easily grown grains like corn, wheat are being used to make ethanol. This can have bad consequences
if too much of food crop is diverted for use as fuel.
9) Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over whole year.
10) Could contribute a great deal to global warming and particulate pollution if directly burned.
11) Still an expensive source, both in terms of producing the biomass and converting it to alcohols

9.13 LIMITATION OF BIOMASS-ENERGY

• Uneven availability of planting material

• Absence official cutting producers
• High planting cost
• Fertilization limitations do not give any specifications to energy crops
• Unequal land usage subsidies available
• Lack of training system for farmers
• Know-how dispersion
• Uncertainty of the production market.
• Lack of local planting material
• Absence of suitable machinery for both harvesting or planting

9.14 GLOSSARY

• Biomass: Amount of living matter, including plants, animals, and microbes. Energy.

• Ethanol: Also called ethyl alcohol. A colorless volatile flammable liquid with the chemical formula
C2H5OH that is the intoxicating agent in liquors and is also used as a solvent.
• Methanol: Also called methyl alcohol. A light volatile flammable liquid with the chemical formula
CH3 OH that is used especially as a solvent, antifreeze, or denaturant for ethyl alcohol and in the
synthesis of other chemicals.
• Pyrolysis: Chemical change brought about by the action of heat.
• Biogas: A mixture of methane and carbon dioxide produced by the bacterial decomposition of organic
wastes and used as a fuel.
• There are wide variety of biomass, which are using today for multiple purposes like wood and
agricultural products, solid waste, landfill gas and biogas, and alcohol fuels, municipal solid waste
(MSW) etc.
• Paper mills and saw mills use much of their waste products to generate steam and electricity for their
use.
• Landfill gas (LFG) is a natural byproduct of decomposing organic matter. Comprised of 50 to 60%
methane, 40 to 50% carbon dioxide, and less than 1- percent hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other
trace gases.

• Anaerobic Digestion: Decomposition process using microorganisms to stabilize organic solids or

biosolids. This process generates biogas.

• Biosolids : Old term used was "Sludge". It is the waste material from animal or vegetable sources.
Wastecontains mainly carbon and hydrogen.

• Digester : Tank used to contain biosolids during the anaerobic digestion process.

• Oxidation : The addition of oxygen, removal of hydrogen, or the removal of electrons from an element
• or compound.

• pH value: An expression of the intensity of the alkaline or acidic strength of water. Values range from 0-
14, where 0 is most acid, 14 most alkaline, and 7 neutral.

• Regulator: A device which controls either valve upstream or downstream pressure.

• Sanitary Landfill : A landfill permitted to accept household and commercial waste (solid and liquid non-
hazardous waste).

• Sludge : Bio solids separated from liquids during processing. May contain up to 97% water by volume.

• Explosive Range : A mixture of gas and oxygen capable of combustion.(Note - 5%-15% for Methane)

• Feedstock: The material fed to the digester

• Catalyst: A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed;
after the reaction, it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically
unchanged. The catalyst lowers the activation energy required, allowing the reaction to
proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature.
1.