ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS -
TRANSFORMER
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Name: _____________________ Section: ____________

Sr. Code: ______________ SEMI - FINAL

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Introduction to Three – Phase Power Transformer
The three-phase system is used to generate, transmit, and distribute electrical power. It generates
power on a large scale to meet the needs of industries and commercial establishments. Three
identical single-phase transformers are connected suitably or combined on a single core to form a
three-phase system. Based on various types of industrial needs, the step-up and step-down
transformers are employed for generating, transmission, and distributing the electric power. The
building of a three-phase transformer unit is economical as it consumes less material compared to
connecting three individual single-phase transformers. Additionally, the three-phase system
transfers AC power instead of DC and is simple to construct.

Introduction to Circuit Breaker

An early form of circuit breaker was described by Thomas Edison in an 1879 patent application,
although his commercial power distribution system used fuses. Its purpose was to protect lighting
circuit wiring from accidental short circuits and overloads. A modern miniature circuit breaker
similar to the ones now in use was patented by Brown, Boveri & Cie in 1924. Hugo Stotz, an
engineer who had sold his company to BBC, was credited as the inventor on DRP (Deutsches
Reichspatent) 458392. Stotz's invention was the forerunner of the modern thermal-magnetic
breaker commonly used in household load centers to this day.
Interconnection of multiple generator sources into an electrical grid required the development of
circuit breakers with increasing voltage ratings and increased ability to safely interrupt the
increasing short-circuit currents produced by networks. Simple air-break manual switches
produced hazardous arcs when interrupting high voltages; these gave way to oil-enclosed contacts,
and various forms using the directed flow of pressurized air, or of pressurized oil, to cool and
interrupt the arc. By 1935, the specially constructed circuit breakers used at the Boulder Dam
project use eight series breaks and pressurized oil flow to interrupt faults of up to 2,500 MVA, in
three cycles of the AC power frequency.
Introduction to Fuse
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to
provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or
strip that melts when too much current flows through it, thereby stopping or interrupting the
current. It is a sacrificial device; once a fuse has operated it is an open circuit, it must be replaced
or rewired, depending on type.
Fuses have been used as essential safety devices from the early days of electrical engineering.
Today there are thousands of different fuse designs which have specific current and voltage ratings,
breaking capacity and response times, depending on the application. The time and current
operating characteristics of fuses are chosen to provide adequate protection without needless
interruption. Wiring regulations usually define a maximum fuse current rating for particular
circuits. Short circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are the prime or some of
the reasons for fuse operation.
A fuse is an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system; often abbreviated to ADS
(Automatic Disconnection of Supply). Circuit breakers can be used as an alternative to fuses, but
have significantly different characteristics.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Introduction to Power Relay
In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a relay device designed to trip a circuit breaker when
a fault is detected. The first protective relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on coils
operating on moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating conditions such as over-
current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over-frequency, and under-frequency.
Microprocessor-based digital protection relays now emulate the original devices, as well as
providing types of protection and supervision impractical with electromechanical relays.
Electromechanical relays provide only rudimentary indication of the location and origin of a fault.
In many cases a single microprocessor relay provides functions that would take two or more
electromechanical devices. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save
capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long-
life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines and
electrical apparatus all over the world. Important transmission lines and generators have cubicles
dedicated to protection, with many individual electromechanical devices, or one or two
microprocessor relays.
The theory and application of these protective devices is an important part of the education of a
power engineer who specializes in power system protection. The need to act quickly to protect
circuits and equipment often requires protective relays to respond and trip a breaker within a few
thousandths of a second. In some instances, these clearance times are prescribed in legislation or
operating rules. A maintenance or testing program is used to determine the performance and
availability of protection systems.
Based on the end application and applicable legislation, various standards such as ANSI C37.90,
IEC255-4, IEC60255-3, and IAC govern the response time of the relay to the fault conditions that
may occur.
Learning Objectives
Three phase Transformer
• Distinguish a single phase from three phase transformer in terms of their applications.
• Demonstrate the different parts of three phase transformer.

Circuit Breaker
• Explain the function and operation of a circuit breaker.
• Discuss the different parts of a circuit breaker.
• Familiarize with the different types and application of indoor and outdoor circuit breakers.

Fuses
• Explain the function and operation of a fuse.
• Discuss the different parts of a fuse.
• Familiarize with the different types and application of indoor and outdoor fuses.

Power Relays
• Explain the function and operation of a power relay.
• Familiarize with the different types and application of power relays.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Practical Considerations – Transformers

Power Capacity
As has already been observed, transformers must be well designed in order to achieve acceptable
power coupling, tight voltage regulation, and low exciting current distortion. Also, transformers
must be designed to carry the expected values of primary and secondary winding current without
any trouble. This means the winding conductors must be made of the proper gauge wire to avoid
any heating problems.

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer would have perfect coupling (no leakage inductance), perfect voltage
regulation, perfectly sinusoidal exciting current, no hysteresis or eddy current losses, and wire
thick enough to handle any amount of current. Unfortunately, the ideal transformer would have to
be infinitely large and heavy to meet these design goals. Thus, in the business
of practical transformer design, compromises must be made.
Additionally, winding conductor insulation is a concern where high voltages are encountered, as
they often are in step-up and step-down power distribution transformers. Not only do the windings
have to be well insulated from the iron core, but each winding has to be sufficiently insulated from
the other in order to maintain electrical isolation between windings.

Transformer Ratings
Respecting these limitations, transformers are rated for certain levels of primary and secondary
winding voltage and current, though the current rating is usually derived from a volt-amp (VA)
rating assigned to the transformer. For example, take a step-down transformer with a primary
voltage rating of 120 volts, a secondary voltage rating of 48 volts, and a VA rating of 1 kVA (1000
VA). The maximum winding currents can be determined as such: kVA (1000 VA). The maximum
winding currents can be determined as such:

Sometimes windings will bear current ratings in amps, but this is typically seen on small
transformers. Large transformers are almost always rated in terms of winding voltage and VA or
kVA.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Energy Losses
When transformers transfer power, they do so with a minimum of loss. As it was stated earlier,
modern power transformer designs typically exceed 95% efficiency. It is good to know where
some of this lost power goes, however, and what causes it to be lost.
There is, of course, power loss due to the resistance of the wire windings. Unless superconducting
wires are used, there will always be power dissipated in the form of heat through the resistance of
current-carrying conductors. Because transformers require such long lengths of wire, this loss can
be a significant factor. Increasing the gauge of the winding wire is one way to minimize this loss,
but only with substantial increases in cost, size, and weight.

Eddy-Current Loss
Resistive losses aside, the bulk of transformer power loss is due to magnetic effects in the core.
Perhaps the most significant of these “core losses” is an eddy-current loss, which is resistive power
dissipation due to the passage of induced currents through the iron of the core. Because iron is a
conductor of electricity as well as being an excellent “conductor” of magnetic flux, there will be
currents induced in the iron just as there are currents induced in the secondary windings from the
alternating magnetic field. These induced currents—as described by the perpendicularity clause
of Faraday’s Law — tend to circulate through the cross-section of the core perpendicularly to the
primary winding turns. Their circular motion gives them their unusual name: like eddies in a stream
of water that circulate rather than move in straight lines.
Iron is a fair conductor of electricity, but not as good as the copper or aluminum from which wire
windings are typically made. Consequently, these “eddy currents” must overcome significant
electrical resistance as they circulate through the core. In overcoming the resistance offered by the
iron, they dissipate power in the form of heat. Hence, we have a source of inefficiency in the
transformer that is difficult to eliminate.

Induction Heating
This phenomenon is so pronounced that it is often exploited as a means of heating ferrous (iron-
containing) materials. The photograph below shows an “induction heating” unit raising the
temperature of a large pipe section. Loops of wire covered by high-temperature insulation encircle
the pipe’s circumference, inducing eddy currents within the pipe wall by electromagnetic
induction. In order to maximize the eddy current effect, high-frequency alternating current is used
rather than power line frequency (60 Hz). The box units at the right of the picture produce the
high-frequency AC and control the amount of current in the wires to stabilize the pipe temperature
at a pre-determined “set-point.”

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Induction heating: Primary insulated winding induces current into the lossy iron pipe (secondary).

Mitigating Eddy Currents

The main strategy in mitigating these wasteful eddy currents in transformer cores is to form the
iron core in sheets, each sheet covered with an insulating varnish so that the core is divided up into
thin slices. The result is very little width in the core for eddy currents to circulate in:

Dividing the iron core into thin insulated laminations minimizes eddy current loss.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Laminated cores like the one shown here are standard in almost all low-frequency transformers.
Recall from the photograph of the transformer cut in half that the iron core was composed of
many thin sheets rather than one solid piece. Eddy current losses increase with frequency, so
transformers designed to run on higher-frequency power (such as 400 Hz, used in many military
and aircraft applications) must use thinner laminations to keep the losses down to a respectable
minimum. This has the undesirable effect of increasing the manufacturing cost of the
transformer.
Another, similar technique for minimizing eddy current losses which work better for high-
frequency applications is to make the core out of iron powder instead of thin iron sheets. Like the
lamination sheets, these granules of iron are individually coated in an electrically insulating
material, which makes the core nonconductive except for within the width of each granule.
Powdered iron cores are often found in transformers handling radio-frequency currents.
Magnetic Hysteresis
Another “core loss” is that of magnetic hysteresis. All ferromagnetic materials tend to retain
some degree of magnetization after exposure to an external magnetic field. This tendency to stay
magnetized is called “hysteresis,” and it takes a certain investment in energy to overcome this
opposition to change every time the magnetic field produced by the primary winding changes
polarity (twice per AC cycle).
This type of loss can be mitigated through good core material selection (choosing a core alloy
with low hysteresis, as evidenced by a “thin” B/H hysteresis curve), and designing the core for
minimum flux density (large cross-sectional area).

Skin Effect at High Frequencies

Transformer energy losses tend to worsen with increasing frequency. The skin effect within
winding conductors reduces the available cross-sectional area for electric charge flow, thereby
increasing effective resistance as the frequency goes up and creating more power lost through
resistive dissipation. Magnetic core losses are also exaggerated with higher frequencies, eddy
currents, and hysteresis effects becoming more severe. For this reason, transformers of significant
size are designed to operate efficiently in a limited range of frequencies.
In most power distribution systems where the line frequency is very stable, one would think
excessive frequency would never pose a problem. Unfortunately, it does, in the form of harmonics
created by nonlinear loads.
As we’ve seen in earlier chapters, nonsinusoidal waveforms are equivalent to additive series of
multiple sinusoidal waveforms at different amplitudes and frequencies. In power systems, these
other frequencies are whole-number multiples of the fundamental (line) frequency, meaning that
they will always be higher, not lower, than the design frequency of the transformer. In significant
measure, they can cause severe transformer overheating. Power transformers can be engineered to
handle certain levels of power system harmonics, and this capability is sometimes denoted with a
“K factor” rating.
Stray Capacitance and Inductance
Aside from power ratings and power losses, transformers often harbor other undesirable limitations
that circuit designers must be made aware of. Like their simpler counterparts—inductors—
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
transformers exhibit capacitance due to the insulation dielectric between conductors: from winding
to winding, turn to turn (in a single winding), and winding to the core.
Transformer Resonance Frequency
Usually, this capacitance is of no concern in a power application, but small signal applications
(especially those of high frequency) may not tolerate this quirk well. Also, the effect of having
capacitance along with the windings’ designed inductance gives transformers the ability
to resonate at a particular frequency, definitely a design concern in signal applications where the
applied frequency may reach this point (usually the resonant frequency of a power transformer is
well beyond the frequency of the AC power it was designed to operate on).
Flux Containment
Flux containment (making sure a transformer’s magnetic flux doesn’t escape so as to interfere with
another device, and making sure other devices’ magnetic flux is shielded from the transformer
core) is another concern shared both by inductors and transformers.
Leakage Inductance
Closely related to the issue of flux containment is leakage inductance. We’ve already seen the
detrimental effects of leakage inductance on voltage regulation with SPICE simulations early in
this chapter. Because leakage inductance is equivalent to an inductance connected in series with
the transformer’s winding, it manifests itself as a series impedance with the load. Thus, the more
current drawn by the load, the less voltage available at the secondary winding terminals. Usually,
good voltage regulation is desired in transformer design, but there are exceptional applications. As
was stated before, discharge lighting circuits require a step-up transformer with “loose” (poor)
voltage regulation to ensure reduced voltage after the establishment of an arc through the lamp.
One way to meet this design criterion is to engineer the transformer with flux leakage paths for
magnetic flux to bypass the secondary winding(s). The resulting leakage flux will produce leakage
inductance, which will, in turn, produce the poor regulation needed for discharge lighting.
Core Saturation
Transformers are also constrained in their performance by the magnetic flux limitations of the
core. For ferromagnetic core transformers, we must be mindful of the saturation limits of the core.
Remember that ferromagnetic materials cannot support infinite magnetic flux densities: they tend
to “saturate” at a certain level (dictated by the material and core dimensions), meaning that further
increases in magnetic field force (mmf) do not result in proportional increases in magnetic field
flux (Φ).
When a transformer’s primary winding is overloaded from excessive applied voltage, the core flux
may reach saturation levels during peak moments of the AC sine wave cycle. If this happens, the
voltage induced in the secondary winding will no longer match the wave-shape as the voltage
powering the primary coil. In other words, the overloaded transformer will distort the waveshape
from primary to secondary windings, creating harmonics in the secondary winding’s output. As
we discussed before, harmonic content in AC power systems typically causes problems.
Peaking Transformers
Special transformers known as peaking transformers exploit this principle to produce brief voltage
pulses near the peaks of the source voltage waveform. The core is designed to saturate quickly and

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
sharply, at voltage levels well below peak. This results in a severely cropped sine-wave flux
waveform, and secondary voltage pulses only when the flux is changing (below saturation levels):

Voltage and flux waveforms for a peaking transformer.

Operation at Frequencies Lower than Normal

Another cause of abnormal transformer core saturation is operation at frequencies lower than
normal. For example, if a power transformer designed to operate at 60 Hz is forced to operate at
50 Hz instead, the flux must reach greater peak levels than before in order to produce the same
opposing voltage needed to balance against the source voltage. This is true even if the source
voltage is the same as before.

Magnetic flux is higher in a transformer core driven by 50 Hz as compared to 60 Hz for the same
voltage.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Since instantaneous winding voltage is proportional to the instantaneous magnetic flux’s rate of
change in a transformer, a voltage waveform reaching the same peak value, but taking a longer
amount of time to complete each half-cycle, demands that the flux maintain the same rate of
change as before, but for longer periods of time. Thus, if the flux has to climb at the same rate as
before, but for longer periods of time, it will climb to a greater peak value.
Mathematically, this is another example of calculus in action. Because the voltage is proportional
to the flux’s rate-of-change, we say that the voltage waveform is the derivative of the flux
waveform, “derivative” being that calculus operation defining one mathematical function
(waveform) in terms of the rate-of-change of another. If we take the opposite perspective,
though, and relate the original waveform to its derivative, we may call the original waveform
the integral of the derivative waveform. In this case, the voltage waveform is the derivative of
the flux waveform, and the flux waveform is the integral of the voltage waveform.
The integral of any mathematical function is proportional to the area accumulated underneath the
curve of that function. Since each half-cycle of the 50 Hz waveform accumulates more area
between it and the zero line of the graph than the 60 Hz waveform will—and we know that the
magnetic flux is the integral of the voltage—the flux will attain higher values in the Figure
below.

Flux changing at the same rate rises to a higher level at 50 Hz than at 60 Hz.

Yet another cause of transformer saturation is the presence of DC current in the primary winding.
Any amount of DC voltage dropped across the primary winding of a transformer will cause an
additional magnetic flux in the core. This additional flux “bias” or “offset” will push the alternating
flux waveform closer to saturation in one half-cycle than the other.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 DC in primary shifts the waveform peaks toward the upper saturation limit.
For most transformers, core saturation is a very undesirable effect, and it is avoided through good
design: engineering the windings and core so that magnetic flux densities remain well below the
saturation levels. This ensures that the relationship between mmf and Φ is more linear throughout
the flux cycle, which is good because it makes for less distortion in the magnetization current
waveform. Also, engineering the core for low flux densities provides a safe margin between the
normal flux peaks and the core saturation limits to accommodate occasional, abnormal conditions
such as frequency variation and DC offset.

Inrush Current
When a transformer is initially connected to a source of AC voltage, there may be a substantial
surge of current through the primary winding called inrush current. This is analogous to the inrush
current exhibited by an electric motor that is started up by sudden connection to a power source,
although transformer inrush is caused by a different phenomenon.
We know that the rate of change of instantaneous flux in a transformer core is proportional to the
instantaneous voltage drop across the primary winding. Or, as stated before, the voltage waveform
is the derivative of the flux waveform, and the flux waveform is the integral of the voltage
waveform. In a continuously-operating transformer, these two waveforms are phase-shifted by
90°. Since flux (Φ) is proportional to the magnetomotive force (mmf) in the core, and the mmf is
proportional to winding current, the current waveform will be in-phase with the flux waveform,
and both will be lagging the voltage waveform by 90°:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Continuous steady-state operation: Magnetic flux, like current, lags applied voltage by 90°.
Let us suppose that the primary winding of a transformer is suddenly connected to an AC voltage
source at the exact moment in time when the instantaneous voltage is at its positive peak value. In
order for the transformer to create an opposing voltage drop to balance against this applied source
voltage, a magnetic flux of rapidly increasing value must be generated. The result is that winding
current increases rapidly, but actually no more rapidly than under normal conditions:

Connecting the transformer to the line at AC volt peak: Flux increases rapidly from zero, same
as steady-state operation.
Both core flux and coil current start from zero and build up to the same peak values experienced
during continuous operation. Thus, there is no “surge” or “inrush” or current in this scenario.
Alternatively, let us consider what happens if the transformer’s connection to the AC voltage
source occurs at the exact moment in time when the instantaneous voltage is at zero. During
continuous operation (when the transformer has been powered for quite some time), this is the
point in time where both flux and winding current are at their negative peaks, experiencing zero
rate-of-change (dΦ/dt = 0 and di/dt = 0). As the voltage builds to its positive peak, the flux and

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
current waveforms build to their maximum positive rates-of-change, and on upward to their
positive peaks as the voltage descends to a level of zero:

Starting at e=0 V is not the same as running continuously in Figure above. These expected
waveforms are incorrect– Φ and I should start at zero.
A significant difference exists, however, between continuous-mode operation and the sudden
starting condition assumed in this scenario: during continuous operation, the flux and current levels
were at their negative peaks when voltage was at its zero points; in a transformer that has been
sitting idle, however, both magnetic flux and winding current should start at zero.
When the magnetic flux increases in response to a rising voltage, it will increase from zero upward,
not from a previously negative (magnetized) condition as we would normally have in a transformer
that’s been powered for a while. Thus, in a transformer that’s just “starting,” the flux will reach
approximately twice its normal peak magnitude as it “integrates” the area under the voltage
waveform’s first half-cycle:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Starting at e=0 V, Φ starts at initial condition Φ=0, increasing to twice the normal value,
assuming it doesn’t saturate the core.
In an ideal transformer, the magnetizing current would rise to approximately twice its normal peak
value as well, generating the necessary mmf to create this higher-than-normal flux. However, most
transformers aren’t designed with enough of a margin between normal flux peaks and the
saturation limits to avoid saturating in a condition like this, and so the core will almost certainly
saturate during this first half-cycle of voltage. During saturation, disproportionate amounts of mmf
are needed to generate magnetic flux. This means that winding current, which creates the mmf to
cause a flux in the core, will disproportionately rise to a value easily exceeding twice its normal
peak:

Starting at e=0 V, Current also increases to twice the normal value for an unsaturated core, or
considerably higher in the (designed for) case of saturation.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
This is the mechanism causing inrush current in a transformer’s primary winding when connected
to an AC voltage source. As you can see, the magnitude of the inrush current strongly depends on
the exact time that electrical connection to the source is made. If the transformer happens to have
some residual magnetism in its core at the moment of connection to the source, the inrush could
be even more severe. Because of this, transformer overcurrent protection devices are usually of
the “slow-acting” variety, so as to tolerate current surges such as this without opening the circuit.
Heat and Noise
In addition to unwanted electrical effects, transformers may also exhibit undesirable physical
effects, the most notable being the production of heat and noise. Noise is primarily a nuisance
effect, but heat is a potentially serious problem because winding insulation will be damaged if
allowed to overheat. Heating may be minimized by good design, ensuring that the core does not
approach saturation levels, that eddy currents are minimized, and that the windings are not
overloaded or operated too close to maximum ampacity.
Large power transformers have their core and windings submerged in an oil bath to transfer heat
and muffle noise, and also to displace moisture which would otherwise compromise the integrity
of the winding insulation. Heat-dissipating “radiator” tubes on the outside of the transformer case
provide a convective oil flow path to transfer heat from the transformer’s core to ambient air:

Large power transformers are submerged in heat dissipating insulating oil.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Oil-less, or “dry,” transformers are often rated in terms of maximum operating temperature “rise”
(temperature increase beyond ambient) according to a letter-class system: A, B, F, or H. These
letter codes are arranged in order of lowest heat tolerance to highest:
• Class A: No more than 55° Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40° Celsius (maximum)
ambient air temperature.
• Class B: No more than 80° Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40° Celsius
(maximum)ambient air temperature.
• Class F: No more than 115° Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40° Celsius
(maximum)ambient air temperature.
• Class H: No more than 150° Celsius winding temperature rise, at 40° Celsius
(maximum)ambient air temperature.
Audible noise is an effect primarily originating from the phenomenon of magnetostriction: the
slight change of length exhibited by a ferromagnetic object when magnetized. The familiar “hum”
heard around large power transformers is the sound of the iron core expanding and contracting at
120 Hz (twice the system frequency, which is 60 Hz in the United States)—one cycle of core
contraction and expansion for every peak of the magnetic flux waveform—plus noise created by
mechanical forces between primary and secondary windings. Again, maintaining low magnetic
flux levels in the core is the key to minimizing this effect, which explains why ferroresonant
transformers—which must operate in saturation for a large portion of the current waveform—
operate both hot and noisy.
Losses due to Winding Magnetic Forces
Another noise-producing phenomenon in power transformers is the physical reaction force
between primary and secondary windings when heavily loaded. If the secondary winding is open-
circuited, there will be no current through it, and consequently, no magneto-motive force (mmf)
produced by it. However, when the secondary is “loaded” (currently supplied to a load), the
winding generates an mmf, which becomes counteracted by a “reflected” mmf in the primary
winding to prevent core flux levels from changing. These opposing mmf’s generated between
primary and secondary windings as a result of secondary (load) current produce a repulsive,
physical force between the windings which will tend to make them vibrate. Transformer designers
have to consider these physical forces in the construction of the winding coils, to ensure there is
adequate mechanical support to handle the stresses. Under heavy load (high current) conditions,
though, these stresses may be great enough to cause audible noise to emanate from the transformer.
REVIEW:
• Power transformers are limited in the amount of power they can transfer from primary to
secondary winding(s). Large units are typically rated in VA (volt-amps) or kVA (kilo volt-
amps).
• Resistance in transformer windings contributes to inefficiency, as current will dissipate
heat, wasting energy.
• Magnetic effects in a transformer’s iron core also contribute to inefficiency. Among the
effects are eddy currents (circulating induction currents in the iron core)
and hysteresis (power lost due to overcoming the tendency of iron to magnetize in a
particular direction).
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 • Increased frequency results in increased power losses within a power transformer. The
presence of harmonics in a power system is a source of frequencies significantly higher
than normal, which may cause overheating in large transformers.
• Both transformers and inductors harbor certain unavoidable amounts of capacitance due to
wire insulation (dielectric) separating winding turns from the iron core and from each other.
This capacitance can be significant enough to give the transformer a natural resonant
frequency, which can be problematic in signal applications.
• Leakage inductance is caused by magnetic flux not being 100% coupled between windings
in a transformer. Any flux not involved with transferring energy from one winding to
another will store and release energy, which is how (self-) inductance works. Leakage
inductance tends to worsen a transformer’s voltage regulation (secondary voltage “sags”
more for a given amount of load current).
• Magnetic saturation of a transformer core may be caused by excessive primary voltage,
operation at too low of a frequency, and/or by the presence of a DC current in any of the
windings. Saturation may be minimized or avoided by conservative design, which provides
an adequate margin of safety between peak magnetic flux density values and the saturation
limits of the core.
• Transformers often experience significant inrush currents when initially connected to an
AC voltage source. Inrush current is most severe when the connection to the AC source is
made at the moment instantaneous source voltage is zero.
• Noise is a common phenomenon exhibited by transformers—especially power
transformers—and is primarily caused by magnetostriction of the core. Physical forces
causing winding vibration may also generate noise under conditions of heavy (high current)
secondary winding load.

Single Phase, Three Phase Transformers

Single Phase Transformers

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large
electric motors. In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power refers to the distribution of
electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. A single-
phase load may be powered from a three-phase distribution system either by connection between
a phase and neutral or by connecting the load between two phases. Single-phase loads may be
connected to a three-phase system, either by a phase-to-phase connection, or by connecting
between a phase conductor and the system neutral, which is either connected to the center of the
Y (star) secondary winding of the supply transformer, or is connected to the center of one
winding of a delta transformer. Single-phase loads should be distributed evenly between the
phases of the three-phase system for efficient use of the supply transformer and supply
conductors. The line-to-line voltage of a three-phase system is 3 times the line to neutral voltage.
Where the line-to-neutral voltage is a standard utilization voltage, individual single-phase utility
customers or loads may each be connected to a different phase of the supply. Where the line-to-
neutral voltage is not a common utilization voltage, single-phase loads must be supplied by
individual step-down transformers. In multiple-unit residential buildings in Canada, lighting and
convenience outlets can be connected line-to-neutral to give the 120 V distribution voltage
(115V utilization voltage), and high-power loads such as cooking equipment, space heating,
water heaters, or air conditioning can be connected across two phases to give 208 V. This
practice is common enough that 208 V single-phase equipment is readily available in North
America. Attempts to use the more common 120/240 V equipment intended for three-wire
single-phase distribution may result in poor performance since 240 V heating equipment will
only produce 75% of its rating when operated at 208 V. No arrangement of transformers can
convert a single-phase load into a balanced load on a three phase system. Single-phase power
distribution is used especially in rural areas, where the cost of a three-phase distribution network
is high and motor loads are small and uncommon. Two phase power, meaning the simultaneous
provision of sine wave and cosine wave electricity (that is, 90 degrees out of phase) is no longer
widely used. But sometimes it is incorrectly described split single phase services as "two phase",
when in fact such services are really still single phase power. Single-phase electric power refers
to the distribution of electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in
unison. Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few
large electric motors. Single-phase power distribution is used especially in rural areas, where the
cost of a three-phase distribution network is high and motor loads are small and uncommon.
High power systems are nearly always three phase. But the largest supply normally available as
single phase varies considerably by country and in some cases region. In North America,
individual residences and small commercial buildings with services up to about 100 kV·A (400
amperes at 240 volts) will usually have three-wire single-phase distribution, often with only one
customer per distribution transformer. Larger consumers such as large buildings, shopping
centers, factories, office blocks, and multiple-unit apartment blocks will have three-phase
service. In densely-populated areas of cities, network power distribution is used with many

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
customers and many supply transformers connected to provide hundreds or thousands of kVA
load concentrated over a few hundred square meters. A single-phase supply connected to a pure
single-phase induction motor does not produce a revolving magnetic field, and so practical
single-phase motors always have some means of producing a revolving field to generate starting
torque. Aside from certain traction power applications, single-phase induction motors greater
than 10 or 20 kW are very uncommon. Normally , when three-phase is required, a single
enclosure with three primary and three secondary windings wound on a common core is all that
is required. However three single-phase transformers with the same rating can be connected to
form a three-phase bank. Since each single-phase transformer has a primary and a secondary
winding, then 3 single-phase transformers will have the required 3 primary and 3 secondary
windings and can be connected in the field either Delta-Delta or Delta-Wye to achieve the
required three-phased transformer bank.

Configuration for Single Phase Transformer.

Single-phase transformers are often used to supply power for residential lighting, receptacle, air-
conditioning, and heating needs. A transformer with a 120 volt AC secondary can take care of
the lighting and receptacles. But, a transformer with a 240 volt AC secondary could handle all
the residential needs mentioned. A 240 volt AC secondary could handle the heavier 240 volt
power requirements of air conditioning and heating. The same 240 volt AC secondary could
handle the 120 volt AC needs by tapping the secondary in the center. Single phase transformers
can be made even more versatile by having both the primary winding and secondary winding
made in two equal parts. The two parts of either winding can then be reconnected in series or
parallel configurations.

Series Configuration Parallel Configuration.

Single-phase transformers usually have their windings divided into two or more sections. When
the two secondary windings are connected in series, their voltage is added. When the secondary
windings are connected in parallel, their currents are added. For example, assume each secondary
winding is rated at 120 volts and 100 amps. When series-connected, it would be 240 volts at 100
amps, or 24KVA. When parallel-connected, it would be 120 volts at 200 amps, or 24KVA. In
series connections, care must be taken to connect the coils so that their voltages add. If the
reverse happens, a short-circuit current would flow in the secondary, causing the primary to draw
a short circuit from the source. This would damage the transformer, as well as the source, and
perhaps the connector.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Three Phase Power

Three-phase is a common method of electric power transmission. It is a type of system used to

power motors and many other devices. Three phase systems may or may not have a neutral wire.
A neutral wire allows the three phase system to use a higher voltage while still supporting lower
voltage single phase appliances. In high voltage distribution situations it is common not to have a
neutral wire as the loads can simply be connected between phases - phase-to-phase connection.
Three phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power systems. Firstly the
phase currents tend to cancel one another (summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load).
This makes it possible to eliminate the neutral conductor on some lines. Secondly power transfer
into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator and motor vibrations.
Finally, three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a specified direction,
which simplifies the design of electric motors. Three is the lowest phase order to exhibit all of
these properties. Most domestic loads are single phase. Generally three phase power either does
not enter domestic houses at all, or where it does, it is split out at the main distribution board.
The three phases are typically indicated by colors which vary by country. Occasionally the
advantages of three-phase motors make it worthwhile to convert single-phase power to three
phase. Small customers, such as residential or farm properties may not have access to a three-
phase supply, or may not want to pay for the extra cost of a three-phase service, but may still
wish to use three-phase equipment. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied
allowing speed control. Some locomotives are moving to multi-phase motors driven by such
systems even though the incoming supply to a locomotive is nearly always either DC or single
phase AC. Because single-phase power is interrupted at each moment that the voltage crosses
zero but three-phase delivers power continuously, any such converter must have a way to store
energy for the necessary fraction of a second. One way for using three-phase equipment on a
single-phase supply is with a rotary phase converter, essentially a three-phase motor with special
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase power.
When properly designed these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of three-phase
equipment such as machine tools on a single phase supply. In such a device, the energy storage is
performed by the mechanical inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components.

What is Three Phase Transformer?

A three phase transformer is a three-legged iron core. Each leg has a respective primary and
secondary winding. Most power is dispersed in the form of three-phase AC. Basically the power
company generators produce electricity by rotating 3 coils or windings through a magnetic field
within the generator. These coils or windings are spaced 120 degrees apart. As they rotate
through the magnetic field they generate power which is then sent out on three lines as in three-
phase power. A three phase transformers must have 3 coils or windings connected in the proper
sequence in order to match the incoming power and therefore transform the power company
voltage to the level of voltage we need and maintain the proper phasing or polarity. Three phase
transformers is a common and popular method for electric power transmission. There are many
benefits to three phase power:

▪ All three wires can carry the same current.

▪ Power transfer is constant into a linear and balanced load.

Three-phase Transformer Circuits

Since three-phase is used so often for power distribution systems, it makes sense that we would
need three-phase transformers to be able to step voltages up or down. This is only partially true,
as regular single-phase transformers can be ganged together to transform power between two
three-phase systems in a variety of configurations, eliminating the requirement for a special
three-phase transformer. However, special three-phase transformers are built for those tasks and
are able to perform with less material requirement, less size, and less weight than their modular
counterparts.

Three-Phase Transformer Windings and Connections

A three-phase transformer is made of three sets of primary and secondary windings, each set
wound around one leg of an iron core assembly. Essentially it looks like three single-phase
transformers sharing a joined core as in Figure below.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Three phase transformer core has three sets of windings.

Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be connected in either Δ or Y configurations
to form a complete unit. The various combinations of ways that these windings can be connected
together it will be the focus of this section.

Three Phase Transformer Construction:

A three phase transformer is constructed by winding three single phase transformers on a single
core. These transformers are put into an enclosure which is then filled with dielectric oil. Since it
is a dielectric, a nonconductor of electricity, it provides electrical insulation between the
windings and the case. It also used to help provide cooling and to prevent the formation of
moisture, which can deteriorate the winding insulation. There are only 4 possible transformer
combinations:

▪ Delta to Delta - use: industrial application

▪ Delta to Wye - use: most common, commercial and industrial

▪ Wye to Delta - use: high voltage transmissions

▪ Wye to Wye - use: rare, causes harmonics and balancing problems.

Three phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wye-delta transformer
has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary winding connected in a delta. A
delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding
connected in a wye.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Delta Connections:

A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. Applications of these transformers

are usually found in neighborhood and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation.
Only one voltage is available between any two wires in a delta system. The delta system can be
illustrated by a simple triangle. A wire from each point of the triangle would represent a three-
phase, three-wire delta system; the voltage would be the same between any two wires.

Wye Connections:

In a wye system the voltage between any two wires will always give the same amount of voltage
on a three phase systems. However the voltage between any one of the phase conductors and the
neutral will be less than the power conductors. For example, if the voltage between the power
conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is 208v, then the voltage from any phase
conductor to ground will be 12v. This is due to the square root of three phase power. In a wye
system, the voltage between any two power conductors will always be 1.732 (which is the square
root of 3) times the voltage between the neutral and any one of the power phase conductors. The
phase-to-ground voltage can be found by dividing the phase-to-phase voltage by 1.732.

Single-phase transformers in a three phase bank:

When you have a three phase transformer and it is not available in the proper size or turns ratio a
three phase conversion is needed. Single phase transformers can be connected to form a three
phase bank. When three single phase transformers are used to make a three phase transformer
bank, their primary and secondary windings are connected in a wye or delta connection.

Open Delta Connection:

The open delta transformer connection can be made with only two transformers instead
of three. Usually the delta transformer is used in small business where the three phase
transformer would be excessive. It should be noted that the output power of an open delta
connection is only 87% of the rated power of the two transformers. The voltage and current
values of an open delta connection are computed in the same manner as a standard delta-delta
connection when three transformers are used. The voltage and current rules for a delta
connection must be used when determining line and phase values of voltage current.

The reasons for choosing a Y or Δ configuration for transformer winding connections are
the same as for any other three-phase application: Y connections provide the opportunity for

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
multiple voltages, while Δ connections enjoy a higher level of reliability (if one winding fails
open, the other two can still maintain full line voltages to the load).

Probably the most important aspect of connecting three sets of primary and secondary
windings together to form a three-phase transformer bank is paying attention to proper winding
phasing (the dots used to denote “polarity” of windings). Remember the proper phase
relationships between the phase windings of Δ and Y: (Figure below)

Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be connected in either Δ or Y

configurations to form a complete unit. The various combinations of ways that these windings
can be connected together it will be the focus of this section.

(Y) The center point of the “Y” must tie either all the “-” or all the “+” winding points together.
(Δ) The winding polarities must stack together in a complementary manner (+ to -).

Getting this phasing correct when the windings aren’t shown in regular Y or Δ configuration can
be tricky. Let me illustrate, starting with the figure below.

Inputs A1, A2, A3 may be wired either “Δ” or “Y”, as may outputs B1, B2, B3.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Phase Wiring for “Y-Y” Transformer

Three individual transformers are to be connected together to transform power from one three-
phase system to another. First, I’ll show the wiring connections for a Y-Y configuration:

Phase wiring for “Y-Y” transformer.

Note in Figure above how all the winding ends marked with dots are connected to their
respective phases A, B, and C, while the non-dot ends are connected together to form the centers
of each “Y”. Having both primary and secondary winding sets connected in “Y” formations
allows for the use of neutral conductors (N1 and N2) in each power system.

Phase Wiring for “Y-Δ” Transformer

Now, we’ll take a look at a Y-Δ configuration:

Phase wiring for “Y-Δ” transformer.

Note how the secondary windings (bottom set, Figure above) are connected in a chain, the “dot”
side of one winding connected to the “non-dot” side of the next, forming the Δ loop. At every

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
connection point between pairs of windings, a connection is made to a line of the second power
system (A, B, and C).

Phase Wiring for “Δ-Y” Transformer

Now, let’s examine a Δ-Y system in the figure below.

Phase wiring for “Δ-Y” transformer.

Such a configuration (Figure above) would allow for the provision of multiple voltages (line-to-
line or line-to-neutral) in the second power system, from a source power system having no
neutral.

Phase Wiring for “Δ-Δ” Transformer

And finally, we turn to the Δ-Δ configuration:

Phase wiring for “Δ-Δ” transformer.

When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the secondary power system, Δ-Δ connection
schemes (Figure above) are preferred because of the inherent reliability of the Δ configuration.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Phase Wiring for “V” or “open-Δ” Transformer

Considering that a Δ configuration can operate satisfactorily missing one winding, some power
system designers choose to create a three-phase transformer bank with only two transformers,
representing a Δ-Δ configuration with a missing winding in both the primary and secondary
sides:

“V” or “open-Δ” provides 2-φ power with only two transformers.

This configuration is called “V” or “Open-Δ.” Of course, each of the two transformers has to be
oversized to handle the same amount of power as three in a standard Δ configuration, but the
overall size, weight, and cost advantages are often worth it. Bear in mind, however, that with one
winding set missing from the Δ shape, this system no longer provides the fault tolerance of a
normal Δ-Δ system. If one of the two transformers were to fail, the load voltage and current
would definitely be affected.

Three Phase Oil Cooled Power Distribution Transformer

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Three-phase voltage transformations
Three-phase voltage transformations can be accomplished by using three phase transformers,
which are single devices with all windings constructed on a single iron core. They also can be
accomplished by using three single-phase transformers that are connected externally to form a
three-phase bank.

Easy understanding of 3-phase transformer connections - Delta–Delta, Wye–Wye, Delta–Wye

and Wye–Delta (on photo: Jefferson Electric transformer)

While three-phase devices are usually the more cost-effective option, the single-phase option
provides more versatility and can be attractive from a reliability and maintenance standpoint.
If several identical transformers are needed at one location, the single-phase option can include
the purchase of a spare unit to reduce outage time in the event of a failure.

This practice often is seen with critical autotransformer banks and generator step-up transformers
because loss of the transformer for an extended period has very significant impacts.

The connections discussed in this article will be implemented using single-phase units.

The two most commonly used three-phase winding configurations are delta and wye, named
after the Greek and English letter that each resembles. In a delta configuration, the three

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
windings are connected end-to-end to form a closed path. A phase is connected to each corner of
the delta.

Although delta windings are often operated ungrounded, a leg of the delta can be center tapped
and grounded, or a corner of the delta can be grounded. In a wye configuration, one end of each
of the three windings is connected to form a neutral. A phase is connected to the other end of the
three windings. The neutral is usually grounded.

1. Delta–Delta

Delta–delta transformers, as shown in Figure 1, often are used to supply loads that are
primarily three phase but may have a small single-phase component.

Figure 1 – Delta-Delta Transformer

The three-phase load is typically motor load while the single-phase component is often lighting
and low voltage power. The single-phase load can be fed by grounding a center tap on one of the
legs of the delta secondary, then connecting the single-phase load between one of the phases on
the grounded leg and this grounded neutral.

Figure 2 shows a delta–delta transformer connection.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Figure 2 – Delta–Delta Transformer Connections

The connection diagram on the left shows how a delta–delta connection can be made, either
with three single-phase transformers or with one three-phase transformer.

The dashed lines indicate the transformer outlines. The three single-phase transformer
implementation can be seen by disregarding the outer dashed outline and the bushing labels
shown at that outline, and concentrating on the three smaller (single-phase transformer) outlines.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
The schematic diagram at the upper right is perhaps easier to analyze, as the delta connections
can clearly be seen.

The phasor diagram at the lower right shows the geometric relationships between the high
voltage circuit and low voltage circuit currents, and the equations at the bottom center show
those relationships mathematically.

Also, the amount of single-phase load should be kept low because the center-tapped transformer
must supply most of the single-phase load. As the single-phase load is increased, the center-
tapped transformer will increase its loading more than the other two transformers and will
eventually overload.

If one of the single-phase transformers in the delta–delta bank fails, the bank can be operated
with only two transformers forming an open delta configuration. The kVA rating of the bank is
reduced, but three-phase power is still supplied to the load.

2. Wye–Wye

Wye–wye transformers, as shown in Figure 3, can serve both three-phase and single-phase
loads. The single-phase load should be distributed as evenly as possible between each of the
three phases and neutral.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Figure 3 – Wye–Wye Transformer

Figure 4 illustrates the wye–wye connection, either as three single-phase transformers or as a

single three-phase unit. Both bushing labels and polarity dots are shown.

Figure 4 – Wye–Wye Transformer Connections Diagram

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
One problem inherent to wye–wye transformers is the propagation of third- harmonic
currents and voltages. These harmonics can cause interference in nearby communication
circuits as well as other assorted power quality problems.

Adding a third (tertiary) winding connected in delta alleviates many of the concerns mentioned.

3. Delta–Wye

The delta–wye connection is the most commonly used three-phase transformer connection.
The wye-connected secondary allows single-phase load to be distributed among the three phases
to neutral instead of being placed all on one winding as with a four-wire delta secondary.

If one of the single-phase transformers in the delta–wye bank fails, the entire bank becomes
inoperative.

Also, since the delta–wye transformer introduces a 30° phase shift from primary to secondary as
can be seen by the phasing symbols in Figure 5, it cannot be paralleled with delta–delta and
wye–wye transformers that produce no phase shift.

Figure 5 – Delta–Wye Transformer

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Figure 6 illustrates the delta–wye connection, either as three single-phase transformers or as a
single three-phase unit. Both bushing labels and polarity dots are shown.

Figure 6 – Delta–Wye Transformer Connections

Analyzing the delta–wye transformer illustrates many important concepts regarding the operation
of polyphase transformers. The analysis can be done on either a voltage or a current basis. Since
voltage (potential difference or the subtraction of two phasor quantities) is rather abstract and

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
difficult to visualize, current (or the flow of charge) will be used as the basis for analysis, since
current is easy to conceptualize.

The currents owing in the windings of a delta–wye transformer are shown in Figure 7. Note that
the arrows indicate instantaneous directions of the AC current and are consistent with the dot
convention.

Figure 7 – Delta and Wye Windings

The analysis must begin in one of the two electric circuits, either the delta- connected high
voltage circuit or the wye-connected low voltage circuit.

Since current is being used as the basis for analysis, the wye-connected circuit is selected as the
starting point, since in a wye-connected circuit, the line currents (leaving the transformer) and
the phase currents ( owing in the transformer windings) are equal. This relationship between line
and phase currents simplifies the analysis.

The analysis starts by labeling all line and phase currents. This is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 – Delta–Wye Transformer with Currents Labeled

Note that lower-case subscripts indicate line currents in the low voltage circuit, and upper-case
subscripts indicate line currents in the high voltage circuit. In the low voltage circuit, the phase
currents are identical to the corresponding line currents, so they also are labeled Ia, Ib, and Ic.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
When the transformer windings are drawn, a particular high voltage winding corresponds to the
low voltage winding drawn parallel to it.

The high voltage phase current corresponding to Ia is labeled Ia′ . The direction of Ia′ relative to
that of Ia must honor the dot convention. The magnitude of Ia′ relative to Ia is the inverse of
the transformer turns ratio “n”, or

When analyzing a transformer using per-unit, n = 1 so it becomes:

Ia′ = Ia

So,

Ia′ = Ia (per-unit)
Ib′ = Ib (per-unit)
Ic′ = Ic (per-unit)
(Eqs. 1)

Next, Kirchhoff’s current law can be applied to each node of the delta:

IA = Ia′− Ib′ = Ia − Ib
IB = Ib′− Ic′ = Ib − Ic
IC = Ic′− Ia′ = Ic − Ia
(Eqs. 2)

Equations above express the high voltage circuit line currents in terms of the low voltage
circuit line currents. At this point, numerical values can be substituted for Ia, Ib, and Ic. Keeping
in mind that Ia, Ib, and Ic represent a balanced set of phasors, arbitrary per-unit values are
selected to represent a-b-c phase sequencing:

Eqs. 3
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Substituting Eqs. 3 into Eqs. 2:

Eqs. 4

IEEE Std. C57.12.00 defines the direction in which the phasor angles shall change from one
electrical circuit to the other. In a standard delta–wye (or wye–delta) transformer, the positive-
sequence currents and voltages on the high voltage side lead the positive-sequence currents and
voltages on the low voltage side by 30°.

Note that the convention to determine a standard connection requires that the high voltage
phasors lead the low voltage phasors by 30°. No reference is made to primary or secondary. The
primary windings of a transformer are those windings to which voltage is applied. The secondary
windings have an induced voltage impressed across them.

Usually, the primary windings are the high voltage windings, but this is not always the case. A
good example of an exception is a generator step-up transformer.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
4. Wye–Delta

The wye–delta transformer shown in Figure 9 is sometimes used to provide a neutral on a

three-wire system but also can serve load from its secondary.

Figure 9 – Wye–Delta Transformer

The primary wye windings are typically grounded. If the secondary is a four-wire delta, the
fourth wire originating at a center tap on one of the legs of the delta is grounded.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Figure 10 – Wye–Delta Transformer Connections

Difference between Delta and Wye

WYE transformer coils are wired in parallel, like connecting 4 light bulbs to the hot wire.
On the 3-can transformer bank for WYE, you would observe 3 hot wires drop down from the 3 overhead
distribution lines. Each hot wire connects to 1 transformer. The Neutral wire connects to all 3
transformers.

Delta transformer coils are wired in series, like stacking batteries end to end.
On the 3-can transformer bank for Delta, you would observe 3 hot wires drop down from the 3 overhead
distribution lines. Each hot wire connects to 2 different transformers.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Delta can deliver same power with lower amps/ meaning less heat.
For example many transformer banks are wired Delta on the Power company or Primary coils, and Wye
on the customer or secondary coils. According to one manufacturer's manual, the reason for Delta primary
is to save money since the delta configuration means lower amps for the same power output, which means
the manufacturer can use smaller wires on the primary side coils. It also reduces heat and need for
transformer cooling.

Using WYE on the secondary, or customer side, supplies a Neutral connection, and allows for
more voltage combinations and higher-amp service, with equal votage on all 3 legs.
Materials used for the power grid are a balance of cost, function and safety, so reducing amps using Delta
on primary side saves money overall. However not every customer application can be met using Delta
primary. There are a wide variety of volt-amp requirements at end user locations, and many ways to wire
transformers to meet electrical needs.

WYE is frequently called Star, for example Star-Delta motor starter or timer. Motors consume a
lot a of amperage when starting, so the star or wye configuration (more amps) is used for starting, and
after the motor gets going, the circuit is switched to delta (low amps) for higher efficiency. This basic
strategy meets electrical regulations intended to reduce voltage surges on the grid.

Delta primary/ WYE secondary

1 supply wire connects to TWO transformers
Each hot wire from the power pole connects to two transformers
Ground wire to each transformer NOT shown

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
WYE - WYE
1 supply wire connected to ONE transformer each hot wire from the power pole connects to one
transformer Ground wire to each transformer shown

Delta - Delta
Ground wire to each transformer NOT shown

Delta – WYE

Transformer wiring/ how to identify transformer wiring

Image shows Delta Primary and 4-wire WYE Secondary
Primary is Delta:

How do we know? Each hot wire connects to two transformers.... so they are wired in
series Secondary is WYE. One wire connects to all three transformers, and to Neutral. One wire
from each transformer is Hot... so they are wired in parallel System neutral connects to Neutral
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
and ground. There are many different transformer configurations this is 'most common type of
wiring' because Delta has lower amps/ meaning less heat, so insulation on primary coil is less
expensive. Transformers can be wired different ways depending on the incoming electric supply
and end user need. Two key factors for the grid are economic performance and reliability.
Reliability is necessary because electricity must run clean without big-voltage spikes and low-
voltage brownouts. Otherwise motors and HVAC equipment will have shorter lifespan.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
WYE-WYE

Normally, the Neutral service wire is located on top of other three Hot wires
Primary wires are not insulated/ Secondary wires to service are insulated.
Neutral on pole connects to Neutral going to service, and to ground wire that bonds each
transformer to the earth, illustration does not clearly show this. Installations might use bare solid
copper, or use the stranded aluminum per more recent practice.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Delta-WYE

Delta primary/ WYE secondary ... because Delta carries less amperage, so primary coils
can use smaller wire ... saves cost of transformer
Normally, the Neutral service wire is located on top of other three How wires
Primary wires are not insulated/ Secondary wires to service are insulated.
Neutral on pole connectes to Neutral going to service, and to ground wire that bonds each
transformer to the earth.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Residential 120-240 volt service

Normally, the 3 service wires to house are triplex, with 1 bare stranded Neutral and 2
insulated Hots.
The Neutral wire runs continuously across the grid to bond all grounds into one giant array of
earth connections that stablize the grid from overvoltage, short circuits, lightning etc ... and to
protect and assist circuit breakers and wires. Ground wires are present at each pole, transmission
tower, and electrical connection across the grid.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Delta-Delta
Neutral on pole connected to Neutral going to service, and to ground wire that bonds each
transformer to the earth.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Delta Primary / WYE secondary/ same as above

WYE Primary / DELTA secondary/ distribution transformers at substation handle high voltage
shows 3 transformers, with 3 primary coils and 3 secondary coils Primary WYE 69,000 volts ...
because 1 69,000 volt wire connects to 1 transformer Secondary Delta 4,400 volts ... because 1
4400 volt wire connects to 2 transformers

Generally 4,400 volts is lowest voltage for distribution without heat loss from high amperage
The lower the voltage, the higher the amperage.

High amperage causes heat loss.

The transmission of electric power requires high voltage and low amperage.
When amperage is high, the distribution distance is reduced.

However high voltage switchgear is expensive

It is impractical for end user to install high voltage appliances and motors because of the expense

As a result, the end user must receive low volts with higher amperage
To meet demands on the grid, transformers are used to raise and lower volts and amps in inverse
proportion
When volts are reduced, amps are increased.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Why does transformer wiring differ.
1) Electricity is mathematical
For example: Cosine of phase angle is known as power factor
P is power factor
Power factor is cosine of phase difference between v and I

2) Cost
Delta configuration reduces amperage for the same amount of voltage

3) How does WYE DELTA affect cost

3 – phase is more efficient because it runs at higher average power versus single phase.
It's like having a 3 legged bicycle rider on a 3 pedal bike, with each pedal spaced evenly apart
versus a two legged bike rider on an ordinary bicycle.

4) Cost for 3-phase motors and commercial equipment:

"During start-up, motors develop high currents of up to eight times the rated current, and they

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
have high starting torque.
The high starting currents often lead to voltage drops in the supply network which can affect
reliability of other equipment, and cause surges that shorten life of expensive equipment.
And the high starting torque puts strain on mechanical parts, which wears out motors.
Electric companies determine limiting values for motor starting so the power surges and heavy-
amp draws do not affect other users. Such as requiring 2-stage motors or star-delta or auto-
transformer motor starters etc.
A 2-stage motor means the motor starts out in 'low gear,' and when it gets to higher speed, it
shifts to 'higher gear.' This saves energy and wear and tear and helps prevent surge.
Motors have start winding for getting the motor started. And then the run winding kicks in for
motor at full speed.
WYE configuration is used for the start winding. And then Delta is used for full speed.
The reason is that Wye supplies more amps per each volt.
For example: voltage is applied to the WYE (also called STAR) start windings. The voltage is
reduced by a factor of 1√3 = 0.58 this connection amounts to approximately 30% of the delta
values. By reducing the voltage, the starting current is reduced to one third of the direct starting
current. When motor reaches speed, the run winding (wired in Delta) takes over and motor
receives full voltage.
This staged approach to motor starting, when applied to all motors in a home, and in a business,
add up to considerable savings.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Connecting High voltage wire to transformer

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Hot clamp, Fuse, Transformer

Sub-Transmission and distribution lines

Transmission lines run between power plant substation and local substations
Subtransmission run from local substations to local substation
Distribution lines run from local substation to the end-user location

Generally transmission lines are higher off the ground because the air space acts as the insulator
for bare conductor wire. Air is a non-conductive insulator.

Transmission lines might be 500,000 V and sub-transmission 69,000 V

Distribution lines are from local substation to each building and house, and are lower to ground
and carry lower voltages such as 4400 to 6900.

Image shows transmission lines that run from local Rosenberg substation out to another
substation in rural area of county.

Distribution lines leave from the same Rosenberg substation and distribute power in one section
of town.
Distribution lines can be identified because transformers connect to the distribution lines.

Transmission and distribution wires are bare.

They have no insulation covering the wire.
This helps keep the wire cool and increases transmission distance.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Wires are kept away from the poles using purified glass insulators and other non-conductive
materials such as silicone.
Birds sitting on the bare wire are not electrocuted as long as they do not touch two wires or any
part of the pole.
Electricity on the wire is a potential.
The voltage potential is only reached if two wires come together or one wire comes together with
a ground source.

Circuit Breakers
How Circuit Breakers Work

The circuit breaker is an absolutely essential device in the modern world, and one of the
most important safety mechanisms in your home. Whenever electrical wiring in a building has
too much current flowing through it, these simple machines cut the power until somebody can fix
the problem. Without circuit breakers (or the alternative, fuses), household electricity would be
impractical because of the potential for fires and other mayhem resulting from simple wiring
problems and equipment failures.

In this article, we'll find out how circuit breakers and fuses monitor electrical current and
how they cut off the power when current levels get too high. As we'll see, the circuit breaker is
an incredibly simple solution to a potentially deadly problem.

To understand circuit breakers, it helps to know how household electricity works.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Electricity is defined by three major attributes:

• Voltage
• Current
• Resistance

Voltage is the "pressure" that makes an electric charge move. Current is the charge's "flow" -- the
rate at which the charge moves through the conductor, measured at any particular point. The
conductor offers a certain amount of resistance to this flow, which varies depending on the
conductor's composition and size.

Voltage, current and resistance are all interrelated -- you can't change one without changing
another. Current is equal to voltage divided by resistance (commonly written as I = v / r). This
makes intuitive sense: If you increase the pressure working on electric charge or decrease the
resistance, more charge will flow. If you decrease pressure or increase resistance, less charge
will flow.

Types of Circuit Breaker and Its Importance

In the electrical and electronics world, there are many cases where mishap takes place. It
will lead to severe damage to building, offices, houses, schools, industries, etc. Trusting voltage
and current are not correct, though safety measures are taken. Once circuit breakers are installed
it will control the sudden rise of voltage and current. It will help from any accident. Circuit
breakers are like the heart of the electrical system. There are different types of circuit
breakers where these are installed according to the rating of the system. In house different kind
of circuit breaker is used and for industries another type of circuit breaker is used.

What is a Circuit Breaker?

Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated automatically or manually
for protecting and controlling of electrical power system. In the modern power system the design
of the circuit breaker has changed depending upon the huge currents and to prevent from arc
while operating.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Circuit Breaker

Different Types of Circuit Breakers

The different types of high voltage circuit breakers which includes the following

• Air Circuit Breaker

• SF6 Circuit Breaker
• Vacuum Circuit Breaker
• Oil Circuit Breaker
• Air Circuit Breaker

Air Circuit Breaker

This circuit breaker will operate in the air; the quenching medium is an Arc at
atmospheric pressure. In many of the countries air circuit breaker is replaced by oil circuit
breaker. About oil circuit breaker we will discuss later in the article. Thus the importance of

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
ACB is still preferable choice to use an Air circuit breaker up to 15KV. This is because; oil
circuit breaker may catch fire when used at 15V

Plain Air Circuit Breaker

This arc is made to drive in it. In achieving the cooling of the air circuit breaker, an arc
chute will help. From the refractory material, an arc chute is made. The internal walls of arc
chute are shaped in such a way that arc is not forced into close proximity. It will drive into the
winding channel projected on an arc chute wall.

The arc chute will have many small compartments and has many divisions which are
metallic separated plates. Here each of small compartments behaves as a mini arc chute and
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
metallic separation plate acts like arc splitters. All arc voltages will be higher than the system
voltage when the arc will split into a series of arcs. It is only preferable for low voltage
application.

Air Blast Circuit Breaker

Air blast circuit breakers are used for system voltage of 245 KV, 420 KV and also even
more.Air blast circuit breakers are of two types:

• Axial blast breaker

• Axial blast with sliding moving contact.

Axial Blast Breaker

In the axial blaster breaker the moving contact of the axial blast breaker will be in
contact. The nozzle orifice is a fixed to the contact of a breaker at a normal closed condition. A
fault occurs when high pressure is introduced into the chamber. Voltage is sufficient to sustain
high-pressure air when flowed through nozzle orifice.

Axial Blast Circuit breaker

Advantages of Air-Blast Circuit Beaker

• It is used where frequent operation is required because of lesser arc energy.

• It is risk free from fire.
• Small in size.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 • It requires less maintenance.
• Arc quenching is much faster
• Speed of circuit breaker is much higher.
• The time duration of the arc is same for all values of current.
Disadvantages of Air-Blast Circuit Breaker
• It requires additional maintenance.
• The air has relatively lower arc extinguishing properties
• It contains high capacity air compressor.
• From the air pipe junction there may be a chance of air pressure leakage
• There is the chance of a high rate rise of re-striking current and voltage chopping.

Application and Uses of Air Circuit Breaker

• It is used for protection of plants, electrical machines, transformers, capacitors and

generators
• Air circuit breaker is also used in the Electricity sharing system and GND about 15Kv
• Also used in Low as well as High Currents and voltage applications.

SF6 Circuit Breaker

In the SF6 circuit breaker the current carrying contacts operate in sulphur hexafluoride
gas is known as an SF6 circuit breaker. It is an excellent insulating property and high electro-
negativity. It can be understood that, high affinity of absorbing free electron. The negative ion is
formed when a free electron collides with the SF6 gas molecule; it is absorbed by that gas
molecule. The two different ways of attachment of electron with SF6 gas molecules are

SF6 + e = SF6
SF6 + e = SF5- + F

SF6 Circuit Breaker

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Siemens SF6 Substation Circuit Breaker, 115kV

The negative ions which are formed will be much heavier than a free electron. Therefore,
when compared with other common gases overall mobility of the charged particle in the SF6 gas
is much less. The mobility of charged particles is majorly responsible for conducting current
through a gas. Hence, for heavier and less mobile charged particles in SF6 gas, it acquires very
high dielectric strength. This gas good heat transfer property because of low gaseous viscosity.
SF6 is 100 times more effective in arc quenching media than air circuit breaker. It is used for
both medium and high voltage electrical power system from 33KV to 800KV.

Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker

• Single interrupter SF6 circuit breaker applied up to 220

• Two interrupter SF6 circuit breaker applied up to 400
• Four interrupter SF6 circuit breaker applied up to 715V

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

A Vacuum circuit breaker is a circuit which vacuum is used to extinct the arc. It has
dielectric recovery character, excellent interruption and can interrupt the high frequency current
which results from arc instability, superimposed on the line frequency current.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

In the principle of operation of VCB will have two contacts called electrodes will remain
closed under normal operating conditions. Suppose when a fault occurs in any part of the system,
then the trip coil of the circuit breaker gets energized and finally contact gets separated.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 The moment contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum, i.e. 10-7 to 10-5 Torr an arc is
produced between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors of contacts. Here the arc quickly
gets extinguished, this happens because the electrons, metallic vapors and ions produced during
arc, condense quickly on the surface of the CB contacts, resulting in quick recovery of dielectric
strength.

Advantages

• VCBs are reliable, compact and long life

• They can interrupt any fault current.
• There will be no fire hazards.
• No noise is produced
• It has higher dielectric strength.
• It requires less power for control operation.

Oil Circuit Breaker

In this type of circuit breaker oil is used, but mineral oil is preferable. It acts better
insulating property than air. The moving contact and fixed contact are immerged inside the
insulating oil. When the separation of current takes place, then carrier contacts in the oil, the arc
in circuit breaker is initialized at the moment of separation of contacts, and because of this arc in
the oil is vaporized and decomposed in hydrogen gas and finally creates a hydrogen bubble
around the arc.

This highly compressed gas bubble around and arc prevents re-striking of the arc after
current reaches zero crossing of the cycle. The OCB is the oldest type of circuit breakers.

Different types of Oil Circuit Breaker

• Bulk oil circuit breaker

• Minimum oil circuit breaker
• Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB)

In the BOCB, oil is used to arc the quenching media and also for insulating media in
between earth parts of circuit breaker and current carrying contacts. The same transformer
insulating oil is used.

The working principle of the BOCB says when the current carrying contacts in the oil are
separated, then an arc is generated between the separated contacts. The arc which is established
will produce rapid growing gas bubble around the arc. The moving contacts will move away
from the fixed contact of arc and this result the resistance of the arc gets increased. Here the
increased resistance will cause the lowering the temperature. Hence the reduced formations of
gasses surround the arc.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 When the current passes through zero crossing the arc quenching in the BOCB takes
places. In the totally air tight vessel, the gas bubble is enclosed inside the oil. The oil will
surround with high pressure on the bubble, this results in highly compressed gas around the arc.
When the pressure is increased the de- ionization of the gas also increases, which results in arc
quenching. The hydrogen gas will help in cooling the arc quenching in the oil circuit breaker.

Advantages

• Good cooling property because of decomposition

• Oil has high dielectric strength
• It acts like an insulator between earth and live parts.
• The oil used here will absorb arc energy while decomposing

Disadvantages
• It will not permit high speed of interruption
• It takes long arcing time.

Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

It is a circuit breaker which utilizes oil as the interrupting media. The minimum oil circuit
breaker will place the interrupting unit in an insulating chamber at the live potential. But
insulating material is available in interrupting chamber. It requires less amount of oil so it is
called as minimum oil circuit breaker.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

Advantages

• It requires less maintenance.

• It is suitable for both automatic operation and manual.
• It requires smaller space
• The cost for breaking capacity in MVA is also less.

Disadvantages

• Oil deteriorates because of carbonization.

• There is a possibility of explosion and fire
• As it has a smaller quantity of oil, so carbonization increases.
• It is very difficult to remove gases from the space between the contacts.

In this article the different types of circuit breakers, i.e. Air Circuit Breaker, SF6 Circuit
Breaker, Vacuum Circuit Breaker and Oil Circuit Breaker have been discussed in a short detailed
just to understand the basic concept about these circuit breakers. And their subdivision is also
discussed along with advantages and disadvantages. We have discussed every concept very
clearly. If you have not understood any of the topics, you feel any information is missing or to
implement any electrical projects for engineering students, please feel free to comment in the
below section.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

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Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Fuses
Normally, the ampacity rating of a conductor is a circuit design limit never to be intentionally
exceeded, but there is an application where ampacity exceedance is expected: in the case
of fuses.

What is a Fuse?

A fuse is an electrical safety device built around a conductive strip that is designed to melt and
separate in the event of excessive current. Fuses are always connected in series with the
component(s) to be protected from overcurrent, so that when the fuse blows (opens) it will open
the entire circuit and stop current through the component(s). A fuse connected in one branch of
a parallel circuit, of course, would not affect current through any of the other branches.

Normally, the thin piece of fuse wire is contained within a safety sheath to minimize hazards of
arc blast if the wire burns open with violent force, as can happen in the case of severe
overcurrents. In the case of small automotive fuses, the sheath is transparent so that the fusible
element can be visually inspected. Residential wiring used to commonly employ screw-in fuses
with glass bodies and a thin, narrow metal foil strip in the middle. A photograph showing both
types of fuses is shown here:

Cartridge type fuses are popular in automotive applications, and in industrial applications when
constructed with sheath materials other than glass. Because fuses are designed to “fail” open
when their current rating is exceeded, they are typically designed to be replaced easily in a
circuit. This means they will be inserted into some type of holder rather than being directly
soldered or bolted to the circuit conductors. The following is a photograph showing a couple of
glass cartridge fuses in a multi-fuse holder:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 The fuses are held by spring metal clips, the clips themselves being permanently
connected to the circuit conductors. The base material of the fuse holder (or fuse block as they
are sometimes called) is chosen to be a good insulator.

Another type of fuse holder for cartridge-type fuses is commonly used for installation in
equipment control panels, where it is desirable to conceal all electrical contact points from
human contact. Unlike the fuse block just shown, where all the metal clips are openly exposed,
this type of fuse holder completely encloses the fuse in an insulating housing:

The most common device in use for overcurrent protection in high-current circuits today
is the circuit breaker.
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1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
What is a Circuit Breaker?

Circuit breakers are specially designed switches that automatically open to stop current
in the event of an overcurrent condition. Small circuit breakers, such as those used in residential,
commercial and light industrial service are thermally operated. They contain a bimetallic strip (a
thin strip of two metals bonded back-to-back) carrying circuit current, which bends when heated.
When enough force is generated by the bimetallic strip (due to overcurrent heating of the strip),
the trip mechanism is actuated and the breaker will open. Larger circuit breakers are
automatically actuated by the strength of the magnetic field produced by current-carrying
conductors within the breaker, or can be triggered to trip by external devices monitoring the
circuit current (those devices being called protective relays).

Because circuit breakers don’t fail when subjected to overcurrent conditions—rather,

they merely open and can be re-closed by moving a lever—they are more likely to be found
connected to a circuit in a more permanent manner than fuses. A photograph of a small circuit
breaker is shown here:

From outside appearances, it looks like nothing more than a switch. Indeed, it could be
used as such. However, its true function is to operate as an overcurrent protection device.

It should be noted that some automobiles use inexpensive devices known as fusible
links for overcurrent protection in the battery charging circuit, due to the expense of a properly-
rated fuse and holder. A fusible link is a primitive fuse, being nothing more than a short piece of
rubber-insulated wire designed to melt open in the event of overcurrent, with no hard sheathing
of any kind. Such crude and potentially dangerous devices are never used in industry or even
residential power use, mainly due to the greater voltage and current levels encountered. As far as
this author is concerned, their application even in automotive circuits is questionable.

The electrical schematic drawing symbol for a fuse is an S-shaped curve:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Fuse Ratings

Fuses are primarily rated, as one might expect, in the unit for current: amps. Although
their operation depends on the self-generation of heat under conditions of excessive current by
means of the fuse’s own electrical resistance, they are engineered to contribute a negligible
amount of extra resistance to the circuits they protect. This is largely accomplished by making
the fuse wire as short as is practically possible. Just as a normal wire’s ampacity is not related to
its length (10-gauge solid copper wire will handle 40 amps of current in free air, regardless of
how long or short of a piece it is), a fuse wire of certain material and gauge will blow at a certain
current no matter how long it is. Since length is not a factor in current rating, the shorter it can be
made, the less resistance it will have end-to-end.

However, the fuse designer also has to consider what happens after a fuse blows: the
melted ends of the once-continuous wire will be separated by an air gap, with full supply voltage
between the ends. If the fuse isn’t made long enough on a high-voltage circuit, a spark may be
able to jump from one of the melted wire ends to the other, completing the circuit again:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Consequently, fuses are rated in terms of their voltage capacity as well as the current
level at which they will blow.

Some large industrial fuses have replaceable wire elements, to reduce the expense. The
body of the fuse is an opaque, reusable cartridge, shielding the fuse wire from exposure and
shielding surrounding objects from the fuse wire.

There’s more to the current rating of a fuse than a single number. If a current of 35 amps
is sent through a 30 amp fuse, it may blow suddenly or delay before blowing, depending on other
aspects of its design. Some fuses are intended to blow very fast, while others are designed for
more modest “opening” times, or even for a delayed action depending on the application. The
latter fuses are sometimes called slow-blow fuses due to their intentional time-delay
characteristics.

A classic example of a slow-blow fuse application is in electric motor protection,

where inrush currents of up to ten times normal operating current are commonly experienced
every time the motor is started from a dead stop. If fast-blowing fuses were to be used in an
application like this, the motor could never get started because the normal inrush current levels
would blow the fuse(s) immediately! The design of a slow-blow fuse is such that the fuse
element has more mass (but no more ampacity) than an equivalent fast-blow fuse, meaning that it
will heat up slower (but to the same ultimate temperature) for any given amount of current.

On the other end of the fuse action spectrum, there are so-called semiconductor
fuses designed to open very quickly in the event of an overcurrent condition. Semiconductor
devices such as transistors tend to be especially intolerant of overcurrent conditions, and as such
require fast-acting protection against overcurrents in high-power applications.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Fuses are always supposed to be placed on the “hot” side of the load in systems that are
grounded. The intent of this is for the load to be completely de-energized in all respects after the
fuse opens. To see the difference between fusing the “hot” side versus the “neutral” side of a
load, compare these two circuits:

In either case, the fuse successfully interrupted current to the load, but the lower circuit
fails to interrupt potentially dangerous voltage from either side of the load to ground, where a
person might be standing. The first circuit design is much safer.

As it was said before, fuses are not the only type of overcurrent protection device in use.
Switch-like devices called circuit breakers are often (and more commonly) used to open circuits
with excessive current, their popularity due to the fact that they don’t destroy themselves in the
process of breaking the circuit as fuses do. In any case, though, placement of the overcurrent
protection device in a circuit will follow the same general guidelines listed above: namely, to
“fuse” the side of the power supply not connected to ground.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 Although overcurrent protection placement in a circuit may determine the relative shock
hazard of that circuit under various conditions, it must be understood that such devices were
never intended to guard against electric shock. Neither fuses nor circuit breakers were designed
to open in the event of a person getting shocked; rather, they are intended to open only under
conditions of potential conductor overheating. Overcurrent devices primarily protect the
conductors of a circuit from overtemperature damage (and the fire hazards associated with overly
hot conductors), and secondarily protect specific pieces of equipment such as loads and
generators (some fast-acting fuses are designed to protect electronic devices particularly
susceptible to current surges). Since the current levels necessary for electric shock or
electrocution are much lower than the normal current levels of common power loads, a condition
of overcurrent is not indicative of shock occurring. There are other devices designed to detect
certain shock conditions (ground-fault detectors being the most popular), but these devices
strictly serve that one purpose and are uninvolved with protection of the conductors against
overheating.

REVIEW:

• A fuse is a small, thin conductor designed to melt and separate into two pieces for the
purpose of breaking a circuit in the event of excessive current.

• A circuit breaker is a specially designed switch that automatically opens to interrupt

circuit current in the event of an overcurrent condition. They can be “tripped” (opened)
thermally, by magnetic fields, or by external devices called “protective relays,”
depending on the design of breaker, its size, and the application.

• Fuses are primarily rated in terms of maximum current, but are also rated in terms of how
much voltage drop they will safely withstand after interrupting a circuit.

• Fuses can be designed to blow fast, slow, or anywhere in between for the same maximum
level of current.

• The best place to install a fuse in a grounded power system is on the ungrounded
conductor path to the load. That way, when the fuse blows there will only be the
grounded (safe) conductor still connected to the load, making it safer for people to be
around.

Different Types of Fuses and Its Applications

A French physicist namely “Breguet” was famous for his effort in the initial days of
telegraphy. He suggested the utilization of reduced part of conductors to guard telegraph stations
against the hits of lighting with liquefying, the slighter wires would guard equipment along with
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
wiring in the building. In the year 1864, lighting installations and telegraph cables can be
protected by employing a variety of foil fusible essentials and wires. Finally, Thomas Alva
Edison has patented a fuse as an element of his electric distribution system in the year 1890. This
article discusses what is a fuse, types of fuses and its applications in various fields.

Types of Fuses and Applications

In the field of electronics or electrical, a fuse is an essential device used in various

electrical circuits which gives the protection from the overcurrent. It comprises a strip or a metal
wire that dissolves when the heavy flow of current supplies through it. Once this device has
functioned in an open circuit, it ought to rewire or changed based on the type of fuse. A fuse is
an automatic disconnection of supply which is frequently shortened to ADS. The alternative of
the fuse is a stabilizer or circuit breaker, but they have many different characteristics.

Why do we require Fuse?

These are used to prevent the home appliances from the high current or overload damage.
If we use a fuse in the homes, the electrical faults cannot happen in the wiring and it doesn’t
damage the appliance s from the fire of wire burning. When the fuse gets break or damage, then
an abrupt sparkle happens which may direct to damage your home appliances. That is the reason
we require different types of fuses to guard our home-appliances against damage.

Working Principle of Fuse

The working principle of the fuse is “heating consequence of the current”. It is fabricated
with a lean strip or thread of metallic wire. The connection of the Fuse in an electrical circuit is
always in series.

When the too much current is produced due to the heavy flow of current in the electrical
circuit, the fuse gets soften and it opens the circuit. The extreme flow of current may direct to the
collapse of the wire and prevents the supply.

The fuse can be changed by the new fuse with an appropriate rating. It can be designed
with the elements like Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Al (aluminum) and Ag (silver). They also perform
like a circuit breaker for breaking the circuit while the abrupt fault happens in the circuit. This
works like a safety measure or protector for humans from risks. Like this, the fuse works.

Fuse rating = (power (watts)/voltage (volts)) x 1.25

The selection of a fuse can be done by calculating the fuse rating by using the above formula.

• Choose the fuse.

• Write down the voltage (volts) and power (watts) of the appliance.
• Calculate the fuse rating.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 After the result, use the maximum fuse rating. For instance, if the calculated fuse rating is
the maximum fuse rating. For example, if the calculated fuse rating is 7.689 amps, you can use
an 8 amp fuse.

Different Types of Fuses

The fuses are classified into several types based on the application namely AC type
fuse and DC type fuse. Again these fuses are classified into several types. The following
diagram illustrates the electrical fuse types chart based on the AC fuse and DC fuse.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 DC fuses are available superior in size, and DC supply has a stable value over 0 volts. So
it is tough to remove and deactivate the circuit. There will be a chance of generation of
an electric Arc between dissolved wires. To conquer this, electrodes located at better distances.
For this reason, the size of DC fuse gets amplified.

AC Fuses

The AC fuse is slighter in size and oscillated 50 to 60 times in each and every sec from
least to highest. As a result, there is no scope for Arc generation between the dissolved wires. For
this reason, they can be crammed in small size. Further, AC fuses are classified into two parts
namely HV fuses and LV fuses. Here LV& HV indicates the low voltage and high voltage.

AC Fuse

LV(Low Voltage) Fuses

The low voltage fuses are divided into five types such as rewirable, cartridge, drop out,
striker and switch fuses.

LV Fuse

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1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Rewirable Fuses

Rewirable fuses are LV fuses, which are almost used in small applications like wiring in
the house, small-scale industries, and other tiny current applications. These types of fuses include
two essential parts such as a fuse base, which has two terminals like in and out. In general, this
element is fabricated with Porcelain. Another part of this fuse is a fuse carrier, which grips the
fuse element. This element is fabricated with aluminum, tinned copper and lead. The main
advantage of a fuse carrier is, we can simply plug and remove from the base of the fuse without
the risk of shock. As the fuse is damaged due to heavy current, then we can simply eliminate the
Fuse Carrier as well as put back the fuse wire.

Rewirable Fuses

Cartridge type Fuses

The cartridge type of fuses has entirely closed containers and the metal contact as well. The
applications of this fuse mainly include low voltage (LV), high voltage (HV), and small fuses.
Again, these types of fuses are classified into two types, they are D-type and Link-type fuses.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
D-type Cartridge Fuse

This type of fuse is composed with the cartridge, base of the fuse, adapter ring, and cap. The base
of the fuse includes a fuse cap, which is packed with the fuse ingredient by cartridge using an
adapter ring.

It is composed of the cartridge, fuse base, cap & adapter ring. The fuse base has the fuse cap,
which is fitted with the fuse element with a cartridge through the adapter ring. The connection of
the circuit is finished when the tilt of the cartridge builds contact through the conductor.

Link Type Fuse

The link type fuse is also known as high rupturing capacity (HRC) or BS type fuse. In this sort of
fuse, the current flow with fuse element is specified under standard condition.

In this BS type fuse, the flow of current by fuse element is given under normal condition. The arc
which is generated by the fuse blown is controlled is fabricated with porcelain, ceramic, and
silver. The container of the fuse element is packed with silica sand. This type of fuse is again
categorized into two parts includes a blade type and bolted type.

Blade and Bolted type Fuses

The knife type fuse or plug-in type of fuses is designed with plastic. This type of fuse can
be simply changeable in the electric circuit exclusive of any load.

In bolted type fuse, plates of this fuse are conducting are set to the base of the fuse.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Striker type Fuse

The striker type of fuse is employed for tripping and closing the electrical circuit. These
fuses are having plenty of force as well as displacement.

Switch type Fuse

Basically, the switch type fuse is enclosed with a metal switch and also a fuse. These
fuses are mainly used in low and intermediate voltage levels.

HV (High Voltage) Fuses

Generally, HV fuses are used to protect the transformers like instrument transformers,
small power transformer and also used in power systems. These fuses are normally charged for
voltages over 1500V to 138000V.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 The fuse part in HV fuses are fabricated with either copper, silver or in some cases Tin is
used, in order to offer consistent and steady performance. These fuses are classified into three
types which include the following.

Cartridge Type HRC Fuse

The fuse component of the HRC is cut in the helix form which evades the effect of
corona at the upper voltages. It includes two fused elements namely low resistance and high
resistance, and that are located parallel by each other. The low-resistance wires take the usual
current which is blown-out as well as decreases the short-circuit current throughout the fault
state.

Cartridge Type HRC Fuse

Liquid Type HRC Fuse

This type of fuse is packed with carbon tetrachloride also preserved at both the tops of the
caps. Once the error occurs when the flowing current surpasses away from the allowable limit,
and the element of the fuse is blown-out. The fluid of the fuse performs as an arc extinguishing
standard for the HRC fuse types. They may be used to protect the transformer as well as the
support protection to the breaker circuit.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Expulsion Type HV Fuse

These types of fuses are extensively used to protect the feeders as well as transformer due
to they’re low-priced. It is designed for 11kV; also their cracking capability is up to 250 MVA.
This type of fuse includes an unfilled open finished cylinder designed with synthetic resin-
bonded paper.

The elements of the fuse are positioned in the cylinder, and the tubes tops are linked to
appropriate equipment at every finish. The arc generating is blown off in the inside covering of
the cylinder, and the gases thus shaped destroys the arc.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Drop Out Fuses

In this type of fuse, the melting of fuse causes the element to drop under gravity about its
lower support. They are made for the protection of outdoor transformers.

Resettable Fuses

It is the type of fuse, commonly known as self-resetting fuses which uses a thermoplastic
conductive type thermistor known as Polymeric Positive Temperature Coefficient (PPTC). If a
fault occurs. Current increases, temperature also increase. The increase in resistance is due to
increase in temperature. The applications where it is used are military and aerospace where
replacement is not possible.

Applications of Different Types of Fuses

The different types of fuses and their uses have discussed are essential components in all
the electrical circuits. Some of the main applications of fuses in Electrical and Electronics
field include the following.

• Power Transformers
• Electrical Appliances, like ACs (Air Conditioners), TV, Washing Machines, Music
Systems, and many more.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 • Electrical Cabling in Home
• Mobile Phones
• Motor starters
• Laptops
• Power Chargers
• Cameras, Scanners, Printers, and Photocopiers
• Automobiles, electronic devices and Gaming’s

Power Relays
How Relays Work

Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. Relays
control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit. As relay
diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open (NO), there is an open contact when the
relay is not energized. When a relay contact is Normally Closed (NC), there is a closed contact
when the relay is not energized. In either case, applying electrical current to the contacts will
change their state.
Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do not usually
control power consuming devices except for small motors and Solenoids that draw low amps.
Nonetheless, relays can "control" larger voltages and amperes by having an amplifying effect
because a small voltage applied to a relays coil can result in a large voltage being switched by
the contacts.
Protective relays can prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities, including
overcurrent, undercurrent, overloads and reverse currents. In addition, relays are also widely
used to switch starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights and audible alarms.

Electromechanical Relays vs Solid State Relays

Relays are either electromechanical relays or solid-state relays. In electromechanical

relays (EMR), contacts are opened or closed by a magnetic force. With solid-state relays (SSR),
there are no contacts and switching is totally electronic. The decision to use electromechanical or
solid state relays depends on an application's electrical requirements, cost constraints and life
expectancy. Although solid-state relays have become very popular, electromechanical relays
remain common. Many of the functions performed by heavy-duty equipment need the switching
capabilities of electromechanical relays. Solid State Relays switche the current using non-
moving electronic devices such as silicon controlled rectifiers.
These differences in the two types of relays result in advantages and disadvantages with each
system. Because solid state relays do not have to either energize a coil or open contacts, less
voltage is required to "turn" Solid State Relays on or off. Similarly, Solid State Relays turn on
and turn off faster because there are no physical parts to move. Although the absence of contacts

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
and moving parts means that Solid State Relays are not subject to arcing and do not wear out,
contacts on Electromechanical Relays can be replaced, whereas entire Solid State Relays must be
replaced when any part becomes defective. Because of the construction of Solid State Relays,
there is residual electrical resistance and/or current leakage whether switches are open and
closed. The small voltage drops that are created are not usually a problem; however,
Electromechanical Relays provide a cleaner ON or OFF condition because of the relatively large
distance between contacts, which acts as a form of insulation.

Electromechanical Relays

Basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include:

1. Frame: Heavy-duty frame that contains and supports the parts of the relay.

2. Coil: Wire is wound around a metal core. The coil of wire causes an electromagnetic
field.

3. Armature: A relays moving part. The armature opens and closes the contacts. An
attached spring returns the armature to its original position.

4. Contacts: The conducting part of the switch that makes (closes) or breaks (opens) a
circuit.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Relays involve two circuits: the energizing circuit and the contact circuit. The coil is on the
energizing side; and the relays contacts are on the contact side. When a relays coil is energized,
current flow through the coil creates a magnetic field. Whether in a DC unit where the polarity is
fixed, or in an AC unit where the polarity changes 120 times per second, the basic function
remains the same: the magnetic coil attracts a ferrous plate, which is part of the armature. One
end of the armature is attached to the metal frame, which is formed so that the armature can
pivot, while the other end opens and closes the contacts. Contacts come in a number of different
configurations, depending on the number of Breaks, poles and Throws that make up the relay.
For instance, relays might be described as Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST), or Double-Pole,
Single-Throw (DPST). These terms will give an instant indication of the design and function of
different types of relays.

• Break -This is the number of separate places or contacts that a switch uses to open or
close a single electrical circuit. All contacts are either single break or double break. A
single break (SB) contact breaks an electrical circuit in one place, while a double break
(DB) contact breaks it in two places. Single break contacts are normally used when
switching lower power devices such as indicating lights. Double break contacts are used
when switching high-power devices such as solenoids.

• Pole -This is the number of completely isolated circuits that relays can pass through a
switch. A single-pole contact (SP) can carry current through only one circuit at a time. A
double-pole contact (DP) can carry current through two isolated circuits simultaneously.
The maximum number of poles is 12, depending upon a relays design.

• Throw -This is the number of closed contact positions per pole that are available on a
switch. A switch with a single throw contact can control only one circuit, while a double-
throw contact can control two.

Types of Relays: Electromechanical

1. General Purpose Relays are electromechanical switches, usually operated by a magnetic

coil. General purpose relays operate with AC or DC current, at common voltages such as
12V, 24V, 48V, 120V and 230V, and they can control currents ranging from 2A-30A.
These relays are economical, easy to replace and allow a wide range of switch
configuration.

2. Machine Control Relays are also operated by a magnetic coil. They are heavy-duty
relays used to control starters and other industrial components. Although they are more
expensive than general purpose relays, they are generally more durable. The biggest
advantage of machine control relays over general purpose relays is the expandable
functionality of Machine Control Relays by the adding of accessories. A wide selection
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 of accessories is available for machine control relays, including additional poles,
convertible contacts, transient suppression of electrical noise, latching control and timing
attachments.

3. Reed Relays are a small, compact, fast operating switch design with one contact, which
is NO. Reed Relays are hermetically sealed in a glass envelope, which makes the contacts
unaffected by contaminants, fumes or humidity, allows reliable switching, and gives
contacts a higher life expectancy. The ends of the contact, which are often plated with
gold or another low resistance material to increase conductivity, are drawn together and
closed by a magnet. Reed relays are capable of switching industrial components such as
solenoids, contactors and starter motors. Reed relays consists of two reeds. When a
magnetic force is applied, such as an electromagnet or coil, it sets up a magnetic field in
which the end of the reeds assume opposite polarity. When the magnetic field is strong
enough, the attracting force of the opposite poles overcomes the stiffness of the reeds and
draws them together. When the magnetic force is removed, the reeds spring back to their
original, open position. These relays work very quickly because of the short distance
between the reeds.

Solid State Relays

Solid state relays consist of an input circuit, a control circuit and an output circuit. The Input
Circuit is the portion of a relays frame to which the control component is connected. The input
circuit performs the same function as the coil of electromechanical relays. The circuit is activated
when a voltage higher than the relays specified Pickup Voltage is applied to the relays input. The
input circuit is deactivated when the voltage applied is less than the specified minimum Dropout
voltage of the relay. The voltage range of 3 VDC to 32 VDC, commonly used with most solid-
state relays, makes it useful for most electronic circuits. The Control Circuit is the part of the
relay that determines when the output component is energized or de-energized. The control
circuit functions as the coupling between the input and output circuits. In electromechanical
relays, the coil accomplishes this function. A relays Output Circuit is the portion of the relay that
switches on the load and performs the same function as the mechanical contacts of
electromechanical relays. Solid-state relays, however, normally have only one output contact.

Types of Relays: Solid State

1. Zero-Switching Relays - relays turns ON the load when the control (minimum
operating) voltage is applied and the voltage of the load is close to zero. Zero-Switching
relays turn OFF the load when the control voltage is removed and the current in the load
is close to zero. Zero-Switching relays are the most widely used.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 2. Instant ON Relays - turns ON the load immediately when the pickup voltage is present.
Instant ON Relays allow the load to be turned ON at any point in it's up and down wave.

3. Peak Switching Relays - turns ON the load when the control voltage is present, and the
voltage of the load is at its peak. Peak Switching relays turn OFF when the control
voltage is removed and the current in the load is close to zero.

4. Analog Switching Relays - has an infinite number of possible output voltages within the
relays rated range. Analog switching relays have a built in synchronizing circuit that
controls the amount of output voltage as a function of the input voltage. This allows a
Ramp-Up function of time to be on the load. Analog Switching relays turn OFF when the
control voltage is removed and current in the load is near zero.

A Relays Contact Life

A relays useful life depends upon its contacts. Once contacts burn out, the relays contacts or the
entire relay has to be replaced. Mechanical Life is the number of operations (openings and
closings) a contact can perform without electrical current. A relays mechanical life is relatively
long, offering up to 1,000,000 operations. A relays Electrical life is the number of operations
(openings and closings) the contacts can perform with electrical current at a given current rating.
A relays Contact electrical life ratings range from 100,000 to

This diagram represents the basic circuit of Solid State Relays.

Input devices that can be used to detect or “sense” a variety of physical variables and signals and
are therefore called Sensors. But there are also a variety of electrical and electronic devices
which are classed as Output devices used to control or operate some external physical process.
These output devices are commonly called Actuators.

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Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical quantity such as movement,
force, sound etc. An actuator is also classed as a transducer because it changes one type of
physical quantity into another and is usually activated or operated by a low voltage command
signal. Actuators can be classed as either binary or continuous devices based upon the number of
stable states their output has.

For example, a relay is a binary actuator as it has two stable states, either energised and latched
or de-energised and unlatched, while a motor is a continuous actuator because it can rotate
through a full 360o motion. The most common types of actuators or output devices are Electrical
Relays, Lights, Motors and Loudspeakers.

Electrical Relays can also be divided into mechanical action relays called “Electromechanical
Relays” and those which use semiconductor transistors, thyristors, triacs, etc, as their switching
device called “Solid State Relays” or SSR’s.

Electromechanical Relay Construction

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1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
In our simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays may be
“Normally Open”, or “Normally Closed”. One pair of contacts are classed as Normally Open,
(NO) or make contacts and another set which are classed as Normally Closed, (NC) or break
contacts. In the normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the field current is
“ON” and the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil.

Electrical Relay Contact Tip Materials

• Ag (fine silver)

1. Electrical and thermal conductivity are the highest of all the metals.

2. Exhibits low contact resistance, is inexpensive and widely used.

3. Contacts tarnish easily through sulphurisation influence.

• AgCu (silver copper)

1. Known as “Hard silver” contacts and have better wear resistance and less tendency
to arc and weld, but slightly higher contact resistance.

• AgCdO (silver cadmium oxide)

1. Very little tendency to arc and weld, good wear resistance and arc extinguishing
properties.

• AgW (silver tungsten)

1. Hardness and melting point are high, arc resistance is excellent.

2. Not a precious metal.

3. High contact pressure is required to reduce resistance.

4. Contact resistance is relatively high, and resistance to corrosion is poor.

• AgNi (silver nickel)

1. Equals the electrical conductivity of silver, excellent arc resistance.

• AgPd (silver palladium)

1. Low contact wear, greater hardness.

2. Expensive.
EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES
1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
 • Platinum, Gold and Silver Alloys

1. Excellent corrosion resistance, used mainly for low-current circuits.

Electrical Relay Contact Types.

As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally Closed, (NC) used
to describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can also be classed
by their actions. Electrical relays can be made up of one or more individual switch contacts with
each “contact” being referred to as a “pole”. Each one of these contacts or poles can be
connected or “thrown” together by energizing the relays coil and this gives rise to the description
of the contact types as being:

• SPST – Single Pole Single Throw

• SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw

• DPST – Double Pole Single Throw

• DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw

with the action of the contacts being described as “Make” (M) or “Break” (B). Then a simple
relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact description of:

“Single Pole Double Throw – (Break before Make)”, or SPDT – (B-M)

Examples of just some of the more common diagrams used for electrical relay contact types to
identify relays in circuit or schematic diagrams is given below but there are many more possible
configurations.

Electrical Relay Contact Configurations

Input/Output Interface Modules.

Input/Output Interface Modules, (I/O Modules) are another type of solid state relay designed
specifically to interface computers, micro-controller or PIC’s to “real world” loads and switches.

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Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
There are four basic types of I/O modules available, AC or DC Input voltage to TTL or CMOS
logic level output, and TTL or CMOS logic input to an AC or DC Output voltage with each
module containing all the necessary circuitry to provide a complete interface and isolation within
one small device. They are available as individual solid state modules or integrated into 4, 8 or
16 channel devices.

Modular Input/Output Interface System.

he main disadvantages of solid state relays (SSR’s) compared to that of an equivalent wattage
electromechanical relay is their higher costs, the fact that only single pole single throw (SPST)
types are available, “OFF”-state leakage currents flow through the switching device, and a high
“ON”-state voltage drop and power dissipation resulting in additional heat sinking requirements.
Also they cannot switch very small load currents or high frequency signals such as audio or
video signals although special Solid State Switches are available for this type of application.

In this tutorial about Electrical Relays, we have looked at both the electromechanical relay and
the solid state relay which can be used as an output device (actuator) to control a physical
process. In the next tutorial we will continue our look at output devices called Actuators and
especially one that converts a small electrical signal into a corresponding physical movement
using electromagnetism. The output device is called a Solenoid.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Delta and Wye 3-Phase Circuits
Question 1

Label where each of the following electrical quantities would be found in both the “Y” and
“Delta” three-phase configurations:

Phase voltage
Line voltage
Phase current
Line current

In which circuit (Y or Delta) are the phase and line currents equal? In which circuit (Y or Delta)
are the phase and line voltages equal? Explain both answers, in terms that anyone with a basic
knowledge of electricity could understand.

Where phase and line quantities are unequal, determine which is larger.

Question 2

Explain the difference between a balanced polyphase system and an unbalanced polyphase
system. What conditions typically cause a polyphase system to become unbalanced?

Question 3

In a balanced Y-connected power system, calculate the phase voltage (Ephase) if the line voltage
(Eline) is 480 volts.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 4

Calculate all voltages, currents, and total power in this balanced Delta-Delta system:

Eline =
Iline =
Ephase(source) =
Iphase(source) =
Ephase(load) =
Iphase(load) =
Ptotal =

Question 5

Calculate all voltages, currents, and total power in this balanced Y-Y system:

Eline =
Iline =
Ephase(source) =
Iphase(source) =
Ephase(load) =
Iphase(load) =
Ptotal =

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 6

Calculate all voltages, currents, and total power in this balanced Delta-Y system:

Eline =
Iline =
Ephase(source) =
Iphase(source) =
Ephase(load) =
Iphase(load) =
Ptotal =

Question 7

Calculate all voltages, currents, and total power in this balanced Y-Delta system:

line =
Iline =
Ephase(source) =
Iphase(source) =
Ephase(load) =
Iphase(load) =
Ptotal =

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 8

What resistor values would we have to choose in a Delta configuration to behave exactly the
same as this Y-connected resistor network?

Question 9

What will happen in each of these systems to the phase voltages of the load, if one of the source
phases fails open?

Question 10

A common three-phase source connection scheme is the Delta high-leg or Four-wire Delta,
where each phase coil outputs 240 volts:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Identify the different voltages obtained from this coil configuration, and which connection points
each voltage is measured between.

Question 11

Identify the primary-secondary connection configuration of these three power transformers (i.e.
Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, etc.):

Question 12

An electrical lineman is connecting three single-phase transformers in a Y(primary)-

Y(secondary) configuration, for power service to a business. Draw the connecting wires
necessary between the transformer windings, and between the transformer terminals and the
lines:

Note: fuses have been omitted from this illustration, for simplicity.

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 13

Identify the primary-secondary connection configuration of these pole-mounted power

transformers (i.e. Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, etc.):

Question 14

Identify the primary-secondary connection configuration of these pole-mounted power

transformers (i.e. Y-Y, Y-Delta, Delta-Y, etc.):

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 15

One of the conductors connecting the secondary of a three-phase power distribution transformer
to a large office building fails open. Upon inspection, the source of the failure is obvious: the
wire overheated at a point of contact with a terminal block, until it physically separated from the
terminal.

What is strange, though, is that the overheated wire is the neutral conductor, not any one of the
“line” conductors. Based on this observation, what do you think caused the failure?

After repairing the wire, what would you do to verify the cause of the failure?

Overcurrent Protection
Question 1

What hazards might be posed by a circuit with excessive current going through its conductors
(excessive as defined by the conductors’ ampacity)? In other words, what would be bad about a
wire carrying too much current?

Also determine which type of component fault, an open or a short, would most likely be the
cause of excessive current in a circuit.

Question 2

Explain the construction and purpose of an electrical fuse.

Question 3

What is the difference between a fuse and a circuit breaker?

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 4

Show the proper placement of the fuse in this circuit, where an electric motor will be powered by
utility (120 volt AC) power:

Question 5

Are fuses and circuit breakers located at a power distribution panel rated to protect the wiring
from overcurrent, or to protect the load devices from overcurrent? Explain your answer.

Question 6

In an effort to obtain greater overcurrent ratings than a single fuse can provide, an engineer
decides to wire two 100 amp fuses in parallel, for a combined rating of 200 amps:

However, after a few years of operation, the system begins blowing fuses even when the
ammeter registers less than 200 amps of load current. Upon investigation, it is found that one of
the fuse holders had developed corrosion on a terminal lug where one of the wire connects:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Explain how a small accumulation of corrosion led to this condition of fuses blowing when there
was no overcurrent condition (load current less than 200 amps), and also why connecting fuses in
parallel like this is generally not a good idea.

Question 7

Two 150-amp circuit breakers are connected in parallel to obtain a total ampacity of 300 amperes
for an electric motor service. The system works just fine for several years, but then both breakers
begin to spuriously trip:

An electrician measures motor current using a clamp-on ammeter, and discovers the motor’s
current is no more than 228 amperes at full mechanical load. Describe what might possibly be
wrong that is causing both circuit breakers to trip.

Question 8

A large industrial electric motor is supplied power through a pair of fuses:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
One day the motor suddenly stops running, even though the switch is still in the “on” position.
An electrician is summoned to troubleshoot the failed motor, and this person decides to perform
some voltage measurements to determine whether or not one of the fuses has “blown” open
before doing anything else. The measurements taken by the electrician are as such (with the
switch in the “on” position):

Between A and ground = 120 volts AC

• Between B and ground = 120 volts AC
• Between C and ground = 120 volts AC
• Between D and ground = 120 volts AC

Based on these measurements, the electrician decides that both fuses are still in good condition,
and that the problem lies elsewhere in the circuit. Do you agree with this assessment? Why or
why not?

Question 9

Explain the meaning of this fuse curve:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 10

Magnetic circuit breakers trip by the action of an electromagnet coil, through which all the load
current passes. When the attractive force of the magnetic field is strong enough, a mechanism
triggers to snap the breaker contacts open, thus interrupting the circuit current.

What would the time-current curve for such a circuit breaker look like?

Question 11

Shown here is the time-current curve for a dual-element fuse. Thermal-magnetic circuit breakers
exhibit similar time-current curves:

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME
Question 12

In addition to possessing a primary current rating, fuses and circuit breakers also possess
an interruption current rating, usually far in excess of their primary ratings. For example, a
typical 15 amp circuit breaker for 120 volt residential use may have an interruption rating
of 10,000 amps (10 kA)! Under what conditions could such a circuit ever bear so much current,
and why is this rating different than the breaker’s primary current rating of 15 amps?

Question 13

Find one or two real fuses and bring them with you to class for discussion. Identify as much
information as you can about your fuses prior to discussion:

• Current rating

• Voltage rating

• Interruption rating

• Fuse curve (opening characteristics: fast-acting, slow-blow, etc.)

• Status of fuse (blown or not)

EE – 405 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS AND DEVICES

1ST Semester, S. Y. 2020 – 2021
Engr. Darwin M. Marasigan, REE, RME