ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

DC CIRCUITS
 Circuits
CIRCUITS
▪ A closed conducting path through which an electric
current flows or is intended to flow

Parameters
▪ The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance,
and capacitance which may be lumped or distibuted.
 Types of Circuits

Linear Circuit
⮚ Is one whose parameters are constant (i.e. They do not change with
voltage and current.
Non-Linear Circuit
⮚ Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage and current.
Bilateral Circuit
⮚ Is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either
direction.
Unilateral Circuit
⮚ Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the
direction of its operation.
 Electrical Network
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
▪ Connection of various electric elements in any manner

Passive Network
⮚With no source of emf.
Active Network
⮚Contains one or more than one sources of emf.
 Parts of a Circuit

Node
⮚ A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or
branches are connected together.
Branch
⮚ Part of a network which lies between two junctions.
Loop
⮚ A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
Mesh
⮚ A loop that contains no other loop within it.
Parts of a Circuit
 ELECTRICAL GROUND

⮚ The common point in electric circuit.

Current - Physical Effect
 Electrical Element - RESISTORS
⮚ Linear, passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element.
⮚ Devices that oppose or limit electrical current.
 RESISTORS

⮚ Resistors always dissipate some power as heat.

⮚ But resistors can optimize the ability of a circuit to generate or amplify
a signal.
 Uses of Resistors
⮚ Voltage division
⮚ Biasing
⮚ Current Limiting
⮚ Power dissipation
⮚ Bleeding off charge
⮚ Impedance matching
 Voltage division
⮚ Resistors used in this manner, ensures that an amplifier or oscillator
will do its job in the most efficient, reliable possible way.
 Biasing
⮚ In order to work efficiently, transistors need the right bias.
 Current Limiting
⮚ Resistors interfere with the flow of electrons in a circuit.
⮚ Sometimes this is essential to prevent damage to a component or
circuit.
 Power Dissipation
⮚ Dissipating power as heat is not always bad.
⮚ Sometimes a resistor can be used as a “dummy” component, so that a
circuit “sees” the resistor as if it were something more complicated.
 Bleeding off charge
⮚ Bleeder resistors, connected across the filter capacitors, drain their
stored charge so that servicing the supply is not dangerous.
Impedance Matching Resistor
⮚ Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load
resistance equals the internal resistance of the source.
 Types of Resistors
⮚ Fixed Resistor
Carbon composistion resistor
Wire wound resistor
Film type resistor
Integrated circuit resistor
⮚ Variable resistor
Potentiometer
Rheostat
Trimmer
Carbon Composition Resistor

⮚ Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values

 Wire wound resistor
⮚ Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings
 Film type or cermet resistors
⮚ Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values
Chip type resistors
 Potentiometer

⮚ A potentiometer is a three terminal variable resistor. Potentiometer are

often used to vary voltage
Rheostat
 Trimmer

⮚ A rheostat is a two terminal variable resistor. A potentiometer can be

used as a rheostat but a rheostat cannot be used as a potentiometer.
rheostats are used to vary current.
 Resistance
⮚ The ability of a resistor to oppose current depend on the value or
resistance of a resistor.
⮚ Its unit is OHM. Named after
GEORG SIMON OHM
 Resistance
⮚ Resistance depends on
⮚Length
⮚Cross sectional area
⮚Specific resistance (resisitivity)
⮚temperature
 Resistance

⮚ 1 square mil is about 1.273 circular mils

⮚ 1 square inch is about 1.273 million circular mils
 Example 1:
•
 Example 2:
⮚ Find the resistance of 100 ft of copper wire whose diameter is
0.024 in and whose resistivity is 10.3 Ὠ CM/ft.
Temperature effect on resistance
 Example 3:
•
 OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW
▪ One of the most fundamental law in electrical circuits relating
voltage, current and resistance
▪ Developed in 1827 by German physicist Georg Simon Ohm
 OHM’S LAW
▪ According to Ohm’s Law, the current (I) flowing in an
electrical circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage (E) and inversely proportional to the equivalent
resistance (R) of the circuit and mathematically expressed
as:
 SERIES CIRCUITS
SERIES circuits
▪ A circuit connection in which the components are
connected to form one conducting path
 SERIES CIRCUITS

Voltage Division for Series Circuit:

E X = E T • RX
RT
Where: EX – voltage across the resistor concerned
ET – total voltage across the circuit
RX – the resistor concerned
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit

SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL circuits
▪ A circuit connection in which the components are
connected to form more than 1 conducting path
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Current Division for Parallel Circuit:

IX = IT • RT
RX
Where: IX – current concerned flowing through resistor Rx
IT – total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except Rx
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit
Color Coding
 Example 4:
⮚ Calculate the resistance of the color coded resistor shown:
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
▪ Termed as “Laws of Electric Networks”
▪ Formulated by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

“In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of
the current meeting at a point (or junction) is
zero.”
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
⮚ In short the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum
of currents leaving the node

IB + IC + ID = IA

(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
“The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is
zero.”
 Example 5:
⮚ Determine the currents in the network using Kirchhoff’s laws.
 MESH ANALYSIS
MESH analysis
▪ A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.
 Example 6:
⮚ Determine the currents in the network using Mesh analysis.
 NODAL ANALYSIS
NODAL analysis
▪ A systematic application of KCL at a node and after simplifying
the resulting KCL equation, the node voltage can be calculated.

▪ Consist of finding the node voltages at all principal nodes

with respect to the reference node.

PRINCIPAL node – a node with three or more circuit elements

joined together.

Reference node – the node from which the unknown voltages

are measured.
 Example 7:
⮚ Determine the currents in the network using Nodal analysis.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
SUPERPOSITION theorem
“ The current through or voltage across, an element in a linear
bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the current or
voltages produced independently in each source. ”
 Example 8:
⮚ Determine the currents in the network using Superposition
theorem.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S theorem
“ Any two-terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of a
fixed resistances and voltage source/s may be replaced by a
single voltage source (VTH) and a series of internal resistance
(RTH). ”

where:
VTH – the open circuit voltage which
appears across the two terminals from
where the load resistance has been
removed.
RTH – the resistance looking back into the network across the two
terminals with all the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their
internal resistances (if any) and all current sources by infinite resistance.
 Example 9:
⮚ Determine a current in the network using Thevenin’s
theorem.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton’s theorem
“ Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources
and resistances when viewed from its output terminals, is
equivalent to a constant-current source (IN) and a parallel
internal resistance (RN). ”

where:
IN – the current which would flow
in a short circuit placed across the
output terminals.
RN – the resistance of the network when viewed from the
open circuited terminals after all voltage sources being
replaced by open circuits.
 Example 10:
⮚ Determine a current in the network using Norton’s theorem.
THEVENIN-NORTON TRANSFORMATION
NORTON-THEVENIN TRANSFORMATION
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER theorem

▪ For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum
power will be delivered to the load when the resistance is equal
to the internal resistance of the source.
▪ For maximum power transfer: RS = RL
 Example 11:
⮚ In the network shown in the figure, find the value of RL such
that maximum possible power will be transferred to RL. Find
also the value of the maximum power and the power supplied
by source under these conditions.
 Example 11:
⮚ 3.125 W and 6.250 W
EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL NETWORKS

DELTA to WYE
▪ The equivalent resistance of each arm to the wye is given by the
PRODUCT of the two delta sides that meet at its end divided by the
SUM of the three delta resistances.
EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL NETWORKS

WYE to DELTA
▪ The equivalent delta resistance between any two twrminals is given by
the SUM of a star resistance between those terminals PLUS the PRODUCT
of these two star resistances DIVIDED by the third resistance.
 Example 12:
⮚ Find the input resistance of the circuit between points A and
B of the given figure.
 Example 12:
⮚ 29/3 ohms
 Capacitors
⮚ Is a passive electrical component that stores electrical charge and
has the property of capacitance.
⮚ It is constructed of two parallel conductive plates separated by an
insulating material called the dielectric.
 Capacitors
⮚ Charge Q stored in a capacitor is linearly proportional to, the
electric potential difference between the plates.
 Example 13:
⮚ How many electrons accumulate on the negative plate of a 3uF
capacitor when it is connected across a 12V battery?
 Example 14:
⮚ Determine the charge the passes through a resistor of 5A in 2 min

⮚ 600 C
Capacitance
 Variable capacitance
⮚ The value is varied by either:
- changing the area of the plates
- changing the thickness of the dielectric
 Dielectrics
⮚ If the two conducting plates of a capacitor are separated by an
insulating material, a dielectric, then it is found experimentally that
the capacitance is K times as great as it is when the same plates are
separated by vacuum.
 Dielectric Strength
⮚ Indicates the ability of the dielectric to withstand the voltage
placed across it when the capacitor is charged.
⮚ Governs the maximum working voltage of a capacitor
Dielectric
 Example 14:

⮚ 34.84nF
Capacitor in series
 Example 15:
⮚ Find the voltage in each capacitor:

⮚ 6.55V, 3.27V, 2.18V

 Capacitor Types
⮚ Fixed or variable
⮚ Polarized or Non-polarized

⮚ Paper Capacitors
⮚ Mica Capacitors
⮚ Ceramic Capacitors
⮚ Plastic Film Capacitors
⮚ Electrolytic Capacitors
⮚ Trimmer Capacitor
 Paper Capacitor
⮚ Used in early days of electronics
⮚ 0.001uF to 0.1uF
 Mica Capacitor
⮚ Stacked-foil capacitor
⮚ Low loss and highly efficient
⮚ For radio receiver and transmitter
 Ceramic Capacitor
⮚ Ceramic disk form
⮚ Low loss and highly efficient
⮚ Few pf to 0.5uF
 Plastic film Capacitor
⮚ Uses polyethylene and polysterene
⮚ 0.001uF to 10uF
 Electrolytic capacitor
⮚ Polarized
⮚ 1uF to 200,000uF
⮚ For AF circuits and DC power supply
 Trimmer capacitor
⮚ With screw-type adjustment adjustable capacitor
Capacitor Labeling
Capacitor in parallel
 Example 16:
⮚ Find the charge in each capacitor:

⮚ 1.2uC, 2.4uC, 3.6uC

Series RC Transient Response
 Example 17:
⮚ A series RC circuit with supply voltage of 40V have R=9k ohms and
C=0.02uF. Determine the capacitor voltage 40us after the switch is
closed if the capacitor is initially uncharged. How long will it take to
fully charge the capacitor?

⮚ 7.97V, 900us
Energy stored and Coulomb’s Law
⮚ Directly proportional to the applied voltage and also to the charge
stored.
 Example 18:
⮚ A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much
electrostatic energy is stored in the capacitor.
 Inductors
⮚ Reactor or coil
⮚ A passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy
in a magnetic field.
 Choke
⮚ Another name used for an inductor is a “choke”.
⮚ AC is prevented from flowing or is “choked off” while DC is allowed
to pass.
 Self inductance
⮚ Generated emf opposes the rate of change of current – Lenz law

Where:
V = induced voltage in V
L = inductance in H
i = current in A
t = time in seconds
 Self inductance
⮚ Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause
a voltage to be induced – Faraday’s law
 Example 19:
⮚ Apply Faraday’s law to find the induced voltage across a coil with
400 turns located in a magnetic field that is changing at a rate of 6
Wb/s.

⮚ 2.4 kV
Mutual inductance
 Example 20:
⮚ If two coils are closed enough to have a mutual inductance of 0.2 H
and the coils have inductance of 2H and 8H, what is the coefficient
of coupling?

⮚ 0.05
 Energy stored
⮚ Related directly to the current flowing through the coil.
⮚ The greater the current, the greater is the stored energy
 Example 21:
⮚ If a 10H coil has 50mA current flowing through it, how much
energy is stored in the magnetic field?

⮚ 0.0125 J
 Physical

•
 Example 22:
•

⮚ 26.51 mH
Series and Parallel Inductors
 Example 23:
⮚ Given the following inductance: 10mH, 15mH, and 20mH. Calculate
the total inductance if these inductors are connected in a) series; b)
parallel.

⮚ a) 45mH; b) 4.62mH
Series Aiding and Opposing Inductance
Parallel Aiding and Opposing Inductance
 Example 24:
⮚ Two inductors whose self-inductances are of 75mH and 55mH
respectively are connected together in parallel aiding. Their mutual
inductance is given as 22.5mH. Calculate the total inductance of the
parallel combination.

⮚ 42.6mH
Series RL Transient Response
 Example 25:
⮚ A series RL circuit with R=2K ohms, L=15mH, and supply voltage of
15V. Calculate the inductor current 20us after the switch is closed.

⮚ 6.98mA
Thanks!